text: Shot noise in electronic circuits consists of random fluctuations of the electric current in a DC current which originate due to fact that current actually consists of a flow of discrete charges (electrons). Because the electron has such a tiny charge, however, shot noise is of relative insignificance in many (but not all) cases of electrical conduction. For instance 1 ampere of current consists of about  electrons per second; even though this number will randomly vary by several billion in any given second, such a fluctuation is minuscule compared to the current itself. In addition, shot noise is often less significant as compared with two other noise sources in electronic circuits, flicker noise and Johnson–Nyquist noise. However, shot noise is temperature and frequency independent, in contrast to Johnson–Nyquist noise, which is proportional to temperature, and flicker noise, with the spectral density decreasing with the frequency. Therefore at high frequencies and low temperatures shot noise may become the dominant source of noise.

text: Shot noise in electronic circuits consists of random fluctuations of the

entity_name: Electric current

text: electric current

text: in a

entity_name: Direct current

text: DC

text: current which originate due to fact that current actually consists of a flow of discrete charges (

entity_name: Electron

text: electron

text: s). Because the electron has such a tiny charge, however, shot noise is of relative insignificance in many (but not all) cases of electrical conduction. For instance 1

entity_name: Ampere

text: ampere

text: of current consists of about  electrons per second; even though this number will randomly vary by several billion in any given second, such a fluctuation is minuscule compared to the current itself. In addition, shot noise is often less significant as compared with two other noise sources in electronic circuits,

entity_name: Flicker noise

text: flicker noise

text: and

entity_name: Johnson–Nyquist noise

text: Johnson–Nyquist noise

text: . However, shot noise is temperature and frequency independent, in contrast to Johnson–Nyquist noise, which is proportional to temperature, and flicker noise, with the spectral density decreasing with the frequency. Therefore at high frequencies and low temperatures shot noise may become the dominant source of noise.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Around 1650, Otto von Guericke built a crude electrostatic generator: a sulphur ball that rotated on a shaft. When Guericke held his hand against the ball and turned the shaft quickly, a static electric charge built up. This experiment inspired the development of several forms of "friction machines", that greatly helped in the study of electricity.

text: Around 1650,

entity_name: Otto von Guericke

text: Otto von Guericke

text: built a crude

entity_name: Electrostatic generator

text: electrostatic generator

text: : a

entity_name: Sulfur

text: sulphur

text: ball that rotated on a shaft. When Guericke held his hand against the ball and turned the shaft quickly, a static

entity_name: Electric charge

text: electric charge

text: built up. This experiment inspired the development of several forms of "friction machines", that greatly helped in the study of electricity.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: Induced-charge electrokinetics in physics is the electrically driven fluid flow and particle motion in a liquid electrolyte. Consider a metal particle (which is neutrally charged but electrically conducting) in contact with an aqueous solution in a chamber/channel. If different voltages apply to the end of this chamber/channel, electric field will generate in this chamber/channel. This applied electric field passes through this metal particle and causes the free charges inside the particle migrate under the skin of particle. As a result of this migration, the negative charges moves to the side which is close to the positive (or higher) voltage while the positive charges moves to the opposite side of the particle. These charges under the skin of conducting particle attract the counter-ions of the aqueous solution; thus, the electric double layer (EDL) forms around the particle. The EDL sing on the surface of the conducting particle changes from positive to negative and the distribution of the charges varies along the particle geometry. Due to these variations, the EDL is non-uniform and has different sings. Thus, the induced zeta potential around the particle, and consequently slip velocity on the surface of the particle, vary as a function of local electric field. Differences in magnitude and direction of slip velocity on the surface of the conducting particle effects the flow pattern around this particle and causes micro vortices. Yasaman Daghighi and Dongqing Li, for the first time, experimentally illustrated these induced vortices around a 1.2mm diameter carbon-steel sphere under the 40V/cm Direct Current (DC) external electric filed.Chenhui Peng et al. also experimentally showed the patterns of electro-osmotic flow around an Au sphere when Alternative Current (AC) is involved (E=10mV/μm, f=1 kHz).Electrokinetics here refers to a branch of science related to the motion and reaction of charged particles to the applied electric filed and its effects on its environment. It is sometimes referred as non-linear electrokinetic phenomena as well.

