text: Caldera was the illegitimate son of a Castilian soldier named Pedro Caldera and a Guachichil woman named Maria. He was born in 1548 in what later became the city of Zacatecas and was raised by Franciscan monks in the city's monastery.

text: Caldera was the illegitimate son of a Castilian soldier named Pedro Caldera and a

entity_name: Guachichil

text: Guachichil

text: woman named Maria. He was born in 1548 in what later became the city of

entity_name: Zacatecas City

text: Zacatecas

text: and was raised by

entity_name: Franciscans

text: Franciscan

text: monks in the city's monastery.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Studying the earliest forms of life on Earth can provide valuable information to help understand how life can evolve on other planets. It has long been hypothesized that life may have existed on Mars due to the similarity of environmental and tectonic conditions during the Archean time. By knowing the environments in which early life evolved on Earth, and the rock types that preserve them, scientists can have a better understanding of where to look for life on Mars.

text: Studying the

entity_name: Evolutionary history of life

text: earliest forms of life

text: on

entity_name: Earth

text: Earth

text: can provide valuable information to help understand how

entity_name: Extraterrestrial life

text: life can evolve on other planets

text: . It has long been hypothesized that

entity_name: Life on Mars

text: life may have existed on Mars

text: due to the similarity of environmental and

entity_name: Tectonics

text: tectonic

text: conditions during the Archean time. By knowing the environments in which early life evolved on Earth, and the rock types that preserve them, scientists can have a better understanding of where to look for life on Mars.

method: UNH-ecn

text: 'Waiting for Godot –'Waking Life –'Walden –'Wallenstein (play) –'War and Peace –'War in the Age of Intelligent Machines –'War of Anti-Christ with the Church and Christian Civilization –'Waterland (novel) –'We Can Build You –'We Can Remember It for You Wholesale –'We the Living –'Wen-tzu –'Wenzi –'What Computers Can't Do –'What Has Government Done to Our Money? –'What I Believe –'What Is Art? –'What Is it Like to Be a Bat? –'What Is Literature? –'What Is Property? –'What Is This Thing Called Science? –'What is universal history and why does one study it? –'What should then be done O people of the East –'What We Believe But Cannot Prove –'When Nietzsche Wept (novel) –'Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang –'Wholeness and the Implicate Order –'Whose Justice? Which Rationality? –'Why I Am Not a Christian –'Why Truth Matters –'William Tell (play) –'Wirtembergisches Repertorium der Literatur –'Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language –'Wittgenstein's Beetle (and other classic thought experiments) –'Wittgenstein's Beetle and Other Classic Thought Experiments –'Wittgenstein's Mistress –'Wittgenstein's Poker –'Word and Object –'Works by Thomas Aquinas –'Works of Love –'World Hypotheses –'Writing and Difference –'Writing Sampler –'Wuzhen pian –

entity_name: Waiting for Godot

text: Waiting for Godot

entity_name: Waking Life

text: Waking Life

entity_name: Walden

text: Walden

entity_name: Wallenstein (trilogy of plays)

text: Wallenstein (play)

entity_name: War and Peace

text: War and Peace

entity_name: War in the Age of Intelligent Machines

text: War in the Age of Intelligent Machines

entity_name: War of Anti-Christ with the Church and Christian Civilization

text: War of Anti-Christ with the Church and Christian Civilization

entity_name: Waterland (novel)

text: Waterland (novel)

entity_name: We Can Build You

text: We Can Build You

entity_name: We Can Remember It for You Wholesale

text: We Can Remember It for You Wholesale

entity_name: We the Living

text: We the Living

entity_name: Wenzi

text: Wen-tzu

text: Wenzi

entity_name: Hubert Dreyfus's views on artificial intelligence

text: What Computers Can't Do

entity_name: What Has Government Done to Our Money?

text: What Has Government Done to Our Money?

entity_name: What I Believe

text: What I Believe

entity_name: What Is Art?

text: What Is Art?

entity_name: What Is it Like to Be a Bat?

text: What Is it Like to Be a Bat?

entity_name: What Is Literature?

text: What Is Literature?

entity_name: What Is Property?

text: What Is Property?

entity_name: What Is This Thing Called Science?

text: What Is This Thing Called Science?

entity_name: Friedrich Schiller

text: What is universal history and why does one study it?

entity_name: What Should then be Done O People of the East

text: What should then be done O people of the East

entity_name: What We Believe But Cannot Prove

text: What We Believe But Cannot Prove

entity_name: When Nietzsche Wept (novel)

text: When Nietzsche Wept (novel)

entity_name: Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang

text: Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang

entity_name: Wholeness and the Implicate Order

text: Wholeness and the Implicate Order

entity_name: Whose Justice? Which Rationality?

text: Whose Justice? Which Rationality?

entity_name: Why I Am Not a Christian

text: Why I Am Not a Christian

entity_name: Why Truth Matters

text: Why Truth Matters

entity_name: William Tell (play)

text: William Tell (play)

entity_name: Wirtembergisches Repertorium der Literatur

text: Wirtembergisches Repertorium der Literatur

entity_name: Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language

text: Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language

entity_name: Wittgenstein's Beetle and Other Classic Thought Experiments

text: Wittgenstein's Beetle (and other classic thought experiments)

text: Wittgenstein's Beetle and Other Classic Thought Experiments

entity_name: Wittgenstein's Mistress

text: Wittgenstein's Mistress

entity_name: Wittgenstein's Poker

text: Wittgenstein's Poker

entity_name: Word and Object

text: Word and Object

entity_name: List of works by Thomas Aquinas

text: Works by Thomas Aquinas

entity_name: Works of Love

text: Works of Love

entity_name: World Hypotheses

text: World Hypotheses

entity_name: Writing and Difference

text: Writing and Difference

entity_name: Writing Sampler

text: Writing Sampler

entity_name: Wuzhen pian

text: Wuzhen pian

text: During the Cold War, concepts such as mutual assured destruction (MAD) led lawmakers and government officials in both the United States and the Soviet Union to avoid entering a nuclear war that could have had catastrophic consequences on the entire world. Various scientists and authors, such as Carl Sagan, predicted massive, possibly life-ending destruction of the Earth as the result of such a conflict. Strategic analysts assert that nuclear weapons prevented the United States and the Soviet Union from fighting World War III with conventional weapons.  Nevertheless, the possibility of such a war became the basis for speculative fiction, and its simulation in books, films and video games became a way to explore the issues of a war that has thus far not occurred in reality. The only places a global nuclear war has ever been fought are in expert scenarios, theoretical models, war games, and the art, film, and literature of the nuclear age. The concept of mutually assured destruction was also the focus of numerous movies and films.

text: During the Cold War, concepts such as

entity_name: Mutual assured destruction

text: mutual assured destruction

text: (MAD) led lawmakers and government officials in both the United States and the Soviet Union to avoid entering a nuclear war that could have had catastrophic consequences on the entire world. Various scientists and authors, such as

entity_name: Carl Sagan

text: Carl Sagan

text: , predicted massive, possibly life-ending destruction of the Earth as the result of such a conflict.

entity_name: Military strategy

text: Strategic analysts

text: assert that nuclear weapons prevented the United States and the Soviet Union from fighting World War III with

entity_name: Conventional weapon

text: conventional weapon

text: s.  Nevertheless, the possibility of such a war became the basis for

entity_name: Speculative fiction

text: speculative fiction

text: , and its simulation in books, films and video games became a way to explore the issues of a war that has thus far not occurred in reality. The only places a global nuclear war has ever been fought are in expert scenarios, theoretical models, war games, and the art, film, and literature of the

entity_name: History of nuclear weapons

text: nuclear age

text: . The concept of mutually assured destruction was also the focus of numerous movies and films.

text: Looking for a DOS operating system to bundle with their OpenLinux distribution, Caldera, backed up by The Canopy Group as their largest investor, acquired Novell DOS 7 and other Digital Research assets from Novell on 23 July 1996. The deal consisted of a direct payment of  as well as percentual royalties for any revenues derived from DR-DOS to Novell. Caldera filed the Caldera v. Microsoft antitrust lawsuit the same day. This lawsuit related to Caldera's claims of monopolization, illegal tying, exclusive dealing, and tortious interference by Microsoft. An example was that certain beta versions of Windows 3.1 produced technically groundless "non-fatal" fake error messages when installing and running them on DR DOS 6.0 due to a check known as AARD code in order to create fear, uncertainty and doubt and destroy DR DOS' reputation.  Another example was bundling and artificially tying MS-DOS 7 and Windows 4 into a single product (Windows 95) in order to eliminate competition. Caldera later demonstrated that it would have been beneficial for DOS and Windows users to have a choice between MS-DOS and DR-DOS featurewise, and that it was technically possible to run Windows 4 on DR-DOS 7 simply by faking some new, unnecessarily complex but functionally non-essential internal interfaces through WinGlue.

text: Looking for a

entity_name: DOS

text: DOS

text: operating system to bundle with their OpenLinux distribution, Caldera, backed up by The Canopy Group as their largest investor, acquired

entity_name: DR-DOS

entity_section: Novell DOS

text: Novell DOS

text: 7 and other

entity_name: Digital Research

text: Digital Research

text: assets from

entity_name: Novell

text: Novell

text: on 23 July 1996. The deal consisted of a direct payment of  as well as percentual royalties for any revenues derived from DR-DOS to Novell. Caldera filed the

entity_name: Microsoft litigation

text: Caldera v. Microsoft

text: antitrust lawsuit the same day. This lawsuit related to Caldera's claims of

entity_name: Monopolization

text: monopolization

entity_name: Tying (commerce)

text: illegal tying

entity_name: Exclusive dealing

text: exclusive dealing

text: , and

entity_name: Tortious interference

text: tortious interference

text: by

entity_name: Microsoft

text: Microsoft

text: . An example was that certain beta versions of

entity_name: Windows 3.1x

text: Windows 3.1

text: produced technically groundless "non-fatal" fake error messages when installing and running them on

text: DR DOS 6.0

text: due to a check known as

entity_name: AARD code

text: AARD code

text: in order to create

entity_name: Fear, uncertainty and doubt

text: fear, uncertainty and doubt

text: and destroy DR DOS' reputation.  Another example was bundling and artificially tying MS-DOS 7 and Windows 4 into a single product (

entity_name: Windows 95

text: Windows 95

text: ) in order to eliminate competition. Caldera later demonstrated that it would have been beneficial for DOS and Windows users to have a choice between MS-DOS and DR-DOS featurewise, and that it was technically possible to run Windows 4 on DR-DOS 7 simply by faking some new, unnecessarily complex but functionally non-essential internal interfaces through

entity_section: WINGLUE

text: WinGlue

text: Goat Rocks is an extinct stratovolcano in the Cascade Range, located between Mount Rainier and Mount Adams in southern Washington, in the United States. Part of the Cascade Volcanoes, it was formed by the subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate under the western edge of the North American Plate. The volcano was active from 3.2 million years ago until eruptions ceased between 1 and 0.5 million years ago. Throughout its complex eruptive history, volcanism shifted from silicic explosive eruptions to voluminous, mafic activity.

text: Goat Rocks is an

entity_name: Volcano

entity_section: extinct

text: extinct

entity_name: Stratovolcano

text: stratovolcano

text: in the

entity_name: Cascade Range

text: Cascade Range

text: , located between

entity_name: Mount Rainier

text: Mount Rainier

text: and

entity_name: Mount Adams (Washington)

text: Mount Adams

text: in southern

entity_name: Washington (state)

text: Washington

text: , in the United States. Part of the

entity_name: Cascade Volcanoes

text: Cascade Volcanoes

text: , it was formed by the

entity_name: Subduction

text: subduction

text: of the

entity_name: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: Juan de Fuca Plate

text: under the western edge of the

entity_name: North American Plate

text: North American Plate

text: . The volcano was

entity_section: Active

text: active

text: from 3.2 million years ago until eruptions ceased between 1 and 0.5 million years ago. Throughout its complex eruptive history, volcanism shifted from

entity_name: Silicic

text: silicic

entity_name: Explosive eruption

text: explosive eruptions

text: to voluminous,

entity_name: Mafic

text: mafic

text: activity.

text: In a normal laccolith the intruded material has a flat lower surface and a convex upper surface so that it is more like half a lens in shape. However, because of the collapse of the volcanic material combined with subsequent surface erosion, the Prospect Hill laccolith had a concave upper surface until modern times, when quarrying altered its shape. This has given rise to its description as "caldera-like" although it is not a true caldera, and explains why the Hill, although a laccolith (which is normally dome-shaped), is in fact dish-shaped. Thus Prospect Hill is neither a volcanic crater nor a caldera, since no volcanic material reached the surface of the earth. In a caldera, the collapse of the roof occurs during the volcanic period and is normally a much more explosive event.

text: In a normal laccolith the intruded material has a flat lower surface and a convex upper surface so that it is more like half a lens in shape. However, because of the collapse of the volcanic material combined with subsequent surface erosion, the Prospect Hill laccolith had a

entity_name: Convex set

entity_section: Non-convex set

text: concave

text: upper surface until modern times, when quarrying altered its shape. This has given rise to its description as "caldera-like" although it is not a true caldera, and explains why the Hill, although a laccolith (which is normally dome-shaped), is in fact dish-shaped. Thus Prospect Hill is neither a

entity_name: Volcanic crater

text: volcanic crater

text: nor a caldera, since no volcanic material reached the surface of the earth. In a caldera, the collapse of the roof occurs during the volcanic period and is normally a much more explosive event.

text: A volcanic eruption is the point in which a volcano is active and releases its power, and the eruptions come in many forms. They range from daily small eruptions which occur in places like Kilauea in Hawaii, to megacolossal eruptions (where the volcano expels at least 1,000 cubic kilometers of material) from supervolcanoes like Lake Taupo (26,500 years ago) and Yellowstone Caldera. According to the Toba catastrophe theory, 70 to 75 thousand years ago, a supervolcanic event at Lake Toba reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottleneck in human evolution. Some eruptions form pyroclastic flows, which are high-temperature clouds of ash and steam that can travel down mountainsides at speed exceeding an airliner.

text: A

entity_name: Types of volcanic eruptions

text: volcanic eruption

text: is the point in which a

text: volcano

text: is active and releases its power, and the eruptions come in many forms. They range from daily small eruptions which occur in places like

entity_name: Kīlauea

text: Kilauea

text: in

entity_name: Hawaii

text: Hawaii

text: , to megacolossal eruptions (where the volcano expels at least 1,000 cubic kilometers of material) from supervolcanoes like

entity_name: Lake Taupo

text: Lake Taupo

text: (26,500 years ago) and

entity_name: Yellowstone Caldera

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: . According to the

text: Toba catastrophe theory

text: , 70 to 75 thousand years ago, a

text: supervolcanic

text: event at

text: Lake Toba

text: reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottleneck in

text: human evolution

text: . Some eruptions form

text: pyroclastic flows

text: , which are high-temperature clouds of ash and steam that can travel down mountainsides at speed exceeding an airliner.

text: Valles Caldera is one of the smaller volcanoes in the supervolcano class.  The circular topographic rim of the caldera measures  in diameter.  The caldera and surrounding volcanic structures are one of the most thoroughly studied caldera complexes in the United States.  Research studies have concerned the fundamental processes of magmatism, hydrothermal systems, and ore deposition. Nearly 40 deep cores have been examined, resulting in extensive subsurface data.

text: Valles Caldera is one of the smaller volcanoes in the

text: supervolcano

text: class.  The circular

text: topographic

text: rim of the caldera measures  in

text: diameter

text: .  The caldera and surrounding volcanic structures are one of the most thoroughly studied

text: caldera

text: complexes in the United States.  Research studies have concerned the fundamental processes of

text: magma

text: tism,

text: hydrothermal

text: systems, and

text: ore

text: deposition. Nearly 40 deep cores have been examined, resulting in extensive subsurface data.

text: According to the Ahmadiyya view, much of the imagery presented in the Qur'an regarding Heaven, but also hell, is in fact metaphorical. They propound the verse which describes, according to them how the life to come after death is very different from the life here on earth. The Quran says:  According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of Ahmadiyya sect in Islam, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on this earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul, as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an "embyonic soul" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be born which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example, sacrifice of one's own's rights over that of other's becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state a person finds contentment and Peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape.

text: According to the

text: Ahmadiyya

text: view, much of the imagery presented in the Qur'an regarding Heaven, but also hell, is in fact metaphorical. They propound the verse which describes, according to them how the life to come after death is very different from the life here on earth. The Quran says:  According to

text: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad

text: , the founder of

text: Ahmadiyya

text: sect in Islam, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on this earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul, as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an "embyonic soul" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be born which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example, sacrifice of one's own's rights over that of other's becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state a person finds contentment and Peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape.

text: Since Ward & Brownlee's assertion that "there is irrefutable evidence that oxygen is a necessary ingredient for animal life", anaerobic metazoa have been found that indeed do metabolise without oxygen. Spinoloricus nov. sp., for example, a species discovered in the hypersaline anoxic L'Atalante basin at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea in 2010, appears to metabolise with hydrogen, lacking mitochondria and instead using hydrogenosomes. Stevenson (2015) has proposed other membrane alternatives for complex life in worlds without oxygen. Independent studies by Schirrmeister and by Mills concluded that Earth's multicellular life existed prior to the Great Oxygenation Event, not as a consequence of it.

text: Since Ward & Brownlee's assertion that "there is irrefutable evidence that oxygen is a necessary ingredient for animal life",

text: anaerobic

text: metazoa

text: have been found that indeed do metabolise without oxygen.

text: Spinoloricus nov. sp.

text: , for example, a species discovered in the

text: hypersaline

text: anoxic

text: L'Atalante basin

text: at the bottom of the

text: Mediterranean Sea

text: in 2010, appears to metabolise with hydrogen, lacking

text: mitochondria

text: and instead using

text: hydrogenosomes

text: . Stevenson (2015) has proposed other membrane alternatives for complex life in worlds without oxygen. Independent studies by Schirrmeister and by Mills concluded that Earth's multicellular life existed prior to the Great Oxygenation Event, not as a consequence of it.

text: Both Kuvira and Korra are blasted into the spirit world by the weapon. When Kuvira asks why Korra saved her life after everything that happened, the Avatar explains that she sees a lot of herself in Kuvira; both are fierce and determined to succeed, and sometimes don't think about the consequences of their actions. As Korra calls Kuvira out for her actions, Kuvira explains that after being abandoned by her parents, she could not bear to allow the same thing to happen to the Earth Kingdom. Sympathizing with Kuvira, Korra relates Kuvira's desire for control to her own following her poisoning and subsequent recovery. The two women then return to the physical world, with Kuvira agreeing to surrender, out of both gratitude to Korra and acknowledgement of the Avatar's power. As she is led away by Lin and Suyin, she apologises to the latter for her previous actions.

text: The last eruption occurred around the start of the 18th century (c. 1700 ±30 years). There are no historical records of this, but tephrochronology indicates phreatic explosions with mudflows from crater 3. Two centuries before this eruption (c. 1550 ±75 years), radiocarbon dating indicates a similar eruption from crater 2. Around the same time (c. 1500 ±150 years),  radiocarbon dating indicates another eruption, but from crater 1. This eruption included debris avalanches instead of mudflows. The oldest eruption that has been dated is an explosive eruption from the east side of the summit around 100 BCE ± 100 years according to radiocarbon dating. All these events were central vent eruptions with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 2.

text: The last eruption occurred around the start of the 18th century (c. 1700 ±30 years). There are no historical records of this, but

text: tephrochronology

text: indicates

text: phreatic

text: explosions with

text: mudflows

text: from crater 3. Two centuries before this eruption (c. 1550 ±75 years),

text: radiocarbon dating

text: indicates a similar eruption from crater 2. Around the same time (c. 1500 ±150 years),  radiocarbon dating indicates another eruption, but from crater 1. This eruption included debris avalanches instead of mudflows. The oldest eruption that has been dated is an explosive eruption from the east side of the summit around 100 BCE ± 100 years according to radiocarbon dating. All these events were central vent eruptions with a

text: volcanic explosivity index

text: (VEI) of 2.

text: Abyss Pool has a depth of . The pool erupted for the first time in recorded history between August 1987 and September 1991 and again between December 1991 and June 1992. The eruptions were between  and  high. Since 1992, the pool has returned to its non-eruptive state.

text: Almirante Lynch was part of the small force of ships at disposal of President José Manuel Balmaceda in the 1891 Chilean Civil War. During the war, on April 23, 1891, the Almirante Lynch and her sister ship Almirante Condell attacked and sank the rebel ironclad frigate Blanco Encalada. Early in April a portion of the revolutionary squadron, comprising the Blanco Encalada and other ships, was sent southward for reconnoitring purposes and put into the port of Caldera. During the night of April 23, and whilst the Blanco Encalada was lying quietly at anchor in Caldera Bay, the Almirante Lynch, belonging to the Balmaceda faction, steamed into the bay of Caldera and discharged a torpedo at the rebel ship. The Blanco Encalada sank in a few minutes and 300 of her crew perished. This coup severely weakened the Congressional squadron. This was the first successful torpedo attack on a warship.

text: Almirante Lynch was part of the small force of ships at disposal of President

text: José Manuel Balmaceda

text: in the

text: 1891 Chilean Civil War

text: . During the war, on April 23, 1891, the Almirante Lynch and her

text: sister ship

text: Almirante Condell attacked and sank the rebel ironclad frigate

text: Blanco Encalada

text: . Early in April a portion of the revolutionary squadron, comprising the Blanco Encalada and other ships, was sent southward for reconnoitring purposes and put into the port of

text: Caldera

text: . During the night of April 23, and whilst the Blanco Encalada was lying quietly at anchor in Caldera Bay, the Almirante Lynch, belonging to the Balmaceda faction, steamed into the bay of Caldera and discharged a torpedo at the rebel ship. The Blanco Encalada sank in a few minutes and 300 of her crew perished. This coup severely weakened the Congressional squadron. This was the first successful torpedo attack on a warship.

text: The novel's locations include the Croatian island of Mljet, a Los Angeles threatened by a supervolcano, and the wastes of Central Asia.

text: The novel's locations include the Croatian island of

text: Mljet

text: , a Los Angeles threatened by a

text: supervolcano

text: , and the wastes of Central Asia.

text: Two Decade Volcanoes that erupted in 1991 provide examples of stratovolcano hazards. On June 15, Mount Pinatubo spewed an ash cloud  into the air and produced huge pyroclastic flows and lahar flows that devastated a large area around the volcano. Pinatubo, located  from Manila, had been dormant for 600 years before the 1991 eruption, which ranks as one of the largest eruptions in the 20th century. Also in 1991, Japan's Unzen Volcano, located on the island of Kyushu about  east of Nagasaki, awakened from its 200-year slumber to produce a new lava dome at its summit. Beginning in June, repeated collapse of this erupting dome generated ash flows that swept down the mountain's slopes at speeds as high as . Unzen is one of more than 75 active volcanoes in Japan; an eruption in 1792 killed more than 15,000 people—the worst volcanic disaster in the country's history.

text: Two

text: Decade Volcano

text: es that erupted in 1991 provide examples of stratovolcano hazards. On June 15, Mount Pinatubo spewed an ash cloud  into the air and produced huge pyroclastic flows and

text: lahar

text: flows that devastated a large area around the volcano. Pinatubo, located  from

text: Manila

text: , had been dormant for 600 years before the 1991 eruption, which ranks as one of the largest eruptions in the 20th century. Also in 1991, Japan's

text: Unzen Volcano

text: , located on the island of Kyushu about  east of Nagasaki, awakened from its 200-year slumber to produce a new

text: lava dome

text: at its summit. Beginning in June, repeated collapse of this erupting dome generated ash flows that swept down the mountain's slopes at speeds as high as . Unzen is one of more than 75 active volcanoes in Japan; an eruption in 1792 killed more than 15,000 people—the worst volcanic disaster in the country's history.

text: The process of learning more creative ways of thinking, feeling, and being is achieved in action learning by reflecting on what is working now and as well as on actions that can be improved. Action learning is consistent with the principles of positive psychology (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) and appreciative inquiry (Cooperrider and Whitney, 2001) by encouraging team/set members to build on strengths and learn from life's challenges. In action learning, there is no need to unlearn what has worked in the past. Reflecting on what hasn't worked helps team/set members unlearn what doesn't work and invent better ways of acting going forward .

text: "What you see is news. What you know is background. What you feel is opinion."; "I'm not looking for admiration. All I want is respect."; "Sure I'm a tough editor. I don't believe in Gallup Poll editors who give the reader what they think he wants. I try to please myself."; "I am basically a one- or two-syllable and only occasionally a three-syllable man. I gather that, unless I am predominantly a polysyllabic fellow, I am not fit to print  or to be read or even heard."

text: Photographic plates taken for 30 years prior to the eruption show that BT Monocerotis remained visible during that period. Prior to 1933, BT Monocerotis had an average magnitude of 15.52 with a variation of 1.2 magnitudes. It retained the same magnitude until the eruption, showing a variation of 0.9 magnitudes. Thus it did not show a pre-eruption rise in brightness.

text: The Huckleberry Ridge Tuff is a tuff formation created by the Huckleberry Ridge eruption that formed the Island Park Caldera that lies partially in Yellowstone Park, Wyoming and stretches westward into Idaho into a region known as Island Park.  This eruption of 2,500 km³ of material is thought to be the largest known eruption in the Yellowstone Hotspot's history. This eruption, 2.1 million years ago, is the third most recent large caldera forming eruption from the Yellowstone hotspot.  It was followed by the Mesa Falls Tuff and the Lava Creek Tuff eruptions.

text: The Huckleberry Ridge Tuff is a

text: tuff

text: formation created by the Huckleberry Ridge eruption that formed the

text: Island Park Caldera

text: that lies partially in

text: Yellowstone Park

text: Wyoming

text: and stretches westward into

text: Idaho

text: into a region known as

text: Island Park

text: .  This eruption of 2,500 km³ of material is thought to be the largest known eruption in the Yellowstone Hotspot's history. This eruption, 2.1 million years ago, is the third most recent large caldera forming eruption from the

text: Yellowstone hotspot

text: .  It was followed by the

text: Mesa Falls Tuff

text: and the

text: Lava Creek Tuff

text: eruptions.

text: According to Indologist Robert J. Zydenbos, karma is a system of natural laws, where actions that carry moral significance are considered to cause certain consequences in the same way as physical actions. When one holds an apple and then lets it go, the apple will fall. There is no judge, and no moral judgment involved, since this is a mechanical consequence of the physical action. In the same manner, consequences occur naturally when one utters a lie, steals something, commits senseless violence or leads a life of debauchery. Rather than assume that these consequences—the moral rewards and retributions—are a work of some divine judge, Jains believe that there is an innate moral order in the cosmos, self-regulating through the workings of the law of karma. Morality and ethics are important in Jainism not because of a God, but because a life led in agreement with moral and ethical principles (mahavrata) is considered beneficial: it leads to a decrease—and finally to the total loss of—karma, which in turn leads to everlasting happiness. The Jain conception of karma takes away the responsibility for salvation from God and bestows it on man himself. In the words of the Jain scholar, J. L. Jaini:

text: According to

text: Indologist

text: Robert J. Zydenbos

text: , karma is a system of natural laws, where actions that carry moral significance are considered to cause certain consequences in the same way as physical actions. When one holds an apple and then lets it go, the apple will fall. There is no judge, and no moral judgment involved, since this is a mechanical consequence of the physical action. In the same manner, consequences occur naturally when one utters a lie, steals something, commits senseless violence or leads a life of debauchery. Rather than assume that these consequences—the moral rewards and retributions—are a work of some divine judge, Jains believe that there is an innate moral order in the cosmos, self-regulating through the workings of the law of karma. Morality and ethics are important in Jainism not because of a God, but because a life led in agreement with moral and ethical principles (

text: mahavrata

text: ) is considered beneficial: it leads to a decrease—and finally to the total loss of—karma, which in turn leads to everlasting happiness. The Jain conception of karma takes away the responsibility for salvation from God and bestows it on man himself. In the words of the Jain scholar, J. L. Jaini:

text: <blockquote> The fourth and last force arises from the combination of a relative east or west motion of the atmosphere with the rotatory motion of the earth. In consequence of the atmosphere's revolving on a common axis with that of the earth, each particle is impressed with a centrifugal force, which, being resolved into a vertical and a horizontal force, the latter causes it to assume a spheroidal form conforming to the figure of the earth. But, if the rotatory motion of any part of the atmosphere is greater than that of the surface of the earth, or, in other words, if any part of the atmosphere has a relative eastern motion with regard to the earth's surface, this force is increased, and if it has a relative western motion, it is diminished, and this difference gives rise to a disturbing force which prevents the atmosphere being in a state of equilibrium, with a figure conforming to that of the earth's surface, but causes an accumulation of the atmosphere at certain latitudes and a depression at others, and the consequent difference in the pressure of the atmosphere at these latitudes very materially influences its motions.<ref>Ferrel, W. 'An essay on the winds and the currents of the Oceans', Nashville Journal of Medicine and Surgery, 1856.

text: Both the magnitude of wind mixing and the availability of light at the ocean's surface are affected across a range of space- and time-scales.  The most characteristic of these is the seasonal cycle (caused by the consequences of the Earth's axial tilt), although wind magnitudes additionally have strong spatial components.  Consequently, primary production in temperate regions such as the North Atlantic is highly seasonal, varying with both incident light at the water's surface (reduced in winter) and the degree of mixing (increased in winter).  In tropical regions, such as the gyres in the middle of the major basins, light may only vary slightly across the year, and  mixing may only occur episodically, such as during large storms or hurricanes.

text: Both the magnitude of wind mixing and the availability of light at the ocean's surface are affected across a range of space- and time-scales.  The most characteristic of these is the

text: seasonal cycle

text: (caused by the

text: consequences

text: of the Earth's

text: axial tilt

text: ), although wind magnitudes additionally have strong

text: spatial components

text: .  Consequently, primary production in

text: temperate

text: regions such as the

text: North Atlantic

text: is highly seasonal, varying with both incident light at the water's surface (reduced in winter) and the degree of mixing (increased in winter).  In

text: tropical

text: regions, such as the

text: gyre

text: s in the middle of the major

text: basins

text: , light may only vary slightly across the year, and  mixing may only occur episodically, such as during large

text: storm

text: s or

text: hurricane

text: s.

text: The 1257 Samalas eruption was a major volcanic eruption of the Samalas volcano, next to Mount Rinjani on the island of Lombok, Indonesia. It left a large caldera next to Rinjani volcano, the lake Segara Anak. This volcanic eruption reached a volcanic explosivity index of 7, making it one of the largest eruptions of the Holocene. The occurrence of this eruption was originally deduced from ice core information revealing a spike in sulfate deposition around the year 1257; in 2013 the source of this eruption at Samalas was definitively proven as a result of historical records from that time.

text: The 1257 Samalas eruption was a major volcanic eruption of the Samalas volcano, next to

text: Mount Rinjani

text: on the island of

text: Lombok

text: Indonesia

text: . It left a large caldera next to Rinjani volcano, the

text: lake Segara Anak

text: . This volcanic eruption reached a

text: volcanic explosivity index

text: of 7, making it one of the largest eruptions of the

text: Holocene

text: . The occurrence of this eruption was originally deduced from

text: ice core

text: information revealing a spike in

text: sulfate

text: deposition around the year 1257; in 2013 the source of this eruption at Samalas was definitively proven as a result of historical records from that time.

text: Some sources of catastrophic risk are natural, such as meteor impacts or supervolcanos.  The most common concern in this category is global warming or environmental degradation. Some of these have caused mass extinctions in the past.

text: An issue of What If revolves around the Secret Invasion with two stories.The first story asks what would happen if the Skrulls won the Secret Invasion and eliminated poverty, war, famine, crime, and freedom. Here, the Skrulls are celebrating their anniversary of taking over Earth. Some humans have been converted into Skrulls. The Skrulls' problems is that the Avengers Alliance of Freedom (led by Captain America II and consisting of Black Panther, Blue Marvel, Human Torch, a heavily alcoholic Iron Man, Khn'nr, Ms. Marvel, Night Thrasher II, Spider-Man, Spider-Woman II, Storm, Thing, Thor, and Wolverine) are considered terrorists to the rest of the world. The Skrull's broadcast is interrupted by a pirate footage of Captain America stating that Earth is really under occupation. Queen Veranke's consort Norman Osborn tells her that it would be best to crush the Avengers Alliance of Freedom in Wakanda where they are currently hiding. Wolverine has brought one last remaining sample of the modified Legacy Virus to use against the Skrulls. He is the only survivor of the X-Men who were wiped out in San Francisco. Veranke appears before the United Nations getting an approval to invade Wakanda and take down the Avengers Alliance of Freedom. As soon as the virus was ready, the Skrull forces attack Wakanda. The Avengers leap into action to repel them. In the midst of the fighting, the cannon meant to release the vaccine is destroyed, so Thor uses his powers to spread across the globe. But instead of doing what was expected, every Skrull and converted humans perishes. The culprit is in fact Norman Osborn posing as Iron Man. He explains that this was all an elaborate ruse to get what he wants. Due to Iron Man's alcoholism, Spider-Man helped him infiltrate Wakanda to help them but he did not expect that Norman Osborn would cross the line. Now, he can only lament what he has done. Norman Osborn admits that he did create a cure for the virus, so that he could survive and get back at the Skrulls for using him. In rage, Captain America beheads Norman Osborn with his shield. The Avengers surrender to the UN forces sent to arrest them. Meanwhile, far up on the Moon, Uatu can only lament how this alternate Earth turned out.

text: An issue of

text: What If

text: Many possible triggering mechanisms could account for the beginning of a snowball Earth, such as the eruption of a supervolcano, a reduction in the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases such as methane and/or carbon dioxide, changes in Solar energy output, or perturbations of Earth's orbit. Regardless of the trigger, initial cooling results in an increase in the area of Earth's surface covered by ice and snow, and the additional ice and snow reflects more Solar energy back to space, further cooling Earth and further increasing the area of Earth's surface covered by ice and snow. This positive feedback loop could eventually produce a frozen equator as cold as modern Antarctica.

text: Many possible triggering mechanisms could account for the beginning of a snowball Earth, such as the eruption of a

text: supervolcano

text: , a reduction in the atmospheric concentration of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es such as

text: methane

text: and/or

text: carbon dioxide

text: , changes in

text: Solar energy output

text: , or perturbations of

text: Earth's orbit

text: . Regardless of the trigger, initial cooling results in an increase in the area of Earth's surface covered by ice and snow, and the additional ice and snow reflects more Solar energy back to space, further cooling Earth and further increasing the area of Earth's surface covered by ice and snow. This positive feedback loop could eventually produce a frozen

text: equator

text: as cold as modern

text: Antarctica

text: Actions have Consequences: Another theme is that actions have consequences. Scott has to grow up to be able to make the decisions in life, yet sometimes it can lead to consequences.

text: Taupo's most recent major eruption, the Taupo or Hatepe eruption, took place around 180 CE, and is New Zealand's largest eruption since Oruanui. It ejected some 120 km³ of material (rating 7 on the VEI scale), with around 30 km³ ejected in just a few minutes. It is believed that the eruption column was  high, twice as high as the eruption column from Mount St. Helens in 1980. This makes it one of the most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years (alongside the Tianchi eruption of Baekdu at around 1000 and the 1815 eruption of Tambora). The resulting ash turned the sky red over Rome and China.

text: Taupo's most recent major

text: eruption

text: , the Taupo or

text: Hatepe eruption

text: , took place around 180 CE, and is New Zealand's largest eruption since Oruanui. It ejected some 120 km³ of material (rating 7 on the VEI scale), with around 30 km³ ejected in just a few minutes. It is believed that the eruption column was  high, twice as high as the eruption column from

text: Mount St. Helens

text: in 1980. This makes it one of the most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years (alongside the

text: Tianchi eruption

text: of

text: Baekdu

text: at around 1000 and the 1815 eruption of

text: Tambora

text: ). The resulting

text: ash

text: turned the sky red over Rome and China.

text: This group considers an end to society as it exists today under possible scenarios include: global warming, global cooling, environmental degradation, warming or cooling of gulf stream waters, or a period of severely cold winters caused by a supervolcano, an asteroid strike, or large scale nuclear proliferation.

text: This group considers an end to society as it exists today under possible scenarios include:

text: global warming

text: global cooling

text: environmental degradation

text: , warming or cooling of gulf stream waters, or a period of severely cold winters caused by a

text: supervolcano

text: , an

text: asteroid strike

text: , or

text: large scale nuclear proliferation

text: According to the traditional beliefs of many Malagasy ethnic groups, one attains the status of "ancestor" after death.  It is often believed that ancestors continue to watch over and shape events on Earth and can intervene on behalf of (or interfere with) the living.  As a consequence, ancestors are to be revered: prayers and sacrifices to honor or appease them are common, as well as the observation of the local fady (taboos) the ancestors may have established in life. Gestures of respect, such as throwing the first capful of a new bottle of rum into the northeast corner of the room to share it with the ancestors, are practiced throughout the island. The most visible emblem of the respect due to ancestors is the construction of the elaborate family tombs that dot the countryside in much of Madagascar.

text: According to the traditional beliefs of many Malagasy ethnic groups, one attains the status of "ancestor" after death.  It is often believed that ancestors continue to watch over and shape events on Earth and can intervene on behalf of (or interfere with) the living.  As a consequence, ancestors are to be revered: prayers and sacrifices to honor or appease them are common, as well as the observation of the local

text: fady

text: (taboos) the ancestors may have established in life. Gestures of respect, such as throwing the first capful of a new bottle of rum into the northeast corner of the room to share it with the ancestors, are practiced throughout the island. The most visible emblem of the respect due to ancestors is the construction of the elaborate family tombs that dot the countryside in much of Madagascar.

text: Michael Riley (born February 4, 1962) is a Canadian actor. From 1998 to 2000, he portrayed Brett Parker in Power Play. He has acted in over 40 films and television series, including This Is Wonderland, for which he received a Gemini Award, and the Emmy-nominated BBC / Discovery Channel co-production Supervolcano. He also portrays a leading character in the 2009 CBC Television series Being Erica.

text: Michael Riley (born February 4, 1962) is a Canadian

text: actor

text: . From 1998 to 2000, he portrayed Brett Parker in

text: Power Play

text: . He has acted in over 40 films and television series, including

text: This Is Wonderland

text: , for which he received a

text: Gemini Award

text: , and the

text: Emmy

text: -nominated

text: BBC

text: Discovery Channel

text: co-production

text: Supervolcano

text: . He also portrays a leading character in the 2009

text: CBC Television

text: series

text: Being Erica

text: A specific type of volcano is the supervolcano. According to the Toba catastrophe theory, 75,000 to 80,000 years ago a supervolcanic event at Lake Toba reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottleneck in human evolution. It also killed three-quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere.  The main danger from a supervolcano is the immense cloud of ash, which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years.

text: A specific type of volcano is the

text: supervolcano

text: . According to the

text: Toba catastrophe theory

text: , 75,000 to 80,000 years ago a supervolcanic event at

text: Lake Toba

text: reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottleneck in human evolution. It also killed three-quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere.  The main danger from a supervolcano is the immense cloud of ash, which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years.

text: John Colter (or Coulter), a former member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, spent the winter of 1806-1807 trapping along the middle Yellowstone River.  With the information he learned there, he was hired by the Missouri Fur Trading Company to invite Indian tribes to the trading post the company built at the mouth of the Big Horn River in October 1807.  In the winter of 1807-1808, soliciting trade with the Crow and other native tribes, Colter traveled alone on a  route that included the Yellowstone Plateau, making him the first white man to see Yellowstone Lake and some of the area's unique features.  Colter's route included Indian trails both inside and outside the current park, such as over Pryor Gap near Cody, Wyoming; around the west shore of Yellowstone Lake and down Yellowstone River to the crossing near Tower Fall (a geothermal area on the east bank is "Hot Spring Brimstone" on Clark's map); and continuing up Lamar River and Soda Butte Creek and Clarks Fork to return to the Pryor Gap trail.

text: John Colter

text: (or Coulter), a former member of the

text: Lewis and Clark Expedition

text: , spent the winter of 1806-1807 trapping along the middle

text: Yellowstone River

text: .  With the information he learned there, he was hired by the Missouri Fur Trading Company to invite Indian tribes to the trading post the company built at the mouth of the Big Horn River in October 1807.  In the winter of 1807-1808, soliciting trade with the

text: Crow

text: and other native tribes, Colter traveled alone on a  route that included the Yellowstone Plateau, making him the first white man to see

text: Yellowstone Lake

text: and some of the area's unique features.  Colter's route included Indian trails both inside and outside the current park, such as over Pryor Gap near

text: Cody, Wyoming

text: ; around the west shore of Yellowstone Lake and down Yellowstone River to the crossing near

text: Tower Fall

text: (a geothermal area on the east bank is "Hot Spring Brimstone" on Clark's map); and continuing up

text: Lamar River

text: and

text: Soda Butte Creek

text: and

text: Clarks Fork

text: to return to the Pryor Gap trail.

text: Despite the harsh environment, several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods. Species of lichen carried on the ESA BIOPAN facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007. Seeds of Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana tabacum germinated after being exposed to space for 1.5 years. A strain of bacillus subtilis has survived 559 days when exposed to low-Earth orbit or a simulated martian environment. The lithopanspermia hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System, with potentially microorganism-bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars.

text: Despite the harsh environment, several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods. Species of lichen carried on the ESA

text: BIOPAN

text: facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007. Seeds of

text: Arabidopsis thaliana

text: and

text: Nicotiana tabacum

text: germinated after being exposed to space for 1.5 years. A strain of

text: bacillus subtilis

text: has survived 559 days when exposed to low-Earth orbit or a simulated martian environment. The

text: lithopanspermia

text: hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System, with potentially

text: microorganism

text: -bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars.

text: Indonesia's location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates makes it the site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes, including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra, and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However, volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.

text: Indonesia's location on the edges of the

text: Pacific

text: Eurasian

text: , and

text: Australian

text: tectonic plate

text: s makes it the site of numerous

text: volcanoes

text: and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes, including

text: Krakatoa

text: and

text: Tambora

text: , both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba

text: supervolcano

text: , approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a

text: global catastrophe

text: . Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the

entity_name: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami

text: 2004 tsunami

text: that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra, and the

text: Yogyakarta earthquake

text: in 2006. However,

text: volcanic ash

text: is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.

text: Mount Doane el.  is a mountain peak in the Absaroka Range in Yellowstone National Park.  The peak is named for Lieutenant Gustavus Cheyney Doane, a U.S. Army cavalry officer who escorted the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition into Yellowstone in 1870.  During that expedition, Doane and Nathaniel P. Langford ascended several peaks east of Yellowstone Lake.  Henry D. Washburn, the leader of the expedition named a peak for Doane, but that peak's name was later changed to Mount Schurz.  Mount Doane was officially named by the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871 to honor the first truly official report of an exploration of the Yellowstone region that Doane wrote after the Washburn expedition.  Doane also participated in the 1st Hayden expedition in 1871.

text: Mount Doane el.  is a mountain peak in the

text: Absaroka Range

text: in

text: Yellowstone National Park

text: .  The peak is named for Lieutenant

text: Gustavus Cheyney Doane

text: , a U.S. Army cavalry officer who escorted the

text: Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition

text: into Yellowstone in 1870.  During that expedition, Doane and

text: Nathaniel P. Langford

text: ascended several peaks east of

text: Yellowstone Lake

text: Henry D. Washburn

text: , the leader of the expedition named a peak for Doane, but that peak's name was later changed to

text: Mount Schurz

text: .  Mount Doane was officially named by the

text: Hayden Geological Survey of 1871

text: to honor the first truly official report of an exploration of the Yellowstone region that Doane wrote after the Washburn expedition.  Doane also participated in the 1st Hayden expedition in 1871.

text: Geologically speaking, Glen Coe is the remains of an ancient supervolcano. It is considered to be one of the best examples of subsidence calderas. The eruption happened about 420 million years ago during the Silurian period, and the volcano has long since become extinct.

text: Geologically

text: speaking, Glen Coe is the remains of an ancient

text: supervolcano

text: . It is considered to be one of the best examples of

text: subsidence calderas

text: . The eruption happened about 420 million years ago during the

text: Silurian

text: period, and the volcano has long since become extinct.

text: And the Earth is not the only one that changed - the luminosity of the sun has increased over time. Because rocks record a history of relatively constant temperatures since Earth’s beginnings, there must have been more greenhouse gasses to keep the temperatures up in the Archean when the sun was younger and fainter. All these major differences in the environment of the Earth placed very different constraints on the evolution of life throughout our planet’s history. Moreover, more subtle changes in the habitat of life are always occurring, shaping the organisms and traces that we observe today and in the rock record.

text: And the Earth is not the only one that changed - the

text: luminosity

text: of the sun has increased over time. Because rocks record a history of relatively constant temperatures since Earth’s beginnings, there must have been more

text: greenhouse gas

text: ses to keep the temperatures up in the Archean when the sun was younger and fainter. All these major differences in the environment of the Earth placed very different constraints on the evolution of life throughout our planet’s history. Moreover, more subtle changes in the habitat of life are always occurring, shaping the organisms and traces that we observe today and in the rock record.

text: A few hotspots are thought to exist below the North American Plate. The most notable hotspots are the Yellowstone (Wyoming), Raton (New Mexico), and Anahim (British Columbia) hotspots. These are thought to be caused by a narrow stream of hot mantle convecting up from the Earth's core-mantle boundary called a mantle plume, although some geologists prefer upper-mantle convection as a cause. The Yellowstone and Anahim hotspots are thought to have first arrived during the Miocene period and are still geologically active, creating earthquakes and volcanoes. The Yellowstone hotspot is most notable for the Yellowstone Caldera and the many calderas that lie in the Snake River Plain while the Anahim hotspot is most notable for the Anahim Volcanic Belt, currently found in the Nazko Cone area.

text: A few

text: hotspot

text: s are thought to exist below the North American Plate. The most notable hotspots are the

text: Yellowstone

text: (Wyoming),

text: Raton

text: (New Mexico), and

text: Anahim

text: (British Columbia) hotspots. These are thought to be caused by a narrow stream of

text: hot

text: mantle

text: convecting

text: up from the Earth's

text: core-mantle boundary

text: called a

text: mantle plume

text: , although some geologists prefer upper-mantle convection as a cause. The Yellowstone and Anahim hotspots are thought to have first arrived during the

text: Miocene

text: period and are still geologically active, creating

text: earthquake

text: s and

text: volcano

text: es. The Yellowstone hotspot is most notable for the

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: and the many

text: caldera

text: s that lie in the

text: Snake River Plain

text: while the Anahim hotspot is most notable for the

text: Anahim Volcanic Belt

text: , currently found in the

text: Nazko Cone

text: area.

text: The Henry's Fork Caldera is nested inside of the Island Park Caldera and the calderas share a rim on the western side.  The earlier Island Park Caldera is much larger and more oval and extends well into Yellowstone Park.  Although much smaller than the Island Park Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera is still sizeable at  long and  wide and its curved rim is plainly visible from many locations in the Island Park area.  Of the many calderas formed by the Yellowstone hotspot, including the later Yellowstone Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera is the only one that is currently clearly visible.  It is one of a succession of supervolcanoes and calderas that formed the Snake River Plain.

text: The Henry's Fork Caldera is nested inside of the

text: Island Park Caldera

text: and the calderas share a rim on the western side.  The earlier Island Park Caldera is much larger and more oval and extends well into Yellowstone Park.  Although much smaller than the Island Park Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera is still sizeable at  long and  wide and its curved rim is plainly visible from many locations in the Island Park area.  Of the many calderas formed by the

text: Yellowstone hotspot

text: , including the later

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: , the Henry's Fork Caldera is the only one that is currently clearly visible.  It is one of a succession of supervolcanoes and calderas that formed the

text: Snake River Plain

text: Based on data from the Ørsted satellite, researchers from Danish Space Research Institute concluded that the Earth's magnetic poles are moving, and that the speed with which they are moving has been increasing for the past few years. This apparent acceleration indicates, that the poles of the Earth might be in the process of switching around, which could have serious consequences for land-based biological life.

text: Based on data from the Ørsted satellite, researchers from

text: Danish Space Research Institute

text: concluded that the Earth's magnetic poles are moving, and that the speed with which they are moving has been increasing for the past few years. This apparent acceleration indicates, that the poles of the Earth might be in the process of switching around, which could have serious consequences for land-based biological life.

text: In planetary astronomy and astrobiology, the Rare Earth Hypothesis argues that the origin of life and the evolution of biological complexity such as sexually reproducing, multicellular organisms on Earth (and, subsequently, human intelligence) required an improbable combination of astrophysical and geological events and circumstances. The hypothesis argues that complex extraterrestrial life is a very improbable phenomenon and likely to be extremely rare.  The term "Rare Earth" originates from Rare Earth: Why Complex Life Is Uncommon in the Universe (2000), a book by Peter Ward, a geologist and paleontologist, and Donald E. Brownlee, an astronomer and astrobiologist, both faculty members at the University of Washington.

text: In

text: planetary astronomy

text: and

text: astrobiology

text: , the Rare Earth Hypothesis argues that the

text: origin of life

text: and the

text: evolution of biological complexity

text: such as

text: sexually reproducing

text: multicellular organism

text: s on

text: Earth

text: (and, subsequently,

text: human intelligence

text: ) required an improbable combination of

text: astrophysical

text: and

text: geological

text: events and circumstances. The hypothesis argues that complex

text: extraterrestrial life

text: is a very improbable phenomenon and likely to be extremely rare.  The term "Rare Earth" originates from

text: Rare Earth: Why Complex Life Is Uncommon in the Universe

text: (2000), a book by

text: Peter Ward

text: , a geologist and paleontologist, and

text: Donald E. Brownlee

text: , an astronomer and astrobiologist, both faculty members at the University of Washington.

text: As to the first question, the court held that the inquiry had to be into what the parties to the cession had had in mind: what the contractor intended to deliver to the bank which was willing to finance, as far as necessary, the contractor's ongoing operation by means of overdraft facilities, and what the bank was content to accept as security for the recovery of the funds it was prepared to advance.

text: The authors, David Denkenberger and Joshua Pearce, claim alternate food sources could feed everyone even if the sun is blocked by catastrophes like nuclear winter, supervolcano eruption, or large asteroid/comet impact. At first this appears unlikely because malnutrition and hunger-related disease now kill 6.5 million children under five years old each year. This is because the book focuses on what is technically possible and assumes global cooperation. The solutions also address crises including abrupt climate change, super weeds, super crop pests (animals, e.g. insects), super bacteria (e.g. disrupts beneficial bacteria) and super crop pathogens. The solution using fossil fuel energy source is natural gas digesting bacteria.

text: The authors, David Denkenberger and

text: Joshua Pearce

text: , claim alternate food sources could feed everyone even if the sun is blocked by catastrophes like

text: nuclear winter

text: supervolcano

text: eruption, or large

text: asteroid

text: comet

text: impact. At first this appears unlikely because malnutrition and hunger-related disease now kill 6.5 million children under five years old each year. This is because the book focuses on what is technically possible and assumes global cooperation. The solutions also address crises including

text: abrupt climate change

text: , super weeds, super crop

text: pest

text: s (animals, e.g. insects), super

text: bacteria

text: (e.g. disrupts beneficial bacteria) and super crop

text: pathogen

text: s. The solution using fossil fuel energy source is natural gas digesting bacteria.

text: According to evidence from radiometric dating and other sources, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. Within its first billion years, life appeared in its oceans and began to affect its atmosphere and surface, promoting the proliferation of aerobic as well as anaerobic organisms. Since then, the combination of Earth's distance from the Sun, its physical properties and its geological history have allowed life to emerge, develop photosynthesis, and, later, evolve further and thrive. The earliest life on Earth arose at least 3.5 billion years ago. Earlier possible evidence of life include graphite, which may have a biogenic origin, in 3.7-billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland, as well as 4.1-billion-year-old zircon grains in Western Australia.

text: According to evidence from

text: radiometric dating

text: and other sources, Earth formed

text: about 4.54 billion years ago

text: . Within its first billion years,

text: life appeared

text: in its oceans and began to affect

text: its atmosphere

text: and surface, promoting the proliferation of

text: aerobic

text: as well as

text: anaerobic organism

text: s. Since then, the combination of Earth's

text: distance from the Sun

text: its physical properties

text: and

text: its geological history

text: have allowed

entity_name: Timeline of the evolutionary history of life

text: life to emerge

text: develop photosynthesis

text: , and, later,

text: evolve further and thrive

text: . The earliest

text: life on Earth arose

text: at least 3.5 billion years ago. Earlier possible evidence of life include

text: graphite

text: , which may have a

text: biogenic origin

text: , in 3.7-billion-year-old

text: metasedimentary rocks

text: discovered in southwestern

text: Greenland

text: , as well as 4.1-billion-year-old zircon grains in

text: Western Australia

text: But this, and their habit of taking slaves generally, suggests that they do not hold life other than their own in high regard. Although some provision was made for slaves exhausted by heavy gravity to recover, slaves who became convinced they would not recover were programmed via their Caps (see Technology) to go to The Place of Happy Release. There, some form of energy killed them, and a moving belt carried the body to a furnace for incineration. The most profound indicator was their long term plan for Earth: en route from their home at the time of "The City of Gold and Lead" were spaceships containing components they could not manufacture on Earth, parts of great machines that would accept Earth's atmosphere and turn out an atmosphere like that found on the Masters' home and in their cities. Such a transformation would be eventually fatal to all life on Earth, except such few live specimens that the Masters were debating whether to house in zoos.