text: Induced-charge electrokinetics in

entity_name: Physics

text: physics

text: is the

text: electrically

text: driven

entity_name: Fluid dynamics

text: fluid flow

text: and

text: particle motion

text: in a

text: liquid electrolyte

text: . Consider a metal particle (which is neutrally charged but electrically conducting) in contact with an aqueous solution in a chamber/channel. If different

entity_name: Voltage

text: voltage

text: s apply to the end of this chamber/channel,

entity_name: Electric field

text: electric field

text: will generate in this chamber/channel. This applied electric field passes through this metal particle and causes the free charges inside the particle migrate under the skin of particle. As a result of this migration, the negative charges moves to the side which is close to the positive (or higher) voltage while the positive charges moves to the opposite side of the particle. These charges under the skin of conducting particle attract the counter-ions of the aqueous solution; thus, the

entity_name: Double layer (surface science)

text: electric double layer

text: (EDL) forms around the particle. The EDL sing on the surface of the conducting particle changes from positive to negative and the distribution of the charges varies along the particle geometry. Due to these variations, the EDL is non-uniform and has different sings. Thus, the induced

entity_name: Zeta potential

text: zeta potential

text: around the particle, and consequently

text: slip velocity

text: on the surface of the particle, vary as a function of local electric field. Differences in magnitude and direction of slip velocity on the surface of the conducting particle effects the flow pattern around this particle and causes micro vortices. Yasaman Daghighi and Dongqing Li, for the first time, experimentally illustrated these induced vortices around a 1.2mm diameter carbon-steel sphere under the 40V/cm Direct Current (DC) external electric filed.Chenhui Peng et al. also experimentally showed the patterns of

entity_name: Electro-osmosis

text: electro-osmotic

text: flow around an Au sphere when Alternative Current (AC) is involved (E=10mV/μm, f=1 kHz).

entity_name: Electrokinetic phenomena

text: Electrokinetics

text: here refers to a branch of science related to the motion and reaction of charged particles to the applied electric filed and its effects on its environment. It is sometimes referred as non-linear electrokinetic phenomena as well.

text: Aside from releasing electrons to an exogenous final electron acceptor, external electron transfer may serve other purposes. First, cells may transfer electrons directly to each other without the need for an intermediary substance. Pelotomaculum thermopropioncum has been observed linked to Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus by a pilus (external cell structures used in conjugation and adhesion) that was determined to be electrically conductive. Second, extracellular electrons may serve a role in the communication as a quorum signal in biofilms.

text: Aside from releasing electrons to an exogenous final electron acceptor, external electron transfer may serve other purposes. First, cells may transfer electrons directly to each other without the need for an intermediary substance. Pelotomaculum thermopropioncum has been observed linked to

entity_name: Methanothermobacter

text: Methanothermobacter

text: thermautotrophicus by a

entity_name: Pilus

text: pilus

text: (external cell structures used in

entity_name: Biotransformation

entity_section: Phase II reaction

text: conjugation

text: and

entity_name: Adhesion

text: adhesion

text: ) that was determined to be electrically conductive. Second, extracellular electrons may serve a role in the communication as a

entity_name: Quorum sensing

text: quorum signal

text: in

entity_name: Biofilm

text: biofilm

text: s.

text: His "supercapacitor" stored electrical charge partially in the Helmholtz double-layer and partially as the result of faradaic reactions with "pseudocapacitance" charge transfer of electrons and protons between electrode and electrolyte. The working mechanisms of pseudocapacitors are redox reactions, intercalation and electrosorption.

text: Charge-induced charge separationA charged object brought close to an electrically neutral object causes a separation of charge within the neutral object. Charges of the same polarity are repelled and charges of the opposite polarity are attracted. As the force due to the interaction of electric charges falls off rapidly with increasing distance, the effect of the closer (opposite polarity) charges is greater and the two objects feel a force of attraction. The effect is most pronounced when the neutral object is an electrical conductor as the charges are more free to move around. Careful grounding of part of an object with a charge-induced charge separation can permanently add or remove electrons, leaving the object with a global, permanent charge. This process is integral to the workings of the Van de Graaff generator, a device commonly used to demonstrate the effects of static electricity.

text: Charge-induced charge separationA charged object brought close to an electrically neutral object causes a separation of charge within the neutral object. Charges of the same polarity are repelled and charges of the opposite polarity are attracted. As the force due to the interaction of electric charges falls off rapidly with increasing distance, the effect of the closer (opposite polarity) charges is greater and the two objects feel a force of attraction. The effect is most pronounced when the neutral object is an

entity_name: Electrical conductor

text: electrical conductor

text: as the charges are more free to move around. Careful grounding of part of an object with a charge-induced

text: charge separation

text: can permanently add or remove electrons, leaving the object with a global, permanent charge. This process is integral to the workings of the

entity_name: Van de Graaff generator

text: Van de Graaff generator

text: , a device commonly used to demonstrate the effects of static electricity.

text: Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century. A prominent early electrical scientist was William Gilbert who was the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity and is credited with establishing the term electricity. He also designed the versorium: a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. Then in 1762 Swedish professor Johan Carl Wilcke invented, and in 1775 Alessandro Volta improved, a device (for which Volta coined the name electrophorus) that produced a static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta had developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.

text: Electricity

text: has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early

entity_name: 17th century

text: 17th century

text: . A prominent early electrical scientist was

entity_name: William Gilbert (astronomer)

text: William Gilbert

text: who was the first to draw a clear distinction between

entity_name: Magnetism

text: magnetism

text: and

entity_name: Static electricity

text: static electricity

text: and is credited with establishing the term electricity. He also designed the

entity_name: Versorium

text: versorium

text: : a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. Then in 1762 Swedish professor

entity_name: Johan Wilcke

text: Johan Carl Wilcke

text: invented, and in 1775

entity_name: Alessandro Volta

text: Alessandro Volta

text: improved, a device (for which Volta coined the name

entity_name: Electrophorus

text: electrophorus

text: ) that produced a static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta had developed the

entity_name: Voltaic pile

text: voltaic pile

text: , a forerunner of the electric battery.

text: There are two recognized types of charge carriers in semiconductors. One is electrons, which carry a negative electric charge. In addition, it is convenient to treat the traveling vacancies in the valence band electron population (holes) as the second type of charge carrier, which carry a positive charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron.

text: There are two recognized types of charge carriers in

entity_name: Semiconductor

text: semiconductor

text: s. One is

text: electron

text: s, which carry a negative

text: electric charge

text: . In addition, it is convenient to treat the traveling vacancies in the

entity_name: Valence and conduction bands

text: valence band

text: electron population (

entity_name: Electron hole

text: holes

text: ) as the second type of charge carrier, which carry a positive charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron.

text: Generally, to reduce the concentration polarization, increased flow rates of the solutions between the membranes as well as spacers promoting turbulence are applied [5, 6]. This technique results in better mixing of the solution and in reducing the thickness of the diffusion boundary layer, which is defined as the region in the vicinity of an electrode or a membrane where the concentrations are different from their value in the bulk solution. In electrodialysis, additional mixing of the solution may be obtained by applying an elevated voltage where current-induced convection occurs as gravitational convection or electroconvection. Electroconvection is defined  as current-induced volume transport when an electric field is imposed through the charged solution. Several mechanisms of electroconvection are discussed. In dilute solutions, electroconvection allows increasing current density several times higher than the limiting current density. Electroconvection refers to electrokinetic phenomena, which are important in microfluidic devices. Thus, there is a bridge between membrane science and micro/nanofluidics. Fruitful ideas are transferred from microfluidics: novel conceptions of electro-membrane devices for water desalination in overlimiting current range have been proposed.