text: On 14 February 2014, major tourist attractions in Yogyakarta and Central Java, including Borobudur, Prambanan, and Ratu Boko, were closed to visitors after being severely affected by the volcanic ash from the eruption of Kelud volcano in East Java, located about 200 kilometers east of Yogyakarta. The Kelud volcano erupted on 13 February 2014 with explosions heard as far away as Yogyakarta. Four years earlier, Prambanan was spared from the 2010 Merapi volcanic ash and eruption since the wind and ashfall were directed westward and affected Borobudur instead.

text: On 14 February 2014, major tourist attractions in Yogyakarta and Central Java, including

text: Borobudur

text: , Prambanan, and

text: Ratu Boko

text: , were closed to visitors after being severely affected by the volcanic ash from the eruption of

text: Kelud

text: volcano in East Java, located about 200 kilometers east of Yogyakarta. The Kelud volcano erupted on 13 February 2014 with explosions heard as far away as Yogyakarta. Four years earlier, Prambanan was spared from the 2010 Merapi volcanic ash and eruption since the wind and ashfall were directed westward and affected Borobudur instead.

text: People often seek a comparison between the price of an item in the past, and the price of an item today.  Over short periods of time, like months, inflation may measure the role an object and its cost played in an economy: the price of fuel may rise or fall over a month.  The price of money itself changes over time, as does the availability of goods and services as they move into or out of production.  What people choose to consume changes over time.  Finally, concepts such as cash money economies may not exist in past periods, nor ideas like wage labour or capital investment.  Comparing what someone paid for a good, how much they had to work for that money, what the money was worth, how scarce a particular good was, what role it played in someone's standard of living, what its proportion was as part of social income, and what proportion it was as part of possible social production is a difficult task.  This task is made more difficult by conflicting theoretical concepts of worth.

text: People often seek a comparison between the price of an item in the past, and the price of an item today.  Over short periods of time, like months,

text: inflation

text: may measure the role an object and its cost played in an economy: the price of fuel may rise or fall over a month.  The

text: price of money

text: itself changes over time, as does the availability of goods and services as they move into or out of production.  What people choose to consume changes over time.  Finally, concepts such as

text: cash money

text: economies may not exist in past periods, nor ideas like

text: wage labour

text: or

text: capital investment

text: .  Comparing what someone paid for a good, how much they had to work for that money, what the money was worth, how scarce a particular good was, what role it played in someone's standard of living, what its proportion was as part of social income, and what proportion it was as part of possible social production is a difficult task.  This task is made more difficult by conflicting theoretical concepts of worth.

text: Each eruption is part of an eruptive cycle that climaxes with the partial collapse of the roof of the volcano's partially emptied magma chamber.  This creates a collapsed depression, called a caldera, and releases vast amounts of volcanic material, usually through fissures that ring the caldera. The time between the last three cataclysmic eruptions in the Yellowstone area has ranged from 600,000 to 800,000 years, but the small number of such climactic eruptions cannot be used to make an accurate prediction for future volcanic events.

text: In 1964, astrophysicists on Earth become aware of a cloud of gas and dust, initially thought to be a Bok globule, that is heading for the solar system.  The cloud, if interposed between the Sun and the Earth, could wipe out most of the life on Earth by blocking solar radiation and ending photosynthesis.  A cadre of astronomers and other scientists is drawn together in Nortonstowe, England, to study the cloud and report to the British government about the consequences of its presence.

text: In 1964, astrophysicists on Earth become aware of a cloud of gas and dust, initially thought to be a

text: Bok globule

text: , that is heading for the solar system.  The cloud, if interposed between the Sun and the Earth, could wipe out most of the life on Earth by blocking solar radiation and ending

text: photosynthesis

text: .  A cadre of astronomers and other scientists is drawn together in Nortonstowe, England, to study the cloud and report to the British government about the consequences of its presence.

text: Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again because the volcano no longer has a magma supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain in the Pacific Ocean, Hohentwiel, Shiprock and the Zuidwal volcano in the Netherlands. Edinburgh Castle in Scotland is famously located atop an extinct volcano. Otherwise, whether a volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano" calderas can have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years is likely to be considered dormant instead of extinct. Some volcanologists refer to extinct volcanoes as inactive, though the term is now more commonly used for dormant volcanoes once thought to be extinct.

text: Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again because the volcano no longer has a magma supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on the

text: Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain

text: in the Pacific Ocean,

text: Hohentwiel

text: Shiprock

text: and the

text: Zuidwal volcano

text: in the

text: Netherlands

text: Edinburgh Castle

text: in Scotland is famously located atop an extinct volcano. Otherwise, whether a volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano"

text: caldera

text: s can have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years is likely to be considered dormant instead of extinct. Some volcanologists refer to extinct volcanoes as inactive, though the term is now more commonly used for dormant volcanoes once thought to be extinct.

text: The first eight of DM&IR's class M 2-8-8-4 Yellowstone locomotives were delivered by Baldwin Locomotive Works in spring 1941.  As well as the Yellowstones, the DM&IR had heavy 2-8-8-2 articulateds (also Class M), 2-8-2 Mikados, 2-10-2 Santa Fes, and eventually 2-10-4 Texas types from B&LE. Ore movement was nearly 45 million tons in 1942 and the War Production Board allowed the Missabe to order ten more Yellowstones, delivered in 1943. The 2-8-8-4s were slowly retired in the later half of the '50s and the last remaining served until around 1960.

text: The first eight of DM&IR's class M

text: Yellowstone locomotives were delivered by

text: Baldwin Locomotive Works

text: in spring 1941.  As well as the Yellowstones, the DM&IR had heavy

text: articulateds (also Class M),

text: Mikados,

text: Santa Fes, and eventually

text: Texas types from B&LE. Ore movement was nearly 45 million tons in 1942 and the

text: War Production Board

text: allowed the Missabe to order ten more Yellowstones, delivered in 1943. The 2-8-8-4s were slowly retired in the later half of the '50s and the last remaining served until around 1960.

text: The eruption has a volcanic explosivity index of 7, making it one of the largest eruptions of the Holocene. It was even stronger than the eruptions of Tambora in 1815 and Krakatau in 1883. Other eruptions of comparable intensity are the Kurile lake eruption in the 7th millennium BC, the Mount Mazama eruption in the 6th millennium, the Minoan eruption and the Tierra Blanca Joven eruption of Ilopango in the 6th century. Pumice falls with a fine graining and colour of cream from the Samalas eruption form a useful tephrochronological wikt:marker on Bali. Tephra from the volcano was found in ice cores as far as  away from Samalas.

text: The eruption has a volcanic explosivity index of 7, making it one of the largest eruptions of the Holocene. It was even stronger than the eruptions of

text: Tambora

text: in 1815 and

text: Krakatau

text: in 1883. Other eruptions of comparable intensity are the

text: Kurile lake

text: eruption in the 7th millennium

text: BC

text: , the

text: Mount Mazama

text: eruption in the 6th millennium, the

text: Minoan eruption

text: and the

text: Tierra Blanca Joven

text: eruption of

text: Ilopango

text: in the 6th century. Pumice falls with a fine graining and colour of cream from the Samalas eruption form a useful

text: tephrochronological

text: wikt:marker

text: on Bali. Tephra from the volcano was found in ice cores as far as  away from Samalas.

text: The school's goal is to educate children who are, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, under the poverty line. Specifically the school intends to serve students who live in households making no more than half of the poverty line. The school intends to put children from inner city neighborhoods at the same academic standing as children from suburbs. Yellowstone intends to prepare the students for university studies. Larry Marshall, the principal of Douglass from 1963 to 1971 and a Houston Independent School District board member as of 2006, compared Yellowstone to the Chinquapin School. Yellowstone, along with Chinquapin and Cristo Rey Jesuit College Preparatory of Houston, is one of the only private schools in Greater Houston catering to low income students.

text: The school's goal is to educate children who are, according to the

text: U.S. Census Bureau

text: , under the

text: poverty line

text: . Specifically the school intends to serve students who live in households making no more than half of the poverty line. The school intends to put children from

text: inner city

text: neighborhoods at the same academic standing as children from

text: suburb

text: s. Yellowstone intends to prepare the students for university studies. Larry Marshall, the principal of Douglass from 1963 to 1971 and a

text: Houston Independent School District

text: board member as of 2006, compared Yellowstone to the

text: Chinquapin School

text: . Yellowstone, along with Chinquapin and

entity_name: Cristo Rey Jesuit College Preparatory of Houston

text: Cristo Rey Jesuit College Preparatory of Houston

text: , is one of the only private schools in

text: Greater Houston

text: catering to low income students.

text: An important consequence of de-glaciation was a continual land uplift as the Earth's crust rebounded from the pressure exerted by the ice. This process, which was originally very rapid, continues to this day. It has had the consequence that originally shore-bound sites along much of Sweden's coast are sorted chronologically by elevation. Around the country's capital, for instance, the earliest seal-hunter sites are now on inland mountain tops, and they grow progressively later as one moves downhill toward the sea.

text: The causes of ice ages are not fully understood for either the large-scale ice age periods or the smaller ebb and flow of glacial–interglacial periods within an ice age. The consensus is that several factors are important: atmospheric composition, such as the concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane (the specific levels of the previously mentioned gases are now able to be seen with the new ice core samples from EPICA Dome C in Antarctica over the past 800,000 years) changes in the earth's orbit around the Sun known as Milankovitch cycles, the motion of tectonic plates resulting in changes in the relative location and amount of continental and oceanic crust on the earth's surface, which affect wind and ocean currents, variations in solar output, the orbital dynamics of the Earth–Moon system, the impact of relatively large meteorites and volcanism including eruptions of supervolcanoes.

text: The causes of ice ages are not fully understood for either the large-scale ice age periods or the smaller ebb and flow of glacial–interglacial periods within an ice age. The consensus is that several factors are important:

text: atmospheric composition

text: , such as the concentrations of

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: methane

text: (the specific levels of the previously mentioned gases are now able to be seen with the new ice core samples from EPICA Dome C in Antarctica over the past 800,000 years) changes in the earth's orbit around the

text: Sun

text: known as

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: , the motion of

text: tectonic plates

text: resulting in changes in the relative location and amount of continental and oceanic crust on the earth's surface, which affect wind and

text: ocean current

text: s, variations in

text: solar output

text: , the orbital dynamics of the Earth–Moon system, the impact of relatively large

text: meteorite

text: s and volcanism including eruptions of

text: supervolcano

text: es.

text: All three dimensions have consequences for what Weber called "life chances" (opportunities to improve one's life).

text: All three dimensions have consequences for what Weber called "

text: life chances

text: " (opportunities to improve one's life).

text: There are no solid arguments to explain if Earth's atmosphere has the optimal composition to host life. On Earth, during the period when coal was first formed, atmospheric oxygen () levels were up to 35%, and  coincided with the periods of greatest biodiversity. So, assuming that the presence of a significant amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is essential for exoplanets to develop complex life forms, the percentage of oxygen relative to the total atmosphere appears to limit the maximum size of the planet for optimum superhabitability and ample biodiversity.

text: There are no solid arguments to explain if Earth's atmosphere has the optimal composition to host life. On Earth, during the period when

text: coal

text: was first formed, atmospheric oxygen () levels were up to 35%, and  coincided with the periods of greatest

text: biodiversity

text: . So, assuming that the presence of a significant amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is essential for exoplanets to develop complex life forms, the percentage of oxygen relative to the total atmosphere appears to limit the maximum size of the planet for optimum superhabitability and ample biodiversity.

text: It is conceivable that the three parties are not actually dead at all. Purgatory is, after all, not a theological concept Beckett would have been brought up with though Dante’s interpretation of it did catch his imagination. In the final paragraph of his 1929 essay "Dante...Bruno. Vico...Joyce" (whose straind, unpleasant second sentence reads, in full, "The conception of Philosophy and Philology as a pair of nigger minstrels out of the Teatro dei Piccoli is soothing, like the contemplation of a carefully folded ham-sandwich), Beckett makes a striking comparison between Dante’s version of Purgatory and Joyce’s: “Dante's is conical and consequently implies culmination. Mr. Joyce's is spherical and excludes culmination … On this earth that is [his] Purgatory.". If the trio are separated physically then each would be in a private hell where he or she imagines and reimagines what may have happened to the other two and relives the events of the narration in his or her own mind. If we view the three urns purely as a theatrical device to bring these separate points of view together this interpretation is also valid. “Life on earth, the endless recurring cycle of history, constitutes Purgatory for Joyce in Finnegans Wake. From Joyce’s Purgatory there is no escape, not even for the individual human being, who dies only to be reborn into the cycle. Likewise Beckett’s take on Purgatory is that it “is a state rather than a process.”

text: It is conceivable that the three parties are not actually dead at all. Purgatory is, after all, not a

text: theological

text: concept Beckett would have been brought up with though Dante’s interpretation of it did catch his imagination. In the final paragraph of his 1929 essay "Dante...Bruno. Vico...Joyce" (whose straind, unpleasant second sentence reads, in full, "The conception of Philosophy and Philology as a pair of nigger minstrels out of the Teatro dei Piccoli is soothing, like the contemplation of a carefully folded ham-sandwich), Beckett makes a striking comparison between

text: Dante’s version of Purgatory

text: and Joyce’s: “Dante's is conical and consequently implies culmination. Mr. Joyce's is spherical and excludes culmination … On this earth that is [his] Purgatory.". If the trio are separated physically then each would be in a private hell where he or she imagines and reimagines what may have happened to the other two and relives the events of the narration in his or her own mind. If we view the three urns purely as a theatrical device to bring these separate points of view together this interpretation is also valid. “Life on earth, the endless recurring cycle of history, constitutes Purgatory for Joyce in

text: Finnegans Wake

text: . From Joyce’s Purgatory there is no escape, not even for the individual human being, who dies only to be reborn into the cycle. Likewise Beckett’s take on Purgatory is that it “is a state rather than a process.”

text: A supervolcano is a volcano capable of producing a volcanic eruption with an ejecta mass greater than 10 kg (10 t). Supervolcanoes occur when magma in the mantle rises into the crust but is unable to break through the crust, and pressure builds in a large and growing magma pool until the crust is unable to contain the pressure. This can occur at hotspots (for example, Yellowstone Caldera) or at subduction zones (for example, Toba). Another setting for the eruption of very large amounts of volcanic material is in large igneous provinces, which can cover huge areas with lava and volcanic ash, causing long-lasting climate change (such as the triggering of a small ice age or global warming), which can threaten species with extinction. The Oruanui eruption of New Zealand's Taupo Volcano, the world's most recent supereruption, had a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8.

text: A supervolcano is a

text: volcano

text: capable of producing a

text: volcanic eruption

text: with an

text: ejecta

text: mass greater than 10 kg (10 t). Supervolcanoes occur when

text: magma

text: in the

text: mantle

text: rises into the

text: crust

text: but is unable to break through the crust, and pressure builds in a large and growing magma pool until the crust is unable to contain the

text: pressure

text: . This can occur at

text: hotspot

text: s (for example,

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: ) or at

text: subduction

text: zones (for example,

text: Toba

text: ). Another setting for the eruption of very large amounts of volcanic material is in

text: large igneous province

text: s, which can cover huge areas with

text: lava

text: and

text: volcanic ash

text: , causing long-lasting

text: climate change

text: (such as the triggering of a small

text: ice age

text: or

text: global warming

text: ), which can

text: threaten species with extinction

text: . The Oruanui eruption of New Zealand's Taupo Volcano, the world's most recent supereruption, had a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8.

text: David Deutsch has pointed out that the picture of Earth as a friendly "spaceship" habitat is difficult to defend even in metaphorical sense. The Earth environment is harsh and survival is constant struggle for life, including whole species extinction. Humans wouldn't be able to live in most of the areas where they are living now without knowledge necessary to build life-support systems such as houses, heating, water supply etc.

text: David Deutsch

text: has pointed out that the picture of Earth as a friendly "spaceship" habitat is difficult to defend even in metaphorical sense. The Earth environment is harsh and survival is constant struggle for life, including whole species

text: extinction

text: . Humans wouldn't be able to live in most of the areas where they are living now without knowledge necessary to build life-support systems such as houses, heating, water supply etc.

text: Land formed the most important article of the census, but public land, the possession of which only belonged to a citizen, was excluded as not being Quiritarian property. If we may judge from the practice of the imperial period, it was the custom to give a most minute specification of all such land as a citizen held according to the Quiritarian law. He had to state the name and location of the land, and to specify what portion of it was arable, what meadow, what vineyard, and what olive-ground: and of the land thus described, he had to give his assessment of its value.

text: Land formed the most important article of the census, but public land, the possession of which only belonged to a citizen, was excluded as not being

text: Quiritarian

text: property. If we may judge from the practice of the imperial period, it was the custom to give a most minute specification of all such land as a citizen held according to the Quiritarian law. He had to state the name and location of the land, and to specify what portion of it was arable, what meadow, what vineyard, and what olive-ground: and of the land thus described, he had to give his assessment of its value.

text: Eruptions are recorded in 1902, 1970 and 1993. A report of smoke emission in 1877 may have confused clouds for volcanic activity. In 1914, the volcano was described to be "belching out clouds of smoke", although a report in 1971 indicated the absence of historical activity. These eruptions were accompanied by earthquake activity. During the eruption of 1902, heavy smoke and a night time glow on the volcano were observed. The eruption in 1993 involved a   long lava flow, but it may have been a flow of molten sulfur. The volcano is currently classified as a dormant volcano. Satellite imagery indicates, however, that ground deformation occurs at Taftan.

text: Eruptions are recorded in 1902, 1970 and 1993. A report of smoke emission in 1877 may have confused

text: clouds

text: for volcanic activity. In 1914, the volcano was described to be "belching out clouds of smoke", although a report in 1971 indicated the absence of historical activity. These eruptions were accompanied by earthquake activity. During the eruption of 1902, heavy smoke and a night time glow on the volcano were observed. The eruption in 1993 involved a   long lava flow, but it may have been a flow of molten sulfur. The volcano is currently classified as a

text: dormant volcano

text: . Satellite imagery indicates, however, that ground deformation occurs at Taftan.

text: It has an estimated average equilibrium temperature of , very close to that of Earth. If Kepler-61b is Earth-like it is a good candidate for life, because the system is about one billion years old, however because of its radius (2.24 ), it is likely gaseous, with no solid surface. However, this does not totally destroy the chances of habitability in the Kepler-61 system. Kepler-61b may well have a substantially large enough Earth-like moon (with the proper atmospheric properties and pressure), capable of supporting surface liquid water, and potentially life. However, such moons do not form naturally, it would have to be captured.

text: Some titles draw on the local Doric dialect: 'Kings and Quines' (1969) [quine = girl]; 'Fit's At!' (1973) [ = what’s that?]; 'Fit Next!' (1974) [= what next ?/ now what?];  'Fit Like' (1975) [how are you?];  'Fit's On?' (1982)[= what’s on?];  'Scaffie Society' (1997) [scaffie = street orderly. Cafe Society was a local restaurant and bar]; 'The Codfaither' (2001) (faither = father); cod refers to the formerly pre-eminent fishing port of Aberdeen;  and 'Back To The Teuchter' (2010) – Teuchter being a Doric-speaking North-east Scot.

text: Some titles draw on the local

text: Doric dialect

text: : 'Kings and Quines' (1969) [quine = girl]; 'Fit's At!' (1973) [ = what’s that?]; 'Fit Next!' (1974) [= what next ?/ now what?];  'Fit Like' (1975) [how are you?];  'Fit's On?' (1982)[= what’s on?];  'Scaffie Society' (1997) [scaffie = street orderly. Cafe Society was a local restaurant and bar]; 'The Codfaither' (2001) (faither = father); cod refers to the formerly pre-eminent fishing port of Aberdeen;  and 'Back To The

text: Teuchter

text: ' (2010) –

text: Teuchter

text: being a Doric-speaking North-east Scot.

text: A little more than a month later, the tender's talent was once again subjected to a rigorous test. On 10 February 1970 at Naples, the Greek registry freighter Mautric collided with Yellowstone and the tender's nest of destroyers. The , the , and the  all suffered extensive hull and structural damage, but Yellowstone worked nearly 24-hour shifts from 13 to 22 February and effected the necessary repairs. Capt. R. D. Wood, commanding Yellowstone, and Senior Chief Ship Fitter William S. Burman received Navy commendation medals for heading the exemplary repair work that soon had all ships back in operational condition.

text: Dexter Raymond Mills, Jr., (born June 14, 1977) better known by his stage name Consequence, is an American hip hop recording artist from Queens, New York City, New York. Consequence debuted in 1996, appearing several times on A Tribe Called Quest's fourth album Beats, Rhymes, and Life, as he is the cousin of foreman Q-Tip. In March 2007, he released his debut album Don't Quit Your Day Job!, under Columbia Records and Kanye West's GOOD Music. Consequence left GOOD Music in 2011, on bad terms, after being signed with the label since 2005. He and West later reconciled, despite Consequence speaking ill of West. Consequence subsequently launched his own record label, Band Camp Records, following his departure from GOOD Music.

text: Dexter Raymond Mills, Jr., (born June 14, 1977) better known by his

text: stage name

text: Consequence, is an American

text: hip hop

text: recording artist from

text: Queens, New York City

text: New York

text: . Consequence debuted in 1996, appearing several times on

text: A Tribe Called Quest

text: 's fourth album

text: Beats, Rhymes, and Life

text: , as he is the cousin of foreman

text: Q-Tip

text: . In March 2007, he released his debut album

text: Don't Quit Your Day Job!

text: , under

text: Columbia Records

text: and

text: Kanye West

text: 's

text: GOOD Music

text: . Consequence left GOOD Music in 2011, on bad terms, after being signed with the label since 2005. He and West later reconciled, despite Consequence speaking ill of West. Consequence subsequently launched his own record label, Band Camp Records, following his departure from GOOD Music.

text: Only one of the 35 active volcanoes, Weh, is separated from the Sumatran mainland. The separation was caused by a large eruption that filled the lowland between Weh and the rest of the mainland with sea water in the Pleistocene epoch. The largest volcano of Sumatra is the supervolcano Toba within the  ×  Lake Toba, which was created after a caldera collapse (est. in 74,000 Before Present). The eruption is estimated to have been at level eight on the VEI scale, the largest possible for a volcanic eruption. The highest peak of the mountain range is Mount Kerinci with an elevation of 3,800 m (12,467 ft).

text: Only one of the 35 active volcanoes,

text: Weh

text: , is separated from the Sumatran mainland. The separation was caused by a large eruption that filled the lowland between Weh and the rest of the mainland with sea water in the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch. The largest volcano of Sumatra is the

text: supervolcano

text: Toba

text: within the  ×  Lake Toba, which was created after a

text: caldera collapse

text: (est. in 74,000

text: Before Present

text: ). The eruption is estimated to have been at level eight on the

text: VEI

text: scale, the largest possible for a volcanic eruption. The highest peak of the mountain range is

text: Mount Kerinci

text: with an elevation of 3,800 m (12,467 ft).

text: After its eruption in 1996, the volcano entered a period of dormancy, the longest it had been dormant since records of its eruptions have been kept. This period ended on August 15, 2007, with the start of a new eruption involving seismic disturbances and a "vigorous eruption of lava." Scientists said that the volcano "could be working toward a massive eruption that could affect air travel but was not expected to threaten any of the towns in the area." The eruption ended on September 13. The volcano erupted again on May 13, 2013, but activity had greatly diminished by July 3, 2013, and on August 8, 2013, the Current Volcano Alert Level was reduced to NORMAL and the Current Aviation Color Code reduced to GREEN.

text: xChaos software licensed the source code of Arachne to Caldera UK in 1997.  Caldera UK added Novell's dialer and TCP/IP stack, animated GIFs, printing on a multitude of printers, JavaScript (beta), added an optional on-screen keyboard for mouse and touch panel usage (SoftKeyboards), completely changed the design of the browser (customizable), implemented their own support for frames, and ported it to compile as a 32-bit protected mode extended DOS application (utilizing DPMI using DJGPP, a GNU compiler for DOS), while Arachne is a 16-bit application. This program was sold as DR-WebSpyder; the name was to associate it with DR-DOS, which Caldera owned at the time. Later, when Caldera had transferred DR-DOS to its branch company Caldera Thin Clients, which became Lineo, the browser was renamed Lineo Embrowser.

text: xChaos software licensed the source code of Arachne to

text: Caldera UK

text: in 1997.  Caldera UK added Novell's dialer and TCP/IP stack, animated GIFs, printing on a multitude of printers, JavaScript (beta), added an optional on-screen keyboard for mouse and touch panel usage (SoftKeyboards), completely changed the design of the browser (customizable), implemented their own support for frames, and ported it to compile as a 32-bit protected mode extended DOS application (utilizing

text: DPMI

text: using

text: DJGPP

text: , a GNU compiler for DOS), while Arachne is a 16-bit application. This program was sold as DR-WebSpyder; the name was to associate it with

text: DR-DOS

text: , which Caldera owned at the time. Later, when

text: Caldera

text: had transferred DR-DOS to its branch company

text: Caldera Thin Clients

text: , which became

text: Lineo

text: , the browser was renamed Lineo Embrowser.

text: The Eye of the Queen details the life of Marius Thorndyke, Earth's leading contact linguist and founder of the CLI (Contact Linguistics Institute) after he departs to the world called Pe-Ellia at the invitation of the species for whom that is their home world. This species, long suspected but hitherto unknown, have been responsible for restricting Earth's space exploration to just a few inhabited planets none of which have attained space travel. In the course of his visit, Thorndyke comes to identify emotionally with one of the Pe-Ellian inhabitants and seeks to 'meld' with that being. This has extraordinary consequences for both Earth and Pe-Ellia.

text: Lake Toba () is a large natural lake occupying the caldera of a supervolcano. The lake is about 100 kilometres long, 30 kilometres wide, and up to 505 metres (1,666 ft) deep. Located in the middle of the northern part of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, with a surface elevation of about , the lake stretches from  to . It is the largest lake in Indonesia and also the largest volcanic lake in the world.

text: Lake Toba () is a large natural

text: lake

text: occupying the

text: caldera

text: of a

text: supervolcano

text: . The lake is about 100 kilometres long, 30 kilometres wide, and up to 505 metres (1,666 ft) deep. Located in the middle of the northern part of the

text: Indonesia

text: n

text: island

text: of

text: Sumatra

text: , with a surface elevation of about , the lake stretches from  to . It is the largest

text: lake in Indonesia

text: and also the largest

text: volcanic lake

text: in the world.

text: Life on Earth is often interesting with virtual reality simulations so real that worldwide addiction is very common. Holography allows users to modify the appearance of their dwellings or selves into more appealing facades. Violent "future-sports" enable fast paced thrills with life and death consequences that keep the crowds coming back for more. Cloning has brought the extinct back to life and enabled mankind to create a subclass of humans that not only fill the need for cheap labor and exotic entertainment, but have now become a social cause for clone rights groups. In addition to earthbound life there are The O'Neills—a network of space stations and microwave generators that orbit the Earth and Moon bases, representing the major economic combines. Lastly, there is the great, if economically devastating, experiment of terraforming Mars.

text: Life on Earth is often interesting with virtual reality simulations so real that worldwide addiction is very common.

text: Holography

text: allows users to modify the appearance of their dwellings or selves into more appealing facades. Violent "future-sports" enable fast paced thrills with life and death consequences that keep the crowds coming back for more.

text: Cloning

text: has brought the extinct back to life and enabled mankind to create a subclass of humans that not only fill the need for cheap labor and exotic entertainment, but have now become a social cause for clone rights groups. In addition to earthbound life there are The O'Neills—a network of space stations and microwave generators that orbit the Earth and Moon bases, representing the major economic combines. Lastly, there is the great, if economically devastating, experiment of

text: terraforming

text: Mars

text: Once the lake is saturated with CO, it is very unstable. A trigger is all that is needed to set off an eruption.  In the case of the 1986 eruption at Lake Nyos, landslides were the suspected triggers, but an actual volcanic eruption, an earthquake, or even wind and rain storms are other possible triggers. Another possible cause of a limnic eruption is the gradual development of saturation at certain depths which can trigger the spontaneous development of gas. In any case, the trigger pushes some of the saturated water higher in the lake, where the pressure is insufficient to keep the CO in solution.  Bubbles start forming and the water is lifted even higher in the lake (buoyancy), where even more of the CO comes out of solution.  This process forms a column of gas.  At this point the water at the bottom of this column is pulled up by suction, and it too loses its CO in a runaway process.  This eruption pours CO into the air and can also displace water to form a tsunami.

text: Once the lake is saturated with CO, it is very unstable. A trigger is all that is needed to set off an eruption.  In the case of the 1986 eruption at

text: Lake Nyos

text: landslides

text: were the suspected triggers, but an actual volcanic eruption, an

text: earthquake

text: , or even

text: wind

text: and

text: rain storms

text: are other possible triggers. Another possible cause of a limnic eruption is the gradual development of saturation at certain depths which can trigger the spontaneous development of gas. In any case, the trigger pushes some of the saturated water higher in the lake, where the pressure is insufficient to keep the CO in solution.  Bubbles start forming and the water is lifted even higher in the lake (

text: buoyancy

text: ), where even more of the CO comes out of solution.  This process forms a column of gas.  At this point the water at the bottom of this column is pulled up by

text: suction

text: , and it too loses its CO in a runaway process.  This eruption pours CO into the air and can also displace water to form a tsunami.

text: Viewers speculated about what Gibbs had whispered to Ziva in the final interrogation scene. In response, Harmon said that he had improvised the scene and that, "It's very specific, what was said. And the reaction and the read on Ziva from what is said is specific as well. Now, what I said or what Cote reacted to or how she found what she found for that, she's not gonna tell you any more than I am—I don't think. That’s our secret. And yet it's all about respecting the work and knowing each other well enough to really say, 'Okay, I'll go there with you.'"

text: Within these wide-defining eruptive types are several subtypes. The weakest are Hawaiian and submarine, then Strombolian, followed by Vulcanian and Surtseyan. The stronger eruptive types are Pelean eruptions, followed by Plinian eruptions; the strongest eruptions are called "Ultra-Plinian." Subglacial and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive mechanism, and vary in strength. An important measure of eruptive strength is Volcanic  Explosivity Index (VEI), an order of magnitude scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often correlates to eruptive types.

text: Within these wide-defining eruptive types are several subtypes. The weakest are

text: Hawaiian

text: and

text: submarine

text: , then

text: Strombolian

text: , followed by

text: Vulcanian

text: and

text: Surtseyan

text: . The stronger eruptive types are

text: Pelean eruption

text: s, followed by

text: Plinian eruption

text: s; the strongest eruptions are called "

text: Ultra-Plinian

text: Subglacial

text: and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive mechanism, and vary in strength. An important measure of eruptive strength is

text: Volcanic  Explosivity Index

text: (VEI), an

text: order of magnitude

text: scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often correlates to eruptive types.

text: Cerro Azul is part of the South Volcanic Zone, which runs through central and western Chile and extends south to Argentina. This range includes at least nine caldera complexes, more than 70 of Chile's stratovolcanoes and volcanic fields that have been active in the Quaternary, and hundreds of minor eruptive centres. The South Volcanic Zone is the most volcanically active region in Chile, and produces around one eruption per year. Its largest historical eruption was at Quizapu Crater, located on the north side of Cerro Azul's summit (see below), and its most active volcanoes are Llaima and Villarrica.

text: Cerro Azul is part of the South Volcanic Zone, which runs through central and western Chile and extends south to Argentina. This range includes at least nine

text: caldera complexes

text: , more than 70 of Chile's stratovolcanoes and volcanic fields that have been active in the Quaternary, and hundreds of minor eruptive centres. The South Volcanic Zone is the most volcanically active region in Chile, and produces around one eruption per year. Its largest historical eruption was at Quizapu Crater, located on the north side of Cerro Azul's summit (see below), and its most active volcanoes are

text: Llaima

text: and

text: Villarrica

text: The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It can also be termed as the zone of life on Earth, a closed system (apart from solar and cosmic radiation and heat from the interior of the Earth), and largely self-regulating. By the most general biophysiological definition, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning with a process of biopoesis (life created naturally from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds) or biogenesis (life created from living matter), at least some 3.5 billion years ago. The earliest evidence for life on Earth includes biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks from Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone from Western Australia. More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe."

text: The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It can also be termed as the zone of life on

text: Earth

text: , a closed system (apart from solar and cosmic radiation and heat from the interior of the Earth), and largely self-regulating. By the most general

text: biophysiological

text: definition, the biosphere is the global

text: ecological

text: system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the

text: lithosphere

text: geosphere

text: hydrosphere

text: , and

text: atmosphere

text: . The biosphere is postulated to have

text: evolved

text: , beginning with a process of

text: biopoesis

text: (life created naturally from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds) or

text: biogenesis

text: (life created from living matter), at least some 3.5 billion years ago. The earliest evidence for life on Earth includes

text: biogenic

text: graphite

text: found in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: metasedimentary rocks

text: from

text: Western Greenland

text: and

text: microbial mat

text: fossils

text: found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: from

text: Western Australia

text: . More recently, in 2015, "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: The Blake River Megacaldera Complex is considered a supervolcano due to its great size and its multiple dikes and vents. The Misema Caldera is in the order of , making the complex similar to the Yellowstone Caldera in Wyoming, Lake Toba in Indonesia and strikingly similar in structure to the Olympus Mons caldera on Mars. As a result, the Blake River Group is best categorized as a meganested caldera complex.

text: The Blake River Megacaldera Complex is considered a

text: supervolcano

text: due to its great size and its multiple

text: dike

text: s and vents. The

text: Misema Caldera

text: is in the order of , making the complex similar to the

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: in

text: Wyoming

text: Lake Toba

text: in

text: Indonesia

text: and strikingly similar in structure to the

text: Olympus Mons

text: caldera on

text: Mars

text: . As a result, the Blake River Group is best categorized as a meganested caldera complex.

text: Several later eruptions occurred over the millennia before the most recent major eruption, which is traditionally dated as about 180 CE from Greenland ice-core records. Tree ring data from two studies suggests a later date of 232 CE ± 5. Known as the Hatepe eruption, it is believed to have ejected 100 cubic kilometres of material, of which 30 cubic kilometres was ejected in the space of a few minutes. This was one of the most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years (alongside the Minoan eruption in the 2nd millennium BCE, the Tianchi eruption of Baekdu around 1000 CE and the 1815 eruption of Tambora), with a Volcanic Explosivity Index rating of 7; and there appears to be a correlation, to within a few years, of a year in which the sky was red over Rome and China. The eruption devastated much of the North Island and further expanded the lake. The area was uninhabited by humans at the time of the eruption, since New Zealand was not settled by the Māori until about 1280.  Possible climatic effects of the eruption would have been concentrated on the southern hemisphere due to the southerly position of Lake Taupo. Taupo's last known eruption occurred around 30 years later, with lava dome extrusion forming the Horomatangi Reefs, but that eruption was much smaller than the 180 CE eruption.

text: Several later eruptions occurred over the millennia before the most recent major eruption, which is traditionally dated as about 180 CE from Greenland ice-core records. Tree ring data from two studies suggests a later date of 232 CE ± 5. Known as the

text: Hatepe eruption

text: , it is believed to have ejected 100 cubic kilometres of material, of which 30 cubic kilometres was ejected in the space of a few minutes. This was one of the most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years (alongside the

text: Minoan eruption

text: in the 2nd millennium BCE, the

text: Tianchi eruption

text: of

text: Baekdu

text: around 1000 CE and the 1815 eruption of

text: Tambora

text: ), with a

text: Volcanic Explosivity Index

text: rating of 7; and there appears to be a correlation, to within a few years, of a year in which the sky was red over

text: Rome

text: and

text: China

text: . The eruption devastated much of the North Island and further expanded the lake. The area was uninhabited by humans at the time of the eruption, since New Zealand was not settled by the

text: Māori

text: until about 1280.  Possible climatic effects of the eruption would have been concentrated on the southern hemisphere due to the southerly position of Lake Taupo. Taupo's last known eruption occurred around 30 years later, with lava dome extrusion forming the Horomatangi Reefs, but that eruption was much smaller than the 180 CE eruption.

text: It was during this tour that Hancock had the opportunity to contribute to the creation of Yellowstone National Park. In August 1870, he ordered the 2nd Cavalry at Fort Ellis to provide a military escort for General Henry D. Washburn's planned exploration of the Yellowstone Region.  The expedition, which was a major impetus in creating the park, became known as the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition. Hancock's order led to the assignment of Lt. Gustavus Cheyney Doane and a troop of 5 cavalrymen from Fort Ellis to escort the expedition.  In 1871, Captain John W. Barlow during his exploration of the Yellowstone region formally named a summit on what would become the southern boundary of the park Mount Hancock to honor the general's decision to provide the escort.

text: It was during this tour that Hancock had the opportunity to contribute to the creation of

text: Yellowstone National Park

text: . In August 1870, he ordered the 2nd Cavalry at

text: Fort Ellis

text: to provide a military escort for General

text: Henry D. Washburn

text: 's planned exploration of the Yellowstone Region.  The expedition, which was a major impetus in creating the park, became known as the

text: Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition

text: . Hancock's order led to the assignment of Lt.

text: Gustavus Cheyney Doane

text: and a troop of 5 cavalrymen from Fort Ellis to escort the expedition.  In 1871, Captain

text: John W. Barlow

text: during his exploration of the Yellowstone region formally named a summit on what would become the southern boundary of the park

text: Mount Hancock

text: to honor the general's decision to provide the escort.

text: Cadet Stark, who has been taught to obey orders and to trust the infallibility of Earth and the Space Patrol, arrives at planet IV of Alpha C just as the colonists are voting to declare, and possibly fight for, their independence from Earth.The arrival of the Carden and its crew can potentially affect the course of events in this revolution. The young cadet, for the first time in his life, must choose the proper and honorable course of action in a situation where there is no clearright and wrong. The consequences of his actions may place in jeopardy his career with the Space Patrol and the love of his father.

text: Geologically, the area of modern Indonesia appeared from under the Southeast Asian seas as the result of the Indian and Australian plates colliding and slipping under the Sunda Plate, sometime in the early Cenozoic era around 63 million years ago. This tectonic collision created Sunda volcanic Arc that has produced chains of islands of Sumatra, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands. The active volcanic arc creating supervolcano that today become Lake Toba in Sumatra. The massive eruption of Toba supervolcano that occurred some time between 69,000 and 77,000 years ago instigated the Toba catastrophe theory, a global volcanic winter that caused a bottleneck in human evolution. Other notable volcanoes in Sunda Arc are Mount Tambora and Krakatau. The region is known for its instability due to volcano formations and other volcanic and tectonic activities as well as climate changes; resulted in lowlands drowned occasionally under shallow seas, the formation of islands, the connection and disconnection of islands through narrow land-bridges, etc.

text: Geologically, the area of modern

text: Indonesia

text: appeared from under the Southeast Asian seas as the result of the Indian and Australian plates colliding and slipping under the

text: Sunda Plate

text: , sometime in the early

text: Cenozoic

text: era around 63 million years ago. This tectonic collision created

text: Sunda volcanic Arc

text: that has produced chains of islands of

text: Sumatra

text: Java

text: and the

text: Lesser Sunda Islands

text: . The active volcanic arc creating

text: supervolcano

text: that today become

text: Lake Toba

text: in Sumatra. The massive eruption of Toba supervolcano that occurred some time between 69,000 and 77,000 years ago instigated the

text: Toba catastrophe theory

text: , a global volcanic winter that caused a bottleneck in human evolution. Other notable volcanoes in Sunda Arc are

text: Mount Tambora

text: and

text: Krakatau

text: . The region is known for its instability due to volcano formations and other volcanic and tectonic activities as well as climate changes; resulted in lowlands drowned occasionally under shallow seas, the formation of islands, the connection and disconnection of islands through narrow land-bridges, etc.

text: A reference class problem arises: the plausibility inferred will depend on whether we take the past experience of one person, of humanity, or of the earth.  A consequence is that each referent would hold different plausibility of the statement.  In Bayesianism, any probability is a conditional probability given what one knows.  That varies from one person to another.

text: A

text: reference class problem

text: arises: the plausibility inferred will depend on whether we take the past experience of one person, of humanity, or of the earth.  A consequence is that each referent would hold different plausibility of the statement.  In Bayesianism, any probability is a

text: conditional probability

text: given what one knows.  That varies from one person to another.

text: The swarm consists of hundreds of dikes, filled with mafic to felsic rocks and are individually about  in width. These dikes may be the roots of linear-fissure-array supervolcanoes.

text: The swarm consists of hundreds of

text: dikes

text: , filled with

text: mafic

text: to

text: felsic

text: rocks and are individually about  in width. These dikes may be the roots of linear-fissure-array

text: supervolcano

text: es.

text: In its last moments before its energy fades, Creator explains that the Stone-Like is the guardian of Earth, and sees to it the advancement of the planet, its inhabitants and their way of living. If it deems that things must start over, the Stone-Like will destroy Earth and recreate it again, until humanity realize their nature and change before the Stone-Like delivers the consequences. Creator's purpose was always to ensure that mankind will survive, through their clones, and with these words, Creator stops functioning. As the story ends, the Buster and Reana clone start to wake from their cloning tubes.

text: Before Laurel became a city or a community, people passed through the site during the gold rush period, when gold was discovered at the Clarks Fork headwaters.  They came by team and wagon, and by small steamer vessels up the Yellowstone River.  The government was in the process of planning a railroad to the west coast, and had surveying crews out to map the country on the most direct route.  Many of the prospectors that went west in search of gold, felt that gold might be found in other parts of the state, so some returned to the Yellowstone Valley, and others came from the East to settle here.  However, this did not take place until after the Custer Massacre in 1876.  It was not until 1877 that the white man felt safe in the Yellowstone Valley, after the power of the Sioux was broken.  So it was that while the memory of the Massacre of General Custer and his Command on the Little Big Horn River was still fresh in the minds of settlers of Montana, that a little community was established in the Yellowstone Valley.

text: Guilford is an important setting in the science fiction novels Supervolcano Trilogy by Harry Turtledove.

text: Guilford is an important setting in the science fiction novels

text: Supervolcano Trilogy

text: by

text: Harry Turtledove

text: Research by a team of international scientists in 2006 revealed that the Santorini event was much larger than the original estimate of  of Dense-Rock Equivalent (DRE), or total volume of material erupted from the volcano, that was published in 1991.  With an estimated DRE in excess of , the volume of ejecta was approximately . If so, the eruption's Volcanic Explosivity Index was 7. The volcano ejected up to four times as much as the well-recorded eruption by Krakatoa in 1883. The Thera volcanic events and subsequent ashfall probably sterilized the island, as occurred on Krakatoa. Only the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption of 1815, Lake Taupo's Hatepe eruption around 180 CE, and perhaps the Baekdu Mountain eruption around 970 CE released more material into the atmosphere during historic times.

text: Research by a team of international scientists in 2006 revealed that the Santorini event was much larger than the original estimate of  of

text: Dense-Rock Equivalent

text: (DRE), or total volume of material erupted from the volcano, that was published in 1991.  With an estimated DRE in excess of , the volume of

text: ejecta

text: was approximately . If so, the eruption's

text: Volcanic Explosivity Index

text: was 7. The volcano ejected up to four times as much as the well-recorded eruption by

text: Krakatoa

text: in 1883. The Thera volcanic events and subsequent ashfall probably sterilized the island, as occurred on Krakatoa. Only the

text: Mount Tambora

text: volcanic eruption of 1815, Lake Taupo's

text: Hatepe eruption

text: around 180 CE, and perhaps the

text: Baekdu Mountain

text: eruption around 970 CE released more material into the atmosphere during historic times.

text: Regarding a GRB from WR 104 specifically, only sketchy estimates have been published so far. To predict the potential consequences for life on Earth, a proper determination of the rotational axis inclination relative to Earth is considered the most vital issue in this regard. If a beam of high energy radiation from a nearby GRB hits Earth, model calculations shows that it can have destructive consequences for the ecosystems. The range of destruction depends on the magnitude and distance of the burst and on how much of the radiation beam hits. It is currently "highly unlikely" that a GRB from WR 104 will pose a danger to life on Earth.

text: Mount Sinabung (Indonesian: Gunung Sinabung, also Dolok Sinabung, Deleng Sinabung, Dolok Sinaboen, Dolok Sinaboeng and Sinabuna) is a Pleistocene-to-Holocene stratovolcano of andesite and dacite in the Karo plateau of Karo Regency, North Sumatra, Indonesia, 25 miles from the Lake Toba supervolcano. Many old lava flows are on its flanks and the last known eruption, before recent times, occurred in the year 1600. Solfataric activities (cracks where steam, gas, and lava are emitted) were last observed at the summit in 1912; recent documented events include an eruption in the early hours of 29 August 2010 and eruptions in September and November 2013, January,  February and October 2014.  A pyroclastic flow in May 2016 killed 7 people. Between 2013 and 2014 the alert for a major event was increased with no significant activity.  On 2 June 2015 the alert was again increased, and as of 26 June 2015 at least 10,000 people have been evacuated, fearing a major eruption. The long eruption of Mount Sinabung is similar to Mount Unzen in Japan, which erupted for five years after lying dormant for 200 years.

text: Mount Sinabung (

text: Indonesian

text: : Gunung Sinabung, also Dolok Sinabung, Deleng Sinabung, Dolok Sinaboen, Dolok Sinaboeng and Sinabuna) is a

text: Pleistocene

text: -to-

text: Holocene

text: stratovolcano

text: of

text: andesite

text: and

text: dacite

text: in the Karo plateau of

text: Karo Regency

text: North Sumatra

text: Indonesia

text: , 25 miles from the

text: Lake Toba supervolcano

text: . Many old

text: lava flow

text: s are on its flanks and the last known eruption, before recent times, occurred in the year 1600.

text: Solfataric

text: activities (cracks where

text: steam

text: gas

text: , and

text: lava

text: are emitted) were last observed at the summit in 1912; recent documented events include an eruption in the early hours of 29 August 2010 and eruptions in September and November 2013, January,  February and October 2014.  A pyroclastic flow in May 2016 killed 7 people. Between 2013 and 2014 the alert for a major event was increased with no significant activity.  On 2 June 2015 the alert was again increased, and as of 26 June 2015 at least 10,000 people have been evacuated, fearing a major eruption. The long eruption of Mount Sinabung is similar to

text: Mount Unzen

text: in Japan, which erupted for five years after lying dormant for 200 years.

text: On May 22, 1998, Clinton announced Caldera as his selection for Secretary of the Army. On July 2, 1998, Caldera was sworn in as the 17th Secretary of the Army by Secretary of Defense William Cohen.

text: On May 22, 1998, Clinton announced Caldera as his selection for Secretary of the Army. On July 2, 1998, Caldera was sworn in as the 17th Secretary of the Army by

text: Secretary of Defense

text: William Cohen

text: In December 2008, all five issues of What If...? featured the Runaways becoming the Young Avengers as back-up stories. The five-part back-up feature (entitled What If Runaways became Young Avengers?) illustrates how Iron Lad recruits the Runaways as the next new wave of the Avengers, forcing them to be an actual super-hero team with costumes. Although it is later revealed that the Iron Lad that brought them together was actually Victor Mancha – Iron Lad ran into Victor's future self when attempting to flee to the Avengers' era, with Victorious travelling back with him and using Victor to hi-jack his equipment – Kang's attempt to rescue his younger self results in Iron Lad being killed and Kang being erased from history while Victor destroys his future self and departs via Kang's time-belt to find his own way, leaving the Runaways to continue as Young Avengers with Chase now using parts of the Iron Lad armor after he was injured in a fight with Victorious. Written by C.B. Cebulski and drawn by Patrick "Spaz" Spaziante, the story had originally been called What If the Runaways didn't run away? But it was not until Cebulski accidentally stumbled onto the Young Avengers storyline that he decide to merge the two stories. Joe Quesada, editor in chief of Marvel Comics revealed early in his online interview feature, "MyCup o' Joe", that the main villain in the What if? storyline is Victorious, though Kang the Conqueror makes an appearance. A reviewer, Jesse Schedeen of IGN cited What If...? itself as "a let down", although the Runaways back-up story was positively received.

text: In December 2008, all five issues of

text: What If...?

text: featured the Runaways becoming the

text: Young Avengers

text: as back-up stories. The five-part back-up feature (entitled What If Runaways became Young Avengers?) illustrates how

text: Iron Lad

text: recruits the Runaways as the next new wave of the

text: Avengers

text: , forcing them to be an actual super-hero team with costumes. Although it is later revealed that the Iron Lad that brought them together was actually

text: Victor Mancha

text: – Iron Lad ran into Victor's future self when attempting to flee to the Avengers' era, with Victorious travelling back with him and using Victor to hi-jack his equipment – Kang's attempt to rescue his younger self results in Iron Lad being killed and Kang being erased from history while Victor destroys his future self and departs via Kang's time-belt to find his own way, leaving the Runaways to continue as Young Avengers with

text: Chase

text: now using parts of the Iron Lad armor after he was injured in a fight with Victorious. Written by

text: C.B. Cebulski

text: and drawn by Patrick "Spaz" Spaziante, the story had originally been called What If the Runaways didn't run away? But it was not until Cebulski accidentally stumbled onto the Young Avengers storyline that he decide to merge the two stories.

text: Joe Quesada

text: , editor in chief of

text: Marvel Comics

text: revealed early in his online interview feature, "MyCup o' Joe", that the main villain in the What if? storyline is

text: Victorious

text: , though

text: Kang the Conqueror

text: makes an appearance. A reviewer, Jesse Schedeen of

text: IGN

text: cited What If...? itself as "a let down", although the Runaways back-up story was positively received.

text: This, combined with the abrupt occurrence of most human differentiations in that same period, is a probable case of bottleneck linked to volcanic winters (see Toba catastrophe theory). On average, super-eruptions with total eruptive masses of at least 10 kg (Toba eruptive mass = 6.9 × 10 kg) occur every 1 million years.

text: This, combined with the abrupt occurrence of most human differentiations in that same period, is a probable case of

text: bottleneck

text: linked to volcanic winters (see

text: Toba catastrophe theory

text: ). On average, super-eruptions with total eruptive masses of at least 10 kg (Toba eruptive mass = 6.9 × 10 kg) occur every 1 million years.

text: An approximate value for gravity at a distance  from the centre of the Earth can be obtained by assuming that the Earth's density is spherically symmetric. The gravity depends only on the mass inside the sphere of radius . All the contributions from outside cancel out as a consequence of the inverse-square law of gravitation. Another consequence is that the gravity is the same as if all the mass were concentrated at the centre. Thus, the gravitational acceleration at this radius is

text: An approximate value for gravity at a distance  from the centre of the Earth can be obtained by assuming that the Earth's density is spherically symmetric. The gravity depends only on the mass inside the sphere of radius . All the contributions from outside cancel out as a consequence of the

text: inverse-square law

text: of gravitation. Another consequence is that the gravity is the same as if all the mass were concentrated at the centre. Thus, the gravitational acceleration at this radius is

text: The eruption of the Phlegraean Fields volcano occurred about 39 kya. The explosion of  ignimbrite was the largest in the last 200,000 years of European history The ornaments, perforated by hand-operated rotary drill, found at Kostyonki 17 Layer II, predate the volcanic eruption and suggest that the population was "technologically ready" for an incoming volcanic winter.

text: The eruption of the

text: Phlegraean Fields

text: volcano occurred about 39 kya. The explosion of

text: ignimbrite

text: was the largest in the last 200,000 years of European history The ornaments, perforated by hand-operated rotary drill, found at Kostyonki 17 Layer II, predate the volcanic eruption and suggest that the population was "technologically ready" for an incoming volcanic winter.

text: Volcanism at Yellowstone is relatively recent with calderas that were created during large eruptions that took place 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and  630,000 years ago. The calderas lie over a hotspot where light, hot, molten rock from the mantle rises toward the surface. While the Yellowstone hotspot is now under the Yellowstone Plateau, it previously helped create the eastern Snake River Plain (to the west of Yellowstone) through a series of huge volcanic eruptions. The hotspot appears to move across terrain in the east-northeast direction, but in fact the hotspot is much deeper than terrain and remains stationary while the North American Plate moves west-southwest over it.

text: Volcanism at Yellowstone is relatively recent with

text: caldera

text: s that were created during large eruptions that took place 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and  630,000 years ago. The calderas lie over a

text: hotspot

text: where light, hot,

text: molten rock

text: from the

text: mantle

text: rises toward the surface. While the

text: Yellowstone hotspot

text: is now under the

text: Yellowstone Plateau

text: , it previously helped create the eastern

text: Snake River Plain

text: (to the west of Yellowstone) through a series of huge

text: volcanic eruption

text: s. The hotspot appears to move across terrain in the east-northeast direction, but in fact the hotspot is much deeper than terrain and remains stationary while the

text: North American Plate

text: moves west-southwest over it.