text: Generally, to reduce the concentration polarization, increased flow rates of the solutions between the membranes as well as spacers promoting turbulence are applied [5, 6]. This technique results in better mixing of the solution and in reducing the thickness of the diffusion boundary layer, which is defined as the region in the vicinity of an electrode or a membrane where the concentrations are different from their value in the bulk solution. In electrodialysis, additional mixing of the solution may be obtained by applying an elevated voltage where current-induced convection occurs as gravitational convection or electroconvection. Electroconvection is defined  as current-induced volume transport when an electric field is imposed through the charged solution. Several mechanisms of electroconvection are discussed. In dilute solutions, electroconvection allows increasing current density several times higher than the limiting current density. Electroconvection refers to

text: electrokinetic phenomena

text: , which are important in

entity_name: Microfluidics

text: microfluidic

text: devices. Thus, there is a bridge between membrane science and micro/nanofluidics. Fruitful ideas are transferred from

text: microfluidics

text: : novel conceptions of electro-membrane devices for water desalination in overlimiting current range have been proposed.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Charge conservation is a physical law that states that the change in the amount of electric charge in any volume of space is exactly equal to the amount of charge flowing into the volume minus the amount of charge flowing out of the volume.  In essence, charge conservation is an accounting relationship between the amount of charge in a region and the flow of charge into and out of that region.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: If a piece of p-type silicon is placed in close contact with a piece of n-type silicon, then a diffusion of electrons occurs from the region of high electron concentration (the n-type side of the junction) into the region of low electron concentration (p-type side of the junction). When the electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine with holes on the p-type side. However (in the absence of an external circuit) this diffusion of carriers does not go on indefinitely because charges build up on either side of the junction and create an electric field. The electric field promotes charge flow, known as drift current, that opposes and eventually balances out the diffusion of electrons and holes. This region where electrons and holes have diffused across the junction is called the depletion region because it contains practically no mobile charge carriers. It is also known as the space charge region, although space charge extends a bit further in both directions than the depletion region.

text: If a piece of p-type silicon is placed in close contact with a piece of n-type silicon, then a

entity_name: Diffusion

text: diffusion

text: of electrons occurs from the region of high electron concentration (the n-type side of the junction) into the region of low electron concentration (p-type side of the junction). When the electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine with holes on the p-type side. However (in the absence of an external circuit) this diffusion of carriers does not go on indefinitely because charges build up on either side of the junction and create an

text: electric field

text: . The electric field promotes charge flow, known as

entity_name: Drift current

text: drift current

text: , that opposes and eventually balances out the diffusion of electrons and holes. This region where electrons and holes have diffused across the junction is called the

entity_name: Depletion region

text: depletion region

text: because it contains practically no mobile charge carriers. It is also known as the space charge region, although space charge extends a bit further in both directions than the depletion region.

text: In semiconductor physics, the photo–Dember effect (named after its discoverer Harry Dember) is the formation of a charge dipole in the vicinity of a semiconductor surface after ultra-fast photo-generation of charge carriers. The dipole forms owing to the difference of mobilities (or diffusion constants) for holes and electrons which combined with the break of symmetry provided by the surface lead to an effective charge separation in the direction perpendicular to the surface. In an isolated sample, where the macroscopic flow of an electric current is prohibited, the fast carriers (often the electrons) are slowed down and the slow carriers (often the holes) are accelerated by an electric field, called the Dember field.

text: In

text: semiconductor

text: physics

text: , the photo–Dember effect (named after its discoverer

text: Harry Dember

text: ) is the formation of a charge

entity_name: Dipole

text: dipole

text: in the vicinity of a

text: semiconductor

text: surface after ultra-fast photo-generation of

entity_name: Charge carrier

text: charge carriers

text: . The

text: dipole

text: forms owing to the difference of

entity_name: Electron mobility

text: mobilities

text: (or

text: diffusion

text: constants) for

text: holes

text: and

text: electrons

text: which combined with the

entity_name: Symmetry breaking

text: break of symmetry

text: provided by the surface lead to an effective charge separation in the direction perpendicular to the surface. In an isolated sample, where the macroscopic flow of an electric current is prohibited, the fast carriers (often the electrons) are slowed down and the slow carriers (often the holes) are accelerated by an electric field, called the Dember field.

method: UNH-ecn

text: The neutron's lack of total electric charge makes it difficult to steer or accelerate them. Charged particles can be accelerated, decelerated, or deflected by electric or magnetic fields. These methods have little effect on neutrons. However, some effects may be attained by use of inhomogeneous magnetic fields because of the neutron's magnetic moment. Neutrons can be controlled by methods that include moderation, reflection, and velocity selection. Thermal neutrons can be polarized by transmission through magnetic materials in a method analogous to the Faraday effect for photons. Cold neutrons of wavelengths of 6–7 angstroms can be produced in beams of a high degree of polarization, by use of magnetic mirrors and magnetized interference filters.

text: The neutron's lack of total electric charge makes it difficult to steer or accelerate them. Charged particles can be accelerated, decelerated, or deflected by

text: electric

text: or

entity_name: Magnetic field

text: magnetic field

text: s. These methods have little effect on neutrons. However, some effects may be attained by use of inhomogeneous magnetic fields because of the

entity_name: Neutron magnetic moment

text: neutron's magnetic moment

text: . Neutrons can be controlled by methods that include

entity_name: Neutron moderator

text: moderation

entity_name: Neutron reflector

text: reflection

text: , and

entity_name: Neutron-velocity selector

text: velocity selection

entity_name: Neutron temperature

entity_section: Thermal

text: Thermal neutron

text: s can be polarized by transmission through

entity_name: Magnet

text: magnet

text: ic materials in a method analogous to the

entity_name: Faraday effect

text: Faraday effect

text: for

entity_name: Photon

text: photon

text: s. Cold neutrons of wavelengths of 6–7 angstroms can be produced in beams of a high degree of polarization, by use of

entity_name: Neutron supermirror

text: magnetic mirror

text: s and magnetized interference filters.

text: A piezo (or piezo-electric) tweeter contains a piezoelectric crystal coupled to a mechanical diaphragm. An audio signal is applied to the crystal, which responds by flexing in proportion to the voltage applied across the crystal's surfaces, thus converting electrical energy into mechanical. The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing. The active element is the heart of the transducer as it converts the electrical energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa. The active element is basically a piece of polarized material (i.e. some parts of the molecule are positively charged, while other parts of the molecule are negatively charged) with electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces. When an electric field is applied across the material, the polarized molecules will align themselves with the electric field, resulting in induced dipoles within the molecular or crystal structure of the material. This alignment of molecules will cause the material to change dimensions. This phenomenon is known as electrostriction. In addition, a permanently polarized material such as quartz (SiO) or barium titanate (BaTiO) will produce an electric field when the material changes dimensions as a result of an imposed mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect.

text: A

entity_name: Piezoelectricity

text: piezo

text: (or piezo-electric) tweeter contains a piezoelectric crystal coupled to a mechanical diaphragm. An audio signal is applied to the crystal, which responds by flexing in proportion to the voltage applied across the crystal's surfaces, thus converting electrical energy into mechanical. The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing. The active element is the heart of the transducer as it converts the electrical energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa. The active element is basically a piece of polarized material (i.e. some parts of the molecule are positively charged, while other parts of the molecule are negatively charged) with electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces. When an electric field is applied across the material, the polarized molecules will align themselves with the electric field, resulting in induced dipoles within the molecular or crystal structure of the material. This alignment of molecules will cause the material to change dimensions. This phenomenon is known as

entity_name: Electrostriction

text: electrostriction

text: . In addition, a permanently polarized material such as

entity_name: Quartz

text: quartz

text: (SiO) or

entity_name: Barium titanate

text: barium titanate

text: (BaTiO) will produce an electric field when the material changes dimensions as a result of an imposed mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the