text: After recuperating, the Spiders open a portal to Earth-982 to send Spider-Girl of Earth-982 home. Before leaving, Spider-Girl of Earth-982 apologizes to Spider-Man for her harsh words, but he tells her that she suffered more than anyone else and that he's proud of her for not letting that break her. Returning to the ruins of her home, Spider-Girl of Earth-982 encounters Ben Parker from Earth-3145 who reveals that Mary Jane and Wes survived Daemos' attack. After a tearful reunion, Spider-Girl of Earth-982 asks if her father survived, but is told that he died protecting his loved ones. Uncle Ben chooses to remain on Earth-982 and live out the remainder of his chance of life as Mayday's and Benjy's grandfather, something that other alternate reality Ben Parkers were unable to achieve so and Mayday is given her world's father's old costume renaming herself Spider-Woman. On Loomworld, the remainder of the Spider-Army says their goodbyes. Miles Morales laments that he and Spider-Man didn't get to spend more time together and Peter jokingly states that they'll meet again suggesting that they hang out in Earth-616 next time. Spider-Punk of Earth-138 tells Spider-UK to keep an eye on Karn stating that while he may seem reformed, he still killed a lot of Spiders. When only Spider-UK, Spider-Woman of Earth-65, Spider-Man 2099, and the Spiders from Earth-616 remain, Peter prepares to say goodbye to Spider-Man 2099 when their Spider Senses collectively overwhelm them with agony. Karn realizes someone is tampering with the Web of Life and Destiny and they rush to the web to find Superior Spider-Man hacking at the Web with Morlun's dagger. When Karn shouts that he could destroy the Multiverse, Superior Spider-Man sneers that he's aware of his destiny and tries to reject his fate, revealing that he figured out that Peter Parker from his universe is from the future.

text: According to the Volcanic Explosivity Index, a VEI of 6 to 8 is classified as "Ultra Plinian". Eruptions of this type are defined by ash plumes over  high and a volume of erupted material  to  in size. Eruptions in the "Ultra Plinian" category include Lake Toba (approx 74000 years ago, VEI 8), Tambora (1815, VEI 7), Krakatoa (1883, VEI 6), and Akahoya eruption of Kikai Caldera, Japan.

text: According to the Volcanic Explosivity Index, a VEI of 6 to 8 is classified as "Ultra Plinian". Eruptions of this type are defined by ash plumes over  high and a volume of erupted material  to  in size. Eruptions in the "Ultra Plinian" category include

text: Lake Toba

text: (approx 74000 years ago, VEI 8),

text: Tambora

text: (1815, VEI 7),

text: Krakatoa

text: (1883, VEI 6), and

text: Akahoya eruption

text: of

text: Kikai Caldera

text: , Japan.

text: Similar climatic effects to "nuclear winter" followed historical supervolcano eruptions, which plumed sulfate aerosols high into the stratosphere, with this being known as a volcanic winter.

text: Similar climatic effects to "nuclear winter" followed historical

text: supervolcano

text: eruptions, which plumed

text: sulfate aerosol

text: s high into the stratosphere, with this being known as a volcanic winter.

text: Other names include "pay what you wish", "pay what you like", "pay as you want", "pay what you feel", "pay as you wish", "pay as you like", "pay what you will", and "pay as you will".  "Pay what you can" is sometimes used synonymously, but is often more oriented to charity or social uses, based more on ability to pay, while PWYW is often more broadly oriented to perceived value in combination with willingness and ability to pay.

text: Other names include "pay what you wish", "pay what you like", "pay as you want", "pay what you feel", "pay as you wish", "pay as you like", "pay what you will", and "pay as you will".  "

text: Pay what you can

text: " is sometimes used synonymously, but is often more oriented to charity or social uses, based more on ability to pay, while PWYW is often more broadly oriented to perceived value in combination with willingness and ability to pay.

text: In 2008, the Discovery Land Company entered an agreement with Yellowstone Club, establishing a long-term partnership for development and management. In 2009 the Yellowstone Club was purchased and brought out of bankruptcy by investors led by CrossHarbor Capital Partners, including a 5 percent share by Discovery Land Company.

text: In 2008, the Discovery Land Company entered an agreement with

text: Yellowstone Club

text: , establishing a long-term partnership for development and management. In 2009 the Yellowstone Club was purchased and brought out of bankruptcy by investors led by

text: CrossHarbor Capital Partners

text: , including a 5 percent share by Discovery Land Company.

text: A subsequent caldera-forming eruption occurred about 160,000 years ago. It formed the relatively small caldera that contains the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake. Since the last supereruption, a series of smaller eruptive cycles between 640,000 and 70,000 years ago, has nearly filled in the Yellowstone Caldera with >80 different eruptions of rhyolitic lavas such as those that can be seen at Obsidian Cliffs and basaltic lavas which can be viewed at Sheepeater Cliff. Lava strata are most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows. The canyon is a classic V-shaped valley, indicative of river-type erosion rather than erosion caused by glaciation.

text: A subsequent caldera-forming eruption occurred about 160,000 years ago. It formed the relatively small caldera that contains the

text: West Thumb

text: of Yellowstone Lake. Since the last supereruption, a series of smaller eruptive cycles between 640,000 and 70,000 years ago, has nearly filled in the Yellowstone Caldera with >80 different eruptions of

text: rhyolitic

text: lavas such as those that can be seen at

text: Obsidian Cliff

text: s and

text: basalt

text: ic lavas which can be viewed at

text: Sheepeater Cliff

text: . Lava strata are most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows. The canyon is a classic

text: V-shaped valley

text: , indicative of river-type erosion rather than erosion caused by

text: glaciation

text: Investigation of the tenacity and versatility of life on Earth, as well as an understanding of the molecular systems that some organisms utilize to survive such extremes, is important for the search for life beyond Earth. For example, lichen could survive for a month in a simulated Martian environment.

text: Investigation of the tenacity and versatility of life on Earth, as well as an understanding of the molecular systems that some organisms utilize to survive such extremes, is important for the search for

text: life beyond Earth

text: . For example,

text: lichen

text: could survive for a month in a

text: simulated Martian environment

text: The caldera formed during the last of three supereruptions over the past 2.1 million years: the Huckleberry Ridge eruption 2.1 million years ago (which created the Island Park Caldera and the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff), the Mesa Falls eruption 1.3 million years ago (which created the Henry's Fork Caldera and the Mesa Falls Tuff) and the Lava Creek eruption approximately 630,000 years ago (which created the Yellowstone Caldera and the Lava Creek Tuff).

text: The caldera formed during the last of three supereruptions over the past 2.1 million years: the

text: Huckleberry Ridge eruption

text: 2.1 million years ago (which created the

text: Island Park Caldera

text: and the

text: Huckleberry Ridge Tuff

text: ), the

text: Mesa Falls eruption

text: 1.3 million years ago (which created the

text: Henry's Fork Caldera

text: and the

text: Mesa Falls Tuff

text: ) and the

text: Lava Creek eruption

text: approximately 630,000 years ago (which created the Yellowstone Caldera and the

text: Lava Creek Tuff

text: These massive eruptive columns are the distinctive feature of a Plinian eruption, and reach up  into the atmosphere. The densest part of the plume, directly above the volcano, is driven internally by gas expansion. As it reaches higher into the air the plume expands and becomes less dense, convection and thermal expansion of volcanic ash drive it even further up into the stratosphere. At the top of the plume, powerful prevailing winds drive the plume in a direction away from the volcano.

text: These massive eruptive columns are the distinctive feature of a Plinian eruption, and reach up  into the

text: atmosphere

text: . The densest part of the plume, directly above the volcano, is driven internally by

text: gas expansion

text: . As it reaches higher into the air the plume expands and becomes less dense,

text: convection

text: and

text: thermal expansion

text: of

text: volcanic ash

text: drive it even further up into the

text: stratosphere

text: . At the top of the plume, powerful

text: prevailing wind

text: s drive the plume in a direction away from the

text: volcano

text: "Living Space" is a science fiction short story by Isaac Asimov.  It was first published in the May 1956  issue of Science Fiction and reprinted in the 1957  collection Earth Is Room Enough.  It concerns itself with a possible consequence of the existence of parallel universes, specifically the ones where life on Earth never developed.

text: "Living Space" is a

text: science fiction

text: short story

text: by

text: Isaac Asimov

text: .  It was first published in the May 1956  issue of

entity_name: Future Science Fiction and Science Fiction Stories

text: Science Fiction

text: and reprinted in the 1957  collection

text: Earth Is Room Enough

text: .  It concerns itself with a possible consequence of the existence of

text: parallel universes

text: , specifically the ones where life on

text: Earth

text: never developed.

text: However, despite the popularity of the concept of "nuclear winter", there is a clear and present threat of anthropogenic abrupt climate change and the results of efforts to prevent global climate change have been ineffective. In their analysis, Denkenberger and Pearce argue that the benefits of a food solution backup plan would reduce overall harm to humanity in the global catastrophes over which control is possible and could reduce the damages associated with catastrophes over which humanity has very little or no control (e.g. supervolcanos).

text: However, despite the popularity of the concept of "nuclear winter", there is a clear and present threat of

text: anthropogenic

text: abrupt climate change and the results of efforts to prevent

text: global climate change

text: have been ineffective. In their analysis, Denkenberger and Pearce argue that the benefits of a food solution backup plan would reduce overall harm to humanity in the global catastrophes over which control is possible and could reduce the damages associated with catastrophes over which humanity has very little or no control (e.g. supervolcanos).

text: Doseon also is considered to have developed the concept of the "Baekdu-daegan", the earth-energy "spine" of the Korean Peninsula, by making many accurate predictions of future changes to the courses of events for individuals and the Kingdom.   Doseon is consequently regarded as a kind of founder-patron-spirit of modern Korean fortune tellers.

text: Similar activity continued at the volcano over the following weeks, excavating the crater, forming an adjacent caldera, and erupting small amounts of steam, ash, and tephra. With each new eruption, the plumes of steam and ash from the volcano rose, eventually climbing to . By late March, the volcano was erupting up to 100 times per day.  Spectators congregated in the vicinity of the mountain, hoping for a chance to see its eruptions. They were joined by reporters on helicopters, as well as mountain climbers.

text: Similar activity continued at the volcano over the following weeks, excavating the crater, forming an adjacent caldera, and erupting small amounts of steam, ash, and

text: tephra

text: . With each new eruption, the plumes of steam and ash from the volcano rose, eventually climbing to . By late March, the volcano was erupting up to 100 times per day.  Spectators congregated in the vicinity of the mountain, hoping for a chance to see its eruptions. They were joined by reporters on helicopters, as well as mountain climbers.

text: The Henry's Fork Caldera in eastern Idaho is a caldera located an area known as Island Park, west of Yellowstone National Park. The caldera was formed by an eruption 1.3 million years ago of the Yellowstone hotspot, that had a volume of , this is the source of the Mesa Falls Tuff.

text: The Henry's Fork Caldera in eastern

text: Idaho

text: is a

text: caldera

text: located an area known as

text: Island Park

text: , west of

text: Yellowstone National Park

text: . The caldera was formed by an

text: eruption

text: 1.3 million years ago of the

text: Yellowstone hotspot

text: , that had a volume of , this is the source of the

text: Mesa Falls Tuff

text: The Island Park Caldera is older and much larger than the Henry's Fork Caldera with approximate dimensions of 58 miles (93 km) by 40 miles (64 km). It is the source of the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff that is found from southern California to the Mississippi River near St. Louis. This supereruption occurred 2.1 million years BP and produced 2500 km of ash. The Island Park Caldera is sometimes referred to as the First Phase Yellowstone Caldera or the Huckleberry Ridge Caldera. The youngest of the hotspot calderas, the Yellowstone Caldera, formed 640,000 years ago and is about 34 miles (55 km) by 45 miles (72 km) wide. Non-explosive eruptions of lava and less-violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone Caldera since the last super eruption. The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while the largest violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone around 150,000 years ago. Smaller steam explosions occur as well - an explosion 13,800 years ago left a 5 kilometer diameter crater at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake.

text: The Island Park Caldera is older and much larger than the Henry's Fork Caldera with approximate dimensions of 58 miles (93 km) by 40 miles (64 km). It is the source of the

text: Huckleberry Ridge Tuff

text: that is found from southern

text: California

text: to the

text: Mississippi River

text: near

text: St. Louis

text: . This supereruption occurred 2.1 million years BP and produced 2500 km of ash. The Island Park Caldera is sometimes referred to as the First Phase Yellowstone Caldera or the Huckleberry Ridge Caldera. The youngest of the hotspot calderas, the Yellowstone Caldera, formed 640,000 years ago and is about 34 miles (55 km) by 45 miles (72 km) wide. Non-explosive eruptions of lava and less-violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone Caldera since the last super eruption. The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while the largest violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of

text: Lake Yellowstone

text: around 150,000 years ago. Smaller steam explosions occur as well - an explosion 13,800 years ago left a 5 kilometer diameter crater at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake.

text: The earliest eruptions of the volcano occurred around one million years ago, explosive activity producing ignimbrite. The explosive eruption phase finished around 830,000 years before present, when the nature of the activity changed to a mix of pyroclastic and effusive, lava eruptions which built up the mountain and which have been dated to around 500,000 years ago. One of the explanations advanced for the Valle dei Grigi is that it is the result of the collapse of a sector of the mountain, as occurred during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens and the 1792 eruption of Mount Unzen.

text: The earliest eruptions of the volcano occurred around one million years ago, explosive activity producing

text: ignimbrite

text: . The explosive eruption phase finished around 830,000 years before present, when the nature of the activity changed to a mix of pyroclastic and effusive,

text: lava

text: eruptions which built up the mountain and which have been dated to around 500,000 years ago. One of the explanations advanced for the Valle dei Grigi is that it is the result of the collapse of a sector of the mountain, as occurred during the

text: 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens

text: and the 1792 eruption of

text: Mount Unzen

text: A stroke can affect the ability to live independently and with quality. Self management programmes are a special training that educates stroke survivors about stroke and its consequences, helps them acquire skills to cope with their challenges, and helps them set and meet their own goals during their recovery process. These programmes are tailored to the target audience, and lead by someone trained and expert in stroke and its consequences (most commonly professionals, but also stroke survivors and peers). A 2016 review reported that these programmes improve the quality of life after stroke, without negative effects. People with stroke felt more empowered, happy and satisfied with life after participating in this training.

text: Child suffered bouts of ill health beginning in 1916, the result of diabetes and other problems. Mather and assistant Horace Albright were concerned about the future of the Yellowstone concessions should Child die, since his Child's son Huntley so angered Mather in 1916 that he was no longer permitted to conduct business with the Park Service. Child suffered financial difficulties in 1917 as a result of the decline in tourism that accompanied the United States' entry into World War I, but emerged healthy enough to consider re-absorbing the Wylie camping concession when it became available in 1918, which had suffered more heavily in the downturn. However, former Wylie employee Howard Hays arranged to purchase the concession with Park Service approval, renaming it the Yellowstone Park Camp Company in 1919. But by 1924, with Hays in ill health, Child bought the Yellowstone Park Camps Company, renaming it the Yellowstone Park Lodge and Camps Company, effectively cementing a monopoly of the major Yellowstone concessions.

text: Child suffered bouts of ill health beginning in 1916, the result of

text: diabetes

text: and other problems. Mather and assistant

text: Horace Albright

text: were concerned about the future of the Yellowstone concessions should Child die, since his Child's son Huntley so angered Mather in 1916 that he was no longer permitted to conduct business with the Park Service. Child suffered financial difficulties in 1917 as a result of the decline in tourism that accompanied the United States' entry into World War I, but emerged healthy enough to consider re-absorbing the Wylie camping concession when it became available in 1918, which had suffered more heavily in the downturn. However, former Wylie employee Howard Hays arranged to purchase the concession with Park Service approval, renaming it the Yellowstone Park Camp Company in 1919. But by 1924, with Hays in ill health, Child bought the Yellowstone Park Camps Company, renaming it the Yellowstone Park Lodge and Camps Company, effectively cementing a monopoly of the major Yellowstone concessions.

text: The Yellowstone Park Transportation Company had an exclusive agreement with the Northern Pacific Railway to transport arriving railroad passengers into the park. The railroad owned a majority interest in  the Yellowstone Park Association, which ran the majority of the in-park Yellowstone hotel concessions. After the railroad's minority partners and managers in the YPA left the company, Child, Huntley and Bach bought the YPA in 1898 with financing from the railroad. Child became president of the company. Huntley died and Bach suffered political scandal. Bach and Huntley's stock reverted to the Northern Pacific, but Child bought enough of the stock to own half the business by 1905, and in 1907 bought the remainder from the Northern Pacific, which sought to divest itself of the company after the Northern Securities scandal. Again, the Northern Pacific provided financing of the purchase. In 1909 Child reorganized the company, dissolving the YPA and creating the Yellowstone Park Hotel Company, with himself as president, his son Huntley as treasurer and his son-in-law William Nichols as secretary.

text: The Yellowstone Park Transportation Company had an exclusive agreement with the

text: Northern Pacific Railway

text: to transport arriving railroad passengers into the park. The railroad owned a majority interest in  the Yellowstone Park Association, which ran the majority of the in-park Yellowstone hotel concessions. After the railroad's minority partners and managers in the YPA left the company, Child, Huntley and Bach bought the YPA in 1898 with financing from the railroad. Child became president of the company. Huntley died and Bach suffered political scandal. Bach and Huntley's stock reverted to the Northern Pacific, but Child bought enough of the stock to own half the business by 1905, and in 1907 bought the remainder from the Northern Pacific, which sought to divest itself of the company after the

text: Northern Securities

text: scandal. Again, the Northern Pacific provided financing of the purchase. In 1909 Child reorganized the company, dissolving the YPA and creating the Yellowstone Park Hotel Company, with himself as president, his son Huntley as treasurer and his son-in-law William Nichols as secretary.

text: Tony Mitchell (born Aug 9th 1961) is a British/Canadian film and television director, born in Toronto. He has directed many high-end event mini-series, movies and episodic television shows: "A.D. The Bible Continues" (2015), The Bible (2013), Atlantis (2011), Episodes 3.1, 3.3, of Primeval (2009), Flood (2007), Supervolcano (2004) . He has also directed numerous award winning factual documentaries: Threads of Life BBC1, Niagara Falls" PBS/CH4, Wild Thing - Chimpanzee's CH4 and Ancient Egyptians CH4.

text: Tony Mitchell (born Aug 9th 1961) is a British/Canadian film and television director, born in

text: Toronto

text: . He has directed many high-end event mini-series, movies and episodic television shows: "

text: A.D. The Bible Continues

text: " (2015),

text: The Bible

text: Atlantis

text: Episodes 3.1, 3.3

text: , of

text: Primeval

text: Flood

text: Supervolcano

text: (2004) . He has also directed numerous award winning factual documentaries:

text: Threads of Life

text: Niagara Falls

text: " PBS/CH4,

text: Wild Thing - Chimpanzee's

text: CH4 and

text: Ancient Egyptians

text: Non-explosive eruptions of lava and less-violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone caldera since the last supereruption. The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while a violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone around 150,000 years ago. Smaller steam explosions occur as well; an explosion 13,800 years ago left a  diameter crater at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake (located in the center of the caldera). Currently, volcanic activity is exhibited via numerous geothermal vents scattered throughout the region, including the famous Old Faithful Geyser, plus recorded ground swelling indicating ongoing inflation of the underlying magma chamber.

text: Non-explosive eruptions of

text: lava

text: and less-violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone caldera since the last supereruption. The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while a violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone around 150,000 years ago. Smaller steam explosions occur as well; an explosion 13,800 years ago left a  diameter

text: crater

text: at Mary Bay on the edge of

text: Yellowstone Lake

text: (located in the center of the caldera). Currently, volcanic activity is exhibited via numerous

text: geothermal vents

text: scattered throughout the region, including the famous

text: Old Faithful Geyser

text: , plus recorded ground swelling indicating ongoing inflation of the underlying magma chamber.

text: The dating of the Southern Dispersal is a matter of dispute. It may have happened either pre- or post-Toba, a catastrophic volcanic eruption that took place between 69,000 and 77,000 years ago at the site of present-day Lake Toba. Stone tools discovered below the layers of ash disposed in India may point to a pre-Toba dispersal, but the exact source of these tools is disputed.

text: The dating of the Southern Dispersal is a matter of dispute. It may have happened either pre- or post-Toba, a catastrophic volcanic eruption that took place between 69,000 and 77,000 years ago at the site of present-day

text: Lake Toba

text: . Stone tools discovered below the layers of ash disposed in India may point to a pre-Toba dispersal, but the exact source of these tools is disputed.

text: The story touches various topics, including the destruction and poisoning of the marine ecosystems on earth, the importance of the sea for humanity and the coexistence of different species. The book also remarks on the human inability to thoroughly understand "alien" life; it speculates on the philosophical and religious consequence that the discovery of another sentient species on earth may have.

text: The story touches various topics, including the destruction and poisoning of the

text: marine ecosystem

text: s on earth, the importance of the sea for humanity and the coexistence of different species. The book also remarks on the human inability to thoroughly understand "

text: alien

text: " life; it speculates on the philosophical and religious consequence that the discovery of another sentient species on earth may have.

text: Of the many calderas formed by the Yellowstone Hotspot, including the later Yellowstone Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera is the only one that is currently clearly visible. The Henrys Fork of the Snake River flows through the Henry's Fork Caldera and drops out at Upper and Lower Mesa Falls. The caldera is bounded by the Ashton Hill on the south, Big Bend Ridge and Bishop Mountain on the west, by Thurburn Ridge on the North and by Black Mountain and the Madison Plateau on the east. The Henry's Fork caldera is in an area called Island Park. Harriman State Park is situated in the caldera.

text: Of the many calderas formed by the Yellowstone Hotspot, including the later Yellowstone Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera is the only one that is currently clearly visible. The Henrys Fork of the Snake River flows through the Henry's Fork Caldera and drops out at Upper and Lower Mesa Falls. The caldera is bounded by the Ashton Hill on the south, Big Bend Ridge and Bishop Mountain on the west, by Thurburn Ridge on the North and by Black Mountain and the Madison Plateau on the east. The Henry's Fork caldera is in an area called Island Park.

text: Harriman State Park

text: is situated in the caldera.

text: Since then, more than 20 eruptions have occurred from vents on the caldera floor. Vent Mountain has been the source of numerous eruptions of ash, bombs, and lava flows since the formation of the caldera. From 1500 BC to AD 1000 four lava domes were extruded on the caldera floor. Textural evidence indicates that these lava-dome eruptions occurred beneath Ancient Surprise Lake which was as deep as 100m. Ancient Surprise Lake drained catastrophically before about AD 1000. (Surprise Lake is now about 2.75 km2 (680 acres) in area and up to 19.5 m (64.0 ft) deep.) Prior to or immediately after this draining, explosive eruptions of andesitic magma produced a cluster of three tuff cones in the southeastern part of the caldera.

text: Due to the volcanic and tectonic nature of the region, the Yellowstone Caldera experiences between 1000 and 2000 measurable earthquakes a year.  Most are relatively minor, measuring a magnitude of 3 or weaker.  Occasionally, numerous earthquakes are detected in a relatively short period of time, an event known as an earthquake swarm.  In 1985, more than 3000 earthquakes were measured over several months.  More than 70 smaller swarms have been detected between 1983 and 2008.  The USGS states these swarms are likely caused by slips on pre-existing faults rather than by movements of magma or hydrothermal fluids.

text: Due to the volcanic and tectonic nature of the region, the Yellowstone Caldera experiences between 1000 and 2000 measurable

text: earthquakes

text: a year.  Most are relatively minor, measuring a magnitude of 3 or weaker.  Occasionally, numerous earthquakes are detected in a relatively short period of time, an event known as an

text: earthquake swarm

text: .  In 1985, more than 3000 earthquakes were measured over several months.  More than 70 smaller swarms have been detected between 1983 and 2008.  The USGS states these swarms are likely caused by slips on pre-existing faults rather than by movements of magma or

text: hydrothermal

text: fluids.

text: Behind this hall, a sort of hole provides a large space. This is the end of everything and everyone. The rocks enter the earth and the waters go underneath the earth into a well. Those who look into the well see their own reflection as a reminder that they must die and proceed to another life. In this garden, even death is not ugly. It is only a passage to another life, a life at a higher level, towards a summit built on the life of those before us. Therefore we achieve peace of mind and eternal life above of the clouds and moon—and deeper than the bottom of ponds or seas or caves.

text: Most hotspot volcanoes are basaltic (e.g., Hawaii, Tahiti). As a result, they are less explosive than subduction zone volcanoes, in which water is trapped under the overriding plate. Where hotspots occur in continental regions, basaltic magma rises through the continental crust, which melts to form rhyolites. These rhyolites can form violent eruptions. For example, the Yellowstone Caldera was formed by some of the most powerful volcanic explosions in geologic history. However, when the rhyolite is completely erupted, it may be followed by eruptions of basaltic magma rising through the same lithospheric fissures (cracks in the lithosphere). An example of this activity is the Ilgachuz Range in British Columbia, which was created by an early complex series of trachyte and rhyolite eruptions, and late extrusion of a sequence of basaltic lava flows.

text: Most hotspot volcanoes are

text: basaltic

text: (e.g.,

text: Hawaii

text: Tahiti

text: ). As a result, they are less explosive than

text: subduction zone

text: volcanoes, in which water is trapped under the overriding plate. Where hotspots occur in

text: continental regions

text: basalt

text: ic

text: magma

text: rises through the continental crust, which melts to form

text: rhyolite

text: s. These

text: rhyolite

text: s can form violent eruptions. For example, the

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: was formed by some of the most powerful volcanic explosions in geologic history. However, when the rhyolite is completely erupted, it may be followed by eruptions of basaltic magma rising through the same lithospheric fissures (cracks in the lithosphere). An example of this activity is the

text: Ilgachuz Range

text: in British Columbia, which was created by an early complex series of

text: trachyte

text: and

text: rhyolite

text: eruptions, and late extrusion of a sequence of basaltic lava flows.

text: Although assigning a value to the entire Earth may seem whimsical, it is highly important in risk assessment.  In the extreme view, absolutely nothing can be carried out without some risk that it will directly or indirectly exterminate life on earth, however usually the probability is so low as to be negligible.  Another way of stating the value of the earth is the risk we are willing to take with it.  And the amount of risk we are willing to take must be balanced against the possible reward.  Such calculation will invariably use other moral or environmental assumptions for other outcomes, such as the value of human life.

text: An eruption occurred on May 25, 1980, at 2:30 a.m. that sent an ash column  into the atmosphere. The eruption was preceded by a sudden increase in earthquake activity and occurred during a rainstorm. Erratic wind from the storm carried ash from the eruption to the south and west, lightly dusting large parts of western Washington and Oregon. Pyroclastic flows exited the northern breach and covered avalanche debris, lahars and other pyroclastic flows deposited by the May 18 eruption.

text: Through observational learning a model can bring forth new ways of thinking and behaving.  With a modeled emotional experience, the observer shows an affinity towards people, places and objects.  They dislike what the models do not like and like what the models care about.  Television helps contribute to how viewers see their social reality.  "Media representations gain influence because people's social constructions of reality depend heavily on what they see, hear and read rather than what they experience directly".  Any effort to change beliefs must be directed towards the sociocultural norms and practices at the social system level.  Before a drama is developed, extensive research is done through focus groups that represent the different sectors within a culture.  Participants are asked what problems in society concern them most and what obstacles they face, giving creators of the drama culturally relevant information to incorporate into the show.

text: The Mesa Falls Tuff is a tuff formation created by the Mesa Falls eruption that formed the Henry's Fork Caldera that is located in Idaho west of Yellowstone Park.  It is the second most recent caldera forming eruption from the Yellowstone hotspot and ejected of 280 km³ of material.  This eruption, 1.3 million years BP, was preceded by the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff and succeeded by the Lava Creek Tuff both of which were created by the Yellowstone hotspot.

text: The Mesa Falls Tuff is a

text: tuff

text: formation created by the Mesa Falls eruption that formed the

text: Henry's Fork Caldera

text: that is located in

text: Idaho

text: west of

text: Yellowstone Park

text: .  It is the second most recent caldera forming eruption from the

text: Yellowstone hotspot

text: and ejected of 280 km³ of material.  This eruption, 1.3 million years

text: BP

text: , was preceded by the

text: Huckleberry Ridge Tuff

text: and succeeded by the

text: Lava Creek Tuff

text: both of which were created by the

text: Yellowstone hotspot

text: At noon on 24 May 1919, a United States Shipping Board crew reported aboard Yellowstone, and, at 1247 that day, Yellowstone was decommissioned and simultaneously stricken from the Navy list and returned to the Shipping Board.

text: At noon on 24 May 1919, a United States Shipping Board crew reported aboard Yellowstone, and, at 1247 that day, Yellowstone was

text: decommissioned

text: and simultaneously stricken from the

text: Navy list

text: and returned to the Shipping Board.

text: Maarten Keulemans launched the website in 2001 strictly for fun. In several interviews, he points out that the main reason for launching the site was that as a professional science journalist, he came across many apocalyptic scenarios, ranging from well-known disasters like black holes and supervolcanoes to less well-known events like the big crunch or mass suicide.

text: Maarten Keulemans launched the website in 2001 strictly for fun. In several interviews, he points out that the main reason for launching the site was that as a professional science journalist, he came across many apocalyptic scenarios, ranging from well-known disasters like

text: black holes

text: and

text: supervolcanoes

text: to less well-known events like the

text: big crunch

text: or

text: mass suicide

text: A 2013 study proposed that a number of craters within Arabia Terra, including Eden Patera, Euphrates Patera, Siloe Patera, and possibly Semeykin crater, Ismenia Patera, Oxus Patera and Oxus Cavus, represent calderas formed by massive explosive volcanic eruptions (supervolcanoes) of Late Noachian to Early Hesperian age. Termed "plains-style caldera complexes", these very low relief volcanic features appear to be older than the large Hesperian-age shield volcanoes of Tharsis or Elysium. Eden Patera, for example, is an irregular, 55 by 85 km depression up to 1.8 km deep, surrounded by ridged basaltic plains. It contains three linked interior depressions, demarcated by arcuate scarps, that have terraces suggestive of lava lake drainage and faults suggestive of collapse. The features indicative of impact origin that would be expected in an impact crater of comparable diameter and depth are absent. The authors regard crustal thinning due to regional extension to be a more likely explanation for the origin of the volcanic activity than putative subduction. Rapid ascent of magma through the thin crust and a consequent relative absence of degassing may explain the more explosive eruption style associated with these paterae relative to that of the shield volcanoes. The eruptions would have contributed to the layered deposits of Arabia Terra, which are among the fine-grained deposits widespread in the equatorial regions of Mars. Total eruptive volumes of at least 4,600–7,200 km per caldera complex (over its history) were inferred.

text: A 2013 study proposed that a number of craters within Arabia Terra, including

text: Eden Patera

text: Euphrates Patera

text: Siloe Patera

text: , and possibly

text: Semeykin crater

text: Ismenia Patera

text: Oxus Patera

text: and

text: Oxus Cavus

text: , represent

text: caldera

text: s formed by

text: massive explosive volcanic eruptions

text: (supervolcanoes) of Late

text: Noachian

text: to Early

text: Hesperian

text: age. Termed "plains-style caldera complexes", these very low relief volcanic features appear to be older than the large Hesperian-age shield volcanoes of

text: Tharsis

text: or

text: Elysium

text: . Eden Patera, for example, is an irregular, 55 by 85 km depression up to 1.8 km deep, surrounded by ridged

text: basalt

text: ic plains. It contains three linked interior depressions, demarcated by arcuate scarps, that have terraces suggestive of

text: lava lake

text: drainage and faults suggestive of collapse. The features indicative of impact origin that would be expected in an

text: impact crater

text: of comparable diameter and depth are absent. The authors regard crustal thinning due to regional extension to be a more likely explanation for the origin of the volcanic activity than putative subduction. Rapid ascent of magma through the thin crust and a consequent relative absence of degassing may explain the more explosive eruption style associated with these paterae relative to that of the shield volcanoes. The eruptions would have contributed to the layered deposits of Arabia Terra, which are among the fine-grained deposits widespread in the equatorial regions of Mars. Total eruptive volumes of at least 4,600–7,200 km per caldera complex (over its history) were inferred.

text: During the final stages of the eruption, the centre of the Aira Caldera sank by about , due to subsidence caused by the emptying out of the underlying magma chamber. The fact that the subsidence occurred at the centre of the caldera rather than directly underneath Sakurajima showed that the volcano draws its magma from the same reservoir that fed the ancient caldera-forming eruption. The eruption partly inspired a 1914 movie, The Wrath of the Gods, centering on a family curse that ostensibly causes the eruption.

text: During the final stages of the eruption, the centre of the Aira Caldera sank by about , due to subsidence caused by the emptying out of the underlying magma chamber. The fact that the subsidence occurred at the centre of the caldera rather than directly underneath Sakurajima showed that the volcano draws its magma from the same

text: reservoir

text: that fed the ancient caldera-forming eruption. The eruption partly inspired a 1914 movie,

text: The Wrath of the Gods

text: , centering on a family curse that ostensibly causes the eruption.

text: In 1998 they partnered with Caldera Thin Clients, Inc. in order to ship their Embedded BIOS with Caldera DR-DOS.

text: In 1998 they partnered with

text: Caldera Thin Clients, Inc.

text: in order to ship their Embedded

text: BIOS

text: with

text: Caldera DR-DOS

text: During the Oligocene epoch, a series of caldera building eruptions of titanic proportions, some as large as VEI-8, devastated what is now Colorado and raised up the mountain chain, part of the San Juan Mountains. The La Garita supervolcano's mega-colossal eruption created 5000 km of tephra, the largest eruption known. The volcanic hotspot has been dormant for millions of years and is now of no danger to anyone.

text: During the

text: Oligocene

text: epoch

text: , a series of

text: caldera

text: building eruptions of titanic proportions, some as large as

text: , devastated what is now

text: Colorado

text: and raised up the mountain chain, part of the

text: San Juan Mountains

text: . The

text: La Garita supervolcano's

text: mega-colossal eruption created 5000 km of

text: tephra

text: , the largest eruption known. The volcanic hotspot has been dormant for millions of years and is now of no danger to anyone.

text: On November 27, 2012 an eruption started from 2 fissures of a strombolian type. Basaltic lava flows move relatively fast and already flooded some buildings 4 km away. Eruption continued for more than a month, as lava continued to flow from the fissures. Lava flowed up to 20 kilometers (12 miles) from a line of fissures on the volcano’s southern flank. This satellite image was collected on December 22, 2012. According to the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT), the eruption is ongoing.

text: On November 27, 2012 an eruption started from 2 fissures of a

text: strombolian

text: type. Basaltic lava flows move relatively fast and already flooded some buildings 4 km away. Eruption continued for more than a month, as lava continued to flow from the fissures. Lava flowed up to 20 kilometers (12 miles) from a line of fissures on the volcano’s southern flank. This satellite image was collected on December 22, 2012. According to the Kamchatka Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT), the eruption is ongoing.

text: In 2008, T.I. was involved in a highly publicized feud with Shawty Lo. The feud was characterized by Shawty Lo's track "Dunn Dunn", and T.I.'s reply in "What Up, What's Haapnin". The song "Dunn Dunn" appears to question T.I.'s roots in Bankhead. The music video for "What Up, What's Haapnin" was shot in Shawty Lo's housing project Bowen Homes, an apparent insult towards Shawty Lo. In an interview, T.I. insisted that his song "No Matter What" was only partially aimed at Shawty Lo.

text: In 2008, T.I. was involved in a highly publicized feud with

text: Shawty Lo

text: . The feud was characterized by Shawty Lo's track "

text: Dunn Dunn

text: ", and T.I.'s reply in "

text: What Up, What's Haapnin

text: ". The song "

text: Dunn Dunn

text: " appears to question T.I.'s roots in Bankhead. The music video for "

text: What Up, What's Haapnin

text: " was shot in Shawty Lo's

text: housing project

text: Bowen Homes, an apparent insult towards Shawty Lo. In an interview, T.I. insisted that his song "

text: No Matter What

text: " was only partially aimed at Shawty Lo.

text: All original official sources cite five different scenarios including a giant volcanic explosion, but the volcanic explosion segment has never been aired in the United States. It has been edited out by the National Geographic Channel for time problems and all references to it on the National Geographic website have been removed. Only the other four scenarios have been aired. However, the BBC website had the super volcano episode until it was removed sometime after 28 May. 2006. UKTV History aired the version including the supervolcano segment on 23 January 2007. However, in the original BBC airing each of the scenarios showed the attempts of a family or person to escape the depicted disaster as well as following Dr. Howell, these segments were mostly cut from the UKTV History version aired in 2007. The volcano sequence can however be found on the popular video website YouTube.

text: All original official sources cite five different scenarios including a giant volcanic explosion, but the volcanic explosion segment has never been aired in the United States. It has been edited out by the National Geographic Channel for time problems and all references to it on the National Geographic website have been removed. Only the other four scenarios have been aired. However, the BBC website had the super volcano episode until it was removed sometime after 28 May. 2006.

text: UKTV History

text: aired the version including the supervolcano segment on 23 January 2007. However, in the original BBC airing each of the scenarios showed the attempts of a family or person to escape the depicted disaster as well as following Dr. Howell, these segments were mostly cut from the UKTV History version aired in 2007. The volcano sequence can however be found on the popular video website

text: YouTube

text: Primary dentition starts on the arrival of the mandibular central incisors, usually at eight months, and lasts until the first permanent molars appear in the mouth, usually at six years. The primary teeth typically erupt in the following order: (1) central incisor, (2) lateral incisor, (3) first molar, (4) canine, and (5) second molar. As a general rule, four teeth erupt for every six months of life, mandibular teeth erupt before maxillary teeth, and teeth erupt sooner in females than males. During primary dentition, the tooth buds of permanent teeth develop below the primary teeth, close to the palate or tongue.

text: Primary dentition starts on the arrival of the

text: mandibular central incisor

text: s, usually at eight months, and lasts until the first permanent molars appear in the mouth, usually at six years. The primary teeth typically erupt in the following order: (1) central

text: incisor

text: , (2) lateral incisor, (3) first

text: molar

text: , (4)

text: canine

text: , and (5) second molar. As a general rule, four teeth erupt for every six months of life, mandibular teeth erupt before maxillary teeth, and teeth erupt sooner in females than males. During primary dentition, the tooth buds of permanent teeth develop below the primary teeth, close to the palate or tongue.

text: Tweed Volcano is a partially eroded Early Miocene shield volcano located in northeastern New South Wales, which formed when this region of Australia passed over the East Australia hotspot around 23 million years ago. Mount Warning, Lamington Plateau and the Border Ranges between New South Wales and Queensland are among the remnants of this volcano that was originally over  in diameter and nearly twice the height of Mount Warning today, at . Despite its size, Tweed Volcano was not a supervolcano; other shield volcanoes - such as on Hawaii - are much larger. In the 23 million years since the volcano was active, erosion has been extensive, forming a large erosion caldera around the volcanic plug of Mount Warning. Its erosion caldera is the largest in the Southern Hemisphere.

text: Tweed Volcano is a partially eroded

text: Early Miocene

text: shield volcano

text: located in northeastern

text: New South Wales

text: , which formed when this region of

text: Australia

text: passed over the

text: East Australia hotspot

text: around 23 million years ago.

text: Mount Warning

text: Lamington Plateau

text: and the Border Ranges between New South Wales and Queensland are among the remnants of this volcano that was originally over  in

text: diameter

text: and nearly twice the height of Mount Warning today, at . Despite its size, Tweed Volcano was not a

text: supervolcano

text: ; other shield volcanoes - such as on Hawaii - are much larger. In the 23 million years since the volcano was active, erosion has been extensive, forming a large

text: erosion

text: caldera

text: around the

text: volcanic plug

text: of Mount Warning. Its erosion

text: caldera

text: is the largest in the

text: Southern Hemisphere

text: The conditions Haloferax Volcanii survives in, high salinity and high radiation, are very similar to the conditions found on Mars' surface. Consequently, the organism is currently being used to test the survivability of earth native extremophiles on Mars. Advances in this field could lead to a greater understanding of the possibility and time line of extraterrestrial life.

text: A snowball Earth has profound implications in the history of life on Earth. While many refugia have been postulated, global ice cover would certainly have ravaged ecosystems dependent on sunlight. Geochemical evidence from rocks associated with low-latitude glacial deposits have been interpreted to show a crash in oceanic life during the glacials.

text: A snowball Earth has profound implications in the history of

text: life

text: on Earth. While many

text: refugia

text: have been postulated, global ice cover would certainly have ravaged

text: ecosystem

text: s dependent on sunlight. Geochemical evidence from rocks associated with low-latitude glacial deposits have been interpreted to show a crash in oceanic life during the glacials.

text: A part of the Basin and Range Province, the volcano's most recent eruptive activity dates to approximately 15 million years ago (the Miocene), forming during a period of active volcanism including eruptions of ignimbrite and ash. It formed around the same time as Three Fingers, Castle Peak, and three other volcanoes. Today the volcano appears gnarled due to erosion and is topped by pine forests. The caldera is narrow and shaped like a ridge, with precipitous slopes and an escarpment on the northwest flank. It consists of rhyolite tuff and sedimentary layers.

text: A part of the

text: Basin and Range Province

text: , the volcano's most recent eruptive activity dates to approximately 15 million years ago (the

text: Miocene

text: ), forming during a period of active volcanism including eruptions of

text: ignimbrite

text: and

text: ash

text: . It formed around the same time as

text: Three Fingers

text: Castle Peak

text: , and three other volcanoes. Today the volcano appears gnarled due to

text: erosion

text: and is topped by

text: pine

text: forests. The caldera is narrow and shaped like a ridge, with precipitous slopes and an

text: escarpment

text: on the northwest flank. It consists of

text: rhyolite

text: tuff

text: and

text: sedimentary

text: layers.

text: The Fate of the Earth is a 1982 book by Jonathan Schell. This "seminal" description of the consequences of nuclear war "forces even the most reluctant person to confront the unthinkable: the destruction of humanity and possibly most life on Earth".  The book is regarded as a key document in the nuclear disarmament movement.

text: The Fate of the Earth is a 1982 book by

text: Jonathan Schell

text: . This "seminal" description of the consequences of

text: nuclear war

text: "forces even the most reluctant person to confront the unthinkable: the destruction of

text: humanity

text: and possibly most

text: life

text: on

text: Earth

text: ".  The book is regarded as a key document in the

text: nuclear disarmament

text: movement.

text: The caldera itself, like the eruption of Fish Canyon Tuff, is quite large in scale. It is  and oblong in shape. Most supervolcano calderas of explosive origin are slightly ovoid or oblong in shape. Because of the vast scale and erosion, it took scientists over 30 years to fully determine the size of the caldera. La Garita is considered an extinct volcano.

text: The caldera itself, like the eruption of Fish Canyon Tuff, is quite large in scale. It is  and oblong in shape. Most

text: supervolcano

text: calderas of explosive origin are slightly ovoid or oblong in shape. Because of the vast scale and erosion, it took scientists over 30 years to fully determine the size of the caldera. La Garita is considered an

text: extinct

text: volcano.

text: The eruption took place at a new vent in the northeast part of the caldera, creating a roughly 800 ft high cone, dramatically altering caldera hydrology, and discharging huge lahars, or volcanic mudflows, running from the caldera to the coast. In contrast, all 20th-century eruptions have been from a cone near the southern rim of the caldera. The 2008 eruption was by far the largest eruption at Okmok since at least the early 13th century.

text: Glaciogenic reservoirs are sedimentary rocks deposited under an ice sheet influence and that are involved into a gas or oil reservoir. The glacial earth system is complex to study. A large amount on past and ongoing scientific programs work(ed) on our cryosphere and generate a lot of debate about its dynamic, sustainability and behavior against climate changes. Past glaciations or ice ages  record occurred several times (Timeline of glaciation) along the geological time scale. As they are hundreds of million years old, these ancient glaciations are even more hard to analyse and study. Earth at that time had a different atmosphere composition, the chemistry of the oceans was also different, life evolution on earth had also a great impact on the dynamic of these ice sheets, the continents were in a particular setting, etc. Geologists have a broad idea of all those parameters but glaciologists know that this is the combination of those setting that bring to our current ice-age.A glacial system is able to produce a very large amount of sediment due to the tremendous erosive forces of ice at its base. Those sediments are particularly coarse-grained (principally sandstones and conglomerates) and produced in consequent volumes . For their good reservoir properties, ancient glacially-related sediments have been targeted by oil industries. They are currently massively exploited in North Africa, in the Arabic peninsula, South Africa, and few small fields are present in Asia, Australia and Northern Europe. The main ice ages concerned are the Late Ordovician glaciation (Hirnantian) and the Permo-Carboniferous glaciations.

text: Glaciogenic reservoirs are sedimentary rocks deposited under an ice sheet influence and that are involved into a gas or

text: oil reservoir

text: . The glacial earth system is complex to study. A large amount on past and ongoing scientific programs work(ed) on our

text: cryosphere

text: and generate a lot of debate about its dynamic, sustainability and behavior against

text: climate change

text: s. Past glaciations or ice ages  record occurred several times (

text: Timeline of glaciation

text: ) along the

text: geological time scale

text: Hirnantian

text: ) and the

text: Permo-Carboniferous

text: glaciations.

text: It is also the highest mountain on the Korean Peninsula and in Northeast China. Formed by a huge volcanic eruption, a large crater lake, called Heaven Lake is in the caldera atop the mountain. The 940-1000 AD eruption of Baektu Mountain has been dubbed the "Millennium eruption" or the "Tianchi eruption", and erupted about  of tephra. This eruption was about a  Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 7. This was one of the largest and most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years (alongside the Hatepe eruption of Lake Taupo at around 180 AD and the 1815 eruption of Tambora).

text: It is also the highest mountain on the

text: Korean Peninsula

text: and in

text: Northeast China

text: . Formed by a huge

text: volcanic eruption

text: , a large

text: crater lake

text: , called

text: Heaven Lake

text: is in the

text: caldera

text: atop the mountain. The 940-1000 AD eruption of Baektu Mountain has been dubbed the

text: "Millennium eruption" or the "Tianchi eruption"

text: , and erupted about  of tephra. This eruption was about a

text: Volcanic explosivity index

text: (VEI) of 7. This was one of the largest and most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years (alongside the

text: Hatepe eruption

text: of

text: Lake Taupo

text: at around 180 AD and the 1815 eruption of

text: Tambora

text: The most powerful eruptions of Nemrut occurred in the Pleistocene. Many small eruptions occurred during the Holocene, the last one in 1692. The top of the volcano is a large caldera that hosts three crater lakes.

text: The most powerful eruptions of Nemrut occurred in the

text: Pleistocene

text: . Many small eruptions occurred during the

text: Holocene

text: , the last one in 1692. The top of the volcano is a large

text: caldera

text: that hosts three

text: crater lake

text: s.

text: The changes in the distribution of masses inside the Earth due to the earthquake had several consequences. It displaced the North Pole by 2.5 cm. It also changed slightly the shape of the Earth, more specifically it decreased Earth's oblateness by about one part in 10 billion, consequentially increasing Earth's rotation a little and thus shortening the length of the day by 2.68 microseconds.

text: The changes in the distribution of masses inside the Earth due to the earthquake had several consequences. It

text: displaced the North Pole

text: by 2.5

text: cm

text: . It also changed slightly the shape of the Earth, more specifically it decreased Earth's oblateness by about one part in 10 billion, consequentially increasing

text: Earth's rotation

text: a little and thus shortening the length of the day by 2.68 microseconds.

text: The Year’s research themes are: Groundwater: reservoir for a thirsty planet?; Hazards: minimizing risk, maximizing awareness; Earth and Health: building a safer environment; Climate change: the ‘stone tape’; Resource Issues: towards sustainable use; Megacities: going deeper, building safer; Deep Earth: from crust to core; Ocean: abyss of time; Soil: Earth’s living skin; Earth and Life: origins of diversity. Each is described within an accessibly-written prospectus available on the Web site. In addition, Planet Earth in our Hands, states the rationale for the Year, and Outreach: bringing Earth sciences to everyone, describes how the Outreach programme will work.  All these can be downloaded from www.yearofplanetearth.org

text: The Year’s research themes are:

text: Groundwater

text: : reservoir for a thirsty planet?;

text: Hazard

text: s: minimizing risk, maximizing awareness; Earth and

text: Health

text: : building a safer environment;

text: Climate change

text: : the ‘stone tape’;

text: Resource

text: Issues: towards sustainable use;

text: Megacities

text: : going deeper, building safer; Deep

text: Earth

text: : from

text: crust

text: to

text: core

text: Ocean

text: : abyss of time;

text: Soil

text: : Earth’s living skin; Earth and

text: Life

text: : origins of diversity. Each is described within an accessibly-written prospectus available on the Web site. In addition, Planet Earth in our Hands, states the rationale for the Year, and Outreach: bringing

text: Earth sciences

text: to everyone, describes how the Outreach programme will work.  All these can be downloaded from www.yearofplanetearth.org

text: Yellowstone National Park has one of the world's largest petrified forests, trees which were long ago buried by ash and soil and transformed from wood to mineral materials. This ash and other volcanic debris are believed to have come from the park area itself. This is largely because Yellowstone is actually a massive caldera of a supervolcano. There are 290 waterfalls of at least  in the park, the highest being the Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River at .

text: Yellowstone National Park has one of the world's largest

text: petrified forests

text: , trees which were long ago buried by ash and soil and transformed from wood to mineral materials. This ash and other volcanic debris are believed to have come from the park area itself. This is largely because Yellowstone is actually a massive caldera of a supervolcano. There are 290

text: waterfall

text: s of at least  in the park, the highest being the

text: Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River

text: at .

text: Analysis of the enamel micro-structure of Anapithecus shows that its dental development was similar in rate to that of Old World monkeys (particularly macaques). The first lower molar erupts at 1.45 months, then the second and third molars erupt at 2.2 and 3.2 years. This eruption time is faster than any living catarrhine primate of similar size.

text: Island Park and Yellowstone Calderas formed as the result of enormous rhyolite ignimbrite eruptions, with single eruptions producing up to  of ash. Henry's Fork Caldera, measuring  by , may be the largest symmetrical caldera in the world. The caldera formed when a dome of magma built up and then drained away. The center of the dome collapsed, leaving a caldera. Henry's Fork Caldera lies within the older and bigger Island Park Caldera, which is  by . Younger volcanoes that erupted after passing over the hotspot covered the plain with young basalt lava flows in places, including Craters of the Moon National Monument.

text: Island Park

text: and

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: s formed as the result of enormous rhyolite ignimbrite eruptions, with single eruptions producing up to  of ash.

text: Henry's Fork Caldera

text: , measuring  by , may be the largest symmetrical

text: caldera

text: in the world. The caldera formed when a dome of magma built up and then drained away. The center of the dome collapsed, leaving a caldera. Henry's Fork Caldera lies within the older and bigger

text: Island Park Caldera

text: , which is  by . Younger volcanoes that erupted after passing over the hotspot covered the plain with young basalt lava flows in places, including

entity_name: Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve

text: Craters of the Moon National Monument

text: A superhabitable planet is a hypothetical type of exoplanet or exomoon that may be better suited than Earth for the emergence and evolution of  life. The concept was introduced in 2014 by René Heller and John Armstrong, who have criticized the language used in the search for habitable planets, so they propose clarifications because a circumstellar habitable zone (HZ) is not enough to define a planet's habitability. Heller and  Armstrong state that it is not clear why Earth should offer the most suitable physicochemical parameters to living organisms, because "planets could be non-Earth-like, yet offer more suitable conditions for the emergence and evolution of life than Earth did or does."  While still assuming that life requires water, they hypothesize that Earth may not represent the optimal planetary habitability conditions for maximum biodiversity; in other words, they define a superhabitable world as a terrestrial planet or moon that could support more diverse flora and fauna than there are on Earth, as it would empirically show that its environment is more hospitable to life.

text: A superhabitable planet is a hypothetical type of

text: exoplanet

text: or

text: exomoon

text: that may be better suited than

text: Earth

text: for the

text: emergence

text: and

text: evolution

text: of

text: life

text: . The concept was introduced in 2014 by René Heller and John Armstrong, who have criticized the language used in the search for

text: habitable planets

text: , so they propose clarifications because a

text: circumstellar habitable zone

text: (HZ) is not enough to define a planet's habitability. Heller and  Armstrong state that it is not clear why Earth should offer the most suitable physicochemical parameters to living organisms, because "planets could be non-Earth-like, yet offer more suitable conditions for the emergence and evolution of life than Earth did or does."  While still assuming that life requires water, they hypothesize that Earth may not represent the optimal

text: planetary habitability

text: conditions for maximum

text: biodiversity

text: ; in other words, they define a superhabitable world as a

text: terrestrial planet

text: or moon that could support more diverse

text: flora

text: and

text: fauna

text: than there are on Earth, as it would empirically show that its

text: environment

text: is more hospitable to life.