text: piezoelectric effect

text: PHEVs and fully electric cars may allow for more efficient use of existing electric production capacity, much of which sits idle as operating reserve most of the time. This assumes that vehicles are charged primarily during off peak periods (i.e., at night), or equipped with technology known as charge control to shut off charging during periods of peak demand. Another advantage of a plug-in vehicle is their potential ability to load balance or help the grid during peak loads. This is accomplished with vehicle-to-grid technology. By using excess battery capacity to send power back into the grid and then recharge during off peak times using cheaper power, such vehicles are actually advantageous to utilities as well as their owners. Even if such vehicles just led to an increase in the use of nighttime electricity they would even out electricity demand which is typically higher in the daytime, and provide a greater return on capital for electricity infrastructure.

text: PHEVs and fully electric cars may allow for more efficient use of existing electric production capacity, much of which sits idle as

text: operating reserve

text: most of the time. This assumes that vehicles are charged primarily during

text: off peak

text: periods (i.e., at night), or equipped with technology known as

text: charge control

text: to shut off charging during periods of peak demand. Another advantage of a plug-in vehicle is their potential ability to load balance or help the grid during peak loads. This is accomplished with

text: vehicle-to-grid

text: technology. By using excess battery capacity to send power back into the grid and then recharge during off peak times using cheaper power, such vehicles are actually advantageous to utilities as well as their owners. Even if such vehicles just led to an increase in the use of nighttime electricity they would even out electricity demand which is typically higher in the daytime, and provide a greater return on capital for electricity infrastructure.

text: Franklin's electrostatic machine is a high-voltage static electricity generating device used by Benjamin Franklin in the mid-eighteenth century for research into electrical phenomena. Its key components are a glass globe which turned on an axis via a crank; a cloth pad in contact with the spinning globe; a set of metal needles to conduct away the charge developed on the globe by its friction with the pad; and a Leyden jara high-voltage capacitorto accumulate the charge. Experiments using it eventually led to invention of the lightning rod and new theories by Franklin about electricity.

text: Franklin's electrostatic machine is a high-voltage

text: static electricity generating device

text: used by

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: in the mid-eighteenth century for research into electrical phenomena. Its key components are a glass globe which turned on an axis via a crank; a cloth pad in contact with the spinning globe; a set of metal needles to conduct away the charge developed on the globe by its friction with the pad; and a

text: Leyden jar

text: a high-voltage capacitorto accumulate the charge. Experiments using it eventually led to invention of the

text: lightning rod

text: and new theories by Franklin about electricity.

text: The era of galvanic or voltaic electricity represented a revolutionary break from the historical focus on frictional electricity. Alessandro Volta discovered that chemical reactions could be used to create positively charged anodes and negatively charged cathodes. When a conductor was attached between these, the difference in the electrical potential (also known as voltage) drove a current between them through the conductor. The potential difference between two points is measured in units of volts in recognition of Volta's work.

text: The era of

text: galvanic

text: or

text: voltaic electricity

text: represented a revolutionary break from the historical focus on frictional electricity.

text: Alessandro Volta

text: discovered that

text: chemical reaction

text: s could be used to create positively charged

text: anode

text: s and negatively charged

text: cathode

text: s. When a conductor was attached between these, the

text: difference in the electrical potential

text: (also known as voltage) drove a

text: current

text: between them through the conductor. The

text: potential difference

text: between two points is measured in units of

text: volt

text: s in recognition of Volta's work.

text: The correct thermodynamic treatment of quark matter depends on the physical context. For large quantities that exist for long periods of time (the "thermodynamic limit"), we must take into account the fact that the only conserved charges in the standard model are quark number (equivalent to baryon number), electric charge, the eight color charges, and lepton number. Each of these can have an associated chemical potential.  However, large volumes of matter must be electrically and color-neutral, which determines the electric and color charge chemical potentials. This leaves a three-dimensional phase space, parameterized by quark chemical potential, lepton chemical potential, and temperature.