text: Although no human fossils have been found at Jebel Faya, Armitage and others have argued that the Assemblage C artifacts, dated to 125,000 years BP, were produced by anatomically modern humans (AMH). This is because Assemblage C resembles contemporary east and northeast African technology more than the technology found at sites elsewhere on the Arabian peninsula. As a result, the evidence at Jebel Faya has been used to support the idea of an early dispersal of AMH from the Horn of Africa across southern Arabia and into southern Asia. According to this theory, modern humans dispersed out of Africa before the eruption of the Toba supervolcano 70-75,000 years BP. This claim is based on excavations at Jwalapuram in India by Petraglia et. al., who argue that assemblages found in pre- and post-Toba eruption layers indicate the continuous presence of AMH. For Petraglia and his colleagues, the presence of AMH at Jebel Faya 125,000 years ago could be evidence of an early dispersal route out of Africa, which humans could have followed to south Asia. However, there is strong opposition to this notion, as critics have argued that the Assemblage C evidence is not enough to confirm the presence of AMH from Africa. According to Paul Mellars, who believes that significant modern human dispersals did not occur until after the Toba eruption, “There's not a scrap of evidence here that these were made by modern humans, nor that they came from Africa.”

text: Although no human fossils have been found at Jebel Faya, Armitage and others have argued that the Assemblage C artifacts, dated to 125,000 years BP, were produced by anatomically modern humans (AMH). This is because Assemblage C resembles contemporary east and northeast African technology more than the technology found at sites elsewhere on the Arabian peninsula. As a result, the evidence at Jebel Faya has been used to support the idea of an early dispersal of AMH from the Horn of Africa across southern Arabia and into southern Asia. According to this theory, modern humans dispersed out of Africa before the eruption of the Toba

text: supervolcano

text: 70-75,000 years BP. This claim is based on excavations at

text: Jwalapuram

text: in India by Petraglia et. al., who argue that assemblages found in pre- and post-Toba eruption layers indicate the continuous presence of AMH. For Petraglia and his colleagues, the presence of AMH at Jebel Faya 125,000 years ago could be evidence of an early dispersal route out of Africa, which humans could have followed to south Asia. However, there is strong opposition to this notion, as critics have argued that the Assemblage C evidence is not enough to confirm the presence of AMH from Africa. According to Paul Mellars, who believes that significant modern human dispersals did not occur until after the Toba eruption, “There's not a scrap of evidence here that these were made by modern humans, nor that they came from Africa.”

text: All in all, a GRB within a few parsecs, with its energy directed towards Earth, will mostly damage life by raising the UV levels; during the burst itself and for a few years thereafter. Models shows that the destructive effects of this increase can cause up to 16 times the normal levels of DNA damage. It has proved difficult to assess a reliable evaluation of the consequences of this on the terrestrial ecosystem, because of the uncertainty in biological field and laboratory data.

text: The caldera clearly visible today is the later Henry's Fork Caldera, which is the source of the Mesa Falls Tuff.  It was formed in an eruption of more than  1.3 Ma. The two nested calderas share the same rim on their western sides, but the older Island Park Caldera is much larger and more oval and extends well into Yellowstone Park.  The Island Park Caldera is sometimes referred to as the First Phase Yellowstone Caldera or the Huckleberry Ridge Caldera.

text: The caldera clearly visible today is the later Henry's Fork Caldera, which is the source of the

text: Mesa Falls Tuff

text: .  It was formed in an

text: eruption

text: of more than  1.3 Ma. The two nested calderas share the same rim on their western sides, but the older Island Park Caldera is much larger and more oval and extends well into Yellowstone Park.  The Island Park Caldera is sometimes referred to as the

text: First Phase Yellowstone Caldera

text: or the Huckleberry Ridge Caldera.

text: This form of early, interceptive orthodontic treatment can be started on certain types of tooth problems before all teeth have erupted. Pre-eruption guidance treatment is usually begun after the four permanent upper and lower front teeth have erupted (approximately age seven). The goal of this treatment for a child of that age is to normalize and naturalize the dentition and then to allow the daily use of durable orthodontic retainers and the patient’s natural muscle development to guide future erupting teeth into an optimal position in the mouth over time.

text: Arriving on Earth-12, a universe resembling the Batman Beyond television series, another Monitor who has named himself Nix Uotan arrives, and informs Bob that all the Monitors have taken on names for themselves, such as the Monitor of Earth-8, who now calls himself Solomon. By stating that Ray Palmer lives "a life of no consequence", he unintentionally reveals the location of Ray Palmer and Bob reasons that the only way Nix Uotan could know what Ray is doing is if he was on his Earth. The group then arrive on Earth-51, a near-perfect world where super-crime has long been eradicated. They locate Ray, living the life of his deceased counterpart. Bob reveals himself to have been working for Solomon's cause and tells Ray that he must be exterminated. The Challengers attempt to stop Bob, who succeeds in killing the alternate versions of Barry Allen, Ralph Dibny and Jean Loring, but Ray and the Challengers escape. After Monarch descends upon Earth-51, with his Crime Society and Extremists recruits, Kyle and Ray are then confronted by Power Ring and alternate versions of Booster Gold and Supergirl, whilst elsewhere Donna faces an alternate version of herself as Jason fights with Gorgon of Earth-8.

text: Arriving on

text: , a universe resembling the

text: Batman Beyond

text: television series, another Monitor who has named himself Nix Uotan arrives, and informs Bob that all the Monitors have taken on names for themselves, such as the Monitor of Earth-8, who now calls himself Solomon. By stating that Ray Palmer lives "a life of no consequence", he unintentionally reveals the location of Ray Palmer and Bob reasons that the only way Nix Uotan could know what Ray is doing is if he was on his Earth. The group then arrive on

text: , a near-perfect world where super-crime has long been eradicated. They locate Ray, living the life of his deceased counterpart. Bob reveals himself to have been working for Solomon's cause and tells Ray that he must be exterminated. The Challengers attempt to stop Bob, who succeeds in killing the alternate versions of

text: Barry Allen

text: Ralph Dibny

text: and Jean Loring, but Ray and the Challengers escape. After Monarch descends upon Earth-51, with his Crime Society and Extremists recruits, Kyle and Ray are then confronted by Power Ring and alternate versions of Booster Gold and Supergirl, whilst elsewhere Donna faces an alternate version of herself as Jason fights with Gorgon of Earth-8.

text: Incapillo is located in Argentina's La Rioja province. The name "Incapillo" means "Crown of the Inca" in Quechua and is the highest caldera stemming from explosive activity in the world. It is also known as Bonete caldera.

text: Incapillo is located in Argentina's La Rioja province. The name "Incapillo" means "Crown of the Inca" in

text: Quechua

text: and is the highest

text: caldera

text: stemming from explosive activity in the world. It is also known as Bonete caldera.

text: Although not supporting an entire lack of distinction like the subclass/category view of Quine, as a pragmatic issue, the use/mention distinction still does not provide a sharp division between the issues of forming and conceptualizing a framework and deciding whether to adopt it: each informs the other. An example is the well-known tension between mathematicians and physicists, the one group very concerned over questions of logic and rigor, and the other inclined to sacrifice a bit of rigor to explain observations.One approach to selecting a framework is based upon an examination of the conceptual relations between entities in a framework, which entities are more 'fundamental'. One framework may then 'include' another because the entities in one framework apparently can be derived from or 'supervene' upon those in the more fundamental one.  While Carnap claims such decisions are pragmatic in nature, external questions with no philosophical importance, Schaffer suggests we avoid this formulation. Instead, we should go back to Aristotle and look upon nature as hierarchical, and pursue philosophical diagnostics: that is, examination of criteria for what is fundamental and what relations exist between all entities and these fundamental ones. But "how can we discover what grounds what?...questions regarding not only what grounds what, but also what the grounding consists in, and how one may discover or discern grounding facts, seem to be part of an emerging set of relational research problems in metaphysics."

text: Although not supporting an entire lack of distinction like the subclass/category view of Quine, as a pragmatic issue, the use/mention distinction still does not provide a sharp division between the issues of forming and conceptualizing a framework and deciding whether to adopt it: each informs the other. An example is the well-known tension between mathematicians and physicists, the one group very concerned over questions of logic and rigor, and the other inclined to sacrifice a bit of rigor to explain observations.One approach to selecting a framework is based upon an examination of the conceptual relations between entities in a framework, which entities are more 'fundamental'. One framework may then 'include' another because the entities in one framework apparently can be derived from or

text: 'supervene'

text: upon those in the more fundamental one.  While Carnap claims such decisions are pragmatic in nature, external questions with no philosophical importance, Schaffer suggests we avoid this formulation. Instead, we should go back to Aristotle and look upon nature as hierarchical, and pursue philosophical diagnostics: that is, examination of criteria for what is fundamental and what relations exist between all entities and these fundamental ones. But "how can we discover what grounds what?...questions regarding not only what grounds what, but also what the grounding consists in, and how one may discover or discern grounding facts, seem to be part of an emerging set of relational research problems in metaphysics."

text: It explains how scientists are trying to predict when the next supereruption of the Yellowstone supervolcano will occur and what its effects may be.

text: It explains how scientists are trying to predict when the next

text: supereruption

text: of the Yellowstone

text: supervolcano

text: will occur and what its effects may be.

text: Lord Worplesdon was first mentioned in the short story "Jeeves Takes Charge", in which it was said that he sat down to breakfast one morning, cried "Eggs! Eggs! Damn all eggs!", and ran out of his house, "never again to return to the bosom of his family" – this incident was never again referred to, however, and has since been considered as a minor continuity error. When angered, Worplesdon has a tendency to start shouting "What? What? What? What?" repeatedly until someone interrupts him.

text: Lord Worplesdon was first mentioned in the short story "

text: Jeeves Takes Charge

text: ", in which it was said that he sat down to breakfast one morning, cried "Eggs! Eggs! Damn all eggs!", and ran out of his house, "never again to return to the bosom of his family" – this incident was never again referred to, however, and has since been considered as a minor

text: continuity

text: error. When angered, Worplesdon has a tendency to start shouting "What? What? What? What?" repeatedly until someone interrupts him.

text: Primary dentition stage starts on the arrival of the mandibular central incisors, typically from around six months, and lasts until the first permanent molars appear in the mouth, usually at six years. There are 10 primary teeth and they typically erupt in the following order: (1) central incisor, (2) lateral incisor, (3) first molar, (4) canine, and (5) second molar. As a general rule, four teeth erupt for every six months of life, mandibular teeth erupt before maxillary teeth, and teeth erupt sooner in females than males. During primary dentition, the tooth buds of permanent teeth develop inferior to the primary teeth, close to the palate or tongue.

text: Primary dentition stage starts on the arrival of the

text: mandibular central incisor

text: s, typically from around six months, and lasts until the first permanent molars appear in the mouth, usually at six years. There are 10 primary teeth and they typically erupt in the following order: (1) central

text: incisor

text: , (2) lateral incisor, (3) first molar, (4)

text: canine

text: , and (5) second molar. As a general rule, four teeth erupt for every six months of life, mandibular teeth erupt before maxillary teeth, and teeth erupt sooner in females than males. During primary dentition, the tooth buds of permanent teeth develop inferior to the primary teeth, close to the palate or tongue.

text: Uranium-238 is the most stable isotope of uranium, with a half-life of about 4.468 years, roughly the age of the Earth. Uranium-235 has a half-life of about 7.13 years, and uranium-234 has a half-life of about 2.48 years.For natural uranium, about 49% of its alpha rays are emitted by each of U atom, and also 49% by U (since the latter is formed from the former) and about 2.0% of them by the U. When the Earth was young, probably about one-fifth of its uranium was uranium-235, but the percentage of U was probably much lower than this.

text: Uranium-238 is the most stable isotope of uranium, with a

text: half-life

text: of about 4.468 years, roughly the

text: age of the Earth

text: . Uranium-235 has a half-life of about 7.13 years, and uranium-234 has a half-life of about 2.48 years.For natural uranium, about 49% of its alpha rays are emitted by each of U atom, and also 49% by U (since the latter is formed from the former) and about 2.0% of them by the U. When the Earth was young, probably about one-fifth of its uranium was uranium-235, but the percentage of U was probably much lower than this.

text: Under the direction of Roger Gross as General Manager of Caldera's Digital Research Systems Group (DSG) the UK-based development center Caldera UK Ltd. () was incorporated on 20 September 1996 to continue the development of the DR-DOS operating system in a converted barn () at the periphery of Andover, Hampshire, UK. Caldera UK developed various DOS-based products including OpenDOS 7.01, DR-DOS 7.02, DR-DOS 7.03 and DR-WebSpyder. Caldera Thin Clients, Inc. closed the Caldera UK Ltd. development office in February 1999 soon after the release of DR-DOS 7.03, thereby effectively stopping any DOS development.

text: Under the direction of Roger Gross as General Manager of Caldera's Digital Research Systems Group (DSG) the UK-based development center

text: Caldera UK

text: Ltd. () was incorporated on 20 September 1996 to continue the development of the

text: DR-DOS

text: operating system in a converted barn () at the periphery of

text: Andover

text: , Hampshire, UK. Caldera UK developed various DOS-based products including

text: OpenDOS

text: 7.01, DR-DOS 7.02, DR-DOS 7.03 and

text: DR-WebSpyder

text: . Caldera Thin Clients, Inc. closed the Caldera UK Ltd. development office in February 1999 soon after the release of DR-DOS 7.03, thereby effectively stopping any DOS development.

text: However, comparisons with supervolcanoes are more misleading than helpful due to the different aerosols released, the likely air burst fuzing height of nuclear weapons and the globally scattered location of these potential nuclear detonations all being in contrast to the singular and subterranean nature of a supervolcanic eruption. Moreover, assuming the entire world stockpile of weapons were grouped together, it would be difficult, due to the nuclear fratricide effect, to ensure the individual weapons would go off all at once. Nonetheless, many people believe that a full-scale nuclear war would result, through the nuclear winter effect, in the extinction of the human species, though not all analysts agree on the assumptions that underpin these nuclear winter models.

text: However, comparisons with

text: supervolcanoes

text: are more misleading than helpful due to the different

text: aerosol

text: s released, the likely

text: air burst

text: fuzing height of nuclear weapons and the globally scattered location of these potential nuclear detonations all being in contrast to the singular and subterranean nature of a supervolcanic eruption. Moreover, assuming the entire world stockpile of weapons were grouped together, it would be difficult, due to the

text: nuclear fratricide

text: effect, to ensure the individual weapons would go off all at once. Nonetheless, many people believe that a full-scale nuclear war would result, through the nuclear winter effect, in the

text: extinction of the human species

text: , though not all analysts agree on the assumptions that underpin these nuclear winter models.

text: A fact is given by its (true) value. Ignorance means that the true value is unknown. Actually, only very rarely the true values of considered attributes are known. In general they are unknown. What is known are values which are not the true value. By the knowledge about "what is not" it is practically always possible to specify a set of values which cover the true but unknown one. This set reflects the knowledge about "what is no" or the ignorance about "what is". The larger the set is, the larger is the ignorance. In the rare case that the true value is known, the corresponding set is given by a singleton.

text: Planetary habitability is the measure of a planet's or a natural satellite's potential to have habitable environments hospitable to life.   Habitable environments do not need to contain life. Life may develop directly on a planet or satellite or be transferred to it from another body, a hypothetical process known as panspermia. As the existence of life beyond Earth is unknown, planetary habitability is largely an extrapolation of conditions on Earth and the characteristics of the Sun and Solar System which appear favorable to life's flourishing—in particular those factors that have sustained complex, multicellular organisms and not just simpler, unicellular creatures. Research and theory in this regard is a component of planetary science and the emerging discipline of astrobiology.

text: Planetary habitability is the measure of a

text: planet

text: 's or a

text: natural satellite

text: 's potential to have habitable environments hospitable to

text: life

text: .   Habitable environments do not need to contain life. Life may

text: develop directly

text: on a planet or satellite or be transferred to it from another body, a hypothetical process known as

text: panspermia

text: . As the existence of

text: life beyond Earth

text: is unknown, planetary habitability is largely an

text: extrapolation

text: of conditions on Earth and the characteristics of the

text: Sun

text: and

text: Solar System

text: which appear favorable to life's flourishing—in particular those factors that have sustained complex,

text: multicellular

text: organisms and not just simpler,

text: unicellular

text: creatures. Research and theory in this regard is a component of

text: planetary science

text: and the emerging discipline of

text: astrobiology

text: Car Seat Headrest and Matador Records had believed that they had secured the proper approval from The Cars' publisher to include the interpolation of "Just What I Needed" in "Just What I Needed/Not Just What I Needed" and had moved forward with pressing copies of Teens of Denial with the song. However, on May 10, 2016, Cars singer and songwriter Ric Ocasek denied permission to use elements of "Just What I Needed" after discovering that Toledo had changed a single line from the original lyrics.

text: Car Seat Headrest and Matador Records had believed that they had secured the proper approval from The Cars' publisher to include the interpolation of "Just What I Needed" in "Just What I Needed/Not Just What I Needed" and had moved forward with pressing copies of Teens of Denial with the song. However, on May 10, 2016, Cars singer and songwriter

text: Ric Ocasek

text: denied permission to use elements of "Just What I Needed" after discovering that Toledo had changed a single line from the original lyrics.

text: On Einstein's 100th Birthday, 1979, he managed to secure a summer house by Einstein in Caputh, Brandenburg as a guest of the Academy in consultation with the administrators of the estate of Otto Nathan and Einstein. In 1982 he handed over the ZIAP to his successor, Karl-Heinz Schmidt. Treder was director and founder of the Laboratory of Einstein Academy in Potsdam Caputh he remained until 1992. He has published in the last years of his life with his friend, the geophysicist Wilfried Schröder, many works in the Earth and space physics, including solar variability. In addition, the edition of the book Einstein and geophysics, as well as some volumes of the works of Hans Ertel. Focus of their work was the solar minima (Sporer, Maunder and Dalton minima) and the physical consequences for the solar activity. Treder was chairman of the International Society "History of Geophysics and Cosmical Physics".

text: On

text: Einstein

text: 's 100th Birthday, 1979, he managed to secure a summer house by Einstein in

text: Caputh, Brandenburg

text: as a guest of the Academy in consultation with the administrators of the estate of

text: Otto Nathan

text: and Einstein. In 1982 he handed over the ZIAP to his successor,

text: Karl-Heinz Schmidt

text: . Treder was director and founder of the Laboratory of Einstein Academy in Potsdam Caputh he remained until 1992. He has published in the last years of his life with his friend, the geophysicist

text: Wilfried Schröder

text: , many works in the Earth and space physics, including solar variability. In addition, the edition of the book Einstein and geophysics, as well as some volumes of the works of Hans Ertel. Focus of their work was the solar minima (Sporer, Maunder and Dalton minima) and the physical consequences for the solar activity. Treder was chairman of the International Society "History of Geophysics and Cosmical Physics".

text: The Ashfall deposit preserves the fossilized remains of ancient animals that perished in a dense volcanic ash fall which occurred during the late Miocene, approximately 12 million years ago; the animals had come to a waterhole seeking relief.  The fall of ash drifted downwind from the Bruneau-Jarbidge supervolcano eruption (in present-day Idaho), nearly  west of the Ashfall site.  A large number of very well preserved fossil Teleoceras (extinct hippo-like relatives of rhinos), small three-toed and one-toed horses, camels, and birds have been excavated.  Many animals were preserved with their bones articulated; one rhino still bears her unborn fetus, while others retain the contents of their last meal.

text: The Ashfall deposit preserves the fossilized remains of ancient animals that perished in a dense volcanic ash fall which occurred during the late

text: Miocene

text: , approximately 12 million years ago; the animals had come to a waterhole seeking relief.  The fall of ash drifted downwind from the

text: Bruneau-Jarbidge supervolcano

text: eruption (in present-day

text: Idaho

text: ), nearly  west of the Ashfall site.  A large number of very well preserved fossil

text: Teleoceras

text: (extinct hippo-like relatives of

text: rhinos

text: ), small three-toed and one-toed

text: horse

text: s,

text: camel

text: s, and birds have been excavated.  Many animals were preserved with their bones articulated; one rhino still bears her unborn

text: fetus

text: , while others retain the contents of their last meal.

text: Justice Kennedy delivered the judgment and focused on three different aspects of the state’s actions to determine the constitutionality of the SATP. Firstly, the program must have a penological objective and it was found that the SATP did have an objective which included both rehabilitation and deterrence.  Second, any consequences faced by those who choose not to participate must relate to the ultimate goals of the program.  These consequences were brought forth by the non-privileged aspect of the program. It allows for the participant to realize that their actions have consequences. Lastly, the consequences presented must not cause compulsion and, “must, ‘not constitute atypical and significant hardships in relation to the ordinary incidents of prison life’”.  It was found that, “the penalties facing [the] respondent are the same as those imposed for prison disciplinary violations [which] does not make them coercive”.  It was also found that, “Lile was transferred from the prison that offered SATP simply to make room for other inmates who might participate in the SATP”, and it was not a consequence of his declination of participation.  Another contributing factor for why the consequences for Lile not participating in the SATP were not found as compulsory were because the prison sentence was not extended in any way and credit for good behavior or his chances or parole were not affected.

text: The oldest lava dated from the volcano are about 3.9 million years old. About 3.2 million years ago, the volcano's activity changed, the rate of eruption started to decrease and the composition of the lava erupted from the volcano changed. The volcano is thought to have last erupted about 2.5 million years ago.

text: The oldest

text: lava

text: dated from the volcano are about 3.9 million years old. About 3.2 million years ago, the volcano's activity changed, the rate of eruption started to decrease and the composition of the lava erupted from the volcano changed. The volcano is thought to have last erupted about 2.5 million years ago.

text: Earth-One (also Earth-1) is a name given to two fictional universes (The Pre-Crisis and Post-Crisis versions of the same universe) that have appeared in American comic book stories published by DC Comics. The first Earth-One was given its name in Justice League of America #21 (August 1963), after The Flash #123 (September 1961) explained how Golden Age (Earth-Two) versions of characters such as the Flash (Jay Garrick) could appear in stories with their Silver Age counterparts (Barry Allen). This Earth-One continuity included the DC Silver Age heroes, including the Justice League of America. Earth-One, along with the four other surviving Earths of the DC Multiverse, are merged into one in the 1985 miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths. This Earth's versions of characters were primarily the Earth-One versions (i.e. Superman, Batman), but some characters from the four other worlds were also "folded" in. In Infinite Crisis, Earth-One was resurrected and merged with the primary Earth of the publication era to create a New Earth that brought back more aspects of Earth-One's original history. In 2007, a new version of Earth-One was created in the aftermath of events that occurred within the  52 series.

text: Earth-One (also Earth-1) is a name given to two

text: fictional universe

text: s (The Pre-Crisis and Post-Crisis versions of the same universe) that have appeared in

text: American

text: comic book

text: stories published by

text: DC Comics

text: . The first Earth-One was given its name in Justice League of America #21 (August 1963), after The Flash #123 (September 1961) explained how

text: Golden Age

text: Earth-Two

text: ) versions of characters such as the

text: Flash

text: Jay Garrick

text: ) could appear in stories with their

text: Silver Age

text: counterparts (Barry Allen). This Earth-One continuity included the DC Silver Age heroes, including the

text: Justice League of America

text: . Earth-One, along with the four other surviving Earths of the

text: DC Multiverse

text: , are merged into one in the 1985 miniseries

text: Crisis on Infinite Earths

text: . This Earth's versions of characters were primarily the Earth-One versions (i.e.

text: Superman

text: Batman

text: ), but some characters from the four other worlds were also "folded" in. In

text: Infinite Crisis

text: , Earth-One was resurrected and merged with the primary Earth of the publication era to create a New Earth that brought back more aspects of Earth-One's original history. In 2007, a new version of Earth-One was created in the aftermath of events that occurred within the

text: series.

text: Although the plot seems simple, almost trivial, "what's important is what's going on underneath: what the characters don't say, to each other or to themselves; what they are thinking, what they feel; the long secret history of their uprooted, once Spanish, family. The intensity of those subterranean moments is part of what has kept the novel from dating. Even now it feels startlingly contemporary in its acceptance of multiple forms of sexuality, its sharp focus on the nature of identity and the costs of exile, and its grasp of what we now label "dysfunctional families."

text: Note:Caldera names tend to change over time. For example, Okataina Caldera, Haroharo Caldera, Haroharo volcanic complex, Tarawera volcanic complex had the same magma source in the Taupo Volcanic Zone.  Yellowstone Caldera, Henry's Fork Caldera, Island Park Caldera, Heise Volcanic Field had all Yellowstone hotspot as magma source.

text: The possibility of extraterrestrial life is not, by itself, a paranormal subject. Many scientists are actively engaged in the search for unicellular life within the solar system, carrying out studies on the surface of Mars and examining meteors that have fallen to Earth. Projects such as SETI are conducting an astronomical search for radio activity that would show evidence of intelligent life outside the solar system. Scientific theories of how life developed on Earth allow for the possibility that life developed on other planets as well. The paranormal aspect of extraterrestrial life centers largely around the belief in unidentified flying objects and the phenomena said to be associated with them.

text: The possibility of

text: extraterrestrial life

text: is not, by itself, a paranormal subject. Many scientists are actively engaged in the search for unicellular life within the

text: solar system

text: , carrying out studies on the surface of

text: Mars

text: and examining

text: meteors

text: that have fallen to

text: Earth

text: . Projects such as

entity_name: Search for extraterrestrial intelligence

text: SETI

text: are conducting an astronomical search for

text: radio

text: activity that would show evidence of intelligent life outside the solar system.

text: Scientific theories

text: of how life developed on Earth allow for the possibility that life developed on other

text: planets

text: as well. The paranormal aspect of

text: extraterrestrial life

text: centers largely around the belief in

text: unidentified flying objects

text: and the phenomena said to be associated with them.

text: The volcano erupted rather abruptly in 1902, spewing out ash from January 18 to June 21 in the year. A local newspaper stated, "Word has just been received that Redoubt, one of the volcanoes at Cook's Inlet had an eruption on January 18, and the country for  around was covered with ashes and lava. The news comes from Sunrise, but nothing definite has been ascertained as to whether any damage was done, for no boats have as yet been in the neighborhood of the volcano." There were many other news reports on the eruption, one describing the eruption as "a terrific earthquake which burst the mountain asunder leaving a large gap," which could possibly suggest the crack formation in the volcano's crater, however, it is unlikely. Supposedly, the volcano was ejecting "flames" from its caldera, and the eruption terrified natives in the area. Newspapers seemed to suggest that the ash had traveled for more than , reaching the opposite side of the Cook Inlet.

text: The volcano erupted rather abruptly in 1902, spewing out ash from January 18 to June 21 in the year. A local newspaper stated, "Word has just been received that Redoubt, one of the volcanoes at Cook's Inlet had an eruption on January 18, and the country for  around was covered with ashes and lava. The news comes from Sunrise, but nothing definite has been ascertained as to whether any damage was done, for no boats have as yet been in the neighborhood of the volcano." There were many other news reports on the eruption, one describing the eruption as "a terrific earthquake which burst the mountain asunder leaving a large gap," which could possibly suggest the crack formation in the volcano's crater, however, it is unlikely. Supposedly, the volcano was ejecting "flames" from its

text: caldera

text: , and the eruption terrified natives in the area. Newspapers seemed to suggest that the ash had traveled for more than , reaching the opposite side of the

text: Cook Inlet

text: In 1877, F. Jay made the acquaintance of Philetus Norris, then superintendent of Yellowstone National Park.  At the time, Norris encouraged F. Jay to visit the park with him and photograph its wonders. Because of his railroad work, F. Jay was unable to make the trip until 1881. By 1881, Northern Pacific Railroad tracks had reached Glendive, Montana. Even before visiting the park, F. Jay's knack for business prompted him in early 1881 to apply to the Secretary of the Interior for the position of Official Photographer of Yellowstone National Park. The Secretary was unable to confer that position, but did, with Norris's backing, grant F. Jay a lease for a small photographic studio within the park along that was not made official until 1884. In September, 1881, traveling overland from Glendive, and with explicit support from Charles Fee, F. Jay made his first visit to Yellowstone National Park.  In close to two months in the park, he was able to visit all the major attractions and take over 200 photographs.  F. Jay returned to Yellowstone every year after that first visit until his death in 1921.

text: In 1877, F. Jay made the acquaintance of

text: Philetus Norris

text: , then superintendent of Yellowstone National Park.  At the time, Norris encouraged F. Jay to visit the park with him and photograph its wonders. Because of his railroad work, F. Jay was unable to make the trip until 1881. By 1881, Northern Pacific Railroad tracks had reached

text: Glendive, Montana

text: . Even before visiting the park, F. Jay's knack for business prompted him in early 1881 to apply to the Secretary of the Interior for the position of Official Photographer of Yellowstone National Park. The Secretary was unable to confer that position, but did, with Norris's backing, grant F. Jay a lease for a small photographic studio within the park along that was not made official until 1884. In September, 1881, traveling overland from Glendive, and with explicit support from Charles Fee, F. Jay made his first visit to Yellowstone National Park.  In close to two months in the park, he was able to visit all the major attractions and take over 200 photographs.  F. Jay returned to Yellowstone every year after that first visit until his death in 1921.

text: Assemblies of solar cells are used to make solar modules which generate electrical power from sunlight, as distinguished from a "solar thermal module" or "solar hot water panel". A solar array generates solar power using solar energy.

text: Assemblies of solar cells are used to make

text: solar module

text: s which generate electrical power from

text: sunlight

text: , as distinguished from a "solar thermal module" or "solar hot water panel". A solar array generates

text: solar power

text: using

text: solar energy

text: Another method is to use the aberration of light, discovered and explained by James Bradley in the 18th century. This effect results from the vector addition of the velocity of light arriving from a distant source (such as a star) and the velocity of its observer (see diagram on the right). A moving observer thus sees the light coming from a slightly different direction and consequently sees the source at a position shifted from its original position. Since the direction of the Earth's velocity changes continuously as the Earth orbits the Sun, this effect causes the apparent position of stars to move around. From the angular difference in the position of stars (maximally 20.5 arcseconds) it is possible to express the speed of light in terms of the Earth's velocity around the Sun, which with the known length of a year can be converted to the time needed to travel from the Sun to the Earth. In 1729, Bradley used this method to derive that light travelled 10,210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit (the modern figure is 10,066 times faster) or, equivalently, that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth.

text: Another method is to use the

text: aberration of light

text: , discovered and explained by

text: James Bradley

text: in the 18th century. This effect results from the

text: vector addition

text: of the velocity of light arriving from a distant source (such as a star) and the velocity of its observer (see diagram on the right). A moving observer thus sees the light coming from a slightly different direction and consequently sees the source at a position shifted from its original position. Since the direction of the Earth's velocity changes continuously as the Earth orbits the Sun, this effect causes the apparent position of stars to move around. From the angular difference in the position of stars (maximally 20.5

text: arcsecond

text: s) it is possible to express the speed of light in terms of the Earth's velocity around the Sun, which with the known length of a year can be converted to the time needed to travel from the Sun to the Earth. In 1729, Bradley used this method to derive that light travelled 10,210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit (the modern figure is 10,066 times faster) or, equivalently, that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth.

text: "The Happy Man" posits a man who, due to having been raised from the dead by a government agency, must spend a portion of his conscious existence in Hell. During his periods of torment, his body remains on Earth, performing its daily routine but experiencing and remembering nothing. The story explores the consequences to the protagonist's family life, especially his relationship with his son, who attempts to model his father's experience of Hell as interactive fiction on a computer.

text: "The Happy Man" posits a man who, due to having been raised from the dead by a government agency, must spend a portion of his conscious existence in Hell. During his periods of torment, his body remains on Earth, performing its daily routine but experiencing and remembering nothing. The story explores the consequences to the protagonist's family life, especially his relationship with his son, who attempts to model his father's experience of Hell as

text: interactive fiction

text: on a computer.

text: During the thanksgiving Mass for the canonization of St. Josemaría, John Paul II, said: "In the Founder of Opus Dei, there is an extraordinary love for the will of God. There exists a sure criterion of holiness: fidelity in accomplishing the divine will down to the last consequences. For each one of us the Lord has a plan, to each he entrusts a mission on earth. The saint could not even conceive of himself outside of God's plan. He lived only to achieve it. St Josemaría was chosen by the Lord to announce the universal call to holiness and to point out that daily life and ordinary activities are a path to holiness. One could say that he was the saint of ordinary life."

text: During the thanksgiving Mass for the canonization of St. Josemaría,

text: John Paul II

text: , said: "In the Founder of Opus Dei, there is an extraordinary love for the will of God. There exists a sure criterion of holiness: fidelity in accomplishing the divine will down to the last consequences. For each one of us the Lord has a plan, to each he entrusts a mission on earth. The saint could not even conceive of himself outside of God's plan. He lived only to achieve it. St Josemaría was chosen by the Lord to announce the universal call to holiness and to point out that daily life and ordinary activities are a path to holiness. One could say that he was the saint of ordinary life."

text: Nonetheless, Earth remains the only place in the Universe known to harbour life, and fossil evidence from the Earth supplies most studies of abiogenesis. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years; the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, and possibly as early as the Eoarchean Era, after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of biogenic substances includes graphite and possibly stromatolites discovered in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks in southwestern Greenland, as well as "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to a scientist who commented on the study, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the universe."

text: Nonetheless, Earth remains the only place in the Universe known to harbour life, and fossil evidence from the Earth supplies most studies of abiogenesis. The

text: age of the Earth

text: is about 4.54 billion years; the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, and possibly as early as the

text: Eoarchean

text: Era, after a geological

text: crust

text: started to solidify following the earlier molten

text: Hadean

text: Eon

text: Microbial mat

text: fossil

text: s have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: in

text: Western Australia

text: . Other early physical evidence of

text: biogenic substance

text: s includes

text: graphite

text: and possibly

text: stromatolites

text: discovered in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: metasedimentary rocks

text: in southwestern

text: Greenland

text: , as well as "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to a scientist who commented on the study, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: Gary Lewis (born Gary Stevenson on 30 November 1957) is a Scottish actor. He's had parts in Billy Elliot, Gangs of New York, Eragon and Three and Out, as well as a major role in the television docudrama, Supervolcano.

text: Gary Lewis (born Gary Stevenson on 30 November 1957) is a Scottish actor. He's had parts in

text: Billy Elliot

text: Gangs of New York

text: Eragon

text: and

text: Three and Out

text: , as well as a major role in the television

text: docudrama

text: Supervolcano

text: The 57-year eruptive period that started in 1800 was named after the Goat Rocks dome, and is the first time that both oral and written records exist. Like the Kalama period, the Goat Rocks period started with an explosion of dacite tephra, followed by an andesite lava flow, and culminated with the emplacement of a dacite dome. The 1800 eruption probably rivalled the 1980 eruption in size, although it did not result in massive destruction of the cone. The ash drifted northeast over central and eastern Washington, northern Idaho, and western Montana. There were at least a dozen reported small eruptions of ash from 1831 to 1857, including a fairly large one in 1842. The vent was apparently at or near Goat Rocks on the northeast flank. Goat Rocks dome was the site of the bulge in the 1980 eruption, and it was obliterated in the major eruption event on May 18, 1980 that destroyed the entire north face and top  of the mountain.

text: The 57-year eruptive period that started in 1800 was named after the Goat Rocks dome, and is the first time that both oral and written records exist. Like the Kalama period, the Goat Rocks period started with an explosion of

text: dacite

text: tephra

text: , followed by an andesite lava flow, and culminated with the emplacement of a dacite dome. The 1800 eruption probably rivalled the 1980 eruption in size, although it did not result in massive destruction of the cone. The ash drifted northeast over central and eastern

text: Washington

text: , northern

text: Idaho

text: , and western

text: Montana

text: . There were at least a dozen reported small eruptions of ash from 1831 to 1857, including a fairly large one in 1842. The vent was apparently at or near Goat Rocks on the northeast flank. Goat Rocks dome was the site of the bulge in the 1980 eruption, and it was obliterated in the major eruption event on May 18, 1980 that destroyed the entire north face and top  of the mountain.

text: Large volcanoes serve as a backdrop to the city of Bend in Deschutes County, ranging from the prominent Three Sisters, Mt. Washington, Mt. Bachelor, Broken Top, Newberry, Tumalo Mountain, Maiden Peak and others. A group of geologists have discovered Smith Rock State Park is part of an ancient supervolcano called the Crooked River caldera with a rim nearly six times the diameter of Newberry Volcano's caldera. This ancient supervolcano has long gone extinct. Its crater rim is barely recognizable as remnants mark portions of Powell Buttes, Gray Butte, and the western front of the Ochoco Mountains at Barnes Butte.<ref name="MCCLAUGHRY">

text: Large volcanoes serve as a backdrop to the city of Bend in Deschutes County, ranging from the prominent

text: Three Sisters

text: Mt. Washington

text: Mt. Bachelor

text: Broken Top

text: , Newberry,

text: Tumalo Mountain

text: Maiden Peak

text: and others. A group of geologists have discovered

text: Smith Rock State Park

text: is part of an ancient supervolcano called the Crooked River caldera with a rim nearly six times the diameter of Newberry Volcano's caldera. This ancient supervolcano has long gone extinct. Its crater rim is barely recognizable as remnants mark portions of

text: Powell Buttes

text: Gray Butte

text: , and the western front of the

text: Ochoco Mountains

text: at Barnes Butte.<ref name="MCCLAUGHRY">

text: </onlyinclude>|-| Sibayak || stratovolcano || align="right"| ||   || |-| Sinabung || stratovolcano || align="right"| ||  || |-| Toba || supervolcano || align="right"| || 72000 BC || |-| Helatoba-Tarutung || fumarole field || align="right"| || Pleistocene || |-| Imun || unknown || align="right"| || unknown || |-| Sibualbuali || stratovolcano || align="right"| || unknown || |-| Lubukraya || stratovolcano || align="right"| || unknown || |-| Sorikmarapi || stratovolcano || align="right"| ||  (1) || |-| Talakmau || complex volcano || align="right"| || unknown || |-| Sarik-Gajah || volcanic cone || align="right"|unknown || unknown || |-| Marapi || complex volcano || align="right"| ||  (2) || |-| Tandikat || stratovolcano || align="right"| ||  (1) || |-| Talang || stratovolcano || align="right"| ||  (2) || |-| Kerinci || stratovolcano || align="right"| ||  (2) || |-| Hutapanjang || stratovolcano || align="right"| || unknown || |-| Sumbing || stratovolcano || align="right"| ||  (2) || |-| Kunyit || stratovolcano || align="right"| || unknown || |-| Pendan || unknown || align="right"|unknown || unknown || |-| Belirang-Beriti || compound || align="right"| || unknown || |-| Bukit Daun || stratovolcano || align="right"| || unknown || |-| Kaba || stratovolcano || align="right"| ||  (1) || |-| Dempo || stratovolcano || align="right"| ||  (1) || |-| Patah || unknown || align="right"| || unknown || |-| Bukit Lumut Balai || stratovolcano || align="right"| || unknown || |-| Besar || stratovolcano || align="right"| ||  (1) || |-| Ranau || caldera || align="right"| || unknown || |-| Sekincau Belirang || caldera || align="right"| || unknown || |-| Suoh || caldera || align="right"| ||  (4) || |-| Hulubelu || caldera || align="right"| ||  || |-| Rajabasa || stratovolcano || align="right"| ||  || |}

text: </onlyinclude>|-|

text: Sibayak

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| ||   || |-|

text: Sinabung

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| ||  || |-|

text: Toba

text: supervolcano

text: || align="right"| || 72000 BC || |-|

text: Helatoba-Tarutung

text: fumarole

text: field || align="right"| ||

text: Pleistocene

text: Imun

text: || unknown || align="right"| || unknown || |-|

text: Sibualbuali

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| || unknown || |-|

text: Lubukraya

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| || unknown || |-|

text: Sorikmarapi

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| ||  (1) || |-|

text: Talakmau

text: complex volcano

text: || align="right"| || unknown || |-|

text: Sarik-Gajah

text: volcanic cone

text: || align="right"|unknown || unknown || |-|

text: Marapi

text: complex volcano

text: || align="right"| ||  (2) || |-|

text: Tandikat

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| ||  (1) || |-|

text: Talang

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| ||  (2) || |-|

text: Kerinci

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| ||  (2) || |-|

text: Hutapanjang

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| || unknown || |-|

text: Sumbing

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| ||  (2) || |-|

text: Kunyit

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| || unknown || |-|

text: Pendan

text: || unknown || align="right"|unknown || unknown || |-|

text: Belirang-Beriti

text: || compound || align="right"| || unknown || |-|

text: Bukit Daun

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| || unknown || |-|

text: Kaba

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| ||  (1) || |-|

text: Dempo

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| ||  (1) || |-|

text: Patah

text: Bukit Lumut Balai

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| || unknown || |-|

text: Besar

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| ||  (1) || |-|

text: Ranau

text: caldera

text: || align="right"| || unknown || |-|

text: Sekincau Belirang

text: caldera

text: || align="right"| || unknown || |-|

text: Suoh

text: caldera

text: || align="right"| ||  (4) || |-|

text: Hulubelu

text: caldera

text: || align="right"| ||  || |-|

text: Rajabasa

text: stratovolcano

text: || align="right"| ||  || |}

text: Though life is confirmed only on Earth, many think that extraterrestrial life is not only plausible, but probable or inevitable. Other planets and moons in the Solar System and other planetary systems are being examined for evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such as SETI are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilizations. Other locations within the Solar System that may host microbial life include the subsurface of Mars, the upper atmosphere of Venus, and subsurface oceans on some of the moons of the giant planets.Beyond the Solar System, the region around another main-sequence star that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable zone. The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the main sequence for a shorter time interval. Small red dwarfs have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of tidal locking from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to develop. The location of the star within a galaxy may also affect the likelihood of life forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentially habitat-damaging supernova events, are predicted to have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life. The variables of the Drake equation are used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilization is most likely to exist. Use of the equation to predict the amount of extraterrestrial life, however, is difficult; because many of the variables are unknown, the equation functions as more of a mirror to what its user already thinks. As a result, the number of civilizations in the galaxy can be estimated as low as 9.1 x 10^-11 or as high as 156 million; for the calculations, see Drake equation.

text: Though life is confirmed only on Earth, many think that

text: extraterrestrial life

text: is not only plausible, but probable or inevitable. Other planets and

text: moons

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: and other

text: planetary system

text: s are being examined for evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such as

text: SETI

text: are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilizations. Other locations within the

text: Solar System

text: that may host

text: microbial

text: life include the subsurface of

text: Mars

text: , the upper atmosphere of

text: Venus

text: , and subsurface oceans on some of the

text: moons

text: of the

text: giant planet

text: s.Beyond the Solar System, the region around another

text: main-sequence star

text: that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the

text: habitable zone

text: . The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the main sequence for a shorter time interval. Small

text: red dwarf

text: s have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of

text: tidal locking

text: from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to develop. The location of the star within a galaxy may also affect the likelihood of life forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentially

text: habitat

text: -damaging

text: supernova

text: events, are predicted to have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life. The variables of the

text: Drake equation

text: are used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilization is most likely to exist. Use of the equation to predict the amount of extraterrestrial life, however, is difficult; because many of the variables are unknown, the equation functions as more of a mirror to what its user already thinks. As a result, the number of civilizations in the galaxy can be estimated as low as 9.1 x 10^-11 or as high as 156 million; for the calculations, see

text: Drake equation

text: Cohen and Stewart argue against a conception of extraterrestrial life that assumes life can only evolve in environments similar to Earth (the so-called Rare Earth hypothesis), and that extraterrestrial lifeforms will converge toward characteristics similar to those of life on Earth, a common trope of certain science fiction styles. They suggest that any investigation of extraterrestrial life relying on these assumptions is overly restrictive, and it is possible to make a scientific and rational study of the possibility of life forms that are so different from life on Earth that we may not even recognise them as life in the first instance.

text: Cohen and Stewart argue against a conception of

text: extraterrestrial life

text: that assumes life can only evolve in environments similar to Earth (the so-called

text: Rare Earth hypothesis

text: ), and that extraterrestrial lifeforms will converge toward characteristics similar to those of life on Earth, a common trope of certain

text: science fiction

text: styles. They suggest that any investigation of extraterrestrial life relying on these assumptions is overly restrictive, and it is possible to make a scientific and rational study of the possibility of life forms that are so different from life on Earth that we may not even recognise them as life in the first instance.

text: The upward movement of the Yellowstone caldera floor between 2004 and 2008 — almost  each year — was more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923. From mid-summer 2004 through mid-summer 2008, the land surface within the caldera moved upward as much as  at the White Lake GPS station. By the end of 2009, the uplift had slowed significantly and appeared to have stopped. In January 2010, the USGS stated that "uplift of the Yellowstone Caldera has slowed significantly" and that uplift continues but at a slower pace. The U.S. Geological Survey, University of Utah and National Park Service scientists with the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory maintain that they "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. Recurrence intervals of these events are neither regular nor predictable."  This conclusion was reiterated in December 2013 in the aftermath of the publication of a study by University of Utah scientists finding that the "size of the magma body beneath Yellowstone is significantly larger than had been thought."  The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory issued a statement on its website stating,

text: The upward movement of the Yellowstone

text: caldera

text: floor between 2004 and 2008 — almost  each year — was more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923. From mid-summer 2004 through mid-summer 2008, the land surface within the caldera moved upward as much as  at the White Lake GPS station. By the end of 2009, the uplift had slowed significantly and appeared to have stopped. In January 2010, the USGS stated that "uplift of the Yellowstone Caldera has slowed significantly" and that uplift continues but at a slower pace. The U.S. Geological Survey, University of Utah and National Park Service scientists with the

text: Yellowstone Volcano Observatory

text: maintain that they "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. Recurrence intervals of these events are neither regular nor predictable."  This conclusion was reiterated in December 2013 in the aftermath of the publication of a study by University of Utah scientists finding that the "size of the magma body beneath Yellowstone is significantly larger than had been thought."  The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory issued a statement on its website stating,

text: Starting in 1992, and increasing in 1998, a  wide circular region around Uturunku has been deforming at a rate of . Research has indicated that the sources must be deep to create large-scale ground inflation, but above the partially molten layer of the APVC partial melt zone. A ring of subsidence surrounds the uplift and expands the size of the deformed area to a diameter of . This subsidence occurs at a rate of about . The total volume changes over 14 years amount to  at a depth of  below the surface. Magma accumulation rates of  have been estimated. These inflation and accumulation rates are comparable to the inflation rates at Yellowstone Caldera and Long Valley Caldera in the United States and Lazufre (Lastarria–Cerro del Azufre) in Chile. The depth and scale of deformation and the absence of a large-scale hydrothermal system indicates that the ground inflation is unlikely to be hydrothermal. Evidence from prehistoric levels in local lakes and river valleys indicate that the uplift did  commence less than a hundred years ago; either the volcano has experienced previous episodes of uplift which were then followed by subsidence, or the current pattern of ground movement is unprecedented in the volcano's history.

text: Starting in 1992, and increasing in 1998, a  wide circular region around Uturunku has been deforming at a rate of . Research has indicated that the sources must be deep to create large-scale ground inflation, but above the partially molten layer of the APVC partial melt zone. A ring of

text: subsidence

text: surrounds the uplift and expands the size of the deformed area to a diameter of . This subsidence occurs at a rate of about . The total volume changes over 14 years amount to  at a depth of  below the surface. Magma accumulation rates of  have been estimated. These inflation and accumulation rates are comparable to the inflation rates at

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: and

text: Long Valley Caldera

text: in the United States and

text: Lazufre

text: (Lastarria–

text: Cerro del Azufre

text: ) in

text: Chile

text: . The depth and scale of deformation and the absence of a large-scale hydrothermal system indicates that the ground inflation is unlikely to be hydrothermal. Evidence from prehistoric levels in local lakes and river valleys indicate that the uplift did  commence less than a hundred years ago; either the volcano has experienced previous episodes of uplift which were then followed by subsidence, or the current pattern of ground movement is unprecedented in the volcano's history.

text: The Syreen evolved on the lush world of Syra, which was Earth's near twin, though warmer and somewhat more hospitable. It hosted a peaceful utopia in harmony with nature from agrarian tribes to the first steps of interstellar exploration, until a stray asteroid smashed into the world and penetrated into the mantle. A year later, a series of supervolcanoes and fissures erupted planetwide, incinerated Syra's continents, poisoned its atmosphere, and shattered the crust. The largely female Space Patrol was the only faction off-planet, leaving the race with under 10000 members, 500 male. They added stardrives to anything that could be made to hold air and set out to the stars. Several decades later, the sublight Habitat fleet found itself in the middle of the Alliance-Hierarchy war and joined the Alliance out of necessity, being unable to defend itself. When the Alliance fell, the Syreen chose imprisonment on their world over thralldom as their slavery. Since the Syreen had none, the Ur-Quan gave them the terran planet of Gaia in the Betelgeuse system as the closest equivalent. When the human Captain asks for Syreen aid against the Ur-Quan in Star Control II they are initially reluctant to risk losing their new home, but when the "asteroid" that destroyed Syra is revealed to be a Mycon Deep Child terraformer, the Syreen join the Captain in return for revenge against the Mycon. They retrieved their starships, destroyed the Mycon fleet and joined the New Alliance against the Ur-Quan.

text: The Syreen evolved on the lush world of Syra, which was Earth's near twin, though warmer and somewhat more hospitable. It hosted a peaceful utopia in harmony with nature from agrarian tribes to the first steps of interstellar exploration, until a stray asteroid smashed into the world and penetrated into the mantle. A year later, a series of

text: supervolcano

text: es and

text: fissure

text: s erupted planetwide, incinerated Syra's continents, poisoned its atmosphere, and shattered the crust. The largely female Space Patrol was the only faction off-planet, leaving the race with under 10000 members, 500 male. They added stardrives to anything that could be made to hold air and set out to the stars. Several decades later, the sublight Habitat fleet found itself in the middle of the Alliance-Hierarchy war and joined the Alliance out of necessity, being unable to defend itself. When the Alliance fell, the Syreen chose imprisonment on their world over thralldom as their slavery. Since the Syreen had none, the

text: Ur-Quan

text: gave them the terran planet of Gaia in the

text: Betelgeuse

text: system as the closest equivalent. When the human Captain asks for Syreen aid against the Ur-Quan in Star Control II they are initially reluctant to risk losing their new home, but when the "asteroid" that destroyed Syra is revealed to be a Mycon Deep Child terraformer, the Syreen join the Captain in return for revenge against the Mycon. They retrieved their starships, destroyed the Mycon fleet and joined the New Alliance against the Ur-Quan.

text: A supervolcano usually has a large caldera and can produce devastation on an enormous, sometimes continental, scale. Such volcanoes are able to severely cool global temperatures for many years after the eruption due to the huge volumes of sulfur and ash released into the atmosphere. They are the most dangerous type of volcano. Examples include: Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National Park and Valles Caldera in New Mexico (both western United States); Lake Taupo in New Zealand; Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia; and Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania. Because of the enormous area they may cover, supervolcanoes are hard to identify centuries after an eruption. Similarly, large igneous provinces are also considered supervolcanoes because of the vast amount of basalt lava erupted (even though the lava flow is non-explosive).

text: A supervolcano usually has a large

text: caldera

text: and can produce devastation on an enormous, sometimes continental, scale. Such volcanoes are able to severely cool global temperatures for many years after the eruption due to the huge volumes of

text: sulfur

text: and ash released into the atmosphere. They are the most dangerous type of volcano. Examples include:

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: in

text: Yellowstone National Park

text: and

text: Valles Caldera

text: in

text: New Mexico

text: (both western United States);

text: Lake Taupo

text: in New Zealand;

text: Lake Toba

text: in

text: Sumatra

text: , Indonesia; and

text: Ngorongoro Crater

text: in Tanzania. Because of the enormous area they may cover, supervolcanoes are hard to identify centuries after an eruption. Similarly,

text: large igneous province

text: s are also considered supervolcanoes because of the vast amount of

text: basalt

text: lava erupted (even though the lava flow is

text: non-explosive

text: Anomalies in oscillations sometimes occur when they coincide, as in the Arctic dipole anomaly (a combination of the Arctic and North Atlantic oscillations) and the longer-term Younger Dryas, a sudden non-linear cooling event that occurred at the onset of the current Holocene interglacial. In the case of volcanoes, large eruptions such as Mount Tambora in 1816, which led to the Year Without a Summer, typically cool the climate, especially when the volcano is located in the tropics. Around 70 000 years ago the Toba supervolcano eruption created an especially cold period during the ice age, leading to a possible genetic bottleneck in human populations. However, outgassing from large igneous provinces such as the Permian Siberian Traps can input carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, warming the climate. Triggering of other mechanisms, such as methane clathrate deposits as during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, increased the rate of climatic temperature change and oceanic extinctions.

text: Anomalies in oscillations sometimes occur when they coincide, as in the

text: Arctic dipole anomaly

text: (a combination of the Arctic and North Atlantic oscillations) and the longer-term

text: Younger Dryas

text: , a sudden non-linear cooling event that occurred at the onset of the current

text: Holocene

text: interglacial

text: . In the case of volcanoes, large eruptions such as

text: Mount Tambora

text: in 1816, which led to the

text: Year Without a Summer

text: , typically cool the climate, especially when the volcano is located in the

text: tropic

text: s. Around 70 000 years ago the

text: Toba supervolcano

text: eruption created an especially cold period during the ice age, leading to a possible

text: genetic bottleneck

text: in human populations. However,

text: outgassing

text: from

text: large igneous province

text: s such as the

text: Permian

text: Siberian Traps

text: can input

text: carbon dioxide

text: into the atmosphere, warming the climate. Triggering of other mechanisms, such as

text: methane clathrate

text: deposits as during the

text: Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum

text: , increased the rate of climatic temperature change and oceanic extinctions.

text: "Certain things that are listed in the drawing are in red.  These represent court judgments, actual dollar amounts.  That is verifiable information. And I think that Lombardi himself realized that not everything could be verified.  So I think what you have instead is names.  We know about connections of names.  Exactly what is that connection is hard to characterize. So that is a line with an arrow in one direction, or an arrow in two directions.  So it's really the abstract component of the work of art.  It's what can be represented, and--really--what cannot be represented."

text: After the boy had performed several actions and the announcer had described all of them, the background music became much more dramatic and the camera would zoom in on the motionless boy.  The announcer would ask several rhetorical questions about what might happen to the boy, the chair, and sometimes the viewers, again in a very dramatic tone of voice: "Will the boy stand up again?  Will the chair break? Will you break the chair?"  The announcer's final question (punctuated with a sting of organ music) was always ”And...what about Naomi?“ (echoing a similar usage by Gary Owens on Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In).  The announcer would then state, “For the answer to these and other questions”—The image would then briefly jump-cut outside of the featureless room  to one of the other cast members of The Electric Company asking a quick non-sequitur (e.g., "What time is it?" “Is this a rerun?” "How do you get to Carnegie Hall?"). The image would then jump-cut back to the room with the boy and the chair, with the announcer (apparently unaware of the interruption) concluding, "Tune in tomorrow for Love of Chair!" In the season 1 finale, the last question was posed by the boy who asked the announcer what he did not say before by mentioning Naomi, "What about... what's her name?".

text: After the boy had performed several actions and the announcer had described all of them, the background music became much more dramatic and the camera would zoom in on the motionless boy.  The announcer would ask several rhetorical questions about what might happen to the boy, the chair, and sometimes the viewers, again in a very dramatic tone of voice: "Will the boy stand up again?  Will the chair break? Will you break the chair?"  The announcer's final question (punctuated with a sting of organ music) was always ”And...what about Naomi?“ (echoing a similar usage by

text: Gary Owens

text: on

text: Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In

text: ).  The announcer would then state, “For the answer to these and other questions”—The image would then briefly jump-cut outside of the featureless room  to one of the other cast members of The Electric Company asking a quick

text: non-sequitur

text: (e.g., "What time is it?" “Is this a rerun?” "How do you get to Carnegie Hall?"). The image would then jump-cut back to the room with the boy and the chair, with the announcer (apparently unaware of the interruption) concluding, "Tune in tomorrow for Love of Chair!" In the season 1 finale, the last question was posed by the boy who asked the announcer what he did not say before by mentioning Naomi, "What about... what's her name?".

text: A less powerful geyser known as "Morning's Thief" erupts from a vent adjacent to Morning's pool.  Morning's Thief has erupted frequently during the last ten years, and has been thought to rob Morning of the energy necessary for an eruption.  However, a simultaneous eruption of Morning and Morning's Thief was observed during the former's 2013 active cycle.

text: Following John Byrne's revamp of Superman, a new version of Superboy was introduced as a means of patching the Legion of Super-Heroes' continuity, which was undermined by the removal of Kal-El's Superboy career. This Superboy is said to have been created by the Time Trapper, one of the Legion's greatest enemies, when he notices that the great youthful hero they take inspiration from does not start his career until he is an adult. Wishing to preserve this history due to his own history's connection to the Legion's past, the Trapper takes a sliver of time from the ancient universe and uses it to craft a "pocket universe" in which Earth and Krypton are the only inhabited planets. Whenever the Legionnaires travel back in time, they travel to the 20th century of the Pocket Universe, not the main DC Universe. From birth until the Crisis on Infinite Earths, Superboy's life is similar to the life of the original Superboy. When the universe-destroying Crisis strikes, Superboy lacks the power to save his Earth, but the Time Trapper can do so, provided Kal-El helps him capture the Legion. Superboy reluctantly agrees. After a battle with the post-Crisis Superman- during which Superman is drastically overpowered by Superboy's pre-Crisis strength while managing to keep Superboy on his toes due to his superior experience-, Superboy realizes he can't turn on his friends and instead helps the Legionnaires defeat the Trapper. Using a device the Trapper employed to stave off Earth's destruction, Superboy saves his Earth, but only at the cost of his own life. His dying act is to return the Legion to their century (and Earth), where he is later buried. Later editorial mandates that removed Superboy from the history of the Legion led to a story where the Time Trapper is apparently erased from history, wiping the Pocket Universe and that universe's Superboy from existence.

text: Following John Byrne's revamp of Superman, a new version of Superboy was introduced as a means of patching the

text: Legion of Super-Heroes

text: ' continuity, which was undermined by the removal of Kal-El's Superboy career. This Superboy is said to have been created by the

text: Time Trapper

text: , one of the Legion's greatest enemies, when he notices that the great youthful hero they take inspiration from does not start his career until he is an adult. Wishing to preserve this history due to his own history's connection to the Legion's past, the Trapper takes a sliver of time from the ancient universe and uses it to craft a "pocket universe" in which Earth and Krypton are the only inhabited planets. Whenever the Legionnaires travel back in time, they travel to the 20th century of the Pocket Universe, not the main DC Universe. From birth until the

text: Crisis on Infinite Earths

text: , Superboy's life is similar to the life of the original Superboy. When the universe-destroying

text: Crisis

text: strikes, Superboy lacks the power to save his Earth, but the Time Trapper can do so, provided Kal-El helps him capture the Legion. Superboy reluctantly agrees. After a battle with the post-Crisis

text: Superman

text: - during which Superman is drastically overpowered by Superboy's pre-Crisis strength while managing to keep Superboy on his toes due to his superior experience-, Superboy realizes he can't turn on his friends and instead helps the Legionnaires defeat the Trapper. Using a device the Trapper employed to stave off Earth's destruction, Superboy saves his Earth, but only at the cost of his own life. His dying act is to return the Legion to their century (and Earth), where he is later buried. Later editorial mandates that removed Superboy from the history of the Legion led to a story where the Time Trapper is apparently erased from history, wiping the Pocket Universe and that universe's Superboy from existence.

text: All eruptions in the past 5,000 years from the Mono–Inyo Craters have expelled less than  of magma. Future eruptions in the area will likely be similar in size to the small to moderate events of the past 5,000 years. There is a one in 200 chance (0.5%) per year of an eruption occurring along the chain. An eruption in the foreseeable future is probably more likely along the Mono–Inyo chain than an unrelated eruption inside Long Valley Caldera.

text: All eruptions in the past 5,000 years from the Mono–Inyo Craters have expelled less than  of

text: magma

text: . Future eruptions in the area will likely be similar in size to the small to moderate events of the past 5,000 years. There is a one in 200 chance (0.5%) per year of an eruption occurring along the chain. An eruption in the foreseeable future is probably more likely along the Mono–Inyo chain than an unrelated eruption inside Long Valley Caldera.

text: McGuire is regarded as a UK expert on geological disasters including supervolcanoes, impact events, tsunamis and earthquakes.

text: McGuire is regarded as a UK expert on geological disasters including

text: supervolcanoes

text: impact events

text: tsunamis

text: and

text: earthquakes

text: Accommodations are located behind and to the east of the lodge in "frontier cabins" with en-suite toilets and "budget cabins" with communal toilets and showers. The lodge and cabins are open during the summer season. The cabins are descendents of the original tent camps established by the Shaw and Powell Camping Company in 1913-1915. From 1919 the camp was operated by several owners under the Yellowstone Park Camps Company. Concurrent with the construction of the consolidated Old Faithful Lodge, the camp was acquired by Harry W. Child in 1928 and renamed the Yellowstone Park Lodges & Camps Company. This company was amalgamated with Child's Yellowstone Park Company in 1936.

text: Accommodations are located behind and to the east of the lodge in "frontier cabins" with en-suite toilets and "budget cabins" with communal toilets and showers. The lodge and cabins are open during the summer season. The cabins are descendents of the original tent camps established by the Shaw and Powell Camping Company in 1913-1915. From 1919 the camp was operated by several owners under the Yellowstone Park Camps Company. Concurrent with the construction of the consolidated Old Faithful Lodge, the camp was acquired by

text: Harry W. Child

text: in 1928 and renamed the Yellowstone Park Lodges & Camps Company. This company was amalgamated with Child's Yellowstone Park Company in 1936.

text: Some popular Disney movies have also been viewed as Earth Religion films. Among them are The Lion King and Brother Bear. Those who practice Earth Religion view The Lion King as an Earth Religion film mainly for the "interconnectedness" and "Circle of Life" it shows between the animals, plants, and life in general. When that link is broken, viewers see chaos and despair spread throughout the once bountiful land. Congruently, Brother Bear portrays interactions and consequences when humans disobey or go against the animal and Earth spirits.

text: Some popular Disney movies have also been viewed as Earth Religion films. Among them are

text: The Lion King

text: and

text: Brother Bear

text: . Those who practice Earth Religion view The Lion King as an Earth Religion film mainly for the "interconnectedness" and "Circle of Life" it shows between the animals, plants, and life in general. When that link is broken, viewers see chaos and despair spread throughout the once bountiful land. Congruently, Brother Bear portrays interactions and consequences when humans disobey or go against the animal and Earth spirits.

text: After winning a scholarship to Latymer Upper School, Hammersmith, he read English Literature at New College, Oxford. Soon after, he started penning scripts for popular television series such as The Bill and Kavanagh QC. His first major feature-length programme was Tough Love, a powerful drama about police corruption, starring Ray Winstone. He then wrote the drama for the highly acclaimed BBC drama-documentary Pompeii: The Last Day, which was nominated for a BAFTA, and followed this in 2005 with Supervolcano.

text: After winning a scholarship to

text: Latymer Upper School

text: Hammersmith

text: , he read English Literature at

text: New College, Oxford

text: . Soon after, he started penning scripts for popular television series such as

text: The Bill

text: and

text: Kavanagh QC

text: . His first major feature-length programme was Tough Love, a powerful drama about police corruption, starring

text: Ray Winstone

text: . He then wrote the drama for the highly acclaimed

text: BBC

text: drama-documentary

text: Pompeii: The Last Day

text: , which was nominated for a

entity_name: British Academy of Film and Television Arts

text: BAFTA

text: , and followed this in 2005 with

text: Supervolcano

text: Episodes of surface geothermal activity, such as volcanic eruptions and geysers, release variable amounts of water vapor into the atmosphere. Such eruptions may be large in human terms, and major explosive eruptions may inject exceptionally large masses of water exceptionally high into the atmosphere, but as a percentage of total atmospheric water, the role of such processes is minor. The relative concentrations of the various gases emitted by volcanoes varies considerably according to the site and according to the particular event at any one site. However, water vapor is consistently the commonest volcanic gas; as a rule, it comprises more than 60% of total emissions during a subaerial eruption.

text: Episodes of surface geothermal activity, such as volcanic eruptions and geysers, release variable amounts of water vapor into the atmosphere. Such eruptions may be large in human terms, and major explosive eruptions may inject exceptionally large masses of water exceptionally high into the atmosphere, but as a percentage of total atmospheric water, the role of such processes is minor. The relative concentrations of the various gases emitted by

text: volcano

text: es varies considerably according to the site and according to the particular event at any one site. However, water vapor is consistently the commonest

text: volcanic gas

text: ; as a rule, it comprises more than 60% of total emissions during a

text: subaerial eruption

text: Prehistoric Native American artifacts have been found at Mammoth Hot Springs and other geothermal areas in Yellowstone. Some accounts state that the early people used hot water from the geothermal features for bathing and cooking. In the 19th century Father Pierre-Jean De Smet reported that natives he interviewed thought that geyser eruptions were "the result of combat between the infernal spirits." The Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled north of the Yellowstone area in 1806. Local natives that they came upon seldom dared to enter what we now know is the caldera because of frequent loud noises that sounded like thunder and the belief that the spirits that possessed the area did not like human intrusion into their realm. The first whiteman known to travel into the caldera and see the geothermal features was John Colter, who had left the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He described what he saw as "hot spring brimstone." Beaver trapper Joseph Meek recounted in 1830 that the steam rising from the various geyser basins reminded him of smoke coming from industrial smokestacks on a cold winter morning in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In the 1850s famed trapper Jim Bridger called it "the place where Hell bubbled up."

text: Prehistoric

text: Native American

text: artifacts have been found at Mammoth Hot Springs and other geothermal areas in Yellowstone. Some accounts state that the early people used hot water from the geothermal features for bathing and cooking. In the 19th century Father

text: Pierre-Jean De Smet

text: reported that natives he interviewed thought that geyser eruptions were "the result of combat between the infernal spirits." The

text: Lewis and Clark Expedition

text: traveled north of the Yellowstone area in 1806. Local natives that they came upon seldom dared to enter what we now know is the caldera because of frequent loud noises that sounded like

text: thunder

text: and the belief that the spirits that possessed the area did not like

text: human

text: intrusion into their realm. The first whiteman known to travel into the caldera and see the geothermal features was

text: John Colter

text: , who had left the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He described what he saw as "hot spring brimstone." Beaver trapper Joseph Meek recounted in 1830 that the steam rising from the various geyser basins reminded him of smoke coming from industrial smokestacks on a cold winter morning in

text: Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

text: . In the 1850s famed trapper

text: Jim Bridger

text: called it "the place where Hell bubbled up."

text: The last full-scale eruption of the Yellowstone Supervolcano, the Lava Creek eruption which happened approximately 630,000 years ago, ejected approximately  of rock, dust and volcanic ash into the sky.

text: The last full-scale eruption of the Yellowstone Supervolcano, the

text: Lava Creek

text: eruption which happened approximately 630,000 years ago, ejected approximately  of rock, dust and

text: volcanic ash

text: into the sky.

text: About 122 volcanoes with Holocene eruptions exist in the Andean Volcanic Belt. Many of them are covered by snow and ice. Ojos del Salado with a height of  is the highest volcano in the world. A number of supervolcanoes exist in the Central Volcanic Zone in the Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex.

text: About 122 volcanoes with

text: Holocene

text: eruptions exist in the

text: Andean Volcanic Belt

text: . Many of them are covered by

text: snow

text: and

text: ice

text: Ojos del Salado

text: with a height of  is the highest volcano in the world. A number of

text: supervolcano

text: es exist in the Central Volcanic Zone in the

text: Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex

text: A powerful solar flare or solar superstorm, which is a drastic and unusual decrease or increase in the Sun's power output, could have severe consequences for life on Earth.

text: A powerful

text: solar flare

text: or solar superstorm, which is a drastic and unusual decrease or increase in the Sun's power output, could have severe consequences for life on Earth.

text: In 2002, Scholey became the Controller of Specialist Factual for the BBC’s Factual and Learning division. With responsibility for Science, Arts, Business, History, Religion as well as Natural History departments, he oversaw programmes with a range from landmark programming including, ‘Auschwitz’, ‘Planet Earth’, ‘Egypt’, ‘Supervolcano’ and ‘The Power of Art’ to the classic long-running series of Horizon, Timewatch, Natural World, and Arena and live events including the funeral of Pope John Paul II.

text: In 2002, Scholey became the Controller of Specialist Factual for the

text: BBC

text: ’s Factual and Learning division. With responsibility for Science, Arts, Business, History, Religion as well as Natural History departments, he oversaw programmes with a range from landmark programming including, ‘Auschwitz’, ‘

text: Planet Earth

text: ’, ‘Egypt’, ‘Supervolcano’ and ‘The Power of Art’ to the classic long-running series of Horizon, Timewatch, Natural World, and Arena and live events including the funeral of Pope John Paul II.

text: Many of the same existential risks to humanity would destroy parts or all of Earth's biosphere as well. And although many have speculated about life and intelligence existing in other parts of space, Earth is the only place in the universe known to harbor life.

text: Many of the same existential risks to humanity would destroy parts or all of Earth's

text: biosphere

text: as well. And although many have speculated about life and intelligence existing in other parts of space, Earth is the only place in the universe known to harbor

text: life

text: What had been DR-DOS changed hands again. The new owner, Caldera, Inc., began a lawsuit against Microsoft over the AARD code, Caldera v. Microsoft, which was later settled. It was believed that the settlement ran in the order of $150 million, but was revealed in November 2009 with the release of the Settlement Agreement to be $280 million.

text: What had been DR-DOS changed hands again. The new owner,

text: Caldera, Inc.

text: , began a lawsuit against Microsoft over the AARD code,

text: Caldera v. Microsoft

text: , which was later settled. It was believed that the settlement ran in the order of $150 million, but was revealed in November 2009 with the release of the Settlement Agreement to be $280 million.

text: The first section has a range of perspectives on the general topic of life in the universe. Timothy Ferris, noted writer and journalist, talks about being involved in the planning for the Voyager record and on astrobiology in the popular culture. Steven Dick  and Iris Fry talk about the history of the search for life in the universe and the history of theories of the origin of life on Earth, respectively. Ann Druyan discusses her long association with Carl Sagan and her work in science education. Neil Tyson, Director of the Hayden Planetarium, talks about our halting progress in space travel and the prospects for venturing to find life among the stars. George “Pinky” Nelson gives an astronaut’s perspective on life on Earth and elsewhere, and Steve Benner and William Bains speculate on altering the architecture of life on Earth and on how strange life beyond Earth may be.

text: The first section has a range of perspectives on the general topic of

text: life in the universe

text: Timothy Ferris

text: , noted writer and journalist, talks about being involved in the planning for the

text: Voyager record

text: and on astrobiology in the popular culture.

text: Steven Dick

text: and Iris Fry talk about the history of the search for life in the universe and the history of theories of the

text: origin of life on Earth

text: , respectively.

text: Ann Druyan

text: discusses her long association with

text: Carl Sagan

text: and her work in

text: science education

text: Neil Tyson

text: , Director of the

text: Hayden Planetarium

text: , talks about our halting progress in

text: space travel

text: and the prospects for venturing to find life among the stars.

text: George “Pinky” Nelson

text: gives an

text: astronaut

text: ’s perspective on life on Earth and elsewhere, and Steve Benner and William Bains speculate on altering the architecture of life on Earth and on how strange life beyond Earth may be.

text: Tooth eruption is a process in tooth development in which the teeth enter the mouth and become visible. It is currently believed that the periodontal ligament plays an important role in tooth eruption. The first human teeth to appear, the deciduous (primary) teeth (also known as baby or milk teeth), erupt into the mouth from around 6 months until 2 years of age, in a process known as "teething". These teeth are the only ones in the mouth until a person is about 6 years old creating the primary dentition stage. At that time, the first permanent tooth erupts and begins a time in which there is a combination of primary and permanent teeth, known as the mixed dentition stage, which lasts until the last primary tooth is lost. Then, the remaining permanent teeth erupt into the mouth during the permanent dentition stage.

text: Tooth eruption is a process in

text: tooth development

text: in which the

text: teeth

text: enter the

text: mouth

text: and become visible. It is currently believed that the

text: periodontal ligament

text: plays an important role in tooth eruption. The first

text: human teeth

text: to appear, the

text: deciduous (primary) teeth

text: (also known as baby or milk teeth), erupt into the mouth from around 6 months until 2 years of age, in a process known as "

text: teething

text: ". These teeth are the only ones in the mouth until a person is about 6 years old creating the primary dentition stage. At that time, the first

text: permanent tooth

text: erupts and begins a time in which there is a combination of primary and permanent teeth, known as the mixed dentition stage, which lasts until the last primary tooth is lost. Then, the remaining permanent teeth erupt into the mouth during the permanent dentition stage.

text: Bear Meadows is an alpine meadow and viewpoint northeast of Mt. St. Helens. It is located on U.S. Forest Service Road 99. Gary Rosenquist camped here with friends on May 17–18, 1980. He started taking his famous eruption photographs from this location. The sequence of eruption photos show give a time lapse view of the developing eruption. As the lateral blast developed, he and his friends abandoned their campsite fearing for their lives. He continued taking photos as they escaped in a car. The eruption's lateral blast narrowly missed the site as it was deflected by a ridge just west of the meadow. In an interview with KIRO-TV in 1990, a friend called that ridge "the line of death."

text: Bear Meadows is an alpine meadow and viewpoint northeast of Mt. St. Helens. It is located on U.S. Forest Service Road 99.

text: Gary Rosenquist

text: camped here with friends on May 17–18, 1980. He started taking his famous eruption photographs from this location. The sequence of eruption photos show give a time lapse view of the

text: developing eruption

text: . As the lateral blast developed, he and his friends abandoned their campsite fearing for their lives. He continued taking photos as they escaped in a car. The eruption's lateral blast narrowly missed the site as it was deflected by a ridge just west of the meadow. In an interview with

text: KIRO-TV

text: in 1990, a friend called that ridge "the line of death."

text: The DHDR Article 3 is dedicated to the duty and responsibility to protect the life of every member of the human family and ensure the survival of both present and future generations. That means “to take reasonable steps to help others whose lives are threatened, or who are in extreme distress or need”. A key element of the formulation of the DHDR has been the present duty and responsibility for the potential consequences of our actions for the future generations. “The rights of these future generations are the duties of present generations” summarises correctly Federico Mayor, the then Director General UNESCO. Therefore, the right to peace and the right to live in a balanced ecological environment have to be recognized and guaranteed. In a broader sense, the Earth Charter, a declaration of principles for a sustainable world, emphasises the urgency of sharing responsibility for caring for the community of life, including the well-being of human family.

text: The most famous geyser in the park, and perhaps the world, is Old Faithful Geyser, located in Upper Geyser Basin. Castle Geyser, Lion Geyser and Beehive Geyser are in the same basin. The park contains the largest active geyser in the world—Steamboat Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin. A study that was completed in 2011 found that at least 1283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone.  Of these, an average of 465 are active in a given year.  Yellowstone contains at least 10,000 geothermal features altogether. Half the geothermal features and two-thirds of the world's geysers are concentrated in Yellowstone.

text: The most famous

text: geyser

text: in the park, and perhaps the world, is

text: Old Faithful Geyser

text: , located in

text: Upper Geyser Basin

text: Castle Geyser

text: Lion Geyser

text: and

text: Beehive Geyser

text: are in the same basin. The park contains the largest active geyser in the world—

text: Steamboat Geyser

text: in the

text: Norris Geyser Basin

text: . A study that was completed in 2011 found that at least 1283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone.  Of these, an average of 465 are active in a given year.  Yellowstone contains at least 10,000 geothermal features altogether. Half the geothermal features and two-thirds of the world's geysers are concentrated in Yellowstone.

text: Silver Creek is a  stream located in the White Mountains of Arizona north of Show Low. It is a tributary of the Little Colorado River.  It is also the sight of a supervolcanoe that erupted 18.8 million years ago.

text: Silver Creek is a  stream located in the

text: White Mountains

text: of Arizona north of

text: Show Low

text: . It is a tributary of the

text: Little Colorado River

text: .  It is also the sight of a supervolcanoe that erupted 18.8 million years ago.

text: The population at the core of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout's native range, in Yellowstone Lake, declined significantly in the 1960s due to overharvest of mature cutthroat trout by anglers, as well as overharvesting of eggs by hatcheries in the early 20th century. Managers implemented catch and release, which required anglers to return their catches to the lake, and they terminated hatchery operations in the park which allowed the cutthroat trout to recover. Then, in 1994, park officials discovered lake trout  in Yellowstone Lake. Although lake trout were established in Shoshone, Lewis and Heart lakes in the Snake River drainage from U.S. government stocking operations in 1890, they were never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage and their presence there is probably the result of accidental or illegal introductions. By 2000, the cutthroat trout population had declined to less than 10 percent of its early 20th century abundance. However, aggressive lake trout eradication programs have killed over one million lake trout since 1996, and the hope is that this will lead to a restoration of cutthroat numbers. Cutthroat trout co-exist with lake trout in Heart Lake, an isolated back-country lake at the head of the Heart River that gets little angling pressure.

text: The population at the core of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout's native range, in Yellowstone Lake, declined significantly in the 1960s due to

text: overharvest

text: of mature cutthroat trout by anglers, as well as overharvesting of eggs by hatcheries in the early 20th century. Managers implemented

text: catch and release

text: , which required anglers to return their catches to the lake, and they terminated hatchery operations in the park which allowed the cutthroat trout to recover. Then, in 1994, park officials discovered lake trout  in Yellowstone Lake. Although lake trout were established in

text: Shoshone

text: Lewis

text: and

text: Heart

text: lakes in the Snake River drainage from U.S. government stocking operations in 1890, they were never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage and their presence there is probably the result of accidental or illegal introductions. By 2000, the cutthroat trout population had declined to less than 10 percent of its early 20th century abundance. However, aggressive lake trout

text: eradication programs

text: have killed over one million lake trout since 1996, and the hope is that this will lead to a restoration of cutthroat numbers. Cutthroat trout co-exist with lake trout in

text: Heart Lake

text: , an isolated back-country lake at the head of the

text: Heart River

text: that gets little angling pressure.

text: Gravitational biology is the study of the effects gravity has on living organisms. Throughout the history of the Earth life has evolved to survive changing conditions, such as changes in the climate and habitat. However, one constant factor in evolution since life first began on Earth is the force of gravity. As a consequence, all biological processes are accustomed to the ever-present force of gravity and even small variations in this force can have significant impact on the health and function of organisms.

text: Gravitational biology is the study of the effects

text: gravity

text: has on

text: living organisms

text: . Throughout the history of the Earth life has

text: evolved

text: to survive changing conditions, such as changes in the

text: climate

text: and

text: habitat

text: . However, one constant factor in evolution since life first began on Earth is the

text: force

text: of gravity. As a consequence, all

text: biological process

text: es are accustomed to the ever-present force of gravity and even small variations in this force can have significant impact on the health and function of organisms.

text: Superstorm is a co-production of BBC Worldwide, Discovery Channel and ProSieben, in association with M6 and NHK. Ailsa Orr and Michael Mosley, who made also Supervolcano, are the executive producers for BBC, while Jack E. Smith is the executive producer for Discovery Channel.

text: Superstorm is a co-production of

text: BBC Worldwide

text: Discovery Channel

text: and

text: ProSieben

text: , in association with

text: and

text: NHK

text: . Ailsa Orr and Michael Mosley, who made also

text: Supervolcano

text: , are the executive producers for BBC, while Jack E. Smith is the executive producer for Discovery Channel.

text: The eruption of supervolcanoes is the rarest of volcanic eruptions but also the most destructive. The timescale between these eruptions is generally marked by hundreds or thousands of years.  This type of eruption generally causes destruction on a continental scale, and can also result in the lowering of temperatures worldwide.

text: The eruption of

text: supervolcano

text: es is the rarest of volcanic eruptions but also the most destructive. The timescale between these eruptions is generally marked by hundreds or thousands of years.  This type of eruption generally causes destruction on a continental scale, and can also result in the

text: lowering of temperatures worldwide

text: The UFO conspiracy TV series The X-Files cited 22 December 2012 as the date for an alien colonization of the Earth and mentioned the Mayan calendar "stopping" on this date. The History Channel aired a handful of special series on doomsday that included analysis of 2012 theories, such as Decoding the Past (2005–2007), 2012, End of Days (2006), Last Days on Earth (2006), Seven Signs of the Apocalypse (2009), and Nostradamus 2012 (2008). The Discovery Channel also aired 2012 Apocalypse in 2009, suggesting that massive solar storms, magnetic pole reversal, earthquakes, supervolcanoes, and other drastic natural events could occur in 2012. In 2012, the National Geographic Channel launched a show called Doomsday Preppers, a documentary series about survivalists preparing for various cataclysms, including the 2012 doomsday.

text: The

text: UFO conspiracy

text: TV series

text: The X-Files

text: cited 22 December 2012 as the date for an alien colonization of the Earth and mentioned the

text: Mayan calendar

text: "stopping" on this date. The

text: History Channel

text: aired a handful of special series on doomsday that included analysis of 2012 theories, such as

text: Decoding the Past

text: (2005–2007), 2012, End of Days (2006),

text: Last Days on Earth

text: (2006), Seven Signs of the Apocalypse (2009), and Nostradamus 2012 (2008). The

text: Discovery Channel

text: also aired 2012 Apocalypse in 2009, suggesting that massive

text: solar storms

text: magnetic pole reversal

text: , earthquakes,

text: supervolcano

text: es, and other drastic natural events could occur in 2012. In 2012, the

text: National Geographic Channel

text: launched a show called

text: Doomsday Preppers

text: , a documentary series about

text: survivalists

text: preparing for various cataclysms, including the 2012 doomsday.

text: Although tooth eruption occurs at different times for different people, a general eruption timeline exists. Typically, humans have 20 primary (baby) teeth and 32 permanent teeth. Tooth eruption has three stages. The first, known as deciduous dentition stage, occurs when only primary teeth are visible. Once the first permanent tooth erupts into the mouth, the teeth are in the mixed (or transitional) dentition. After the last primary tooth falls out of the mouth—a process known as exfoliation—the teeth are in the permanent dentition.

text: Although tooth eruption occurs at different times for different people, a general eruption timeline exists. Typically, humans have 20

text: primary (baby) teeth

text: and 32

text: permanent teeth

text: . Tooth eruption has three stages. The first, known as deciduous

text: dentition

text: stage, occurs when only primary teeth are visible. Once the first permanent tooth erupts into the mouth, the teeth are in the mixed (or transitional) dentition. After the last primary tooth falls out of the mouth—a process known as exfoliation—the teeth are in the permanent dentition.

text: The other consequence of tidal acceleration is the deceleration of the rotation of Earth. The rotation of Earth is somewhat erratic on all time scales (from hours to centuries) due to various causes. The small tidal effect cannot be observed in a short period, but the cumulative effect on Earth's rotation as measured with a stable clock (ephemeris time, atomic time) of a shortfall of even a few milliseconds every day becomes readily noticeable in a few centuries. Since some event in the remote past, more days and hours have passed (as measured in full rotations of Earth) (Universal Time) than would be measured by stable clocks calibrated to the present, longer length of the day (ephemeris time). This is known as ΔT. Recent values can be obtained from the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS).  A table of the actual length of the day in the past few centuries is also available.

text: The other consequence of tidal acceleration is the deceleration of the rotation of Earth. The rotation of Earth is somewhat erratic on all time scales (from hours to centuries) due to various causes. The small tidal effect cannot be observed in a short period, but the cumulative effect on Earth's rotation as measured with a stable clock (

text: ephemeris time

text: atomic time

text: ) of a shortfall of even a few milliseconds every day becomes readily noticeable in a few centuries. Since some event in the remote past, more days and hours have passed (as measured in full rotations of Earth) (

text: Universal Time

text: ) than would be measured by stable clocks calibrated to the present, longer length of the day (ephemeris time). This is known as

text: ΔT

text: . Recent values can be obtained from the

entity_name: International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service

text: International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service

text: (IERS).  A table of the actual length of the day in the past few centuries is also available.

text: Like many other natural phenomena, geysers are not unique to planet Earth.  Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as cryogeysers, have been observed on several of the moons of the outer solar system. Due to the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas. Water vapor jets have been observed near the south pole of Saturn's moon Enceladus, while nitrogen eruptions have been observed on Neptune's moon Triton. There are also signs of carbon dioxide eruptions from the southern polar ice cap of Mars. In the latter two cases, instead of being driven by geothermal energy, the eruptions seem to rely on solar heating via a solid-state greenhouse effect.

text: Like many other natural phenomena, geysers are not unique to planet Earth.  Jet-like eruptions, often referred to as

text: cryogeysers

text: , have been observed on several of the

text: moons

text: of the outer solar system. Due to the low ambient pressures, these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas. Water vapor jets have been observed near the south pole of

text: Saturn

text: 's moon

text: Enceladus

text: , while

text: nitrogen

text: eruptions have been observed on

text: Neptune

text: 's moon

text: Triton

text: . There are also signs of

text: carbon dioxide eruptions

text: from the southern polar ice cap of

text: Mars

text: . In the latter two cases, instead of being driven by geothermal energy, the eruptions seem to rely on solar heating via a solid-state

text: greenhouse effect

text: A group of lava domes with a diametre of  of dacitic composition forms the centre of the complex, with the domes having formed either during one single eruption or several. These domes form a ring structure with thin lava cover in its centre, which may be the rim of a collapse caldera formed in the later stages of the main Panizos eruption and filled by later eruption stages, as suggested by the outward dip of the lower unit of the Panizos Ignimbrite. This caldera has a diametre of . The centre is surrounded a shield with a diametre of . It is constructed from ignimbrites with a slope of 1–3°. Three lava platforms with the names Cerro Chinchinjaran, Cerro Tucunquis and Cerro Anta Quevas are present. The first and the last are part of a dacitic flowfield that includes a  long lava flow on its northern sector with some resemblance to pahoehoe lava. A pre-caldera lava structure in the south of the complex is known as Cerro Limitayoc, but it erupted lavas even after the Panizos ignimbrite was erupted. A depression is located just south of the lava dome group and may be a downsag caldera, likewise infilled by activity. The Panizos complex covers an area of  and has a total volume of . The structure of the Panizos complex has been called an "ignimbrite shield". The central summits Limitayoc, Panizos, La Ramada and Vicuñahuasi are over  high.

text: A group of lava domes with a diametre of  of

text: dacitic

text: composition forms the centre of the complex, with the domes having formed either during one single eruption or several. These domes form a ring structure with thin lava cover in its centre, which may be the rim of a collapse caldera formed in the later stages of the main Panizos eruption and filled by later eruption stages, as suggested by the outward dip of the lower unit of the Panizos Ignimbrite. This caldera has a diametre of . The centre is surrounded a shield with a diametre of . It is constructed from ignimbrites with a slope of 1–3°. Three lava platforms with the names Cerro Chinchinjaran, Cerro Tucunquis and Cerro Anta Quevas are present. The first and the last are part of a dacitic flowfield that includes a  long lava flow on its northern sector with some resemblance to

text: pahoehoe

text: lava. A pre-caldera lava structure in the south of the complex is known as Cerro Limitayoc, but it erupted lavas even after the Panizos ignimbrite was erupted. A depression is located just south of the lava dome group and may be a downsag caldera, likewise infilled by activity. The Panizos complex covers an area of  and has a total volume of . The structure of the Panizos complex has been called an "ignimbrite shield". The central summits Limitayoc, Panizos, La Ramada and Vicuñahuasi are over  high.

text: In December 2008, continuing into January 2009, more than 500 quakes were detected under the northwest end of Yellowstone Lake over a seven-day span, with the largest registering a magnitude of 3.9. The most recent swarm started in January 2010 after the Haiti earthquake and before the Chile earthquake. With 1620 small earthquakes between January 17, 2010 and February 1, 2010, this swarm was the second largest ever recorded in the Yellowstone Caldera. The largest of these shocks was a magnitude 3.8 on January 21, 2010 at 11:16 PM MST. This swarm reached the background levels by February 21. On March 30, 2014, at 6:34 AM MST, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck Yellowstone, the largest recorded there since February 1980.

text: In December 2008, continuing into January 2009, more than 500 quakes were detected under the northwest end of

text: Yellowstone Lake

text: over a seven-day span, with the largest registering a magnitude of 3.9. The most recent swarm started in January 2010 after the

text: Haiti earthquake

text: and before the

text: Chile earthquake

text: . With 1620 small

text: earthquakes

text: between January 17, 2010 and February 1, 2010, this swarm was the second largest ever recorded in the Yellowstone Caldera. The largest of these shocks was a magnitude 3.8 on January 21, 2010 at 11:16 PM MST. This swarm reached the background levels by February 21. On March 30, 2014, at 6:34 AM MST, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck Yellowstone, the largest recorded there since February 1980.

text: They fly to Yellowstone to retrieve a map from Charlie with the arks' location. As they leave, the Yellowstone Caldera erupts; Charlie is killed when he stays behind to cover the eruption. The group lands in Las Vegas to find a larger plane and meet Yuri, his twin sons Alec and Oleg, his girlfriend Tamara and their pilot Sasha, who are unable to leave because the airport is refusing to let them. Sasha finds an Antonov An-500 and pilots it with Gordon, and leave just as the Yellowstone ash cloud engulfs Las Vegas.

text: They fly to Yellowstone to retrieve a map from Charlie with the arks' location. As they leave, the

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: erupts; Charlie is killed when he stays behind to cover the eruption. The group lands in

text: Las Vegas

text: to find a larger plane and meet Yuri, his twin sons Alec and Oleg, his girlfriend Tamara and their pilot Sasha, who are unable to leave because the airport is refusing to let them. Sasha finds an

text: Antonov An-500

text: and pilots it with Gordon, and leave just as the Yellowstone ash cloud engulfs Las Vegas.

text: In 2005, they took in over $200 million from the sales of building lots and memberships to wealthy business leaders, media icons and celebrities.  Early Club members and investors included Bill Gates, Mary Hart, Dan Quayle and Steve Case.  Leading to the Club's eventual financial failure was Blixseth's dealings with cyclist Greg LeMond.  In 2002 LeMond, with four other family members and associates, invested in the Yellowstone Club.  Each of the five partners paid Blixseth $750,000 for one percent shares in the exclusive resort. LeMond also purchased several building lots and maintained a property at the resort.  LeMond and partners sued Blixseth in 2006 following reports of a Credit Suisse loan to the resort of $375 million from which Blixseth reportedly took $209 million in a disputed partial payout for his ownership stake. Blixseth said he used the money to expand the Yellowstone Club into the Yellowstone World Club.  In 2006 Blixseth told the New York Times that he "paid cash, with no help from investors, for each of the properties that make up the Yellowstone World Club."

text: In 2005, they took in over $200 million from the sales of building lots and memberships to wealthy business leaders, media icons and celebrities.  Early Club members and investors included

text: Bill Gates

text: Mary Hart

text: Dan Quayle

text: and

text: Steve Case

text: .  Leading to the Club's eventual financial failure was Blixseth's dealings with cyclist

text: Greg LeMond

text: .  In 2002 LeMond, with four other family members and associates, invested in the Yellowstone Club.  Each of the five partners paid Blixseth $750,000 for one percent shares in the exclusive resort. LeMond also purchased several building lots and maintained a property at the resort.  LeMond and partners sued Blixseth in 2006 following reports of a

text: Credit Suisse

text: loan to the resort of $375 million from which Blixseth reportedly took $209 million in a disputed partial payout for his ownership stake. Blixseth said he used the money to expand the Yellowstone Club into the Yellowstone World Club.  In 2006 Blixseth told the New York Times that he "paid cash, with no help from investors, for each of the properties that make up the Yellowstone World Club."

text: Supervolcano

text: Supervolcano

text: What We Live For largely continues the sound of the band's debut studio album, Oh, What a Life. Lead singer Zac Barnett stated that "we tried to take a lot of the stuff that our fans like and love about us from Oh, What a Life and take that to the next level as far as sounds go. [We] brought back some of the old instruments like mandolin and banjo, but also experimented with a lot of different sounds like vocal samples. We brought back a lot of piano [and] bigger harmonies." Lyrically, the album builds on Oh, What a Lifes biographical themes, which followed the band's origins and journey; What We Live For documents the band's experiences during the present and their perspective on the future.

text: What We Live For largely continues the sound of the band's debut studio album,

text: Oh, What a Life

text: . Lead singer Zac Barnett stated that "we tried to take a lot of the stuff that our fans like and love about us from Oh, What a Life and take that to the next level as far as sounds go. [We] brought back some of the old instruments like

text: mandolin

text: and

text: banjo

text: , but also experimented with a lot of different sounds like vocal samples. We brought back a lot of piano [and] bigger harmonies." Lyrically, the album builds on Oh, What a Lifes

text: biographical

text: themes, which followed the band's origins and journey; What We Live For documents the band's experiences during the present and their perspective on the future.

text: In 1988 Fish described the slow process by which most of her work evolved. She said, "It's very unusual that I'll see something, go to the studio, draw it and paint it. That rarely happens. I'll see it and it will stay in my head for a while, and maybe later I'll try to figure out through drawing what I saw. But sometimes it's a delay of two months, or four or six. That's part of the distilling, getting a sense of what's literal there, what's tangible and intangible, what's abstract and some other kind of order."

text: For most of the 20th century, the shores of Arthur Kill have been home to the largest petroleum importing, refining, and storage facilities on Earth; as a consequence the estuary has been host to major and minor oil spills. In addition, Arthur Kill drains the area encompassing the second largest landfill on Earth (Fresh Kills). This landfill, and others along the Raritan River, provide an ample supply of leachate to the waterways. Chemical wastes cause stress and disruption of the life cycles of plankton, shellfish and other invertebrates, and the fish, birds, and other wildlife that they support.

text: For most of the 20th century, the shores of Arthur Kill have been home to the largest petroleum importing, refining, and storage facilities on Earth; as a consequence the estuary has been host to major and minor oil spills. In addition, Arthur Kill drains the area encompassing the second largest landfill on Earth (Fresh Kills). This landfill, and others along the Raritan River, provide an ample supply of

text: leachate

text: to the waterways. Chemical wastes cause stress and disruption of the life cycles of plankton, shellfish and other invertebrates, and the fish, birds, and other wildlife that they support.

text: 1350 BC- The Yellowstone Caldera erupted in 1350 BC. With an elevation of 3,142 this sometimes referred to as the Yellowstone supervolcano, became this biggest volcanic eruption ever documented. This massive and at-one time extreamely destructive volcano is located in Yellowstone national parks and in the mountain range of the Rocky Mountains.

text: The Bruneau-Jarbidge caldera (sometimes called a supervolcano) is located in present-day southwest Idaho.  The volcano erupted during the Miocene, between ten and twelve million years ago, spreading a thick blanket of ash in the Bruneau-Jarbidge event and forming a caldera. Animals were suffocated and burned in pyroclastic flows within a hundred miles of the event, and died of slow suffocation and starvation much farther away, notably at Ashfall Fossil Beds, located 1000 miles downwind in northeastern Nebraska, where up to two meters of ash was deposited. At the time, the caldera was above the Yellowstone hotspot.

text: The Bruneau-Jarbidge caldera (sometimes called a

text: supervolcano

text: ) is located in present-day southwest

text: Idaho

text: .  The

text: volcano

text: erupted during the

text: Miocene

text: , between ten and twelve million years ago, spreading a thick blanket of ash in the Bruneau-Jarbidge event and forming a

text: caldera

text: . Animals were suffocated and burned in

text: pyroclastic flow

text: s within a hundred miles of the event, and died of slow suffocation and starvation much farther away, notably at

text: Ashfall Fossil Beds

text: , located 1000 miles downwind in northeastern

text: Nebraska

text: , where up to two meters of ash was deposited. At the time, the caldera was above the

text: Yellowstone hotspot

text: Caldera, Inc. inherited a lawsuit against Microsoft when it purchased DR-DOS from Novell in 1996. This lawsuit related to Caldera's claims of monopolization, illegal tying, exclusive dealing, and tortious interference by Microsoft.

text: Caldera, Inc. inherited a lawsuit against

text: Microsoft

text: when it purchased

text: DR-DOS

text: from

text: Novell

text: in 1996. This

text: lawsuit

text: related to Caldera's claims of

text: monopolization

text: illegal tying

text: exclusive dealing

text: , and

text: tortious interference

text: by Microsoft.

text: After the end of the last ice age, the geography and climate of the Sahara region began to change drastically. The northern part dried out due to the Earth tilting on its axis allowing the region to absorb more solar radiation, thus a desert was formed. The area directly to the south became a humid monsoon region, receiving massive amounts of precipitation due to moisture drawn in from the oceans. By the late 5th millennium BC, the planet had tilted even more on its axis and consequently the desert had spread southward, making previously settled areas unlivable. People began traveling further south, away from the Sahara, some settling in the fringes of the desert, an area known today as the Sahel, a unique type of landscape that forms a buffer zone between desert and savannahs and forests (by this point in time, the Sahara had expanded to approximately the same extent as is today). Other kept traveling south, finding themselves in the humid rainforests of West Africa. These are thought to be the people who founded the Kintampo way of life.

text: After the end of the last ice age, the geography and climate of the Sahara region began to change drastically. The northern part dried out due to the Earth tilting on its axis allowing the region to absorb more

text: solar radiation

text: , thus a desert was formed. The area directly to the south became a humid monsoon region, receiving massive amounts of precipitation due to moisture drawn in from the oceans. By the late

text: 5th millennium

text: BC, the planet had tilted even more on its axis and consequently the desert had spread southward, making previously settled areas unlivable. People began traveling further south, away from the Sahara, some settling in the fringes of the desert, an area known today as the

text: Sahel

text: , a unique type of landscape that forms a buffer zone between desert and savannahs and forests (by this point in time, the Sahara had expanded to approximately the same extent as is today). Other kept traveling south, finding themselves in the humid rainforests of West Africa. These are thought to be the people who founded the Kintampo way of life.

text: Before the era in which the first single-celled organism formed on Earth, the Elder God Demiurge achieved consciousness after being formed and coalesced from the Earth's biosphere. As conditions on Earth began to support life, it became self-aware. Wanting to know itself, the Demiurge split itself into countless aspects, one of which evidently became Chthon. Consequently, Chthon is billions of years old.

text: Before the era in which the first single-celled organism formed on Earth, the

text: Elder God

text: Demiurge

text: achieved

text: consciousness

text: after being formed and coalesced from the Earth's

text: biosphere

text: . As conditions on Earth began to support life, it became self-aware. Wanting to know itself, the Demiurge split itself into countless aspects, one of which evidently became Chthon. Consequently, Chthon is billions of years old.

text: Curiously, for as little life as there exists in the Negative Zone, it is very capable of supporting life. There, outer space itself is permeated with an oxygen-rich atmosphere, closely approximating Earth's. Consequently, humans can exist peacefully in space without the need for cumbersome pressure suits or oxygen masks.

text: In the beginning of the last ice age a supervolcano erupted in Indonesia sometime between 75000 - 70000 BP. Theory states the effects of the eruption caused global climatic changes for many years, effectively obliterating most of the earlier cultures. Y-chromosomal Adam (90000 - 60000 BP, dated data) was initially dated here. Neanderthals survived this abrupt change in the environment, so it's possible for other human groups too. According to the theory humans survived in Africa, and began to resettle areas north, as the effects of the eruption slowly vanished. Upper Paleolithic revolution began after this extreme event, the earliest finds are dated c.50000 BCE.

text: In the beginning of the

text: last ice age

text: a

text: supervolcano

text: erupted in Indonesia sometime between 75000 - 70000 BP. Theory states the effects of the eruption caused global climatic changes for many years, effectively obliterating most of the earlier cultures.

text: Y-chromosomal Adam

text: (90000 - 60000 BP,

text: dated data

text: ) was initially dated here.

text: Neanderthal

text: s survived this abrupt change in the environment, so it's possible for other human groups too. According to the theory humans survived in Africa, and began to resettle areas north, as the effects of the eruption slowly vanished.

text: Upper Paleolithic revolution

text: began after this extreme event, the earliest finds are dated c.50000 BCE.

text: Sophisticated civilization in El Salvador dates to its settlement by the indigenous Lenca people; theirs was the first and the oldest indigenous civilization to settle in El Salvador. The Lenca were succeeded by the Olmecs, who eventually also disappeared, leaving their monumental architecture in the form of the pyramids still extant in western El Salvador. The Maya arrived and settled in place of the Olmecs, but their numbers were greatly diminished when the Ilopango supervolcano eruption caused a massive Mayan exodus out of what is now El Salvador.

text: Sophisticated civilization in El Salvador dates to its settlement by the indigenous

text: Lenca people

text: ; theirs was the first and the oldest indigenous civilization to settle in El Salvador. The Lenca were succeeded by the

text: Olmec

text: s, who eventually also disappeared, leaving their monumental architecture in the form of the pyramids still extant in western El Salvador. The Maya arrived and settled in place of the Olmecs, but their numbers were greatly diminished when the

text: Ilopango

text: supervolcano eruption caused a massive Mayan exodus out of what is now El Salvador.

text: Now in an eruptive cycle the above cycle normally happens with splashing in Main vent seen and possibly having eruptions by Bottom vent. After all the above vents turn on and then if High and Gold vents start erupting to 5+ ft stedily a "lock" is called. Normally Fan and Mortar will erupt shortly after lock is achieved but it is not certain.

text: The Yellowstone Caldera is the largest volcanic system in North America. It has been termed a "supervolcano" because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions. The magma chamber that lies under Yellowstone is estimated to be a single connected chamber, about  long,  wide, and 3 to 7 miles (5 to 12 km) deep.  The current caldera was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640,000 years ago, which released more than 240 cubic miles (1,000 km³) of ash, rock and pyroclastic materials. This eruption was more than 1,000 times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. It produced a caldera nearly five eighths of a mile (1 km) deep and  in area and deposited the Lava Creek Tuff, a welded tuff geologic formation. The most violent known eruption, which occurred 2.1 million years ago, ejected 588 cubic miles (2,450 km³) of volcanic material and created the rock formation known as the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff and created the Island Park Caldera. A smaller eruption ejected 67 cubic miles (280 km³) of material 1.3 million years ago, forming the Henry's Fork Caldera and depositing the Mesa Falls Tuff.

text: The

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: is the largest volcanic system in North America. It has been termed a "

text: supervolcano

text: " because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions. The

text: magma chamber

text: that lies under Yellowstone is estimated to be a single connected chamber, about  long,  wide, and 3 to 7 miles (5 to 12 km) deep.  The current

text: caldera

text: was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640,000 years ago, which released more than 240 cubic miles (1,000 km³) of ash, rock and

text: pyroclast

text: ic materials. This eruption was more than 1,000 times larger than the

text: 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens

text: . It produced a caldera nearly five eighths of a mile (1 km) deep and  in area and deposited the

text: Lava Creek Tuff

text: , a

text: welded tuff

text: geologic formation

text: . The most violent known eruption, which occurred 2.1 million years ago, ejected 588 cubic miles (2,450 km³) of volcanic material and created the rock formation known as the

text: Huckleberry Ridge Tuff

text: and created the

text: Island Park Caldera

text: . A smaller eruption ejected 67 cubic miles (280 km³) of material 1.3 million years ago, forming the

text: Henry's Fork Caldera

text: and depositing the

text: Mesa Falls Tuff

text: New Zealand has been the site of many large explosive eruptions during the last two million years, including several of supervolcano size. These include eruptions from Macauley Island and the Taupo, Whakamaru, Mangakino, Reporoa, Rotorua, and Haroharo calderas.

text: New Zealand has been the site of many large explosive eruptions during the last two million years, including several of

text: supervolcano

text: size. These include eruptions from

text: Macauley Island

text: and the Taupo, Whakamaru, Mangakino,

text: Reporoa

text: Rotorua

text: , and Haroharo

text: caldera

text: s.

text: 2. Nature is not just a set of resources that can be exploited, modified, altered, privatized, commercialized and transformed without any consequences. Earth is the only home we have. The Earth does not belong to us; we belong to the Earth.

text: When Yellowstone Caldera last erupted some 650,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km of material (as measured in dense rock equivalent (DRE)), covering a substantial part of North America in up to two metres of debris. By comparison, when Mount St. Helens erupted in 1980, it released ~1.2 km (DRE) of ejecta. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the Lake Toba eruption in Indonesia.

text: When

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: last erupted some 650,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km of material (as measured in dense rock equivalent (DRE)), covering a substantial part of

text: North America

text: in up to two metres of debris. By comparison, when

text: Mount St. Helens

text: erupted in 1980, it released ~1.2 km (DRE) of ejecta. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the

text: Lake Toba

text: eruption in

text: Indonesia

text: The mountain pine beetle killed a number of trees in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem from the late 1960s through the mid-1980s. This created a heterogeneous forest in which old surviving trees were mixed with younger trees of various ages. This mixed stand structure may have provided ladder fuels that contributed to the fires. In addition, the winter season of 1987–1988 was drier than usual, with the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem receiving only 31% of the normal snowpack. However, April and May 1988 were very wet and the abundant moisture greatly aided grass and understory development. By June, the rainfall stopped and little was recorded in the entire Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem for the next four months. By July, the worst drought in the history of Yellowstone National Park began. Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer soon turned to dry tinder. Relative humidity levels fell further, desiccating the forest. Fuel moisture content in dead and fallen timber was recorded as low as 5%. By mid-August, humidity levels were averaging below 20% and were recorded as low as 6% on one occasion. To compound the lack of rainfall, the majority of Yellowstone's soils are rhyolitic volcanic rocks and soils which have poor moisture retention. A series of strong but dry storm fronts also led to the rapid spread of a number of the largest fires.