text: The correct thermodynamic treatment of quark matter depends on the physical context. For large quantities that exist for long periods of time (the "thermodynamic limit"), we must take into account the fact that the only conserved charges in the standard model are quark number (equivalent to

text: baryon

text: number), electric charge, the eight color charges, and lepton number. Each of these can have an associated chemical potential.  However, large volumes of matter must be electrically and color-neutral, which determines the electric and color charge chemical potentials. This leaves a three-dimensional

text: phase space

text: , parameterized by quark chemical potential, lepton chemical potential, and temperature.

text: This method can be demonstrated using a gold-leaf electroscope, which is an instrument for detecting electric charge.  The electroscope is first discharged, and a charged object is then brought close to the instrument's top terminal.  Induction causes a separation of the charges inside the electroscope's metal rod, so that the top terminal gains a net charge of opposite polarity to that of the object, while the gold leaves gain a charge of the same polarity.  Since both leaves have the same charge, they repel each other and spread apart.  The electroscope has not acquired a net charge: the charge within it has merely been redistributed, so if the charged object were to be moved away from the electroscope the leaves will come together again.

text: This method can be demonstrated using a

text: gold-leaf electroscope

text: , which is an instrument for detecting electric charge.  The electroscope is first discharged, and a charged object is then brought close to the instrument's top terminal.  Induction causes a separation of the charges inside the

text: electroscope

text: 's metal rod, so that the top terminal gains a net charge of opposite polarity to that of the object, while the gold leaves gain a charge of the same polarity.  Since both leaves have the same charge, they repel each other and spread apart.  The electroscope has not acquired a net charge: the charge within it has merely been redistributed, so if the charged object were to be moved away from the electroscope the leaves will come together again.

text: The triboelectric effect (also known as triboelectric charging) is a type of contact electrification in which certain materials become electrically charged after they come into frictional contact with a different material. Rubbing glass with fur, or a comb through the hair, can build up triboelectricity. Most everyday static electricity is triboelectric. The polarity and strength of the charges produced differ according to the materials, surface roughness, temperature, strain, and other properties.

text: The triboelectric effect (also known as triboelectric charging) is a type of

text: contact electrification

text: in which certain materials become

text: electrically charged

text: after they come into

text: frictional

text: contact with a different material. Rubbing glass with fur, or a comb through the hair, can build up triboelectricity. Most everyday

text: static electricity

text: is triboelectric. The

text: polarity

text: and strength of the charges produced differ according to the materials, surface roughness, temperature, strain, and other properties.

text: A surface DC voltmeter is an instrument that measures voltage with no electric charge transfer.

text: A surface DC voltmeter is an instrument that measures voltage with no

text: electric charge

text: transfer.

text: Another way to see that the enclosed charge induces an equal charge in the container is to use the visualization device of electric field lines.  Electric field lines terminate on equal charges; that is each line begins on a specific quantity of positive charge, and ends on an equal quantity of negative charge.  An additional fact needed is that electric field lines cannot penetrate conductors; if an electric field line penetrated into a volume of metal, the electrons in the metal would flow along the field line, redistributing the charge in the conductor until no electric field was left.  Only when the electric field in the conductor is zero can the charges in the conductor be at electrostatic equilibrium.

text: Another way to see that the enclosed charge induces an equal charge in the container is to use the visualization device of

text: electric field line

text: s.  Electric field lines terminate on equal charges; that is each line begins on a specific quantity of positive charge, and ends on an equal quantity of negative charge.  An additional fact needed is that electric field lines cannot penetrate conductors; if an electric field line penetrated into a volume of metal, the electrons in the metal would flow along the field line, redistributing the charge in the conductor until no electric field was left.  Only when the electric field in the conductor is zero can the charges in the conductor be at electrostatic equilibrium.