text: The

text: mountain pine beetle

text: killed a number of trees in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem from the late 1960s through the mid-1980s. This created a heterogeneous forest in which old surviving trees were mixed with younger trees of various ages. This mixed stand structure may have provided ladder fuels that contributed to the fires. In addition, the winter season of 1987–1988 was drier than usual, with the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem receiving only 31% of the normal snowpack. However, April and May 1988 were very wet and the abundant moisture greatly aided grass and

text: understory

text: development. By June, the rainfall stopped and little was recorded in the entire Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem for the next four months. By July, the worst drought in the history of Yellowstone National Park began. Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer soon turned to dry tinder.

text: Relative humidity

text: levels fell further, desiccating the forest. Fuel moisture content in dead and fallen timber was recorded as low as 5%. By mid-August, humidity levels were averaging below 20% and were recorded as low as 6% on one occasion. To compound the lack of rainfall, the majority of Yellowstone's soils are

text: rhyolitic

text: volcanic rocks and soils which have poor moisture retention. A series of strong but dry

text: storm fronts

text: also led to the rapid spread of a number of the largest fires.

text: All of Dalglish's work takes place within his invented world of Dezrel, and much was originally self-published: The Half-Orcs, an R.A. Salvatore-inspired series starring a pair half-orc brothers; The Shadowdance Series, a lengthy adventure starring thieves and assassins; The Paladins; and The Breaking World (published by 47North, which chronicles the creation of his world and the war between gods that is referenced in all his earlier works.) Dalglish also served as editor and main contributor to A Land of Ash, a short story compilation dealing with the fallout from the eruption of the Yellowstone Caldera. Publishers Weekly wrote that, "Dalglish puts familiar pieces together with a freshness and pleasure that are contagious." According to fantasy author Sam Sykes, "Dalglish concocts a heady cocktail of energy, breakneck pace, and excitement."

text: All of Dalglish's work takes place within his invented world of Dezrel, and much was originally self-published: The Half-Orcs, an

text: R.A. Salvatore

text: -inspired series starring a pair half-orc brothers;

text: The Shadowdance Series

text: , a lengthy adventure starring

text: thieves

text: and

text: assassins

text: ; The Paladins; and The Breaking World (published by

text: , which chronicles the creation of his world and the war between gods that is referenced in all his earlier works.) Dalglish also served as editor and main contributor to A Land of Ash, a short story compilation dealing with the fallout from the eruption of the

text: Yellowstone

text: Caldera

text: Publishers Weekly

text: wrote that, "Dalglish puts familiar pieces together with a freshness and pleasure that are contagious." According to fantasy author

text: Sam Sykes

text: , "Dalglish concocts a heady cocktail of energy, breakneck pace, and excitement."

text: Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, concentrated solar power (CSP), concentrator photovoltaics (CPV), solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. Active solar technologies encompass solar thermal energy, using solar collectors for heating, and solar power, converting sunlight into electricity either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP).

text: Solar energy

text: , radiant

text: light

text: and

text: heat

text: from the

text: sun

text: , is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as

text: solar heating

text: photovoltaics

text: concentrated solar power

text: (CSP),

text: concentrator photovoltaics

text: (CPV),

text: solar architecture

text: and

text: artificial photosynthesis

text: . Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either

text: passive solar

text: or

text: active solar

text: depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable

text: thermal mass

text: or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that

text: naturally circulate air

text: . Active solar technologies encompass

text: solar thermal energy

text: , using

text: solar collectors

text: for heating, and

text: solar power

text: , converting

text: sunlight

text: into

text: electricity

text: either directly using

text: photovoltaics

text: (PV), or indirectly using

text: concentrated solar power

text: (CSP).

text: Caldera Systems created a full featured GUI system administration tool called Caldera Open Administration System (COAS). The tool was a unified, easy to use administration tool with a modular design. With its scalability and broad scope abilities it featured:

text: Caldera Systems created a full featured GUI system administration tool called Caldera Open Administration System (COAS). The tool was a unified, easy to use administration tool with a

text: modular design

text: . With its

text: scalability

text: and broad scope abilities it featured:

text: Although the McDermitt volcanic field on the Nevada–Oregon border is frequently shown as the site of the initial impingement of the Yellowstone Hotspot, new geochronology and mapping demonstrates that the area affected by this mid-Miocene volcanism is significantly larger than previously appreciated. Three silicic calderas have been newly identified in northwest Nevada, west of the McDermitt volcanic field as well as the Virgin Valley Caldera. These calderas, along with the Virgin Valley Caldera and McDermitt Caldera, are interpreted to have formed during a short interval 16.5–15.5 million years ago, in the waning stage of the Steens flood basalt volcanism. The northwest Nevada calderas have diameters ranging from 15–26 km and deposited high temperature rhyolite ignimbrites over approximately 5000 km.

text: Although the McDermitt volcanic field on the Nevada–Oregon border is frequently shown as the site of the initial impingement of the Yellowstone Hotspot, new geochronology and mapping demonstrates that the area affected by this mid-

text: Miocene

text: volcanism is significantly larger than previously appreciated. Three silicic calderas have been newly identified in northwest Nevada, west of the McDermitt volcanic field as well as the Virgin Valley Caldera. These calderas, along with the Virgin Valley Caldera and

text: McDermitt Caldera

text: , are interpreted to have formed during a short interval 16.5–15.5 million years ago, in the waning stage of the Steens flood basalt volcanism. The northwest Nevada calderas have diameters ranging from 15–26 km and deposited high temperature rhyolite ignimbrites over approximately 5000 km.

text: Another psychologist—Robin S. Rosenberg—has argued Miller's defense makes no sense because Couch could have learned that bad behavior has consequences in other areas of his life, and that a sentence to a luxurious rehabilitation home reinforces the message "that his wealth and privilege can obviate the negative consequences of his criminal behavior".

text: Another psychologist—

text: Robin S. Rosenberg

text: —has argued Miller's defense makes no sense because Couch could have learned that bad behavior has consequences in other areas of his life, and that a sentence to a luxurious rehabilitation home reinforces the message "that his wealth and privilege can obviate the negative consequences of his criminal behavior".

text: At the origin, after the separation of hot and cold, a ball of flame appeared that surrounded Earth like bark on a tree. This ball broke apart to form the rest of the Universe. It resembled a system of hollow concentric wheels, filled with fire, with the rims pierced by holes like those of a flute. Consequently, the Sun was the fire that one could see through a hole the same size as the Earth on the farthest wheel, and an eclipse corresponded with the occlusion of that hole. The diameter of the solar wheel was twenty-seven times that of the Earth (or twenty-eight, depending on the sources) and the lunar wheel, whose fire was less intense, eighteen (or nineteen) times. Its hole could change shape, thus explaining lunar phases. The stars and the planets, located closer, followed the same model.<ref>Most of Anaximander's model of the Universe comes from pseudo-Plutarch (II, 20–28):

text: At the origin, after the separation of

text: hot and cold

text: , a ball of flame appeared that surrounded Earth like bark on a tree. This ball broke apart to form the rest of the Universe. It resembled a system of hollow concentric wheels, filled with fire, with the rims pierced by holes like those of a flute. Consequently, the

text: Sun

text: was the fire that one could see through a hole the same size as the Earth on the farthest wheel, and an eclipse corresponded with the

text: occlusion

text: of that hole. The diameter of the solar wheel was twenty-seven times that of the Earth (or twenty-eight, depending on the sources) and the

text: lunar

text: wheel, whose fire was less intense, eighteen (or nineteen) times. Its hole could change shape, thus explaining

text: lunar phase

text: s. The

text: star

text: s and the

text: planet

text: s, located closer, followed the same model.<ref>Most of Anaximander's model of the Universe comes from pseudo-Plutarch (II, 20–28):

text: Due to the harsh conditions on the surface, little of the planet has been explored; in addition to the fact that life as currently understood may not necessarily be the same in other parts of the universe, the extent of the tenacity of life on Earth itself has not yet been shown. Creatures known as extremophiles exist on Earth, preferring extreme habitats. Thermophiles and hyperthermophiles thrive at temperatures reaching above the boiling point of water, acidophiles thrive at a pH level of 3 or below, polyextremophiles can survive a varied number of extreme conditions, and many other types of extremophiles exist on Earth. However, the surface temperature of Venus (over 450 °C) is far beyond the extremophile range, which extends only tens of degrees beyond 100 °C.

text: Due to the harsh conditions on the surface, little of the planet has been explored; in addition to the fact that life as currently understood may not necessarily be the same in other parts of the universe, the extent of the tenacity of

text: life on Earth

text: itself has not yet been shown. Creatures known as

text: extremophiles

text: exist on Earth, preferring extreme habitats.

text: Thermophile

text: s and

text: hyperthermophile

text: s thrive at temperatures reaching above the boiling point of water,

text: acidophiles

text: thrive at a

text: pH

text: level of 3 or below,

text: polyextremophile

text: s can survive a varied number of extreme conditions, and many other types of extremophiles exist on Earth. However, the surface temperature of Venus (over 450 °C) is far beyond the extremophile range, which extends only tens of degrees beyond 100 °C.

text: The Kruber Ridge is a mountain ridge on the Iturup Island. It is a chain of inactive volcanoes in the northeastern part of the Medvezhy Peninsula ("Bear Peninsula") of the island and constitutes part of the water divide between the Okhotsk Sea and the Pacific Ocean. The average elevation is 400-700m, the highest point being Mount Shibetoro (Shibetoro Peak, Shibetoro-dake) (853m). A part of the ridge are the remnants of the walls of a vast pleistocene caldera (Tsirk Caldera (Circus Caldera).

text: The Kruber Ridge is a

text: mountain

text: ridge

text: on the

text: Iturup Island

text: . It is a chain of inactive

text: volcano

text: es in the northeastern part of the

text: Medvezhy Peninsula

text: ("Bear Peninsula") of the island and constitutes part of the

text: water divide

text: between the

text: Okhotsk Sea

text: and the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: . The average elevation is 400-700m, the highest point being

text: Mount Shibetoro

text: Shibetoro Peak

text: Shibetoro-dake

text: ) (853m). A part of the ridge are the remnants of the walls of a vast

text: pleistocene

text: caldera

text: Tsirk Caldera

text: Circus Caldera

text: Consequently, as long as the required physical range of tolerance are met (e.g.: growth temperature, cosmic radiation shielding, atmosphere and gravity), lifeforms viable on Earth may be chemically nourished by watery asteroid and planetary materials in this and other planetary systems.

text: Consequently, as long as the required

text: physical range of tolerance

text: are met (e.g.: growth temperature, cosmic radiation shielding, atmosphere and gravity), lifeforms viable on Earth may be chemically nourished by watery asteroid and planetary materials in this and other planetary systems.

text: Both Cook and Folsom kept journals during the trip.  Peterson did not. After the expedition, Cook combined the two journals into a single version.  This version was submitted to both the New York Tribune and Scribners for publication.  Both declined citing the unreliability and improbability of the information. It was finally published in a significantly edited version in the Western Monthly Magazine.  In 1904, a version of the account was published in the Contributions to the Historical Society of Montana.  Sometime around 1900, William Peterson wrote A Reminiscence of William Peterson which was later published in the Yellowstone Interpreter in 1964. Charles Cook lived to participate in the 50th Anniversary celebration of Yellowstone's creation in 1922.  That year he authored the Reconstructed Diary of the Cook-Folsom Diary, published in the Haynes Bulletin in 1922-23.  The most accurate and comprehensive account of the expedition was produced by Aubrey L. Haines, the Yellowstone National Park historian in 1965 when he produced The Valley of the Upper Yellowstone which was masterfully reconstructed from all the previous fragmented accounts.

text: Both Cook and Folsom kept journals during the trip.  Peterson did not. After the expedition, Cook combined the two journals into a single version.  This version was submitted to both the

text: New York Tribune

text: and

text: Scribners

text: for publication.  Both declined citing the unreliability and improbability of the information. It was finally published in a significantly edited version in the Western Monthly Magazine.  In 1904, a version of the account was published in the Contributions to the Historical Society of Montana.  Sometime around 1900, William Peterson wrote A Reminiscence of William Peterson which was later published in the Yellowstone Interpreter in 1964. Charles Cook lived to participate in the 50th Anniversary celebration of Yellowstone's creation in 1922.  That year he authored the Reconstructed Diary of the Cook-Folsom Diary, published in the Haynes Bulletin in 1922-23.  The most accurate and comprehensive account of the expedition was produced by Aubrey L. Haines, the Yellowstone National Park historian in 1965 when he produced The Valley of the Upper Yellowstone which was masterfully reconstructed from all the previous fragmented accounts.

text: The question of A's beliefs is no different. If A honestly believes that B is only slightly injured and so could move himself out of danger without difficulty, how fair is it to say that he ought to have foreseen? The test is what the reasonable person would have known and foreseen, given what A had done. It is the function of any court to evaluate behaviour. A defendant cannot evade responsibility through a form of wilful blindness. Fault lies not only in what a person actually believes, but also in failing to understand what the vast majority of other people would have understood. Hence, the test is hybrid, looking both at what the defendant actually knew and foresaw (i.e. subjective), and at what the reasonable person would have known (i.e. objective) and then combining the conclusions into a general evaluation of the degree of fault or blameworthiness.

text: Johnson appeared in victory lane to celebrate his fourth victory of the season in front of 110,000 people who attended the race. Johnson also earned $276,076 in race winnings. Afterward, he said, "I woke up (on Sunday) morning very optimistic. By about lap two or three I knew we had a very balanced car and we'd be competitive all day long, get a solid finish.", he continued, "I see guys get so worried about what other people think, what other people say and spend a lot of time in those areas. That's not what works for me. (I) don't watch television; don't watch or read any of the trade papers or magazines. Just ignore, ignore, ignore and focus on my world and what's going on with my race car. That's what I'll do through the rest of the Chase."

text: Johnson appeared in

text: victory lane

text: to celebrate his fourth victory of the season in front of 110,000 people who attended the race. Johnson also earned $276,076 in race winnings. Afterward, he said, "I woke up (on Sunday) morning very optimistic. By about lap two or three I knew we had a very balanced car and we'd be competitive all day long, get a solid finish.", he continued, "I see guys get so worried about what other people think, what other people say and spend a lot of time in those areas. That's not what works for me. (I) don't watch television; don't watch or read any of the trade papers or magazines. Just ignore, ignore, ignore and focus on my world and what's going on with my race car. That's what I'll do through the rest of the Chase."

text: Based on the distribution of crosswind of maximum lithics clasts, the top of eruption column might have reached 36 km (H=25 km), with a mass discharge rate of around 3.6 × 10 kg/s (3.6 × 10 m/s). The distribution of downwind of maximum lithics clasts showed the wind direction at the time to be SE120°, and the wind speed to be 30 m/s. The height of eruption column (H=25 km), the water content of magma (1–2%), and the temperature of magma (1000 k) indicate that radius of the eruption vent was 200 m. The climax of the eruption may released 4.18–12.43 × 10 joule, and the eruption might lasted for 35–104 hours.

text: Based on the distribution of crosswind of maximum lithics clasts, the top of eruption column might have reached 36 km (H=25 km), with a mass discharge rate of around 3.6 × 10 kg/s (3.6 × 10 m/s). The distribution of downwind of maximum lithics clasts showed the wind direction at the time to be SE120°, and the

text: wind speed

text: to be 30 m/s. The height of eruption column (H=25 km), the water content of magma (1–2%), and the temperature of magma (1000 k) indicate that radius of the eruption vent was 200 m. The climax of the eruption may released 4.18–12.43 × 10 joule, and the eruption might lasted for 35–104 hours.

text: The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, 70,000 to 75,000 years ago reduced the average global temperature by 5 degrees Celsius for several years and may have triggered an ice age. It has been postulated that this created a bottleneck in human evolution. A much smaller but similar effect occurred after the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883, when global temperatures fell for about 5 years in a row.

text: The eruption of the

text: Toba supervolcano

text: , 70,000 to 75,000 years ago reduced the average global temperature by 5 degrees Celsius for several years and may have triggered an ice age. It has been postulated that this created a bottleneck in human evolution. A much smaller but similar effect occurred after the

text: eruption of Krakatoa in 1883

text: , when global temperatures fell for about 5 years in a row.

text: Two ecologists (played by Veronica Ferres and Gael Garcia Bernal) are sent to South America as part of a U.N. investigation into an ecological disaster. They are quickly kidnapped by the villainous CEO (played by Michael Shannon) of a large company held responsible for the ecological disaster. But when a supervolcano nearby begins to show signs of erupting, they must unite to avoid a disaster.

text: Two ecologists (played by

text: Veronica Ferres

text: and

text: Gael Garcia Bernal

text: ) are sent to South America as part of a U.N. investigation into an ecological disaster. They are quickly kidnapped by the villainous CEO (played by

text: Michael Shannon

text: ) of a large company held responsible for the ecological disaster. But when a

text: supervolcano

text: nearby begins to show signs of erupting, they must unite to avoid a disaster.

text: It was reported that a majority of the protesters were clueless on what they were protesting. A protester was noted to have said " I don't know what is GST. What I know is that it is a burden to the people.That's all I care, I don't care to know what is GST."  The acronym for GST itself was wrongly interpreted as "Government Service Tax" rather that "Goods and Service Tax".

text: The Yellowstone hotspot, also referred to as the Snake River Plain-Yellowstone hotspot, is a volcanic hotspot responsible for large scale volcanism in Oregon, Nevada, Idaho, and Wyoming (in the United States) created as the North American tectonic plate moved across the Yellowstone hotspot. It formed the eastern Snake River Plain through a succession of caldera forming eruptions. The resulting calderas include the Island Park Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera, and the Bruneau-Jarbidge caldera. The hotspot currently lies under the Yellowstone Caldera. The hotspot's most recent caldera forming supereruption, known as the Lava Creek eruption, took place 640,000 years ago and created the Lava Creek Tuff, and the most recent Yellowstone Caldera. The Yellowstone hotspot is one of a few volcanic hotspots underlying the North American tectonic plate; others include the Anahim and Raton hotspots.

text: The Yellowstone hotspot, also referred to as the Snake River Plain-Yellowstone hotspot, is a

text: volcanic

text: hotspot

text: responsible for large scale volcanism in

text: Oregon

text: Nevada

text: Idaho

text: , and

text: Wyoming

text: (in the United States) created as the

text: North American tectonic plate

text: moved across the Yellowstone hotspot. It formed the eastern

text: Snake River Plain

text: through a succession of

text: caldera

text: forming eruptions. The resulting calderas include the

text: Island Park Caldera

text: , the

text: Henry's Fork Caldera

text: , and the

text: Bruneau-Jarbidge caldera

text: . The hotspot currently lies under the

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: . The hotspot's most recent caldera forming

text: supereruption

text: , known as the

text: Lava Creek eruption

text: , took place 640,000 years ago and created the

text: Lava Creek Tuff

text: , and the most recent Yellowstone Caldera. The Yellowstone hotspot is one of a few volcanic hotspots underlying the North American tectonic plate; others include the

text: Anahim

text: and

text: Raton

text: hotspots.

text: Supervolcano is a  disaster television film that originally aired on 13 March 2005 on BBC One, and released by the BBC on 10 April 2005 on the Discovery Channel. It is centered on the speculated and potential eruption of the volcanic caldera of Yellowstone National Park. Its tagline is "Scientists know it as the deadliest volcano on Earth. You know it...as Yellowstone."

text: Supervolcano is a

text: disaster

text: television film

text: that originally aired on 13 March 2005 on

text: BBC One

text: , and released by the

text: BBC

text: on 10 April 2005 on the

text: Discovery Channel

text: . It is centered on the speculated and potential eruption of the volcanic

text: caldera

text: of

text: Yellowstone National Park

text: . Its tagline is "Scientists know it as the deadliest volcano on Earth. You know it...as Yellowstone."

text: Caldera Systems quickly found itself in a classic business problem where the interests of the existing business conflicted with their growth model. Santa Cruz Operation (SCO) was a much larger company than Caldera Systems had been, and in fact of the $71 million of revenue 90% was from the SCO side of the business. Moreover, Caldera Systems costs $4 in marketing to generate a $1 in sales, SCO was mature and sold itself (mainly to repeat customers). The VAR relationship was even more problematic. Caldera Systems had always sold the "Linux is SCO but better" model and had done everything possible to make the transition from SCO to Caldera Systems relatively seamless. Each of the 14,000 SCO resellers made much more from each SCO sale than from sales of Caldera Systems, so they were not anxious to move existing customers from SCO to Linux; and even those, that were supportive of Linux, saw no strong value add for Caldera Systems and often sold Red Hat Enterprise Linux. Caldera Systems had two businesses in direct competition, one, which was a shrinking, but still profitable Unix business, the other a rapidly growing business, that was still hemorrhaging money.

text: Caldera Systems quickly found itself in a classic business problem where the interests of the existing business conflicted with their growth model.

text: Santa Cruz Operation

text: (SCO) was a much larger company than Caldera Systems had been, and in fact of the $71 million of revenue 90% was from the SCO side of the business. Moreover, Caldera Systems costs $4 in marketing to generate a $1 in sales, SCO was mature and sold itself (mainly to repeat customers). The

text: VAR

text: relationship was even more problematic. Caldera Systems had always sold the "

text: Linux

text: is SCO but better" model and had done everything possible to make the transition from SCO to Caldera Systems relatively seamless. Each of the 14,000 SCO resellers made much more from each SCO sale than from sales of Caldera Systems, so they were not anxious to move existing customers from SCO to Linux; and even those, that were supportive of Linux, saw no strong value add for Caldera Systems and often sold

text: Red Hat Enterprise Linux

text: . Caldera Systems had two businesses in direct competition, one, which was a shrinking, but still profitable Unix business, the other a rapidly growing business, that was still hemorrhaging money.

text: Life on earth has suffered occasional mass extinctions at least since . Although they are disasters at the time, mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on earth. When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another, it is rarely because the new dominant group is "superior" to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one.

text: Life on earth has suffered occasional mass extinctions at least since . Although they are disasters at the time, mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of

text: life on earth

text: . When dominance of particular

text: ecological niche

text: s passes from one group of organisms to another, it is rarely because the new dominant group is "superior" to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one.

text: For three months in 1985, 3,000 minor earthquakes were detected in the northwestern section of the park, during what has been referred to as an earthquake swarm, and has been attributed to minor subsidence of the Yellowstone caldera. Beginning on April 30, 2007, 16 small earthquakes with magnitudes up to 2.7 occurred in the Yellowstone Caldera for several days. These swarms of earthquakes are common, and there have been 70 such swarms between 1983 and 2008. In December 2008, over 250 earthquakes were measured over a four-day span under Yellowstone Lake, the largest measuring a magnitude of 3.9. In January 2010, more than 250 earthquakes were detected over a two-day period. Seismic activity in Yellowstone National Park continues and is reported hourly by the Earthquake Hazards Program of the U.S. Geological Survey.

text: For three months in 1985, 3,000 minor earthquakes were detected in the northwestern section of the park, during what has been referred to as an

text: earthquake swarm

text: , and has been attributed to minor subsidence of the Yellowstone caldera. Beginning on April 30, 2007, 16 small earthquakes with magnitudes up to 2.7 occurred in the Yellowstone Caldera for several days. These swarms of earthquakes are common, and there have been 70 such swarms between 1983 and 2008. In December 2008, over 250 earthquakes were measured over a four-day span under Yellowstone Lake, the largest measuring a magnitude of 3.9. In January 2010, more than 250 earthquakes were detected over a two-day period. Seismic activity in Yellowstone National Park continues and is reported hourly by the Earthquake Hazards Program of the U.S. Geological Survey.

text: She had starring roles in the 1990s CBC series Black Harbour, and the films Bye Bye Blues, Marion Bridge, Wilby Wonderful, Whole New Thing, South of Wawa and Supervolcano. She also had a supporting role in the 1992 film Bob Roberts, as Dolores Perrigrew. In NBC's miniseries 10.5 she portrayed California governor Carla Williams.

text: She had starring roles in the 1990s

text: CBC

text: series

text: Black Harbour

text: , and the films

text: Bye Bye Blues

text: Marion Bridge

text: Wilby Wonderful

text: Whole New Thing

text: South of Wawa

text: and

text: Supervolcano

text: . She also had a supporting role in the 1992 film

text: Bob Roberts

text: , as Dolores Perrigrew. In NBC's miniseries

text: she portrayed

text: California

text: governor Carla Williams.

text: ViewMAX/3 was intended to be the graphical file manager for Novell's next version of DR DOS. ViewMAX/3 included support for colour icons, movable and resizable windows, program groups, and background images. Although ViewMAX/3 was part of the DR DOS "Panther" Beta 1 distribution in October 1992, it was never completed and apparently abandoned in favour to Apple's and Novell's "Star Trek" team project in 1992/1993, which remained unreleased as well. So Novell DOS 7, as "DR DOS 7.0" was called in 1994, came without a graphical file manager at all.When Caldera bought the remaining Digital Research assets from Novell in 1996, initial plans were to revive GEM and ViewMAX technologies for a low-footprint user interface for OpenDOS in mobile applications as Caldera View, but these plans were abandoned by Caldera UK in favour of DR-WebSpyder and GROW. After closing the DR-DOS development center Caldera UK in early 1999, the remaining source code of the ViewMAX/3 beta version was published in April 1999 by the US parent company Caldera Thin Clients under the GPL following continued community request to release the sources, shortly before the company changed its name to Lineo and switched to Linux-based technologies three months later.

text: ViewMAX/3 was intended to be the graphical file manager for

text: Novell

text: 's next version of DR DOS. ViewMAX/3 included support for colour

text: icons

text: , movable and resizable windows, program groups, and background images. Although ViewMAX/3 was part of the

text: DR DOS "Panther"

text: Beta 1 distribution in October 1992, it was never completed and apparently abandoned in favour to

text: Apple

text: 's and Novell's "

text: Star Trek

text: " team project in 1992/1993, which remained unreleased as well. So

text: Novell DOS 7

text: , as "DR DOS 7.0" was called in 1994, came without a graphical file manager at all.When

text: Caldera

text: bought the remaining Digital Research assets from Novell in 1996, initial plans were to revive GEM and ViewMAX technologies for a low-footprint user interface for

text: OpenDOS

text: in mobile applications as Caldera View, but these plans were abandoned by

text: Caldera UK

text: in favour of

text: DR-WebSpyder

text: and

text: GROW

text: . After closing the DR-DOS development center Caldera UK in early 1999, the remaining source code of the ViewMAX/3

text: beta version

text: was published in April 1999 by the US parent company

text: Caldera Thin Clients

text: under the

text: GPL

text: following continued community request to release the sources, shortly before the company changed its name to

text: Lineo

text: and switched to

text: Linux

text: -based technologies three months later.

text: [Fourth chapter (The Mahābhisheka ceremony performed on a King.  What Rishis performed it, and for what Kings they performed it.)15. (The consequences of Mahābhisheka.  The oath which the King must take before the priest performs the ceremony.)The priest who, with this knowledge (about the Mahābhisheka ceremony) wishes that a Kshattriya should conquer in all the various ways of conquest, to subjugate all people, and that he should attain to leadership, precedence, and supremacy over all kings, and attain everywhere and at all times to ] universal sovereignty, enjoyment (of pleasures), independence, distinguished distinction as a king, the fulfilment of the highest desires, the position of a king, of a great king, and supreme mastership, that he might cross (with his arms) the universe, and become the ruler of the whole earth during all his life, which may last for an infinitely long time, that he might be the sole king of the earth up to its shores bordering on the ocean; [such a priest should inaugurate the Kshattriya with Indra's great inauguration ceremony.  But before doing so, the priest must make the king take the following oath: "Whatever pious works thou mightest have done during the time which may elapse from the day of thy birth to the day of thy death, all together with thy position, thy good deeds, thy life, thy children, I would wrest from thee, shouldest thou do me any harm."The Kshattriya then who wishes to attain to all this, should well consider and say in good faith all that is above mentioned (thou mayest wrest from me, &c. &c.)]

text: The loss of life during the 1985 eruption was due partly to the fact that scientists did not know precisely when the eruption would occur, and the authorities would not take costly preventative measures without clear warnings of imminent danger. Because the volcano's last substantial eruption occurred 140 years ago, it was also hard for many to accept the danger the volcano presented; locals even called it the "Sleeping Lion". Hazard maps showing Armero would be completely flooded after an eruption were distributed more than a month before the eruption, but the Colombian Congress criticized the scientific and civil defense agencies for scaremongering. Local authorities failed to alert people to the seriousness of the situation, with Armero's mayor and a priest both reassuring the populace after an ash eruption on the afternoon of November 13 and the consequent ashfall early that evening. Another factor was the storm that hit that evening, causing electrical outages and hindering communications. Civil defense officials from four nearby towns tried to warn Armero the lahar was approaching in the hour or so before it reached Armero, but failed to make radio contact.

text: The loss of life during the 1985 eruption was due partly to the fact that scientists did not know precisely when the eruption would occur, and the authorities would not take costly preventative measures without clear warnings of imminent danger. Because the volcano's last substantial eruption occurred 140 years ago, it was also hard for many to accept the danger the volcano presented; locals even called it the "Sleeping Lion".

text: Hazard map

text: s showing Armero would be completely flooded after an eruption were distributed more than a month before the eruption, but the Colombian Congress criticized the scientific and

text: civil defense

text: agencies for scaremongering. Local authorities failed to alert people to the seriousness of the situation, with Armero's mayor and a priest both reassuring the populace after an ash eruption on the afternoon of November 13 and the consequent ashfall early that evening. Another factor was the storm that hit that evening, causing electrical outages and hindering communications. Civil defense officials from four nearby towns tried to warn Armero the lahar was approaching in the hour or so before it reached Armero, but failed to make radio contact.

text: In 1993, Hampson officially started her journalism career. She wrote for Toronto Life, Saturday Night, Chatelaine, Report on Business and Canadian Art, among other publications. She has done interviews with high profile individuals, some being Isaiah Thomas, NBA basketball player and Emanuel Sandhu, So You Think You Can Dance contestant. “People are such interesting  beings," Hampson says to the Ryerson Review of Journalism "there are so many things going on with them—what  happened today, what happened yesterday, what they’re here to speak to you about, what their background is, what they’re going to do tomorrow."

text: In 1993, Hampson officially started her journalism career. She wrote for

text: Toronto Life

text: Saturday Night

text: Chatelaine

text: Report on Business

text: and

text: Canadian Art

text: , among other publications. She has done interviews with high profile individuals, some being

text: Isaiah Thomas

text: , NBA basketball player and

text: Emanuel Sandhu

text: So You Think You Can Dance

text: contestant. “People are such interesting  beings," Hampson says to the Ryerson Review of Journalism "there are so many things going on with them—what  happened today, what happened yesterday, what they’re here to speak to you about, what their background is, what they’re going to do tomorrow."

text: In a world governed by the second law of thermodynamics, all isolated systems are expected to approach a state of maximum disorder. Since life approaches and maintains a highly ordered state, some argue that this seems to violate the aforementioned Second Law implying that there is a paradox. However, since the biosphere is not an isolated system, there is no paradox. The increase of order inside an organism is more than paid for by an increase in disorder outside this organism by the loss of heat into the environment. By this mechanism, the Second Law is obeyed, and life maintains a highly ordered state, which it sustains by causing a net increase in disorder in the Universe. In order to increase the complexity on Earth — as life does — free energy is needed. Free energy for life here on Earth is provided by the Sun.

text: In a world governed by the

text: second law of thermodynamics

text: , all

text: isolated system

text: s are expected to approach a state of maximum disorder. Since life approaches and maintains a highly ordered state, some argue that this seems to violate the aforementioned Second Law implying that there is a paradox. However, since the

text: biosphere

text: is not an isolated system, there is no paradox. The increase of order inside an organism is more than paid for by an increase in disorder outside this organism by the loss of heat into the environment. By this mechanism, the Second Law is obeyed, and life maintains a highly ordered state, which it sustains by causing a net increase in disorder in the Universe. In order to increase the complexity on Earth — as life does —

text: free energy

text: is needed. Free energy for life here on Earth is provided by the Sun.

text: Generally the geysers are known to erupt during the completion of the above cycle, although there have been eruptions that begin with Lower Mortar, and ever rarer: Upper Mortar. Preceding an eruption, the water levels in the whole complex will generally rise. However, the geysers may erupt at any time. The geysers' eruption will become more powerful, and the water level in the complex will rise. Splashing in the river and main vents will increase, and there may be a massive surge from the east vent triggering the eruption. All the vents in Fan will constantly jet water, with the angle vent launching water up to the boardwalk, and sometimes beyond it. Fan will show why its name is so deserved, as it erupts out of all seven vents, creating a wide fan-shaped jet that reaches heights of over 100 feet, and arcs water up over the boardwalk, landing 200 feet away from the vent. Mortar, while not as spectacular as Fan, sends jets out of its two main vents up to 50 feet high. Sometimes one vent will dominate the eruption sending a plume of water over 80 feet into the air. The eruption will generally last for around 15 minutes, until it stops, then restarts again, this time fading in power. It does this a few more times, until about 45 minutes have elapsed. It may then enter into a slight steam phase, during which the geysers send brief puffs of steam out of their vents.

text: The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that occurs when people make judgments about the probability of events on the basis of how easy it is to think of examples. The availability heuristic operates on the notion that, "if you can think of it, it must be important." The availability of consequences associated with an action is positively related to perceptions of the magnitude of the consequences of that action. In other words, the easier it is to recall the consequences of something, the greater we perceive these consequences to be. Sometimes, this heuristic is beneficial, but the frequencies at which events come to mind are usually not accurate reflections of the probabilities of such events in real life.

text: While it is suspected that major volcanic eruptions that coincide with cyclic solar minimum activity could produce temporary global cooling or reduction in global temperature, it is noted that coincidentally the earth-facing side of the Sun was mostly blank with no sun spots since the start of the second eruption phase on 14 until 29 April 2010. Although the current unusually long solar minimum came to a close earlier this year, the current cycle may witness unusual weak solar maximum. Other research links volcanic eruptions including recent Icelandic activity to the solar cycle. Most consider the climate anomaly of the Year Without A Summer 1816 to have been caused by a combination of a historic low in solar activity with a volcanic winter event; the latter caused by a succession of major volcanic eruptions capped off by the Mount Tambora eruption of 1815, the largest known eruption in over 1,600 years. One proposed volcanic winter happened c. 70,000 years ago following the supereruption of Lake Toba on Sumatra island in Indonesia.

text: While it is suspected that major volcanic eruptions that coincide with cyclic

text: solar minimum

text: activity could produce temporary

text: global cooling

text: or reduction in global temperature, it is noted that coincidentally the earth-facing side of the Sun was mostly blank with no

text: sun spots

text: since the start of the second eruption phase on 14 until 29 April 2010. Although the current unusually long

text: solar minimum

text: came to a close earlier this year, the

text: current cycle

text: may witness unusual weak

text: solar maximum

text: . Other research links volcanic eruptions including recent Icelandic activity to the

text: solar cycle

text: . Most consider the

text: climate anomaly

text: of the

text: Year Without A Summer

text: 1816 to have been caused by a combination of a historic low in

text: solar activity

text: with a

text: volcanic winter

text: event; the latter caused by a succession of major volcanic eruptions capped off by the

text: Mount Tambora

text: eruption of 1815, the largest known eruption in over 1,600 years. One proposed volcanic winter happened c. 70,000 years ago following the

text: supereruption

text: of

text: Lake Toba

text: on Sumatra island in Indonesia.

text: The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidences of life include graphite, a biogenic substance, in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe."  More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.

text: The

text: age of the Earth

text: is about 4.54 billion years. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the

text: Eoarchean

text: Era after a geological

text: crust

text: Hadean

text: Eon. There are

text: microbial mat

text: fossils

text: found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: discovered in

text: Western Australia

text: . Other early physical evidences of life include

text: graphite

text: , a

text: biogenic substance

text: , in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: metasedimentary rocks

text: discovered in western

text: Greenland

text: and, in 2015, "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: ."  More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be

text: extinct

text: . Estimates on the number of Earth's current

text: species

text: range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.

text: With some theorising that life on Earth may have actually originated in stable, subsurface habitats, it has been suggested that it may be common for wet subsurface extraterrestrial habitats such as these to 'teem with life'. Indeed, on Earth itself living organisms may be found more than 6 kilometres below the surface.

text: The eastern side is a boundary with the North American Plate to the north and a boundary with the Philippine Sea Plate to the south, and possibly with the Okhotsk Plate and the Amurian Plate. The southerly side is a boundary with the African Plate to the west, the Arabian Plate in the middle and the Indo-Australian Plate to the east. The westerly side is a divergent boundary with the North American Plate forming the northernmost part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is straddled by Iceland. All of the volcanic eruptions in Iceland, such as the 1973 eruption of Eldfell, the 1783 eruption of Laki, and the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull, are caused by the North American and the Eurasian plates moving apart, which is a result of divergent plate boundary forces.

text: The eastern side is a boundary with the

text: North American Plate

text: to the north and a boundary with the

text: Philippine Sea Plate

text: to the south, and possibly with the

text: Okhotsk Plate

text: and the

text: Amurian Plate

text: . The southerly side is a boundary with the

text: African Plate

text: to the west, the

text: Arabian Plate

text: in the middle and the

text: Indo-Australian Plate

text: to the east. The westerly side is a

text: divergent boundary

text: with the North American Plate forming the northernmost part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is straddled by

text: Iceland

text: . All of the volcanic eruptions in Iceland, such as the 1973 eruption of

text: Eldfell

text: , the 1783 eruption of

text: Laki

text: , and the 2010 eruption of

text: Eyjafjallajökull

text: , are caused by the North American and the Eurasian plates moving apart, which is a result of

text: divergent

text: plate boundary forces.

text: In 2005, a BBC/Discovery docudrama entitled Supervolcano was released on cable television.   The drama imagines the reaction of the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory to a super eruption at the Yellowstone Caldera.  Producer Ailsa Orr credits YVO scientists as inspiration for the film's three primary characters.  The YVO Scientist-in-Charge reflected on the hype associated with volcanism at Yellowstone in a 2005 magazine article.

text: In 2005, a BBC/Discovery docudrama entitled Supervolcano was released on cable television.   The drama imagines the reaction of the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory to a super eruption at the

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: .  Producer Ailsa Orr credits YVO scientists as inspiration for the film's three primary characters.  The YVO Scientist-in-Charge reflected on the hype associated with volcanism at Yellowstone in a 2005 magazine article.

text: Social intelligence is closely related to cognition and emotional intelligence.Research psychologists studying social cognition and social neuroscience have discovered many principles which human social intelligence operates. In early work on this topic, psychologists Nancy Cantor and John Kihlstrom outlined the kinds of concepts people use to make sense of their social relations (e.g., “What situation am I in and what kind of person is this who is talking to me?”), and the rules they use to draw inferences (“What did he mean by that?”) and plan actions (“What am I going to do about it?”).

text: Social intelligence is closely related to

text: cognition

text: and

text: emotional intelligence

text: .Research psychologists studying social cognition and social

text: neuroscience

text: have discovered many principles which human social intelligence operates. In early work on this topic, psychologists

text: Nancy Cantor

text: and John Kihlstrom outlined the kinds of concepts people use to make sense of their social relations (e.g., “What situation am I in and what kind of person is this who is talking to me?”), and the rules they use to draw inferences (“What did he mean by that?”) and plan actions (“What am I going to do about it?”).

text: On the other hand, if a planet were found to be already inhabited, much less benign consequences ensue: indeed, some science fiction authors have used the colonization of alien planets by humans, or the colonization of Earth by aliens, to explore the real-world issues surrounding the phenomenon. Such works include those of Mary Doria Russell, The Sparrow and Children of God.

text: On the other hand, if a planet were found to be already inhabited, much less benign consequences ensue: indeed, some science fiction authors have used the colonization of alien planets by humans, or the colonization of

text: Earth

text: by aliens, to explore the real-world issues surrounding the phenomenon. Such works include those of

text: Mary Doria Russell

text: , The Sparrow and Children of God.

text: The Edison Manufacturing Company version was released in three parts: Mt. Pelee Smoking Before Eruption (St. Pierre, Martinique), Mt. Pelee in Eruption and Destruction of St. Pierre (Martinique), and Burning of St. Pierre (Martinique). The Edison Company had sent the photographer J. Blair Smith to Martinique to film the aftermath of the accident; meanwhile, the filmmaker Edwin S. Porter stayed at the Edison studio in Orange, New Jersey to recreate the eruption using a studio model. A dozen clips of Smith's real-life footage, and all three of Porter's films simulating different stages of the eruption, were sold by the Edison Company in July 1902; the catalogue encouraged exhibitors to combine the real and faked films to "make a complete show in themselves." According to the film historian Lewis Jacobs, the crew that created the Edison version found their own unique way to simulate the eruption: they exposed a barrel of beer to direct sunlight and waited for it to explode.

text: The

text: Edison Manufacturing Company

text: version was released in three parts: Mt. Pelee Smoking Before Eruption (St. Pierre, Martinique), Mt. Pelee in Eruption and Destruction of St. Pierre (Martinique), and Burning of St. Pierre (Martinique). The Edison Company had sent the photographer J. Blair Smith to Martinique to film the aftermath of the accident; meanwhile, the filmmaker

text: Edwin S. Porter

text: stayed at the Edison studio in

text: Orange, New Jersey

text: to recreate the eruption using a studio model. A dozen clips of Smith's real-life footage, and all three of Porter's films simulating different stages of the eruption, were sold by the Edison Company in July 1902; the catalogue encouraged exhibitors to combine the real and faked films to "make a complete show in themselves." According to the film historian

text: Lewis Jacobs

text: , the crew that created the Edison version found their own unique way to simulate the eruption: they exposed a barrel of beer to direct sunlight and waited for it to explode.

text: The igneous rocks of the Saint Francois Mts. are interpreted to be a series of caldera complexes, similar in scale to the Yellowstone caldera complex. However, it is debated whether the igneous activity was related to a hotspot, like Yellowstone, or whether it was related to an ancient subduction zone.

text: The igneous rocks of the Saint Francois Mts. are interpreted to be a series of caldera complexes, similar in scale to the

text: Yellowstone caldera

text: complex. However, it is debated whether the igneous activity was related to a

text: hotspot

text: , like Yellowstone, or whether it was related to an ancient

text: subduction zone

text: "What She's Doing Now" was an idea I had a long, long time about a man wondering what a woman was doing.  And it was very simple.  What is she doing now?  Is she hanging out the clothes?  Is she running a business?  Is she a mother?  Is she married?  Who is she with?  When I told the idea to Pat Alger, he looked at me with a smile and said, 'I wonder if she knows what she's doing now

text: The most massive supervolcano eruption was the Toba eruption that took place at the present location of Lake Toba, about  Before Present. The supervolcano eruption is believed to had caused volcanic winter and cooling of the climate, and subsequently led to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution about 50,000 years ago.

text: The most massive supervolcano eruption was the

text: Toba eruption

text: that took place at the present location of

text: Lake Toba

text: , about

text: Before Present

text: . The supervolcano eruption is believed to had caused

text: volcanic winter

text: and cooling of the climate, and subsequently led to a

text: genetic bottleneck

text: in

text: human evolution

text: about 50,000 years ago.

text: Early uses of petroleum- Earth Charter- Earth Day- Earth First!- Earth from the Air- Earth house- Earth immune system- Earth in the Balance- Earth observation satellite- Earth Rights Institute- Earth science- Earth sheltering- Earth Simulator- Earth Summit- Earth Summit 2002- Earthen dam- Earthjustice- Earthlife Africa- EarthSave- Earthwatch Institute- Earthweek

text: Early uses of petroleum

text: Earth Charter

text: Earth Day

text: Earth First!

text: Earth from the Air

text: Earth house

text: Earth immune system

text: Earth in the Balance

text: Earth observation satellite

text: Earth Rights Institute

text: Earth science

text: Earth sheltering

text: Earth Simulator

text: Earth Summit

text: Earth Summit 2002

text: Earthen dam

text: Earthjustice

text: Earthlife Africa

text: EarthSave

text: Earthwatch Institute

text: Earthweek

text: In autumn 2002 a consortium of independent consultants  was engaged to undertake a root and branch review of its structures and activities and to develop a strategy for the future development of the organisation. It was envisaged that a review would provide an opportunity to evaluate what had happened with the organisation since its inception; as well as an opportunity to analyse, with the advice of outside experts, what had been successful and what had not been as effective; to hear what key players thought about the organisation and to assess how others go about similar work. In the summer of 2003 a strategic review was published with 54 recommendations.

text: Iceland has many geysers, including Geysir, from which the English word is derived, and the famous Strokkur, which erupts every 8–10 minutes. After a phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000. Geysir has since grown quieter and does not erupt often.

text: Iceland has many

text: geyser

text: s, including

text: Geysir

text: , from which the English word is derived, and the famous

text: Strokkur

text: , which erupts every 8–10 minutes. After a phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000. Geysir has since grown quieter and does not erupt often.

text: In 1979, the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka, Ranasinghe Premadasa, donated a house for Caldera to live. In 1993, Caldera received a Kala Bhushana award (the second highest award granted by the state to performing artists). Student bodies at several universities and non-governmental organizations honored him in appreciation of his service to folk music.

text: In 1979, the

text: Prime Minister of Sri Lanka

text: Ranasinghe Premadasa

text: , donated a house for Caldera to live. In 1993, Caldera received a Kala Bhushana award (the second highest award granted by the state to performing artists). Student bodies at several universities and non-governmental organizations honored him in appreciation of his service to

text: folk music

text: The eruptions vary greatly in severity but are characterized by explosive outbursts of the kind dubbed Plinian after Pliny the Younger, a Roman writer who published a detailed description of the 79 AD eruption, including his uncle's death. On occasion, eruptions from Vesuvius have been so large that the whole of southern Europe has been blanketed by ash; in 472 and 1631, Vesuvian ash fell on Constantinople (Istanbul), over  away. A few times since 1944, landslides in the crater have raised clouds of ash dust, raising false alarms of an eruption.

text: The eruptions vary greatly in severity but are characterized by explosive outbursts of the kind dubbed

text: Plinian

text: after

text: Pliny the Younger

text: , a Roman writer who published a detailed description of the 79 AD eruption, including his uncle's death. On occasion, eruptions from Vesuvius have been so large that the whole of southern Europe has been blanketed by ash; in 472 and 1631, Vesuvian ash fell on

text: Constantinople

text: Istanbul

text: ), over  away. A few times since 1944, landslides in the crater have raised clouds of ash dust, raising false alarms of an eruption.

text: There are many different types of volcanic eruptions and associated activity: phreatic eruptions (steam-generated eruptions), explosive eruption of high-silica lava (e.g., rhyolite), effusive eruption of low-silica lava (e.g., basalt), pyroclastic flows, lahars (debris flow) and carbon dioxide emission. All of these activities can pose a hazard to humans. Earthquakes, hot springs, fumaroles, mud pots and geysers often accompany volcanic activity.

text: There are many different

text: types of volcanic eruptions

text: and associated activity:

text: phreatic eruptions

text: (steam-generated eruptions), explosive eruption of high-

text: silica

text: lava (e.g.,

text: rhyolite

text: ), effusive eruption of low-silica lava (e.g.,

text: basalt

text: pyroclastic flow

text: s,

text: lahar

text: s (debris flow) and

text: carbon dioxide

text: emission. All of these activities can pose a hazard to humans. Earthquakes,

text: hot spring

text: s,

text: fumarole

text: s,

text: mud pot

text: s and

text: geyser

text: s often accompany volcanic activity.

text: Asked in a 2003 interview what had made Colorado Ballet successful, Covillo said, "It was just staying power. Just being in there and through thick, through thin, through heaven and hell. We did it anyway. People said, 'What did you do for a social life?' We both looked at each other, Social life? We rehearsed a lot. We ate hamburgers afterwards. That was really it, to have the desire to have it be what it is today." She added, "Now, we’re not responsible for what it is today."

text: Various alternative versions of Gravity appear in the What If? storylines What If? Secret Wars #1 (2009), What If? House of M #1 (2009), What If? Spider-Man of House of M #1 (2009), and What If? Secret Invasion #1 (2010) in minor and cameo roles.

text: Various alternative versions of Gravity appear in the

text: What If?

text: storylines What If?

text: Secret Wars

text: #1 (2009), What If?

text: House of M

text: #1 (2009), What If? Spider-Man of House of M #1 (2009), and What If?

text: Secret Invasion

text: #1 (2010) in minor and cameo roles.

text: To the southwest of the caldera lies the Snake River Plain, which was formed by a succession of older calderas marking the path of the Yellowstone hotspot.  The Plain is a depression, sinking under the weight of the volcanic rocks that formed it, through which the Snake River winds.  Other observable volcanic features in the Plain include:  the Menan Buttes, the Big Southern Butte, Craters of the Moon, the Wapi Lava Field and Hell's Half Acre.

text: To the southwest of the caldera lies the

text: Snake River Plain

text: , which was formed by a succession of older calderas marking the path of the

text: Yellowstone hotspot

text: .  The Plain is a depression, sinking under the weight of the volcanic rocks that formed it, through which the

text: Snake River

text: winds.  Other observable volcanic features in the Plain include:  the

text: Menan Buttes

text: , the

text: Big Southern Butte

text: Craters of the Moon

text: , the

text: Wapi Lava Field

text: and

text: Hell's Half Acre

text: Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository is the proposed U.S. Department of Energy deep geological repository storage facility for spent nuclear reactor fuel and other radioactive waste.The repository is located in a desert on federal land adjacent to the Nevada Test Site in Nye County, Nevada, about 80 miles from the Las Vegas metropolitan area. The repository lies within Yucca Mountain, a ridge line in the south-central part of the U.S. state of Nevada.The ridge is composed of volcanic material (mostly tuff) ejected from a now-extinct caldera-forming supervolcano.

text: Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository

text: is the proposed

text: U.S. Department of Energy

text: deep geological repository

text: storage facility for

text: spent nuclear reactor fuel

text: and other

text: radioactive waste

text: .The repository is located in a desert on federal land adjacent to the

text: Nevada Test Site

text: in

text: Nye County, Nevada

text: , about 80 miles from the Las Vegas metropolitan area. The repository lies within Yucca Mountain, a

text: ridge

text: line in the south-central part of the

text: U.S. state

text: of

text: Nevada

text: .The ridge is composed of

text: volcanic

text: material (mostly

text: tuff

text: ) ejected from a now-

text: extinct

text: caldera

text: -forming

text: supervolcano

text: At the time of the eruption, most predictions were made similarly to the one before the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens - that a volcano would erupt, but not specifying an exact time. C. Dan Miller of the United States Geological Survey remarked, "We're able to do a much better job of monitoring the changes that occur at volcanoes as they wake up, but we are still quite a long ways from being able to forecast the time, the magnitude and the character of an eruption."

text: At the time of the eruption, most predictions were made similarly to the one before the

text: 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens

text: - that a volcano would erupt, but not specifying an exact time. C. Dan Miller of the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: remarked, "We're able to do a much better job of monitoring the changes that occur at volcanoes as they wake up, but we are still quite a long ways from being able to forecast the time, the magnitude and the character of an eruption."

text: Volcanologists and geologists do not refer to "supervolcanoes" in their scientific work, since this is a blanket term that can be applied to a number of different geological settings. Since about 2000, however, the term has been used by professionals for communicating science to the public. The term megacaldera is sometimes used for caldera supervolcanoes, such as the Blake River Megacaldera Complex in the Abitibi greenstone belt of Ontario and Quebec, Canada. Eruptions that rate VEI 8 are termed super eruptions. Though there is no well-defined minimum explosive size for a "supervolcano", there are at least two types of volcanic eruptions that have been identified as supervolcanoes: large igneous provinces and massive eruptions.

text: Volcanologists

text: and

text: geologists

text: do not refer to "supervolcanoes" in their scientific work, since this is a blanket term that can be applied to a number of different geological settings. Since about 2000, however, the term has been used by professionals for communicating science to the public. The term megacaldera is sometimes used for

text: caldera

text: supervolcanoes, such as the

text: Blake River Megacaldera Complex

text: in the

text: Abitibi greenstone belt

text: of

text: Ontario

text: and

text: Quebec

text: Canada

text: . Eruptions that rate

text: VEI

text: 8 are termed super eruptions. Though there is no well-defined minimum explosive size for a "supervolcano", there are at least two types of

text: volcanic eruption

text: s that have been identified as supervolcanoes:

text: large igneous province

text: s and massive eruptions.

text: The Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field is composed of four adjacent calderas.  West Thumb Lake is itself formed by a smaller caldera which erupted 174,000 years ago. The Henry's Fork Caldera in Idaho was formed in an eruption of more than 280 km 1.3 million years ago, and is the source of the Mesa Falls Tuff. The Henry's Fork Caldera is nested inside of the Island Park Caldera and the calderas share a rim on the western side. The earlier Island Park Caldera is much larger and more oval and extends well into Yellowstone Park. Although much smaller than the Island Park Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera is still sizeable at 18 miles (29 km) long and 23 miles (37 km) wide and its curved rim is plainly visible from many locations in the Island Park area.

text: The

text: Yellowstone Plateau

text: volcanic field is composed of four adjacent calderas.  West Thumb Lake is itself formed by a smaller caldera which erupted 174,000 years ago. The

text: Henry's Fork Caldera

text: in Idaho was formed in an eruption of more than 280 km 1.3 million years ago, and is the source of the Mesa Falls Tuff. The Henry's Fork Caldera is nested inside of the

text: Island Park Caldera

text: and the calderas share a rim on the western side. The earlier Island Park Caldera is much larger and more oval and extends well into

text: Yellowstone Park

text: . Although much smaller than the Island Park Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera is still sizeable at 18 miles (29 km) long and 23 miles (37 km) wide and its curved rim is plainly visible from many locations in the Island Park area.

text: In Sumbawa, Mount Tambora with its historical massive volcanic eruption back in 1815 that produced massive caldera also had gained attention among hikers. In neighbouring island of Flores, the three-coloured volcanic crater-lake of Kelimutu is also hailed as one of Indonesia's natural wonder and had attracted visitors worldwide. Puncak Jaya in the Lorentz National Park, the highest mountain in Indonesia and one of the few mountains with ice caps at the (tropical) equator offers the opportunity of rock climbing. In Sumatra, there are the remains of a supervolcano eruption that have created the landscape of Lake Toba close to Medan in North Sumatra.

text: In

text: Sumbawa

text: Mount Tambora

text: with its historical massive volcanic eruption back in 1815 that produced massive caldera also had gained attention among hikers. In neighbouring island of

text: Flores

text: , the three-coloured volcanic crater-lake of

text: Kelimutu

text: is also hailed as one of Indonesia's natural wonder and had attracted visitors worldwide.

text: Puncak Jaya

text: in the

text: Lorentz National Park

text: , the highest mountain in Indonesia and one of the few mountains with

text: ice caps

text: at the (tropical) equator offers the opportunity of

text: rock climbing

text: . In Sumatra, there are the remains of a

text: supervolcano

text: eruption

text: that have created the landscape of

text: Lake Toba

text: close to

text: Medan

text: in

text: North Sumatra

text: A more basic manifestation of the same effect involves two bodies that are falling side by side towards the Earth. In a reference frame that is in free fall alongside these bodies, they appear to hover weightlessly – but not exactly so.  These bodies are not falling in precisely the same direction, but towards a single point in space: namely, the Earth's center of gravity. Consequently, there is a component of each body's motion towards the other (see the figure). In a small environment such as a freely falling lift, this relative acceleration is minuscule, while for skydivers on opposite sides of the Earth, the effect is large.  Such differences in force are also responsible for the tides in the Earth's oceans, so the term "tidal effect" is used for this phenomenon.

text: A more basic manifestation of the same effect involves two bodies that are falling side by side towards the Earth. In a reference frame that is in free fall alongside these bodies, they appear to hover weightlessly – but not exactly so.  These bodies are not falling in precisely the same direction, but towards a single point in space: namely, the Earth's

text: center of gravity

text: . Consequently, there is a component of each body's motion towards the other (see the figure). In a small environment such as a freely falling lift, this relative acceleration is minuscule, while for

text: skydiver

text: s on opposite sides of the Earth, the effect is large.  Such differences in force are also responsible for the

text: tide

text: s in the Earth's oceans, so the term "

text: tidal effect

text: " is used for this phenomenon.

text: On November 21, 2014, the volcano erupted again. An ash column was sent 5 km into the air, covering towns as far as 25 km away in ash. No fatalities were reported, and no evacuations took place.There were eruptions on January 10, 21 and 25, with the ash from the January 21 eruption falling in towns more than 15 miles (24 km) away. On 10 July 2015, there was another eruption. Another eruption occurred on Sunday, September 25, 2016, sending a plume of ash and smoke 10,000 ft into the sky. On Sunday, December 18, 2016, there were three eruptions. The biggest columns of ash reached 1.25 miles (2 kilometers) in height, and the smallest was just under a mile tall.

text: Both the Heise and Yellowstone volcanic fields produced a series of caldera-forming eruptions characterised by magmas with so-called "normal" oxygen isotope signatures (with heavy oxygen-18 isotopes) and a series of predominantly post-caldera magmas with so-called "light" oxygen isotope signatures (characterised as low in heavy oxygen-18 isotopes). The final stage of volcanism at Heise was marked by "light" magma eruptions. If Heise is any indication, this could mean that the Yellowstone Caldera has entered its final stage, but the volcano might still exit with a climactic fourth caldera event analogous to the fourth and final caldera-forming eruption of Heise (the Kilgore Tuff) - which was also made up of so-called "light" magmas. The appearance of "light" magmas would seem to indicate that the uppermost portion of the continental crust has largely been consumed by the earlier caldera forming events, exhausting the melting potential of the crust above the mantle plume. In this case Yellowstone could be expiring. It could be another 1-2 million years (as the North American Plate moves across the Yellowstone hotspot) before a new supervolcano is born to the northeast, and the Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field joins the ranks of its deceased ancestors in the Snake River Plain.  (References to be added: Kathryn Watts (Nov 2007) GeoTimes "Yellowstone and Heise: Supervolcanoes that Lighten Up": Kathryn E. Watts, Ilya N. Bindeman and Axel K. Schmitt (2011) Petrology, Vol. 52, No. 5, "Large-volume Rhyolite Genesis in Caldera Complexes of the Snake River Plain: Insights from the Kilgore Tuff of the Heise Volcanic Field, Idaho, with Comparison to Yellowstone and Bruneau-Jarbidge Rhyolites" pp. 857-890).

text: Both the Heise and Yellowstone volcanic fields produced a series of caldera-forming eruptions characterised by magmas with so-called "normal" oxygen isotope signatures (with heavy

text: oxygen-18 isotopes

text: ) and a series of predominantly post-caldera magmas with so-called "light" oxygen isotope signatures (characterised as low in heavy oxygen-18 isotopes). The final stage of volcanism at Heise was marked by "light" magma eruptions. If Heise is any indication, this could mean that the Yellowstone Caldera has entered its final stage, but the volcano might still exit with a climactic fourth caldera event analogous to the fourth and final caldera-forming eruption of Heise (the Kilgore Tuff) - which was also made up of so-called "light" magmas. The appearance of "light" magmas would seem to indicate that the uppermost portion of the continental crust has largely been consumed by the earlier caldera forming events, exhausting the melting potential of the crust above the

text: mantle plume

text: . In this case Yellowstone could be expiring. It could be another 1-2 million years (as the

text: North American Plate

text: moves across the Yellowstone hotspot) before a new supervolcano is born to the northeast, and the Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field joins the ranks of its deceased ancestors in the Snake River Plain.  (References to be added: Kathryn Watts (Nov 2007) GeoTimes "Yellowstone and Heise: Supervolcanoes that Lighten Up": Kathryn E. Watts, Ilya N. Bindeman and Axel K. Schmitt (2011) Petrology, Vol. 52, No. 5, "Large-volume Rhyolite Genesis in Caldera Complexes of the Snake River Plain: Insights from the Kilgore Tuff of the Heise Volcanic Field, Idaho, with Comparison to Yellowstone and Bruneau-Jarbidge Rhyolites" pp. 857-890).

text: In geology, a resurgent dome is a dome formed by swelling or rising of a caldera floor due to movement in the magma chamber beneath it.  Unlike a lava dome, a resurgent dome is not formed by the extrusion of highly viscous lava onto the surface, but rather by the uplift and deformation of the surface itself by magma movement underground.  Resurgent domes are typically found near the center of very large open calderas such as Yellowstone Caldera or Valles Caldera, and in turn such calderas are often referred to as "resurgent-type" calderas to distinguish them from the more common (but much smaller) calderas found on shield volcanoes and stratovolcanoes.

text: In

text: geology

text: , a resurgent dome is a

text: dome

text: formed by swelling or rising of a

text: caldera

text: floor due to movement in the

text: magma chamber

text: beneath it.  Unlike a

text: lava dome

text: , a resurgent dome is not formed by the extrusion of highly viscous

text: lava

text: onto the surface, but rather by the uplift and deformation of the surface itself by magma movement underground.  Resurgent domes are typically found near the center of very large open calderas such as

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: or

text: Valles Caldera

text: , and in turn such calderas are often referred to as "resurgent-type" calderas to distinguish them from the more common (but much smaller) calderas found on

text: shield volcano

text: es and

text: stratovolcano

text: es.

text: The most severe eruptions on Earth in historical times took place in Indonesia. The giant eruption of Mount Tambora, a stratovolcano, in 1815, the largest known eruption in the world during historical times had such a large effect on the climate that for example 1816 in Europe was known as the year without summer, and 40 km of ash were produced as a result of the eruption combined with the collapse of the caldera. About 90,000 people were killed as a result Mt. Tambora's 1815 eruption, about 10,000 directly from the eruption and about 80,000 from crop loss and famine. In 1883, the catastrophic eruption of Krakatoa, a volcanic island in Lampung, which registered as a 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), and the tsunamis that ensued killed about 36,000 people, and approximately two-thirds of the original island was destroyed as well. The 2010 eruption of Mount Merapi, a stratovolcano, began in late October and continued into November. This eruption had a VEI of 4, and it also released a sulfur dioxide cloud between 12,000 and 15,000 km into the upper tropsphere.

text: The most severe eruptions on

text: Earth

text: in historical times took place in Indonesia. The giant eruption of

text: Mount Tambora

text: , a stratovolcano, in 1815, the largest known eruption in the world during historical times had such a large effect on the climate that for example 1816 in Europe was known as the year without summer, and 40 km of ash were produced as a result of the eruption combined with the collapse of the caldera. About 90,000 people were killed as a result Mt. Tambora's 1815 eruption, about 10,000 directly from the eruption and about 80,000 from crop loss and famine. In 1883, the catastrophic eruption of

text: Krakatoa

text: , a volcanic island in

text: Lampung

text: , which registered as a 6 on the

text: Volcanic Explosivity Index

text: (VEI), and the

text: tsunami

text: s that ensued killed about 36,000 people, and approximately two-thirds of the original island was destroyed as well. The 2010 eruption of Mount Merapi, a stratovolcano, began in late October and continued into November. This eruption had a VEI of 4, and it also released a sulfur dioxide cloud between 12,000 and 15,000 km into the upper tropsphere.

text: The 1815 VEI-7 eruption had a total tephra ejecta volume of . It was an explosive central vent eruption with pyroclastic flows and a caldera collapse, causing tsunamis and extensive land and property damage. It had a long-term effect on global climate. This activity ceased on 15 July 1815. Follow-up activity was recorded in August 1819 consisting of a small eruption (VEI = 2) with flames and rumbling aftershocks, and was considered to be part of the 1815 eruption sequence. Around 1880 ± 30 years, Tambora went into eruption again, but only inside the caldera. Small lava flows and lava dome extrusions were formed. This eruption (VEI = 2) created the Doro Api Toi parasitic cone inside the caldera. This was the largest and most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years along with the Hatepe eruption of Lake Taupo at around 180 AD and the Tianchi eruption of Baekdu around 1000. The 1815 eruption was the worst eruption in 2,000 years.

text: The 1815 VEI-7 eruption had a total tephra ejecta volume of . It was an explosive central vent eruption with pyroclastic flows and a caldera collapse, causing

text: tsunami

text: s and extensive land and property damage. It had a long-term effect on global climate. This activity ceased on 15 July 1815. Follow-up activity was recorded in August 1819 consisting of a small eruption (VEI = 2) with flames and rumbling

text: aftershock

text: s, and was considered to be part of the 1815 eruption sequence. Around 1880 ± 30 years, Tambora went into eruption again, but only inside the caldera. Small lava flows and lava dome

text: extrusions

text: were formed. This eruption (VEI = 2) created the Doro Api Toi parasitic cone inside the caldera. This was the largest and most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years along with the

text: Hatepe eruption

text: of

text: Lake Taupo

text: at around 180 AD and the

text: Tianchi eruption

text: of

text: Baekdu

text: around 1000. The 1815 eruption was the worst eruption in 2,000 years.

text: The argument has been made that there was "a meteorological event of far-reaching proportions, one of the major aftereffects, we strongly suspect, of the Thera eruption" and that the stele reflects an eye-witness account of the eruption. Others argue that given the description in the stele, this is unlikely. Archaeologists have traditionally placed the date of the Theran eruption at approximately 1500 BCE. Radiocarbon dates, including analysis of an olive branch buried beneath a lava flow from the volcano that gave a date between 1627 BCE and 1600 BCE (95% confidence interval), suggest an eruption date more than a century earlier than suggested by archaeologists. Thus, the radiocarbon dates and the archaeological dates are in substantial disagreement.

text: The argument has been made that there was "a meteorological event of far-reaching proportions, one of the major aftereffects, we strongly suspect, of the

text: Thera eruption

text: " and that the stele reflects an eye-witness account of the eruption. Others argue that given the description in the stele, this is unlikely. Archaeologists have traditionally placed the date of the Theran eruption at approximately 1500 BCE. Radiocarbon dates, including analysis of an

text: olive branch

text: buried beneath a lava flow from the volcano that gave a date between 1627 BCE and 1600 BCE (95%

text: confidence interval

text: ), suggest an eruption date more than a century earlier than suggested by archaeologists. Thus, the radiocarbon dates and the archaeological dates are in substantial disagreement.

text: For global catastrophic risks the costs of food storage become impractical for most of the population  and for some such catastrophes conventional agriculture would not function due to the loss of a large fraction of sunlight (e.g. during nuclear winter or a supervolcano. In such situations, alternative food is necessary, which is converting natural gas and wood fiber to human edible food.

text: For

text: global catastrophic risks

text: the costs of

text: food storage

text: become impractical for most of the population  and for some such catastrophes conventional agriculture would not function due to the loss of a large fraction of sunlight (e.g. during

text: nuclear winter

text: or a

text: supervolcano

text: . In such situations, alternative food is necessary, which is converting

text: natural gas

text: and

text: wood

text: fiber to human edible food.

text: He wrote about existing in another dimension after death and associated this dimension with the night sky. "It would be so simple and would account so much for the terrible things in life, which now amaze and wound us so, if life had yet another hemisphere, invisible it is true, but where one lands when one dies." "Hope is in the stars," he wrote, but he was quick to point out that "earth is a planet too, and consequently a star, or celestial orb." And he stated flatly that The Starry Night was "not a return to the romantic or to religious ideas."

text: There are 35 active volcanoes in Bukit Barisan. The largest volcano is the supervolcano Toba within the 100 km (62 miles) × 30 km (19 miles) Lake Toba, which was created after a caldera collapse (est. in 74,000 Before Present). The eruption is estimated to have been at level eight on the VEI scale, the largest possible for a volcanic eruption. The highest peak of the mountain range is Mount Kerinci with an elevation of 3,800 m (12,467 ft).

text: There are 35

text: active volcano

text: es in Bukit Barisan. The largest volcano is the

text: supervolcano

text: Toba

text: within the 100 km (62 miles) × 30 km (19 miles) Lake Toba, which was created after a

text: caldera collapse

text: (est. in 74,000

text: Before Present

text: VEI

text: Mount Kerinci

text: The eruption which formed the present somma occurred approximately 300,000 years ago. Four large-scale eruptions (Aso 1 – 4) occurred during a period extending from 300,000 to 90,000 years ago. As large amounts of pyroclastic flow and volcanic ash were emitted from the volcanic chamber, a huge depression (caldera) was formed as the chamber collapsed. The fourth eruption (Aso 4) was the largest, with volcanic ash covering the entire Kyushu region and even extending to Yamaguchi Prefecture.

text: The eruption which formed the present somma occurred approximately 300,000 years ago. Four large-scale eruptions (Aso 1 – 4) occurred during a period extending from 300,000 to 90,000 years ago. As large amounts of pyroclastic flow and

text: volcanic ash

text: were emitted from the volcanic chamber, a huge depression (caldera) was formed as the chamber collapsed. The fourth eruption (Aso 4) was the largest, with volcanic ash covering the entire Kyushu region and even extending to

text: Yamaguchi Prefecture

text: Yount was hired as the first gamekeeper for Yellowstone National Park in 1880, at a salary of $1,000 per year, when the park's entire budget was just $15,000 per year. He was appointed by Carl Schurz, the Secretary of the Interior and a former Union Army general, on June 21, 1880, and reported for duty at Yellowstone on July 6.  His supervisor was Philetus Norris, the second park superintendent. Shortly after Yount reported for duty, Yount escorted Schurz and his party on a tour of the park, and then conducted a survey of the park's wildlife. Yount began constructing a winter camp at the junction of the East Fork of the Yellowstone River and Soda Butte Valley, a location he chose because it allowed for the protection of herds of buffalo and elk against poachers.

text: Yount was hired as the first

text: gamekeeper

text: for Yellowstone National Park in 1880, at a salary of $1,000 per year, when the park's entire budget was just $15,000 per year. He was appointed by

text: Carl Schurz

text: , the

text: Secretary of the Interior

text: and a former Union Army general, on June 21, 1880, and reported for duty at Yellowstone on July 6.  His supervisor was

text: Philetus Norris

text: , the second park superintendent. Shortly after Yount reported for duty, Yount escorted Schurz and his party on a tour of the park, and then conducted a survey of the park's wildlife. Yount began constructing a winter camp at the junction of the East Fork of the

text: Yellowstone River

text: and Soda Butte Valley, a location he chose because it allowed for the protection of herds of

text: buffalo

text: and

text: elk

text: against poachers.

text: Caldera was one of the major distributors of Linux between 1994 and 1998. In August 1998, the company split into Caldera Systems and Caldera Thin Clients, with Caldera Systems taking over the Linux systems business and Caldera Thin Clients concentrating on the Thin Clients and embedded business. The parent and shell company Caldera, Inc. ceased to exist in 2000 after a settlement with Microsoft in the Caldera v. Microsoft lawsuit.

text: Caldera

text: was one of the major distributors of Linux between 1994 and 1998. In August 1998, the company split into

text: Caldera Systems

text: and

text: Caldera Thin Clients

text: , with Caldera Systems taking over the Linux systems business and Caldera Thin Clients concentrating on the Thin Clients and embedded business. The parent and shell company Caldera, Inc. ceased to exist in 2000 after a settlement with Microsoft in the

text: Caldera v. Microsoft

text: lawsuit.

text: The diversity of life on Earth is a result of the dynamic interplay between genetic opportunity, metabolic capability, environmental challenges, and symbiosis. For most of its existence, Earth's habitable environment has been dominated by microorganisms and subjected to their metabolism and evolution. As a consequence of these microbial activities, the physical-chemical environment on Earth has been changing on a geologic time scale, thereby affecting the path of evolution of subsequent life. For example, the release of molecular oxygen by cyanobacteria as a by-product of photosynthesis induced global changes in the Earth's environment. Because oxygen was toxic to most life on Earth at the time, this posed novel evolutionary challenges, and ultimately resulted in the formation of Earth's major animal and plant species. This interplay between organisms and their environment is an inherent feature of living systems.

text: The diversity of life on Earth is a result of the dynamic interplay between

text: genetic opportunity

text: , metabolic capability,

text: environmental

text: challenges, and

text: symbiosis

text: . For most of its existence, Earth's habitable environment has been dominated by

text: microorganism

text: s and subjected to their metabolism and evolution. As a consequence of these microbial activities, the physical-chemical environment on Earth has been changing on a

text: geologic time scale

text: , thereby affecting the path of evolution of subsequent life. For example, the release of molecular

text: oxygen

text: by

text: cyanobacteria

text: as a by-product of

text: photosynthesis

text: induced global changes in the Earth's environment. Because oxygen was toxic to most life on Earth at the time, this posed novel evolutionary challenges, and ultimately resulted in the formation of Earth's major animal and plant species. This interplay between organisms and their environment is an inherent feature of living systems.

text: Crater lakes are formed in volcanic craters and calderas which fill up with precipitation more rapidly than they empty via evaporation. Sometimes the latter are called caldera lakes, although often no distinction is made. An example is Crater Lake in Oregon, in the caldera of Mount Mazama. The caldera was created in a massive volcanic eruption that led to the subsidence of Mount Mazama around 4860 BC.

text: Crater lake

text: s are formed in

text: volcanic crater

text: s and

text: caldera

text: s which fill up with precipitation more rapidly than they empty via evaporation. Sometimes the latter are called caldera lakes, although often no distinction is made. An example is

text: Crater Lake

text: in

text: Oregon

text: , in the caldera of

text: Mount Mazama

text: . The caldera was created in a massive volcanic eruption that led to the

text: subsidence

text: of Mount Mazama around 4860 BC.

text: If this idea had been used, then The Man of Steel would have marked the return of the "Original Super-Hero", as Kal-L (now switched to Kal-El) begins his life on the post-Crisis Earth, which is similar to his old life, but with distinct differences. Despite this "culture shock," Kal-L endures and is given a new lease on life by being deposited back to the early days of the modern heroic age of the post-Crisis Earth. However, this was discarded when the John Byrne version of The Man of Steel was planned.

text: If this idea had been used, then

text: The Man of Steel

text: would have marked the return of the "Original Super-Hero", as Kal-L (now switched to Kal-El) begins his life on the post-Crisis Earth, which is similar to his old life, but with distinct differences. Despite this "culture shock," Kal-L endures and is given a new lease on life by being deposited back to the early days of the modern heroic age of the post-Crisis Earth. However, this was discarded when the

text: John Byrne

text: version of The Man of Steel was planned.

text: The earthquake hazard in the Teton-Yellowstone region is the highest in the intermountain west. Large earthquakes of magnitude 6.5 to 7.0 are estimated to occur in this region roughly every 200 years. However, the Teton fault contributes very little in the way of seismic activity as large earthquakes on the fault occur every 1600 to 6000 years. Most large earthquakes in the region are associated with the Yellowstone caldera and other faults in the area. In a study conducted from 1986 to 2002, it was found that the Teton fault had very little seismic activity. Despite its lack of recent seismic activity, it is believed that the Teton fault could produce a 7.5 magnitude earthquake. An earthquake this large would cause severe ground shaking and potential liquefaction in the valley of Jackson Hole. This would damage or destroy infrastructure and buildings not built to seismic standards. An earthquake could cause the valley of Jackson Hole to tilt slightly to the west altering stream and river channels as well as changing groundwater levels. This could cause flooding in some low-lying areas. A large earthquake would also have the potential to trigger other hazards such as landslides, rockslides and avalanches.

text: The earthquake hazard in the Teton-Yellowstone region is the highest in the intermountain west. Large earthquakes of magnitude 6.5 to 7.0 are estimated to occur in this region roughly every 200 years. However, the Teton fault contributes very little in the way of seismic activity as large earthquakes on the fault occur every 1600 to 6000 years. Most large earthquakes in the region are associated with the Yellowstone caldera and other faults in the area. In a study conducted from 1986 to 2002, it was found that the Teton fault had very little seismic activity. Despite its lack of recent seismic activity, it is believed that the Teton fault could produce a 7.5 magnitude earthquake. An earthquake this large would cause severe ground shaking and potential

text: liquefaction

text: in the valley of Jackson Hole. This would damage or destroy infrastructure and buildings not built to seismic standards. An earthquake could cause the valley of Jackson Hole to tilt slightly to the west altering stream and river channels as well as changing groundwater levels. This could cause flooding in some low-lying areas. A large earthquake would also have the potential to trigger other hazards such as landslides, rockslides and avalanches.

text: Vocalist Lachman joined The Mercy Clinic, which aided the grieving process. He commented, "you have to get back on the horse. You could easily let a decade go by and not do anything. I'm happy to have walked away with my life after the situation I was thrown into. But, I mean, what do you do? I'm a musician. I'm going to make music. What Dime would have told me was, 'You make music, motherfucker. Get back on it. Do what you do.' So, that's what I did." Before the shooting, Phil Anselmo made the statement  "Dimebag deserves to be severely beaten" in the December 2004 edition of Metal Hammer. He denied making the comments and apologized, although Abbott requested Metal Hammer to provide the audio tapes to prove the authenticity of what Anselmo said. Abbott found the quote authentic and referred to him as the "master of lies".

text: Vocalist Lachman joined The Mercy Clinic, which aided the grieving process. He commented, "you have to get back on the horse. You could easily let a decade go by and not do anything. I'm happy to have walked away with my life after the situation I was thrown into. But, I mean, what do you do? I'm a musician. I'm going to make music. What Dime would have told me was, 'You make music, motherfucker. Get back on it. Do what you do.' So, that's what I did." Before the shooting, Phil Anselmo made the statement  "Dimebag deserves to be severely beaten" in the December 2004 edition of

text: Metal Hammer

text: . He denied making the comments and apologized, although Abbott requested Metal Hammer to provide the audio tapes to prove the authenticity of what Anselmo said. Abbott found the quote authentic and referred to him as the "master of lies".

text: Yellowstone National Park spans an area of , comprising lakes, canyons, rivers and mountain ranges. Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera, the largest supervolcano on the continent. The caldera is considered an active volcano. It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years. Half of the world's geothermal features are in Yellowstone, fueled by this ongoing volcanism. Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of Yellowstone. The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the largest remaining nearly-intact ecosystem in the Earth's northern temperate zone.

text: Yellowstone National Park spans an area of , comprising lakes, canyons, rivers and

text: mountain range

text: s.

text: Yellowstone Lake

text: is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: , the largest

text: supervolcano

text: on the continent. The

text: caldera

text: is considered an active volcano. It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years. Half of the world's geothermal features are in Yellowstone, fueled by this ongoing volcanism.

text: Lava

text: flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of Yellowstone. The park is the centerpiece of the

text: Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

text: , the largest remaining nearly-intact ecosystem in the Earth's northern temperate zone.

text: The Earth revolves around the Sun. As seen from Earth, the Sun appears to revolve once around the Earth through the background stars in one year. If the Earth orbited the Sun with a constant speed, in a circular orbit in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's axis, then the Sun would culminate every day at exactly the same time, and be a perfect time keeper (except for the very small effect of the slowing rotation of the Earth). But the orbit of the Earth is an ellipse not centered on the Sun, and its speed varies between 30.287 and 29.291 km/s, according to Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and its angular speed also varies, and thus the Sun appears to move faster (relative to the background stars) at perihelion (currently around 3 January) and slower at aphelion a half year later. At these extreme points this effect varies the apparent solar day by 7.9 s/day from its mean. Consequently, the smaller daily differences on other days in speed are cumulative until these points, reflecting how the planet accelerates and decelerates compared to the mean. As a result, the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit contributes a sine wave variation with an amplitude of 7.66 min and a period of one year to the equation of time. The zero points are reached at perihelion (at the beginning of January) and aphelion (beginning of July); the extreme values are in early April (negative) and early October (positive).

text: The Earth revolves around the Sun. As seen from Earth, the Sun appears to revolve once around the Earth through the background stars in one year. If the Earth orbited the Sun with a constant speed, in a circular orbit in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's axis, then the Sun would

text: culminate

text: every day at exactly the same time, and be a perfect time keeper (except for the very small effect of the slowing rotation of the Earth). But the orbit of the Earth is an ellipse not centered on the Sun, and its speed varies between 30.287 and 29.291 km/s, according to

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: , and its angular speed also varies, and thus the Sun appears to move faster (relative to the background stars) at

text: perihelion

text: (currently around 3 January) and slower at

text: aphelion

text: a half year later. At these extreme points this effect varies the apparent solar day by 7.9 s/day from its mean. Consequently, the smaller daily differences on other days in speed are cumulative until these points, reflecting how the planet accelerates and decelerates compared to the mean. As a result, the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit contributes a sine wave variation with an amplitude of 7.66 min and a period of one year to the equation of time. The zero points are reached at perihelion (at the beginning of January) and aphelion (beginning of July); the extreme values are in early April (negative) and early October (positive).

text: The discovery of extraterrestrial intelligence would have various impacts on biology and astrobiology. The discovery of extraterrestrial life in any form, intelligent or non-intelligent, would give humanity greater insight into the nature of life on Earth and would improve the conception of how the tree of life is organized. Human biologists could learn about extraterrestrial biochemistry and observe how it differs from that found on Earth. This knowledge could help human civilization to learn which aspects of life are common throughout the universe and which are specific to Earth.

text: The discovery of extraterrestrial intelligence would have various impacts on biology and

text: astrobiology

text: . The discovery of extraterrestrial life in any form, intelligent or non-intelligent, would give humanity greater insight into the nature of life on Earth and would improve the conception of how the

text: tree of life

text: is organized. Human biologists could learn about extraterrestrial

text: biochemistry

text: and observe how it differs from that found on Earth. This knowledge could help human civilization to learn which aspects of life are common throughout the universe and which are specific to Earth.

text: is the deity who rules over the galaxy surrounding the Earth and the creator of Gatchan. He is a bald elderly man with a Van Dyke beard and a small star symbol on his forehead. Seeing that Gatchan failed in its mission to destroy the corrupt human civilization (due to Senbei's accidental intervention), Kami-sama resolves to destroy humanity himself. However, after seeing the life of Penguin Village and how consequently happy his little angels are, he relinquishes both Gatchan and the Earth to their own fates. Kami-sama was the inspiration for the character of Kame-Sennin from Toriyama's subsequent series Dragon Ball, and both characters were voiced by Kōhei Miyauchi.

text: is the deity who rules over the galaxy surrounding the Earth and the creator of Gatchan. He is a bald elderly man with a

text: Van Dyke beard

text: and a small star symbol on his forehead. Seeing that Gatchan failed in its mission to destroy the corrupt human civilization (due to Senbei's accidental intervention), Kami-sama resolves to destroy humanity himself. However, after seeing the life of Penguin Village and how consequently happy his little angels are, he relinquishes both Gatchan and the Earth to their own fates. Kami-sama was the inspiration for the character of

text: Kame-Sennin

text: from Toriyama's subsequent series Dragon Ball, and both characters were voiced by

text: Kōhei Miyauchi

text: Karymshina is a Supervolcano in Kamchatka, Russia. that was discovered in 2006 by Vladimir L Leonov and Aleksey N. Rogozin.

text: Karymshina is a

text: Supervolcano

text: in

text: Kamchatka

text: , Russia. that was discovered in 2006 by Vladimir L Leonov and Aleksey N. Rogozin.

text: Food storage for the entire global population is the only historical solution for a global disruption of conventional agriculture due to global catastrophes such as abrupt climate change and nuclear winter, despite three decades of awareness of the problem. But for large global catastrophes, at least five years of supplies are needed because agriculture would be hampered for that time. This large of a stockpile is economically prohibitive on a global scale or even within the US. The number of global catastrophes that apply is large and the book analyzed five crop-destroying catastrophes (sudden climate change, super-weeds, super-bacteria, super-pests and super-pathogens) and three sunlight-extinguishing events (supervolcano eruption, asteroid or comet impact, and nuclear winter).

text: Food storage

text: for the entire global population is the only historical solution for a global disruption of conventional

text: agriculture

text: due to

text: global catastrophes

text: such as

text: abrupt climate change

text: and

text: nuclear winter

text: , despite three decades of awareness of the problem. But for large global catastrophes, at least five years of supplies are needed because agriculture would be hampered for that time. This large of a stockpile is economically prohibitive on a global scale or even within the US. The number of global catastrophes that apply is large and the book analyzed five crop-destroying catastrophes (sudden climate change, super-weeds, super-bacteria, super-pests and super-pathogens) and three sunlight-extinguishing events (

text: supervolcano

text: eruption, asteroid or

text: comet impact

text: , and nuclear winter).

text: The historical process, however, never attempts to preserve an essence in the first place. Rather, it develops an essence through successive forms. This means that at any moment on the path of historical change, there is a contradiction between what exists and what is in the process of coming-to-be. The realization of a natural thing like a tree is a process that by and large points back toward itself: every step of the process takes place in order to reproduce the genus.  In the historical process, however, what exists, what is actual, is imperfect. It is inimical to the potential.  What is trying to come into existence - freedom - inherently negates everything preceding it and everything existing, since no actual existing human institution can possibly embody pure human freedom.  So the actual is both itself and its opposite (as potential). And this potential (freedom) is never inert but constantly exerts an impulse toward change.

text: The Doctor is unable to fight this new life form, and when Liz and Osgood try to cut it to pieces using the time bridge, the pieces reconstitute on the other side and attack them. They are forced to flee beyond the interface, but begin to fade away once outside the time bubble. As the Constitution prepares to devour its passengers, the Doctor realises that his only remaining weapon is the third ampoule—the most dangerous and valuable of all, which releases the full potential of any life form which consumes it. He is unwilling to risk the consequences of his drinking it, fearing what he might become—and before anybody can stop her, Amelia grabs it from him and drinks it herself. The shock of the chemical transformation kills her, but her faith and the powers of the transformation enable her to survive beyond death, turning her into an angelic being with all of the powers that implies. The new Amelia subdues the hybrid life form, and promises to care for it until she can find a way to separate Nancy and Brokk once again. Realising that she no longer belongs on Earth, Amelia bids farewell to her tearful father and sets off to explore the Universe and try to understand her new purpose in it. The Doctor and the UNIT team return to London to find that, apart from a few newspaper headlines regarding the fate of Grover’s expedition, history has returned to normal.

text: The three terraces above the lakeside Emerald Terrace are great fault scarps formed by a massive earthquake in 131 AD, around the time when Lake Taupo (a supervolcano) was last erupting. They are mostly covered in hot water algae, or cyanobacteria, which grows in temperatures between 35-59 degrees Celsius, the colours dependent on the species, with green, yellow and black the most common.

text: The three terraces above the lakeside Emerald Terrace are great

text: fault scarp

text: s formed by a massive

text: earthquake

text: in 131 AD, around the time when

text: Lake Taupo

text: (a

text: supervolcano

text: ) was last erupting. They are mostly covered in hot water algae, or

text: cyanobacteria

text: , which grows in temperatures between 35-59 degrees Celsius, the colours dependent on the species, with green, yellow and black the most common.

text: All teeth are classified as either developing, erupted (into the mouth), embedded (failure to erupt despite lack of blockage from another tooth) or impacted. An impacted tooth is one that fails to erupt due to blockage from another tooth.

text: All teeth are classified as either developing,

text: erupted

text: (into the mouth), embedded (failure to erupt despite lack of blockage from another tooth) or

text: impacted

text: . An impacted tooth is one that fails to erupt due to blockage from another tooth.

text: Bailey asks three questions of his audience to get them to start to reach their full potential.1. What would you do if you knew you couldn't fail?2. What would you do if no one paid you to do it?3. What makes you come alive?

text: In about one billion years, the solar luminosity will be 10% higher than at present. This will cause the atmosphere to become a "moist greenhouse", resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans. As a likely consequence, plate tectonics will come to an end, and with them the entire carbon cycle. Following this event, in about 2−3 billion years, the planet's magnetic dynamo may cease, causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere. Four billion years from now, the increase in the Earth's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect, heating the surface enough to melt it. By that point, all life on the Earth will be extinct. The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years, after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet's current orbit.

text: In about one billion years, the solar luminosity will be 10% higher than at present. This will cause the atmosphere to become a "moist greenhouse", resulting in a

text: runaway

text: evaporation of the oceans. As a likely consequence, plate tectonics will come to an end, and with them the entire

text: carbon cycle

text: . Following this event, in about 2−3 billion years, the planet's

text: magnetic dynamo

text: may cease, causing the

text: magnetosphere

text: to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of

text: volatiles

text: from the outer atmosphere. Four billion years from now, the increase in the Earth's surface temperature will cause a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: , heating the surface enough to melt it. By that point, all life on the Earth will be extinct. The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years, after the star has entered the

text: red giant

text: phase and expanded to cross the planet's current orbit.

text: In the 1930s, White produced 500 of their small Model 706 buses specifically designed to carry passengers through the major National Parks of the western US. The distinctive vehicles, with roll-back canvas convertible tops, were the product of noted industrial designer Alexis de Sakhnoffsky, and originally operated in seven National Parks. Today, Glacier National Park operates 33 of their original 35 buses, where they are referred to as "Red Jammers", and 8 (of an original 98) have been restored for renewed service in Yellowstone National Park. Glacier National Park's 33 buses were refurbished by Ford Motor Company and TransGlobal in 2000-2002, while Yellowstone National Park's eight buses were refurbished by TransGlobal in 2007. Glacier has kept one bus in original condition. Yellowstone has five White buses in original condition, two model 706s and three older units as well. In addition, Gettysburg National Battlefield operates two of Yellowstone's original buses.

text: In the 1930s, White produced 500 of their small Model 706 buses specifically designed to carry passengers through the major

text: National Park

text: s of the western US. The distinctive vehicles, with roll-back canvas convertible tops, were the product of noted industrial designer

text: Alexis de Sakhnoffsky

text: , and originally operated in seven National Parks. Today,

text: Glacier National Park

text: operates 33 of their original 35 buses, where they are referred to as "

text: Red Jammers

text: ", and 8 (of an original 98) have been restored for renewed service in

text: Yellowstone National Park

text: Glacier National Park

text: 's 33 buses were refurbished by

text: Ford Motor Company

text: and TransGlobal in 2000-2002, while

text: Yellowstone National Park

text: 's eight buses were refurbished by TransGlobal in 2007. Glacier has kept one bus in original condition. Yellowstone has five White buses in original condition, two model 706s and three older units as well. In addition,

text: Gettysburg National Battlefield

text: operates two of Yellowstone's original buses.

text: The specifics of the geology of the canyon are not well understood, except that it is an erosional feature rather than the result of glaciation. After the Yellowstone Caldera eruption of about 600,000 years ago, the area was covered by a series of lava flows. The area was also faulted by the doming action of the caldera before the eruption. The site of the present canyon, as well as any previous canyons, was probably the result of this uplift and related faulting, which allowed erosion to proceed at an accelerated rate. The area was also covered by the glaciers that formed during several ice ages. Glacial deposits probably filled the canyon at one time, but have since been eroded away, leaving little or no evidence of their presence.

text: The specifics of the

text: geology

text: of the canyon are not well understood, except that it is an

text: erosion

text: al feature rather than the result of

text: glaciation

text: . After the

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: eruption of about 600,000 years ago, the area was covered by a series of

text: lava

text: flows. The area was also faulted by the doming action of the

text: caldera

text: before the eruption. The site of the present canyon, as well as any previous canyons, was probably the result of this uplift and related

text: fault

text: ing, which allowed erosion to proceed at an accelerated rate. The area was also covered by the

text: glacier

text: s that formed during several

text: ice age

text: s. Glacial deposits probably filled the canyon at one time, but have since been eroded away, leaving little or no evidence of their presence.

text: Yellowstone National Park is a thermally active area with an extensive system of hot springs, fumaroles, geysers, and mudpots. There are also several hydrothermal explosion craters, which are not to be confused with calderas, which are collapse features. Eight of these hydrothermal explosion craters are in hydrothermally cemented glacial deposits, and two are in Pleistocene ash-flow tuff.  Each is surrounded by a rim composed of debris derived from the crater, 10 to 30 yards high.

text: Yellowstone National Park

text: is a thermally active area with an extensive system of hot springs,

text: fumarole

text: s,

text: geysers

text: , and

text: mudpot

text: s. There are also several hydrothermal explosion craters, which are not to be confused with

text: caldera

text: s, which are collapse features. Eight of these hydrothermal explosion craters are in hydrothermally cemented glacial deposits, and two are in

text: Pleistocene

text: ash-flow

text: tuff

text: .  Each is surrounded by a rim composed of debris derived from the crater, 10 to 30 yards high.

text: After the magma chamber under the Yellowstone area collapsed 640,000 years ago in its previous great eruption, it formed a large caldera that was later partially filled by subsequent lava flows (see Yellowstone Caldera). Part of this caldera is the  basin of Yellowstone Lake. The original lake was  higher than the present-day lake, extending northward across Hayden Valley to the base of Mount Washburn.

text: After the

text: magma chamber

text: under the Yellowstone area collapsed 640,000 years ago in its previous great eruption, it formed a large

text: caldera

text: that was later partially filled by subsequent

text: lava

text: flows (see

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: ). Part of this caldera is the  basin of Yellowstone Lake. The original lake was  higher than the present-day lake, extending northward across

text: Hayden Valley

text: to the base of

text: Mount Washburn

text: Humans are altering the planet’s biogeochemical cycles in a largely unregulated way with limited knowledge of the consequences. Without steps to effectively manage the Earth system – the planet’s physical, chemical, biological and social components – it is likely there will be severe impacts on people and ecosystems. Perhaps the largest concern is that a component of the Earth system, for example, an ocean circulation, the Amazon rainforest, or Arctic sea ice, will reach a tipping point and flip from its current state to another state: flowing to not flowing, rainforest to savanna, or ice to no ice. A domino effect could ensue with other components of the Earth system changing state rapidly.

text: Humans are altering the planet’s biogeochemical cycles in a largely unregulated way with limited knowledge of the consequences. Without steps to effectively manage the Earth system – the planet’s physical, chemical, biological and social components – it is likely there will be severe impacts on people and ecosystems. Perhaps the largest concern is that a component of the Earth system, for example, an

text: ocean circulation

text: , the

text: Amazon rainforest

text: , or

text: Arctic

text: sea ice, will reach a tipping point and flip from its current state to another state: flowing to not flowing, rainforest to

text: savanna

text: , or ice to no ice. A domino effect could ensue with other components of the Earth system changing state rapidly.

text: The magma intrusion rate below Uturunku is considerably larger than the magma output of the Pleistocene volcano, being comparable to the magma flux of historic eruptions and estimates of magma generation rates in local caldera forming magma chambers. Evidence for the formation of such a magma chamber is elusive but might be hidden by the deformation activity of the APVC melt generation zone. Uturunku may be developing into a supervolcano, and a caldera forming super-eruption may occur there; this possibility has resulted in international media attention.

text: The magma intrusion rate below Uturunku is considerably larger than the magma output of the Pleistocene volcano, being comparable to the magma flux of historic eruptions and estimates of magma generation rates in local caldera forming magma chambers. Evidence for the formation of such a magma chamber is elusive but might be hidden by the deformation activity of the APVC melt generation zone. Uturunku may be developing into a

text: supervolcano

text: , and a caldera forming super-eruption may occur there; this possibility has resulted in international media attention.

text: The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth .. then it could be common in the universe."

text: The

text: age of the Earth

text: is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of

text: life on Earth

text: dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the

text: Eoarchean

text: Era after a geological

text: crust

text: Hadean

text: Eon. There are

text: microbial mat

text: fossils

text: found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: discovered in

text: Western Australia

text: . Other early physical evidence of a

text: biogenic substance

text: is

text: graphite

text: in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: meta-sedimentary rocks

text: discovered in

text: Western Greenland

text: . More recently, in 2015, "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth .. then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: One consequence of this is that if an Alinda asteroid happens to be in an unfavorable position for viewing at the time of its close approach to Earth (for instance, at a small elongation from the Sun), then this situation can persist for decades.  Indeed, as of 2010, the Alinda asteroid 1915 Quetzálcoatl had been observed only once since 1985.

text: One consequence of this is that if an Alinda asteroid happens to be in an unfavorable position for viewing at the time of its close approach to Earth (for instance, at a small elongation from the

text: Sun

text: ), then this situation can persist for decades.  Indeed, as of 2010, the Alinda asteroid

text: 1915 Quetzálcoatl

text: had been observed only once since 1985.

text: , including Potts Basin to the north, is the largest geyser basin on the shores of Yellowstone Lake. The heat source of the thermal features in this location is thought to be relatively close to the surface, only 10,000 feet (3,000 m) down. West Thumb is about the same size as another famous volcanic caldera, Crater Lake in Oregon, but much smaller than the great Yellowstone Caldera which last erupted about 640,000 years ago. It is interesting to note that West Thumb is a caldera within a caldera.

text: , including Potts Basin to the north, is the largest geyser basin on the shores of Yellowstone Lake. The heat source of the thermal features in this location is thought to be relatively close to the surface, only 10,000 feet (3,000 m) down. West Thumb is about the same size as another famous volcanic caldera,

text: Crater Lake

text: in

text: Oregon

text: , but much smaller than the great Yellowstone Caldera which last erupted about 640,000 years ago. It is interesting to note that West Thumb is a caldera within a caldera.

text: Elena gets back home where Stefan is waiting for her on the porch. He brought Jeremy home and he is devastated himself that he could not help Vicki. Elena checks on Jeremy who does not understand what happened and wonders why everyone around him has to die. Elena comforts him and then goes back to Stefan asking him to make Jeremy forget what happened tonight. Stefan explains that because he is feeding on animals, he cannot do it right but Damon appears and volunteers to do it if that is what she really wants. Elena says that it is what she wants and tells Damon what to tell Jeremy.

text: Left with twelve years until impact and now convinced of the wheelers' authenticity, Earth's governmental authorities speed a mission to the Jovian satellites in hopes of contacting the as yet unseen alien lifeforms. Dunsmoore is selected to lead the group, with the assumption that his experience with decrypting anthropological artefacts on earth will aid in establishing communiqué with the Jovians. The years tick by without consequence as Dunsmoore and his team search in vain for evidence of alien life on Jupiter's moons, convinced by terrestrial scientists that the planet itself is entirely inhospitable to life (he is warned of the danger of this erroneous presupposition by, appropriately enough, contemporary science-fiction authors).

text: Left with twelve years until impact and now convinced of the wheelers' authenticity, Earth's governmental authorities speed a mission to the

text: Jovian satellites

text: in hopes of contacting the as yet unseen alien lifeforms. Dunsmoore is selected to lead the group, with the assumption that his experience with decrypting

text: anthropological

text: artefacts on earth will aid in establishing communiqué with the Jovians. The years tick by without consequence as Dunsmoore and his team search in vain for evidence of alien life on Jupiter's moons, convinced by terrestrial scientists that the planet itself is entirely inhospitable to life (he is warned of the danger of this erroneous presupposition by, appropriately enough, contemporary science-fiction authors).

text: Kastrians are rock-based humanoids that once lived on the planet Kastria millienia ago. Eldrad, one of their brilliant minds, went mad with power; however, they exiled him to Earth. Eldrad's actions left irriversable consequences for the planet, leaving it unable to maintain life on the surface; the species choose extinction over being ruled by Eldrad should he return. When the Fourth Doctor and Sarah Jane Smith successfully tripped Eldrad into a pit, the Kastrian race was completely wiped out.

text: When asked by reporters after the 2011 ALDS if he had considered the fact he might have played for the final time with the Yankees, Posada said, "I don't want to look at it like that. We lost, and we'll see what happens in the off-season." As the interview session went on, he eventually became emotional and left the clubhouse area to compose himself. Girardi said, "This guy, when you look at what he did in this series, he was awesome. He's had a tremendous career, and I'm sure he's going to continue to play, and I don't know what's going to happen." Girardi added, "But you talk about being proud of players — what he went through this year and what he gave us in the postseason, I don't think there's a prouder moment that I've had of Jorge."

text: The volcanoes in Indonesia are among the most active of the Pacific Ring of Fire. They are formed due to subduction zones of three main active tectonic plates namely the Eurasian Plate, Pacific Plate, and  Indo-Australian Plate. Some of the volcanoes are notable for their eruptions, for instance, Krakatau for its global effects in 1883, Lake Toba for its supervolcanic eruption estimated to have occurred 74,000 BP, which was responsible for six years of volcanic winter, and Mount Tambora, for the most violent eruption in recorded history in 1815. The eruption of Mount Tambora caused widespread harvest failures in Northern Europe, the Northeastern United States, and eastern Canada in 1816, which was known as the Year Without a Summer.

text: The volcanoes in

text: Indonesia

text: are among the most active of the Pacific Ring of Fire. They are formed due to subduction zones of three main active tectonic plates namely the

text: Eurasian Plate

text: , Pacific Plate, and

text: Indo-Australian Plate

text: . Some of the volcanoes are notable for their eruptions, for instance,

text: Krakatau

text: for its global effects in 1883,

text: Lake Toba

text: for its

text: supervolcanic

text: eruption estimated to have occurred 74,000 BP, which was responsible for six years of

text: volcanic winter

text: , and

text: Mount Tambora

text: , for the most violent eruption in recorded history in 1815. The eruption of Mount Tambora caused widespread harvest failures in Northern Europe, the Northeastern United States, and eastern Canada in 1816, which was known as the

text: Year Without a Summer

text: Prior to the TPF's cancellation, astrophysicists had begun speculating about the best places to point the telescope in order to find Earth-like planets. Whereas life on Earth has formed around a stable yellow dwarf, solar twins are not as common in the galaxy as red dwarf stars (which have a mass of less than one-half that of the Sun and consequently emit less heat), or bigger, brighter blue giants. In addition, it is estimated that more than a quarter of all stars are at least binary systems, with as many as 10% of these systems containing more than two stars (trinary etc.)—unlike our own sun, which has no companion. Therefore, it may be prudent to consider how life might evolve in such environments. Such speculation may still be of use should a future planet-finding telescope be launched, and possibly for NASA's Kepler mission.

text: Prior to the TPF's cancellation, astrophysicists had begun speculating about the best places to point the telescope in order to find Earth-like planets. Whereas life on Earth has formed around a stable

text: yellow dwarf

text: solar twins

text: are not as common in the galaxy as

text: red dwarf

text: stars (which have a mass of less than one-half that of the Sun and consequently emit less heat), or bigger, brighter

text: blue giant

text: s. In addition, it is estimated that more than a quarter of all stars are at least

text: binary system

text: s, with as many as 10% of these systems containing more than two stars (trinary etc.)—unlike our own sun, which has no companion. Therefore, it may be prudent to consider how life might evolve in such environments. Such speculation may still be of use should a future planet-finding telescope be launched, and possibly for NASA's

text: Kepler

text: mission.

text: When the producers conceptualized Teal'c, they were unsure what they wanted, but had not met anyone who was definitely Teal'c for them. They were looking for African-American actors, and Judge was one of the last actors to read for the role. Judge was hired because the producers liked what he brought into the audition. They were receptive to Judge's input and gave him the freedom to change his lines from the beginning. Judge sat down with the producers at the beginning of each season and discussed what Teal'c should go through and what would slowly make him more human.

text: When the producers conceptualized Teal'c, they were unsure what they wanted, but had not met anyone who was definitely Teal'c for them. They were looking for

text: African-American

text: actors, and Judge was one of the last actors to read for the role. Judge was hired because the producers liked what he brought into the audition. They were receptive to Judge's input and gave him the freedom to change his lines from the beginning. Judge sat down with the producers at the beginning of each season and discussed what Teal'c should go through and what would slowly make him more human.

text: Stratovolcanoes are sometimes called "composite volcanoes" because of their composite layered structure built up from sequential outpourings of eruptive materials. They are among the most common types of volcanoes, in contrast to the less common shield volcanoes. Two famous stratovolcanoes are Krakatoa, best known for its catastrophic eruption in 1883 and Vesuvius, famous for its destruction of the towns Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79 CE. Both eruptions claimed thousands of lives. In modern times, Mount Saint Helens and Mount Pinatubo have erupted catastrophically.

text: Stratovolcanoes are sometimes called "composite volcanoes" because of their composite layered structure built up from sequential outpourings of eruptive materials. They are among the most common types of volcanoes, in contrast to the less common shield volcanoes. Two famous stratovolcanoes are

text: Krakatoa

text: , best known for its

text: catastrophic eruption in 1883

text: and

text: Vesuvius

text: , famous for its

text: destruction of the towns Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79 CE

text: . Both eruptions claimed thousands of lives. In modern times,

text: Mount Saint Helens

text: and

text: Mount Pinatubo

text: have erupted catastrophically.

text: She is briefly seen in the 2005 television film Supervolcano presenting a fictional breaking news item about an eruption of the volcanic caldera of Yellowstone National Park. She was a contestant on the 2015 series of Christmas University Challenge, where she represented the University of Birmingham alongside weather presenter John Hammond.

text: She is briefly seen in the 2005 television film

text: Supervolcano

text: presenting a fictional breaking news item about an eruption of the volcanic

text: caldera

text: of

text: Yellowstone National Park

text: . She was a contestant on the 2015 series of

text: Christmas University Challenge

text: , where she represented the University of Birmingham alongside weather presenter

text: John Hammond

text: Rick manages to make contact with FEMA, where he determines that the vents are going to merge into one massive caldera. He then says that the eruption they are looking at is on the scale of one of Yellowstone's previous - The Huckleberry Ridge Eruption. The first and largest. However, before he can say more, the signal is lost from power loss as Cheyenne loses electricity because of the ash.

text: Microscopic organisms live in every part of the biosphere, including soil, hot springs, "seven miles deep" in the ocean, "40 miles high" in the atmosphere and inside rocks far down within the Earth's crust (see also endolith). Microorganisms, under certain test conditions, have been observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space. The total amount of soil and subsurface bacterial carbon is estimated as 5 x 10 g, or the "weight of the United Kingdom". The mass of prokaryote microorganisms — which includes bacteria and archaea, but not the nucleated eukaryote microorganisms — may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon (of the total biosphere mass, estimated at between 1 and 4 trillion tons). Barophilic marine microbes have been found at more than a depth of  in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earth's oceans. In fact, single-celled life forms have been found in the deepest part of the Mariana Trench, by the Challenger Deep, at depths of . Other researchers reported related studies that microorganisms thrive inside rocks up to  below the sea floor under  of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States, as well as  beneath the seabed off Japan.  Culturable thermophilic microbes have been extracted from cores drilled more than  into the Earth's crust in Sweden, from rocks between . Temperature increases with increasing depth into the Earth's crust. The rate at which the temperature increases depends on many factors, including type of crust (continental vs. oceanic), rock type, geographic location, etc. The greatest known temperature at which microbial life can exist is  (Methanopyrus kandleri Strain 116), and it is likely that the limit of life in the "deep biosphere" is defined by temperature rather than absolute depth. On 20 August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living  below the ice of Antarctica. According to one researcher, "You can find microbes everywhere — they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."

text: Microscopic organisms

text: live in every part of the biosphere, including

text: soil

text: hot spring

text: s, "seven miles deep" in the

text: ocean

text: , "40 miles high" in the

text: atmosphere

text: and inside rocks far down within the Earth's

text: crust

text: (see also

text: endolith

text: ). Microorganisms, under certain test conditions, have been observed to

text: thrive in the vacuum of outer space

text: . The total amount of soil and subsurface bacterial

text: carbon

text: is estimated as 5 x 10 g, or the "weight of the United Kingdom". The mass of

text: prokaryote

text: microorganisms — which includes bacteria and archaea, but not the nucleated

text: eukaryote microorganisms

text: — may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon (of the total biosphere

text: mass

text: , estimated at between 1 and 4 trillion tons).

text: Barophilic

text: marine microbes have been found at more than a depth of  in the

text: Mariana Trench

text: , the deepest spot in the Earth's oceans. In fact, single-celled life forms have been found in the deepest part of the Mariana Trench, by the

text: Challenger Deep

text: , at depths of . Other researchers reported related studies that microorganisms thrive inside rocks up to  below the sea floor under  of ocean off the coast of the northwestern

text: United States

text: , as well as  beneath the seabed off Japan.  Culturable thermophilic microbes have been extracted from cores drilled more than  into the

text: Earth's crust

text: in Sweden, from rocks between . Temperature

text: increases with increasing depth

text: into the

text: Earth's crust

text: . The rate at which the temperature increases depends on many factors, including type of crust (continental vs. oceanic), rock type, geographic location, etc. The greatest known temperature at which microbial life can exist is  (

text: Methanopyrus kandleri

text: Strain 116), and it is likely that the limit of life in the "deep biosphere" is defined by temperature rather than absolute depth. On 20 August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living  below the ice of

text: Antarctica

text: . According to one researcher, "You can find microbes everywhere — they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."

text: The most recent eruption happened in April 2015, when on the 22nd the volcano suddenly erupted with little warning, sending a large eruption column into the atmosphere, another eruption occurred in the early hours of the 23rd. A smaller eruption occurred on April 30. The eruptions ranked as a 4 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index. The volcano returned to the lowest alert level on August 18, 2015.

text: The most recent eruption happened in April 2015, when on the 22nd the volcano suddenly erupted with little warning, sending a large eruption column into the atmosphere, another eruption occurred in the early hours of the 23rd. A smaller eruption occurred on April 30. The eruptions ranked as a 4 on the

text: Volcanic Explosivity Index

text: . The volcano returned to the lowest alert level on August 18, 2015.

text: "I think the fall in bank lending would have been worse had we not conducted our asset purchases because what we were doing was injecting money into the economy and what the banking system has been doing is destroying money. As they reduce the size of their balance sheet and deleverage, they are reducing not just the size of their assets but the size of their liabilities. Most of the money in our economy—broad money—comprises liabilities of banks in the form of bank deposits. So what we were doing was partially to offset what would otherwise have been an even bigger contraction."

text: No explicit regulations are expressed in the bible concerning the treatment of a corpse itself, although historic rabbinical sources saw an implication that the dead should be thoroughly washed per Ecclesiastes, as children are washed when born; according to Eliezer ben Joel HaLevi, a prominent rishon, argued that the corpse should be cleansed carefully, including the ears and fingers, with nails pared and hair combed, so that the corpse could be laid to rest in the manner that the person had visited the synagogue during life. Washing of corpses was not observed among the Jews living in Persian Babylon, for which they were criticised as dying in filth, without a candle and without a bath; at the time, the non-Jewish Persians were predominantly Zoroastrian, and consequently believed that dead bodies were inherently ritually unclean, and should be exposed to the elements in a Tower of Silence to avoid defiling the earth with them.

text: No explicit regulations are expressed in the bible concerning the treatment of a corpse itself, although historic rabbinical sources saw an implication that the dead should be thoroughly washed per

text: Ecclesiastes

text: , as children are washed when born; according to

text: Eliezer ben Joel HaLevi

text: , a prominent

text: rishon

text: , argued that the corpse should be cleansed carefully, including the ears and fingers, with nails pared and hair combed, so that the corpse could be laid to rest in the manner that the person had visited the

text: synagogue

text: during life. Washing of corpses was not observed among the Jews living in

text: Persian

text: Babylon

text: , for which they were criticised as dying in filth, without a candle and without a bath; at the time, the non-Jewish Persians were predominantly

text: Zoroastrian

text: , and consequently believed that dead bodies were inherently ritually unclean, and should be exposed to the elements in a

text: Tower of Silence

text: to avoid defiling the earth with them.

text: Living Lightning has also been depicted in two alternative universes with "What If the Avengers Lost Operation Galactic Storm?", What If...? #55–56 (1993) and with a brief appearance in "What if the Scarlet Witch Hadn't Acted Alone?", What If? Avengers Disassembled (2006).

text: Living Lightning has also been depicted in two alternative universes with "What If the Avengers Lost Operation Galactic Storm?",

text: What If...?

text: #55–56 (1993) and with a brief appearance in "What if the Scarlet Witch Hadn't Acted Alone?", What If? Avengers Disassembled (2006).

text: Dr. Lane and Boomer chase just behind the expanding crack in the Earth's crust, developing a plan to stop the next quake. They decide to use a satellite orbiting above the continent which can trigger earthquakes. They fire it off when they reach the Grand Canyon, thinking that when the new fault hits the canyon it will be forced to turn south into the Gulf of Mexico. When the fault crosses with the canyon, the plan goes wrong. Instead of heading south it travels north, towards the Yellowstone Caldera.

text: Dr. Lane and Boomer chase just behind the expanding crack in the Earth's crust, developing a plan to stop the next quake. They decide to use a satellite orbiting above the continent which can trigger earthquakes. They fire it off when they reach the Grand Canyon, thinking that when the new fault hits the canyon it will be forced to turn south into the Gulf of Mexico. When the fault crosses with the canyon, the plan goes wrong. Instead of heading south it travels north, towards the

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: Due to the age of the Earth of  (4.6 billion years), this means that the half-life of the given nuclides must be greater than about  (100 million years) for practical considerations. For example, for a nuclide with half-life  (60 million years), this means 77 half-lives have elapsed, meaning that for each mole () of that nuclide being present at the formation of Earth, only 4 atoms remain today.

text: Due to the

text: age of the Earth

text: of  (4.6 billion years), this means that the

text: half-life

text: of the given nuclides must be greater than about  (100 million years) for practical considerations. For example, for a nuclide with half-life  (60 million years), this means 77 half-lives have elapsed, meaning that for each

text: mole

text: () of that nuclide being present at the formation of Earth, only 4 atoms remain today.

text: "Colours" is a song written and recorded by British singer-songwriter Donovan. The "Colours" single was released in the United Kingdom on May 28, 1965 through Pye Records (Pye 7N 15866) and a few months later in the United States through Hickory Records (Hickory 45-1324).  The "Colours" single was backed with "To Sing for You" (previously included on What's Bin Did and What's Bin Hid) on the United Kingdom release and "Josie" (from What's Bin Did and What's Bin Hid) on the United States release.

text: "Colours" is a song written and recorded by

text: British

text: singer-songwriter

text: Donovan

text: . The "Colours" single was released in the United Kingdom on May 28, 1965 through

text: Pye Records

text: (Pye 7N 15866) and a few months later in the United States through

text: Hickory Records

text: (Hickory 45-1324).  The "Colours" single was backed with "To Sing for You" (previously included on

text: What's Bin Did and What's Bin Hid

text: ) on the United Kingdom release and "

text: Josie

text: " (from What's Bin Did and What's Bin Hid) on the United States release.

text: The rocks are the exposed portion of the western ridge of a submarine volcanic caldera, approximately  in diameter at a depth of approximately . The above sea-level portion has a surface area of approximately 0.01 square kilometers, with a summit height of . The caldera is known to have erupted in 1896, 1906, 1915, 1934, 1946, 1952-1953, 1954, 1955, 1957, 1958, 1959, and 1960. The last known submarine eruption of the caldera was in 1970, which discolored the local water.

text: The rocks are the exposed portion of the western ridge of a submarine

text: volcanic caldera

text: , approximately  in diameter at a depth of approximately . The above sea-level portion has a surface area of approximately 0.01 square kilometers, with a summit height of . The caldera is known to have erupted in 1896, 1906, 1915, 1934, 1946, 1952-1953, 1954, 1955, 1957, 1958, 1959, and 1960. The last known

text: submarine eruption

text: of the caldera was in 1970, which discolored the local water.

text: The Yellowstone Caldera is the volcanic caldera and supervolcano located in Yellowstone National Park in the United States, sometimes referred to as the Yellowstone Supervolcano.  The caldera and most of the park are located in the northwest corner of Wyoming.  The major features of the caldera measure about .

text: The Yellowstone Caldera is the

text: volcanic

text: caldera

text: and

text: supervolcano

text: located in

text: Yellowstone National Park

text: in the

text: United States

text: , sometimes referred to as the Yellowstone Supervolcano.  The caldera and most of the park are located in the northwest corner of

text: Wyoming

text: .  The major features of the caldera measure about .

text: He described Tokyo as "the city waiting to die", referring to its placement on a prominent geological fault that could result in a highly damaging earthquake. McGuire's main research sites are the Canary Islands, Mount Etna, and the Yellowstone National Park supervolcano in Wyoming.

text: He described

text: Tokyo

text: as "the city waiting to die", referring to its placement on a prominent

text: geological fault

text: that could result in a highly damaging

text: earthquake

text: . McGuire's main research sites are the

text: Canary Islands

text: Mount Etna

text: , and the

text: Yellowstone National Park

text: supervolcano

text: in

text: Wyoming

text: On the surface the poem is contrast between life on Earth and life in Heaven, but has been interpreted as a contrast between secular and monastic life on Earth, between western (Benedictine) and eastern (Basilian) monasticism, and between less strict Benedictinism and a strict following of its rule. Montecassino, where the poem is preserved, was the foremost monastery in the West and the original Benedictine foundation. On the other hand, the poem may belong to the medieval tradition of debate poems, such as those between Body and Soul and those between the active life (vita attiva or pratica) and the contemplative life (vita contemplativa). A third interpretive scheme places the poem in the didactic tradition. The Oriental is a mystic instructing the Occidental, a neophyte. The poem was designed for young monks and initiates, as a learning device. All interpretations agree that the it is the view of the Oriental that is being imparted to the audience, and that spirituality (as opposed to worldliness) and asceticism are promoted.

text: On the surface the poem is contrast between life on Earth and life in Heaven, but has been interpreted as a contrast between secular and monastic life on Earth, between western (

text: Benedictine

text: ) and eastern (

text: Basilian

text: ) monasticism, and between less strict Benedictinism and a strict following of its rule. Montecassino, where the poem is preserved, was the foremost monastery in the West and the original Benedictine foundation. On the other hand, the poem may belong to the medieval tradition of debate poems, such as those between Body and Soul and those between the active life (vita attiva or pratica) and the contemplative life (vita contemplativa). A third interpretive scheme places the poem in the didactic tradition. The Oriental is a

text: mystic

text: instructing the Occidental, a

text: neophyte

text: . The poem was designed for young monks and initiates, as a learning device. All interpretations agree that the it is the view of the Oriental that is being imparted to the audience, and that spirituality (as opposed to worldliness) and

text: asceticism

text: are promoted.

text: The ESA Cluster mission has enabled to find the first direct evidence of cross-scale energy transport between fluid and ion-scale waves, explaining why Earth's magnetic environment is so hot. A Nature Physics paper reveals. The Earth's internal magnetic field creates a giant protective bubble called the magnetosphere, necessary for life to develop. This magnetic bubble helps deflecting more than 99% of the incoming solar wind expelled by the Sun. Due to this interaction, the magnetosphere has a bullet-like shape (see left panel of Figure 1). At its border, the magnetopause, the matter, called plasma, is 50 times hotter inside the Earth's magnetic environment than just outside; a problem that has puzzled scientists since the beginning of the space age. Why is Earth's environment so hot? How plasma gets heated in a medium where no particles collides? One of the few physical processes enabling solar wind plasma to enter the magnetosphere is called the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. This instability is ubiquitous in space and on Earth. Such K-H waves have been detected in various media including the surface of oceans, in clouds (see bottom right panel of Image 1), in the solar corona (see top right panel) or in the atmosphere of giant planets. Kelvin–Helmholtz (K-H) waves can form at Earth's magnetopause, mainly due to the velocity difference between the plasma flowing outside at higher speed than inside the magnetosphere. Back in 2004, the multi-spacecraft Cluster mission revealed that these waves can roll-up, turning into giant vortices of about 36,000 km size, i.e. about 6 times the Earth's radius (Hasegawa et al., 2004). A new article, published in Nature Physics this month, presents a detailed study of small-scale (ion-scale) wave packets captured by Cluster within such a macroscopic (fluid-scale) Kelvin-Helmholtz vortex. This study reveals for the first time that these wave packets in the eye of the vortex are magnetosonic waves with sufficient energy to account for the observed level of ion heating. In other words, these waves can heat the cooler ions of magnetosheath origin; magnetosheath is the boundary layer located just outside the magnetopause. These observations may be evidence for cross-scale energy transport in space plasmas. It may have universal consequences in understanding the energy transport from fluid to ion scales, and can play a role in a variety of plasma systems with a velocity shear.

text: There are no historical eruptions within the Natib caldera complex. Studies in 1991 (Panum and Rayem) indicate that the last eruptive activity was probably Holocene to upper Pleistocene.  An earlier study in 1971 (Ebasco Services) dated the eruptive products between 69,000 +/- 27,000 years old.  A recent study by Dr. Kevin Rodolfo of the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the University of Illinois at Chicago, had Mount Natib's latest eruption between 11,000 and 18,000 years ago after studying a prehistoric pyroclastic flow from the volcano that entered Subic Bay in Zambales province.Current activity on Natib is through five thermal areas.  The hot springs in the Natib caldera are Asin, Mamot, Tigulangin, Uyong and Paipit springs.  The hot springs have temperatures ranging from 30-56 °C, with low flows, and a neutral to slightly alkaline water discharge.

text: There are no historical eruptions within the Natib caldera complex. Studies in 1991 (Panum and Rayem) indicate that the last eruptive activity was probably

text: Holocene

text: to upper

text: Pleistocene

text: .  An earlier study in 1971 (Ebasco Services) dated the eruptive products between 69,000 +/- 27,000 years old.  A recent study by Dr. Kevin Rodolfo of the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the

text: University of Illinois at Chicago

text: , had Mount Natib's latest eruption between 11,000 and 18,000 years ago after studying a prehistoric

text: pyroclastic flow

text: from the volcano that entered

text: Subic Bay

text: in

text: Zambales

text: province.Current activity on Natib is through five thermal areas.  The

text: hot spring

text: s in the Natib

text: caldera

text: are Asin, Mamot, Tigulangin, Uyong and Paipit springs.  The hot springs have temperatures ranging from 30-56 °C, with low flows, and a neutral to slightly alkaline water discharge.

text: Tooth eruption in humans is a process in tooth development in which the teeth enter the mouth and become visible. Current research indicates that the periodontal ligaments play an important role in tooth eruption. Primary teeth erupt into the mouth from around six months until two years of age. These teeth are the only ones in the mouth until a person is about six years old. At that time, the first permanent tooth erupts. This stage, during which a person has a combination of primary and permanent teeth, is known as the mixed stage. The mixed stage lasts until the last primary tooth is lost and the remaining permanent teeth erupt into the mouth.

text: The Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland as well as "remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the universe."

text: The

text: Earth

text: life on Earth

text: dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the

text: Eoarchean

text: Era after a geological

text: crust

text: Hadean

text: Eon.

text: Microbial mat

text: fossils

text: have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old

text: sandstone

text: in

text: Western Australia

text: . Other early physical evidence of a

text: biogenic substance

text: is

text: graphite

text: in 3.7 billion-year-old

text: metasedimentary rocks

text: discovered in

text: Western Greenland

text: as well as "remains of

text: biotic life

text: " found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the

text: universe

text: Residents reported that the eruption was preceded by small earthquakes which began about six days prior to the first eruption of lava. These earthquakes increased in magnitude and frequency through April 2, and a particularly strong one was reported at about 8 p.m., four hours before the eruption apparently began. Just after midnight, fissures opened on the flank of Pico. One resident said it looked as if the cone had "been cut by a knife." The eruption began with Strombolian activity, quickly followed by a 'curtain-of-fire' lava fountain that fed a flow which cut off the road to the village of Portela by 2 a.m. The 1,300 people living inside the caldera fled during the night to the safety of villages on the north coast. No one was killed, but about 20 people required medical attention.  The eruption continued for a few weeks.

text: Residents reported that the eruption was preceded by small

text: earthquake

text: s which began about six days prior to the first eruption of lava. These earthquakes increased in

text: magnitude

text: and frequency through April 2, and a particularly strong one was reported at about 8 p.m., four hours before the eruption apparently began. Just after midnight, fissures opened on the flank of Pico. One resident said it looked as if the cone had "been cut by a knife." The eruption began with

text: Strombolian activity

text: , quickly followed by a 'curtain-of-fire'

text: lava fountain

text: that fed a flow which cut off the road to the village of Portela by 2 a.m. The 1,300 people living inside the caldera fled during the night to the safety of villages on the north coast. No one was killed, but about 20 people required medical attention.  The eruption continued for a few weeks.

text: The Gelth were blue gaseous life-forms. They claimed to have lost their corporeal forms as a consequence of the Time War, though later actions by the Gelth put the truth of this statement in doubt. They arrived on Earth via the spacetime rift at an undertaker's house in Cardiff in 1869. Their forms could not be maintained in Earth's atmosphere without suspension in a gaseous medium, so they inhabited the gas pipes common to Victorian era households.  Further, though, they also would take possession of recently deceased corpses. When possessing corpses, they look much like ordinary humans (provided that the corpse has yet to enter the autolytic stage of decomposition), with only two fundamental differences: their irises vanish or turn white, and blue veins are clearly visible on their ghastly pale skin. Gelth make an unearthly shrieking noise for an unknown reason, particularly when they've possessed someone.

text: The Gelth were blue gaseous life-forms. They claimed to have lost their corporeal forms as a consequence of the

text: Time War

text: , though later actions by the Gelth put the truth of this statement in doubt. They arrived on Earth via

text: the spacetime rift

text: at an undertaker's house in

text: Cardiff

text: in 1869. Their forms could not be maintained in Earth's atmosphere without suspension in a gaseous medium, so they inhabited the gas pipes common to

text: Victorian era

text: households.  Further, though, they also would take possession of recently deceased corpses. When possessing corpses, they look much like ordinary humans (provided that the corpse has yet to enter the

text: autolytic

text: stage of

text: decomposition

text: ), with only two fundamental differences: their irises vanish or turn white, and blue veins are clearly visible on their ghastly pale skin. Gelth make an unearthly shrieking noise for an unknown reason, particularly when they've possessed someone.

text: Finrod loved Amarië, a Vanyarin Elf who did not follow him to Middle-earth, and foretold that nothing of Nargothrond would last that a son could inherit, as he never married while in Middle-earth. It is noted in The Lay of Leithian that Finrod was soon allowed to return to life in Valinor, and "now dwells with Amarië", so they probably were wed later. The Silmarillion briefly mentions Finrod's return to life and reunion with his father.

text: Finrod loved Amarië, a

text: Vanyar

text: in Elf who did not follow him to Middle-earth, and foretold that nothing of Nargothrond would last that a son could inherit, as he never married while in Middle-earth. It is noted in

text: The Lay of Leithian

text: that Finrod was soon allowed to return to life in

text: Valinor

text: , and "now dwells with Amarië", so they probably were wed later.

text: The Silmarillion

text: briefly mentions Finrod's return to life and reunion with his father.

text: When the supervolcano at Yellowstone last erupted 640,000 years ago, the magma and ash ejected from the caldera covered most of the United States west of the Mississippi river and part of northeastern Mexico. Another such eruption could threaten civilization.

text: When the supervolcano at

text: Yellowstone

text: last erupted 640,000 years ago, the

text: magma

text: and ash ejected from the

text: caldera

text: covered most of the United States west of the

text: Mississippi river

text: and part of northeastern Mexico. Another such eruption could threaten civilization.

text: Rigdon reportedly received visions jointly with Smith. According to one account: "Joseph would, at intervals, say: 'What do I see?' as one might say while looking out the window and beholding what all in the room could not see. Then he would relate what he had seen or what he was looking at. Then Sidney replied, 'I see the same.' Presently Sidney would say 'what do I see?' and would repeat what he had seen or was seeing, and Joseph would reply, 'I see the same.' This manner of conversation was repeated at short intervals to the end of the vision".

text: The possibility of a supernova explosion from WR 104 with a destructive consequence for life on Earth has stirred interest in the mass media and several popular science articles have been issued in the press since 2008, mostly in the UK and the US. Some articles decide to reject the catastrophic scenario, while others leave it as an open question.

text: These islets are the tops of a partially submerged volcano. The southern island, Yankicha (), consists of the summit caldera and has a maximum width of . The caldera has a diameter of , and is breached on the south, forming a sea-water crater bay. The bay has an estimated depth of , and there is strong evidence of ongoing underwater volcanic activity, as evidenced by frequent bubbles, altered water chemistry and the presence of bacteria mats. Two small lava domes for small islands in the central lagoon, and numerous fumaroles and hot springs are along the southeast caldera shoreline. The island’s highest point  is  high, and is on the eastern shore.The northern islet (Ryponkicha ) is the larger of the two, and consists of a portion of the volcano’s flank, with sheer cliffs rising up  from the sea. Ushishir is still active volcano with a major eruption with the last known eruption in 1884.

text: These islets are the tops of a partially submerged volcano. The southern island, Yankicha (), consists of the summit caldera and has a maximum width of . The caldera has a diameter of , and is breached on the south, forming a sea-water

text: crater bay

text: . The bay has an estimated depth of , and there is strong evidence of ongoing

text: underwater volcanic activity

text: , as evidenced by frequent bubbles, altered water chemistry and the presence of bacteria mats. Two small

text: lava dome

text: s for small islands in the central lagoon, and numerous

text: fumarole

text: s and hot springs are along the southeast caldera shoreline. The island’s highest point  is  high, and is on the eastern shore.The northern islet (Ryponkicha ) is the larger of the two, and consists of a portion of the volcano’s flank, with sheer cliffs rising up  from the sea. Ushishir is still

text: active volcano

text: with a major

text: eruption

text: with the last known eruption in 1884.

text: Addiction, the consequences of one's choices, and coming of age have all been noted as major themes in the novel. Reviewers explained that Crank “gives a look into . . . drug addiction and its life changing consequences.” Reviewers also noted Kristina must face that “there is no happy ending when it comes to addiction” and understand the consequences of her actions. Another major theme is coming of age, as critics say “Adolescence is a time of conflict and contradiction, [clearly seen in] the conflicted character Kristina/Bree in Crank.”

text: Lakes may sometimes form in the circular depressions of volcanic craters. These craters are typically circular or oval basins around the vent or vents from which magma erupts. A large volcanic eruption sometimes results in the formation of a caldera, caused by the collapse of the magma chamber under the volcano. If enough magma is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcano, and a roughly circular fracture, the ring fault, develops around the edge of the chamber. The centre of the volcano within the ring fracture collapses, creating a ring-shaped depression. Long after the eruption, this caldera may fill with water to become a lake. If volcanic activity continues or restarts, the centre of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a resurgent dome, to become a crater lake island. Though typically calderas are larger and deeper than craters and form in different ways, a distinction between the two is often ignored in non-technical circumstances and the term crater lake is widely used for the lakes formed in both craters and calderas. The following is a list of large or notable crater lake islands:

text: Lakes may sometimes form in the circular depressions of

text: volcanic crater

text: s. These craters are typically circular or oval basins around the vent or vents from which magma erupts. A large

text: volcanic eruption

text: sometimes results in the formation of a

text: caldera

text: , caused by the collapse of the

text: magma chamber

text: under the volcano. If enough magma is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcano, and a roughly circular fracture, the

text: ring fault

text: , develops around the edge of the chamber. The centre of the volcano within the ring fracture collapses, creating a ring-shaped depression. Long after the eruption, this caldera may fill with water to become a lake. If volcanic activity continues or restarts, the centre of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a

text: resurgent dome

text: , to become a crater lake island. Though typically calderas are larger and deeper than craters and form in different ways, a distinction between the two is often ignored in non-technical circumstances and the term

text: crater lake

text: is widely used for the lakes formed in both craters and calderas. The following is a list of large or notable crater lake islands:

text: A geological event such as massive flood basalt, volcanism, or the eruption of a supervolcano could lead to a so-called volcanic winter, similar to a nuclear winter. One such event, the Toba eruption, occurred in Indonesia about 71,500 years ago. According to the Toba catastrophe theory, the event may have reduced human populations to only a few tens of thousands of individuals. Yellowstone Caldera is another such supervolcano, having undergone 142 or more caldera-forming eruptions in the past 17 million years.A massive volcano eruption would eject extraordinary volumes of volcanic dust, toxic and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere with serious effects on global climate (towards extreme global cooling;  volcanic winter if short term, and ice age if long term) or global warming (if greenhouse gases were to prevail).

text: A geological event such as massive

text: flood basalt

text: , volcanism, or the eruption of a supervolcano could lead to a so-called volcanic winter, similar to a

text: nuclear winter

text: . One such event, the

text: Toba eruption

text: , occurred in Indonesia about 71,500 years ago. According to the

text: Toba catastrophe theory

text: , the event may have reduced human populations to only a few tens of thousands of individuals.

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: is another such supervolcano, having undergone 142 or more

text: caldera

text: -forming eruptions in the past 17 million years.A massive volcano eruption would eject extraordinary volumes of volcanic dust, toxic and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere with serious effects on global climate (towards extreme global cooling;

text: volcanic winter

text: if short term, and ice age if long term) or

text: global warming

text: (if greenhouse gases were to prevail).

text: “What we want to know (μ(x,y))” can be reconstructed from “What we majored ( p(s,θ))” by using inverse radon transformation .In the above-mentioned descriptions, “What we majored” is p(s,θ) . On the other hand, “What we want to know ” is μ(x,y). So, the next will be "How to reconstruct μ(x,y) from p(s,θ)".

text: “What we want to know (μ(x,y))” can be reconstructed from “What we majored ( p(s,θ))” by using

text: inverse radon transformation

text: .In the above-mentioned descriptions, “What we majored” is p(s,θ) . On the other hand, “What we want to know ” is μ(x,y). So, the next will be "How to reconstruct μ(x,y) from p(s,θ)".

text: The purpose of this can be illustrated by an example. Imagine a program that is in the middle of performing some operation when the machine it is running on loses power. Upon restart, that program might well need to know whether the operation it was performing succeeded, half-succeeded, or failed. If a write-ahead log is used, the program can check this log and compare what it was supposed to be doing when it unexpectedly lost power to what was actually done. On the basis of this comparison, the program could decide to undo what it had started, complete what it had started, or keep things as they are.

text: "What You Get Is What You See" is a song by recording artist Tina Turner from her album Break Every Rule (1986). The song was written by the Terry Britten and Graham Lyle team and was notably different from the three previous singles that they had written for Turner, "What's Love Got to Do with It", "We Don't Need Another Hero" and "Two People", as it was an up-tempo country-tinged rock track featuring Eric Clapton on guitars. Tina Turner said in an interview that "What You Get Is What You See" is her favorite song from the album.

text: "What You Get Is What You See" is a song by recording artist

text: Tina Turner

text: from her album

text: Break Every Rule

text: (1986). The song was written by the

text: Terry Britten

text: and

text: Graham Lyle

text: team and was notably different from the three previous singles that they had written for Turner, "

text: What's Love Got to Do with It

entity_name: We Don't Need Another Hero (Thunderdome)

text: We Don't Need Another Hero

text: " and "

text: Two People

text: ", as it was an up-tempo

text: country

text: -tinged rock track featuring

text: Eric Clapton

text: on guitars. Tina Turner said in an interview that "What You Get Is What You See" is her favorite song from the album.

text: Huge deposits of ignimbrite and form large parts of the Sierra Madre Occidental in western Mexico.  In the western U.S., massive ignimbrite deposits up to several hundred metres thick occur in the Basin and Range Province, largely in Nevada, western Utah, southern Arizona, and north-central and southern New Mexico, and Snake River Plain. The magmatism in the Basin and Range Province included a massive flare-up of ignimbrite which began about 40 million years ago and largely ended 25 million years ago: the magmatism followed the end of the Laramide orogeny, when deformation and magmatism occurred far east of the plate boundary. Additional eruptions of ignimbrite continued in Nevada until roughly 14 million years ago. Individual eruptions were often enormous, sometimes up to thousands of cubic kilometres in volume, giving them a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 8, comparable to Yellowstone Caldera and Lake Toba eruptions.

text: Huge deposits of ignimbrite and form large parts of the

text: Sierra Madre Occidental

text: in western Mexico.  In the western

text: U.S.

text: , massive ignimbrite deposits up to several hundred metres thick occur in the

text: Basin and Range Province

text: , largely in

text: Nevada

text: , western

text: Utah

text: , southern

text: Arizona

text: , and north-central and southern

text: New Mexico

text: , and Snake River Plain. The magmatism in the Basin and Range Province included a massive flare-up of ignimbrite which began about 40 million years ago and largely ended 25 million years ago: the magmatism followed the end of the

text: Laramide orogeny

text: , when deformation and magmatism occurred far east of the plate boundary. Additional eruptions of ignimbrite continued in Nevada until roughly 14 million years ago. Individual eruptions were often enormous, sometimes up to thousands of cubic kilometres in volume, giving them a

text: Volcanic Explosivity Index

text: of 8, comparable to

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: and

text: Lake Toba

text: eruptions.

text: Raman lists ten underlying principles for his version of Religious Naturalism. They are the aspects of: philosophy; religion; experiences; aesthetics; religious history; community; empathy; hope; morality; humility; and gratitude.In his  "Some Reflections on Natural Religion", Raman considers the following findings of science: the why of the Universe is a mystery; it is governed precise laws; earth and life of it are a consequence of those laws; Earth’s conditions are narrowly defined so life is tenuous;  eventually life and the universe will be dissolve; these  circumstances inspires awe and reverence for Nature; the preceding must be among the fundamental tenets of Natural Religion.

text: Encountering Life in the Universe: Ethical Foundations and Social Implications of Astrobiology is a non-fiction book edited by the astronomers Chris Impey and Bill Stoeger, S.J., and scientist and science communicator Anna Spitz that explores the consequences of humanity encountering biology beyond the Earth from a variety of scholarly perspectives. Earth is the only planet known to host life, but the surge in discovery of exoplanets, including many that are in principle habitable, motivates consideration of the implications of discovering life elsewhere. The chapters derive from a conference held at the Biosphere 2 Institute of the University of Arizona in 2008. The book was published as a hardcover by the University of Arizona Press in 2013.

text: Encountering Life in the Universe: Ethical Foundations and Social Implications of Astrobiology is a

text: non-fiction

text: book edited by the

text: astronomer

text: s

text: Chris Impey

text: and Bill Stoeger, S.J., and scientist and science communicator Anna Spitz that explores the consequences of humanity encountering

text: biology beyond the Earth

text: from a variety of scholarly perspectives.

text: Earth

text: is the only planet known to host life, but the surge in discovery of

text: exoplanets

text: , including many that are in principle

text: habitable

text: , motivates consideration of the implications of discovering life elsewhere. The chapters derive from a conference held at the

text: Biosphere 2

text: Institute of the

text: University of Arizona

text: in 2008. The book was published as a hardcover by the

text: University of Arizona Press

text: in 2013.

text: A paradox in metabolism is that, while the vast majority of complex life on Earth requires oxygen for its existence, oxygen is a highly reactive molecule that damages living organisms by producing reactive oxygen species. Consequently, organisms contain a complex network of antioxidant metabolites and enzymes that work together to prevent oxidative damage to cellular components such as DNA, proteins and lipids. In general, antioxidant systems either prevent these reactive species from being formed, or remove them before they can damage vital components of the cell. However, reactive oxygen species also have useful cellular functions, such as redox signaling.  Thus, the function of antioxidant systems is not to remove oxidants entirely, but instead to keep them at an optimum level.

text: A

text: paradox

text: in

text: metabolism

text: is that, while the vast majority of complex

text: life on Earth

text: requires

text: oxygen

text: for its existence, oxygen is a highly reactive molecule that damages living organisms by producing

text: reactive oxygen species

text: . Consequently, organisms contain a complex network of antioxidant

text: metabolite

text: s and

text: enzyme

text: s that work together to prevent oxidative damage to cellular components such as

text: DNA

text: protein

text: s and

text: lipid

text: s. In general, antioxidant systems either prevent these reactive species from being formed, or remove them before they can damage vital components of the cell. However, reactive oxygen species also have useful cellular functions, such as

text: redox signaling

text: .  Thus, the function of antioxidant systems is not to remove oxidants entirely, but instead to keep them at an optimum level.

text: The technologies of sound recordings, motion pictures, and radio and television broadcasting produced a means for rapid dissemination of information and entertainment. In the last decade of the twentieth century, a rapid increase took place in the use of computers, including personal computers. A global communication network emerged in the Internet.The century saw several global threats emerge or become more serious or more widely recognized, including nuclear proliferation, global climate change, deforestation, overpopulation, deadly epidemics of diseases such as Ebola virus, near-Earth asteroids and comets, supervolcano eruptions, and the dwindling of global natural resources (particularly fossil fuels).

text: The technologies of sound recordings, motion pictures, and radio and television broadcasting produced a means for rapid dissemination of information and entertainment. In the last decade of the twentieth century, a rapid increase took place in the use of computers, including

text: personal computer

text: s. A global communication network emerged in the

text: Internet

text: .The century saw several global threats emerge or become more serious or more widely recognized, including

text: nuclear proliferation

text: global climate change

text: deforestation

text: overpopulation

text: , deadly

text: epidemic

text: s of diseases such as

text: Ebola virus

text: near-Earth asteroids and comets

text: supervolcano

text: eruptions, and the dwindling of global

text: natural resource

text: s (particularly

text: fossil fuel

text: s).

text: The loosely defined term 'supervolcano' has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Thus defined, the Yellowstone Supervolcano is the volcanic field which produced the latest three supereruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot; it also produced one additional smaller eruption, thereby creating West Thumb Lake 174,000 years ago. The three super eruptions occurred 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and approximately 630,000 years ago, forming the Island Park Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera, and Yellowstone calderas, respectively. The Island Park Caldera supereruption (2.1 million years ago), which produced the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, was the largest and produced 2,500 times as much ash as the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. The next biggest supereruption formed the Yellowstone Caldera (~ 630,000 years ago) and produced the Lava Creek Tuff.  The Henry's Fork Caldera (1.2 million years ago) produced the smaller Mesa Falls Tuff but is the only caldera from the Snake River Plain-Yellowstone (SRP-Y) hotspot that is plainly visible today.

text: The loosely defined term '

text: supervolcano

text: ' has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Thus defined, the Yellowstone Supervolcano is the volcanic field which produced the latest three supereruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot; it also produced one additional smaller eruption, thereby creating West Thumb Lake 174,000 years ago. The three super eruptions occurred 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and approximately 630,000 years ago, forming the

text: Island Park Caldera

text: , the

text: Henry's Fork Caldera

text: , and Yellowstone calderas, respectively. The

text: Island Park Caldera

text: supereruption (2.1 million years ago), which produced the

text: Huckleberry Ridge Tuff

text: , was the largest and produced 2,500 times as much ash as the

text: 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption

text: . The next biggest supereruption formed the Yellowstone Caldera (~ 630,000 years ago) and produced the

text: Lava Creek Tuff

text: .  The

text: Henry's Fork Caldera

text: (1.2 million years ago) produced the smaller

text: Mesa Falls Tuff

text: but is the only caldera from the Snake River Plain-Yellowstone (SRP-Y) hotspot that is plainly visible today.

text: The oldest identified caldera remnant straddles the border near McDermitt, Nevada-Oregon, although there are volcaniclastic piles and arcuate faults that define caldera complexes more than  in diameter in the Carmacks Group of southwest-central Yukon, Canada, which are interpreted to have formed 70 million years ago by the Yellowstone hotspot.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024

text: The oldest identified caldera remnant straddles the border near

text: McDermitt, Nevada-Oregon

text: , although there are

text: volcaniclastic

text: piles and

text: arcuate faults

text: that define caldera complexes more than  in diameter in the

text: Carmacks Group

text: of southwest-central

text: Yukon

text: Canada

text: , which are interpreted to have formed 70 million years ago by the Yellowstone hotspot.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024

text: "Sec. 6. And be it further enacted, That if two or more persons shall band or conspire together, or go in disguise upon the public highway, or upon the premises of another, with intent to violate any provision of this act, or to injure, oppress, threaten, or intimidate any citizen with intent to prevent or hinder his free exercise and enjoyment of any right or privilege granted or secured to him by the Constitution or laws of the United States, or because of his having exercised the same, such persons shall be held guilty of felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be fined or imprisoned, or both, at the discretion of the court,—the fine not to exceed five thousand dollars, and the imprisonment not to exceed ten years,—and shall, moreover, be thereafter ineligible to, and disabled from holding, any office or place of honor, profit, or trust created by the Constitution or laws of the United States."

text: Since 2015 3e largely repeats homegrown programming from TV3, including Red Rock.

text: Since 2015 3e largely repeats homegrown programming from TV3, including

text: Red Rock

text: Native to South America, from Colombia, Venezuela and the Guianas to Peru, Bolivia, and the eastern part of Brazil, including a southeast Brazil coastal strip. The cream-colored woodpecker inhabits rainforests, mangroves, forests near water, deciduous woodland as well as cacao plantations. It does not migrate.

text: Native to

text: South America

text: , from

text: Colombia

text: Venezuela

text: and

text: the Guianas

text: to

text: Peru

text: Bolivia

text: , and the eastern part of

text: Brazil

text: , including a southeast Brazil

text: coastal strip

text: . The cream-colored woodpecker inhabits

text: rainforest

text: s,

text: mangrove

text: s, forests near water,

text: deciduous

text: woodland as well as

text: cacao

text: plantations. It does not migrate.

text: 208 competitors from 13 countries participated. 8 Chinese competitors did not show up in the competition at the first day.

text: Moseley v International Rugby Writers XVSunday 27 November 1977

text: Monasterevan, Hopkins Summer School, 28 July

text: Since many believe that free will is necessary for moral responsibility, this may imply disastrous consequences for their theory of ethics.

text: Since many believe that free will is necessary for

text: moral responsibility

text: , this may imply disastrous consequences for their theory of

text: ethics

text: When completed,

text: When completed,

text: The Hatepe eruption, named for the Hatepe Plinian pumice tephra layer, sometimes referred to as the Taupo eruption and dated to around 180 AD, was Lake Taupo's most recent major eruption.  It is considered New Zealand's largest eruption during the last 20,000 years. The eruption ejected some , a VEI 7 eruption, of which  was ejected in the space of a few minutes. This makes it one of the most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years, comparable to the Minoan eruption in the 2nd millennium BC, the Tianchi eruption of Baekdu around 1000 AD and the 1815 eruption of Tambora. The resulting ash turned the sky red over Rome and China.

text: The Hatepe eruption, named for the Hatepe Plinian

text: pumice

text: tephra layer

text: , sometimes referred to as the Taupo eruption and dated to around 180

text: AD

text: , was

text: Lake Taupo

text: 's most recent major

text: eruption

text: .  It is considered

text: New Zealand

text: 's largest eruption during the last 20,000 years. The eruption ejected some , a

text: VEI

text: 7 eruption, of which  was ejected in the space of a few minutes. This makes it one of the most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years, comparable to the

text: Minoan eruption

text: in the 2nd millennium BC, the

text: Tianchi eruption

text: of

text: Baekdu

text: around 1000 AD and the 1815 eruption of

text: Tambora

text: . The resulting

text: ash

text: turned the sky red over

text: Rome

text: and

text: China

text: Kamerling was still a law student when in 1990 he was cast in the then new Dutch soap opera Goede tijden, slechte tijden. His character, Peter Kelder, quickly became one of the most popular on the program.

text: Kamerling was still a law student when in 1990 he was cast in the then new Dutch

text: soap opera

text: Goede tijden, slechte tijden

text: . His character, Peter Kelder, quickly became one of the most popular on the program.

text: He spent the most of the 1975 season in the minor leagues, but Scott appeared in 25 games with the Padres, going hitless in nine at-bats.  In 1976, he played the entire season with the Hawaii Islanders of the Pacific Coast League.  On October 22, 1976, the Toronto Blue Jays purchased Scott's contract from the Padres.

text: He spent the most of the 1975 season in the minor leagues, but Scott appeared in 25 games with the Padres, going hitless in nine at-bats.  In 1976, he played the entire season with the

text: Hawaii Islanders

text: of the

text: Pacific Coast League

text: .  On October 22, 1976, the

text: Toronto Blue Jays

text: purchased Scott's contract from the Padres.

text: William Doppmann, pianist

text: William Doppmann, pianist

text: With more than 1.335 million visitors in 2010, the abbey is among the most visited cultural sites in France.

text: With more than 1.335 million visitors in 2010, the abbey is among the

entity_section: Most popular sites by number of visitors

text: most visited cultural sites in France

text: It is narrated by Russ Harris, Later episodes narrated by Greg O'neil and is produced by Bullseye Productions.  Its producer is Phil Ward.  Hot Pursuit's running time is 30 minutes.

text: While most investigations of extraterrestrial life start with the assumption that advanced life-forms must have similar requirements for life as on Earth, the hypothesis of other types of biochemistry suggests the possibility of lifeforms evolving around a different metabolic mechanism. In Evolving the Alien, biologist Jack Cohen and mathematician Ian Stewart argue astrobiology, based on the Rare Earth hypothesis, is restrictive and unimaginative. They suggest that Earth-like planets may be very rare, but non-carbon-based complex life could possibly emerge in other environments. The most frequently mentioned alternative to carbon is silicon-based life, while ammonia and hydrocarbons are sometimes suggested as alternative solvents to water. The astrobiologist Dirk Schulze-Makuch and other scientists have proposed a Planet Habitability Index whose criteria include "potential for holding a liquid solvent" that is not necessarily restricted to water.

text: While most investigations of extraterrestrial life start with the assumption that advanced life-forms must have similar requirements for life as on Earth, the hypothesis of

text: other types of biochemistry

text: suggests the possibility of lifeforms evolving around a different metabolic mechanism. In

text: Evolving the Alien

text: biologist

text: Jack Cohen

text: and

text: mathematician

text: Ian Stewart

text: argue

text: astrobiology

text: , based on the

text: Rare Earth hypothesis

text: , is restrictive and unimaginative. They suggest that

text: Earth-like planets

text: may be very rare, but non-carbon-based complex life could possibly emerge in other environments. The most frequently mentioned alternative to carbon is

text: silicon-based life

text: , while

text: ammonia

text: and

text: hydrocarbons

text: are sometimes suggested as

text: alternative solvents

text: to water. The astrobiologist

text: Dirk Schulze-Makuch

text: and other scientists have proposed a Planet Habitability Index whose criteria include "potential for holding a liquid solvent" that is not necessarily restricted to water.

text: The origin of the term supervolcano is linked to an early 20th-century scientific debate about the geological history and features of the Three Sisters volcanic region of Oregon in the United States. In 1925, Edwin T. Hodge suggested that a very large volcano, which he named Mount Multnomah, had existed in that region. He believed that several peaks in the Three Sisters area are the remnants left after Mount Multnomah had been largely destroyed by violent volcanic explosions, similar to Mount Mazama. In 1948, the possible existence of Mount Multnomah was ignored by volcanologist Howel Williams in his book The Ancient Volcanoes of Oregon. The book was reviewed in 1949 by another volcanologist, F. M. Byers Jr. In the review, Byers refers to Mount Multnomah as a supervolcano. Although Hodge's suggestion that Mount Multnomah is a supervolcano was rejected long ago, the term supervolcano was popularised by the BBC popular science television program Horizon in 2000 to refer to eruptions that produce extremely large amounts of ejecta.

text: The origin of the term supervolcano is linked to an early 20th-century scientific debate about the geological history and features of the

text: Three Sisters

text: volcanic region of

text: Oregon

text: in the United States. In 1925, Edwin T. Hodge suggested that a very large volcano, which he named

text: Mount Multnomah

text: , had existed in that region. He believed that several

text: peaks

text: in the Three Sisters area are the remnants left after Mount Multnomah had been largely destroyed by violent volcanic explosions, similar to

text: Mount Mazama

text: . In 1948, the possible existence of Mount Multnomah was ignored by volcanologist

text: Howel Williams

text: in his book The Ancient Volcanoes of Oregon. The book was reviewed in 1949 by another volcanologist, F. M. Byers Jr. In the review, Byers refers to Mount Multnomah as a supervolcano. Although Hodge's suggestion that Mount Multnomah is a supervolcano was rejected long ago, the term supervolcano was popularised by the

text: BBC

text: popular science

text: television program

text: Horizon

text: in 2000 to refer to eruptions that produce extremely large amounts of

text: ejecta

text: The Government of Colombia fully complies with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking in persons. During the reporting period, the government increased law enforcement actions against trafficking offenders, enhanced prevention efforts, and continued to offer victim services through an interagency trafficking operations center and through partnerships with NGOs and international organizations. The significant number of Colombians trafficked abroad, however, reflects the need for increased prevention efforts and victim services.

text: Jonathan Grier is a computer scientist, consultant, and entrepreneur.  He is best known for his work on stochastic forensics and insider data theft.  He has also contributed to computer security, digital forensics, and software development.

text: Jonathan Grier is a

text: computer scientist

text: , consultant, and entrepreneur.  He is best known for his work on

text: stochastic forensics

text: and insider

text: data theft

text: .  He has also contributed to

text: computer security

text: digital forensics

text: , and

text: software development

text: The area was known as Island Park long before the -long town was incorporated. The area known as Island Park is mostly a large crater or caldera named the Henry's Fork Caldera that was created by the same hotspot that created the earlier Island Park Caldera and the later Yellowstone Caldera.

text: The area was known as Island Park long before the -long town was incorporated. The area known as Island Park is mostly a large crater or

text: caldera

text: named the

text: Henry's Fork Caldera

text: that was created by the same

text: hotspot

text: that created the earlier

text: Island Park Caldera

text: and the later

text: Yellowstone Caldera

text: According to early ABC press releases, Earth 2100 was meant to be an "unprecedented television and Internet event." The initial phase of the project was an online "crowdsourcing" project where viewers were encouraged to submit homemade videos imagining life in 2015, 2050, and 2100 in locations in Africa, Australia, United States, Europe, India, South America, and China. During the summer and fall of 2008, users began to post their submissions on the Earth 2100 website, and these videos were cobbled together into a Web-based narrative showing the worldwide consequences of population growth, resource depletion, and climate change.

text: According to early ABC press releases, Earth 2100 was meant to be an "unprecedented television and Internet event." The initial phase of the project was an online "

text: crowdsourcing

text: " project where viewers were encouraged to submit homemade videos imagining life in 2015, 2050, and 2100 in locations in

text: Africa

text: Australia

text: United States

text: Europe

text: India

text: South America

text: , and

text: China

text: . During the summer and fall of 2008, users began to post their submissions on the Earth 2100 website, and these videos were cobbled together into a Web-based narrative showing the worldwide consequences of population growth, resource depletion, and climate change.

text: 9) 	Crystal plasticity modeling.

text: 9) 	Crystal plasticity modeling.

text: Ulrich Karl Christian Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau (29 May 1869 – 8 September 1928) was a German diplomat who became the first Foreign Minister of the Weimar Republic. In this capacity, he led the German delegation at the Paris Peace Conference but resigned over the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. He later was German Ambassador to the USSR from 1922 to 1928.

text: Ulrich Karl Christian Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau (29 May 1869 – 8 September 1928) was a

text: German

text: diplomat

text: who became the first

text: Foreign Minister

text: of the

text: Weimar Republic

text: . In this capacity, he led the German delegation at the

text: Paris Peace Conference

text: but resigned over the signing of the

text: Treaty of Versailles

text: . He later was German Ambassador to the

text: USSR

text: from 1922 to 1928.

text: This species breeds readily in captivity and is often used as livefood for other invertebrates such as tarantulas and praying mantids, as well as smaller lizards.

text: This species breeds readily in captivity and is often used as

text: livefood

text: for other invertebrates such as

text: tarantula

text: s and

text: praying mantids

text: , as well as smaller lizards.

text: Mangel wurzel is the only vegetable that was available for Sarah Bruckman to purchase in Two Fronts by Harry Turtledove. Turtledove also uses it as a staple of the post-eruption Maine diet in his Supervolcano series.

text: Mangel wurzel is the only vegetable that was available for Sarah Bruckman to purchase in

text: Two Fronts

text: by

text: Harry Turtledove

text: . Turtledove also uses it as a staple of the post-eruption Maine diet in his Supervolcano series.

text: A Second XI T20 championship was launched in 2011.

text: Cabbage square or Cabbage and Noodles is a savoury Hungarian pasta dish.

text: Wind: Heat 1: -1.1 m/s m/s, Heat 2: -0.9 m/s, Heat 3: -1.9 m/s

text: He competed at the 1999 World Championships and the Olympic Games in 1996, 2000 and 2004, but without reaching the final round on any occasion.

text: He competed at the

text: 1999 World Championships

text: and the Olympic Games in

text: and

text: , but without reaching the final round on any occasion.

text: Soon after its formation, the band began to draw attention in Austin with a residency at TC's Lounge, a now-closed juke joint in East Austin, where they played regularly on Wednesday nights, logging 82 shows from 2008 to 2010.

text: Sinclairs Hotels Ltd. owns and operates hotels and resorts in India at Siliguri, Burdwan, Darjeeling, Dooars, Kalimpong, Ooty and Andamans.

text: Sinclairs Hotels Ltd. owns and operates hotels and resorts in India at

text: Siliguri

text: Burdwan

text: Darjeeling

text: Dooars

text: Kalimpong

text: Ooty

text: and

text: Andamans

text: The plateau developed through three volcanic cycles spanning two million years that included some of the world's largest known eruptions. Eruption of the > Huckleberry Ridge Tuff about 2 million years ago created the more than  long Island Park Caldera. The second cycle concluded with the eruption of the Mesa Falls Tuff around 1.3 million years ago, forming the  wide Henry's Fork Caldera caldera at the western end of the first caldera. Activity subsequently shifted to the present Yellowstone Plateau and culminated 630,000 years ago with the eruption of the  Lava Creek Tuff and the formation of the present  caldera. Resurgent doming then occurred at both the NE and SW sides of the caldera and voluminous  intracaldera rhyolitic lava flows were erupted between 150,000 and 70,000 years ago. Phreatic eruptions produced local tephras during the early Holocene. The caldera presently contains one of the world's largest hydrothermal systems including the world's largest concentration of geysers.  Much of the plateau is located within Yellowstone National Park.

text: The plateau developed through three

text: volcanic

text: cycles spanning two million years that included some of the world's largest known eruptions. Eruption of the >

text: Huckleberry Ridge Tuff

text: about 2 million years ago created the more than  long

text: Island Park Caldera

text: . The second cycle concluded with the eruption of the

text: Mesa Falls

text: Tuff around 1.3 million years ago, forming the  wide

text: Henry's Fork Caldera

text: caldera at the western end of the first caldera. Activity subsequently shifted to the present Yellowstone Plateau and culminated 630,000 years ago with the eruption of the

text: Lava Creek Tuff

text: and the formation of the present  caldera. Resurgent doming then occurred at both the NE and SW sides of the caldera and voluminous  intracaldera

text: rhyolitic

text: lava flows

text: were erupted between 150,000 and 70,000 years ago.

text: Phreatic eruptions

text: produced local tephras during the early

text: Holocene

text: . The caldera presently contains one of the world's largest hydrothermal systems including the world's largest concentration of

text: geysers

text: .  Much of the plateau is located within

text: Yellowstone National Park

text: "When the circular issued by Col. Mitchell, then Supt. of Indian Affairs, was explained to the Assiniboines by Culbertson, not a single Indian except the Foolish Bear (Crazy Bear) would consent to go. They did not wish to risk themselves among the large body of Sioux on whose ground the treaty was to be held. Besides the road to Laramie being up on the Yellowstone in the summer, when that river is literally stocked with Blackfoot war parties, their deadly enemies, did not bode well for their safe arrival. The trip was one of extreme danger to all concerned, and nothing but the good council and great exertions of the above named gentleman induced the Indians to undertake it. After the Crazy Bear had determined to go, several others joined the expedition." Among those who traveled with him were Chief First to Fly, and Father De Smet, S.J.

text: According to Wired Magazine, "What was decried as the death of a blog universe when Dave Winer shut down free blog host Weblogs.com turned out to be little more than a four-day server outage surrounded by a heck of a flame war."