text: Space charge is a concept in which excess electric charge is treated as a continuum of charge distributed over a region of space (either a volume or an area) rather than distinct point-like charges. This model typically applies when charge carriers have been emitted from some region of a solid—the cloud of emitted carriers can form a space charge region if they are sufficiently spread out, or the charged atoms or molecules left behind in the solid can form a space charge region. Space charge usually only occurs in dielectric media (including vacuum) because in a conductive medium the charge tends to be rapidly neutralized or screened. The sign of the space charge can be either negative or positive. This situation is perhaps most familiar in the area near a metal object when it is heated to incandescence in a vacuum. This effect was first observed by Thomas Edison in light bulb filaments, where it is sometimes called the Edison effect, but space charge is a significant phenomenon in many vacuum and solid-state electronic devices.

text: Space charge is a concept in which excess

text: electric charge

text: is treated as a

text: continuum

text: of charge distributed over a region of space (either a volume or an area) rather than distinct point-like charges. This model typically applies when

text: charge carriers

text: have been emitted from some region of a solid—the cloud of emitted carriers can form a space charge region if they are sufficiently spread out, or the charged atoms or molecules left behind in the solid can form a space charge region. Space charge usually only occurs in

text: dielectric

text: media (including

text: vacuum

text: ) because in a conductive medium the charge tends to be rapidly neutralized or

text: screened

text: . The sign of the space charge can be either negative or positive. This situation is perhaps most familiar in the area near a

text: metal

text: object when it is heated to

text: incandescence

text: in a

text: vacuum

text: . This effect was first observed by

text: Thomas Edison

text: in light bulb

text: filament

text: s, where it is sometimes called the

text: Edison effect

text: , but space charge is a significant phenomenon in many vacuum and

text: solid-state electronic

text: devices.

text: where the coefficients χ are the n-th-order susceptibilities of the medium, and the presence of such a term is generally referred to as an n-th-order nonlinearity.  Note that the polarization density P(t) and electrical field E(t) are considered as scalar for simplicity. In general, χ is an (n + 1)-th-order tensor representing both the polarization-dependent nature of the parametric interaction and the symmetries (or lack of) of the nonlinear material.

text: where the coefficients χ are the n-th-order

text: susceptibilities

text: of the medium, and the presence of such a term is generally referred to as an n-th-order nonlinearity.  Note that the polarization density P(t) and electrical field E(t) are considered as scalar for simplicity. In general, χ is an (n + 1)-th-order

text: tensor

text: representing both the

text: polarization

text: -dependent nature of the parametric interaction and the

text: symmetries

text: (or lack of) of the nonlinear material.

text: Study has shown that the origin of charge is from certain types of subatomic particles which have the property of electric charge. Electric charge gives rise to and interacts with the electromagnetic force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature. The most familiar carriers of electrical charge are the electron and proton. Experiment has shown charge to be a conserved quantity, that is, the net charge within an isolated system will always remain constant regardless of any changes taking place within that system. Within the system, charge may be transferred between bodies, either by direct contact, or by passing along a conducting material, such as a wire. The informal term static electricity refers to the net presence (or 'imbalance') of charge on a body, usually caused when dissimilar materials are rubbed together, transferring charge from one to the other.

text: Study has shown that the origin of charge is from certain types of

text: subatomic particle

text: s which have the property of electric charge. Electric charge gives rise to and interacts with the

text: electromagnetic force

text: , one of the four

text: fundamental force

text: s of nature. The most familiar carriers of electrical charge are the

text: electron

text: and

text: proton

text: . Experiment has shown charge to be a

text: conserved quantity

text: , that is, the net charge within an

text: isolated system

text: will always remain constant regardless of any changes taking place within that system. Within the system, charge may be transferred between bodies, either by direct contact, or by passing along a conducting material, such as a wire. The informal term

text: static electricity

text: refers to the net presence (or 'imbalance') of charge on a body, usually caused when dissimilar materials are rubbed together, transferring charge from one to the other.

text: He discovered the existence of two types of electricity and named them "vitreous" and "resinous" (later known as positive and negative charge respectively).  He noted the difference between conductors and insulators, calling them 'electrics' and 'non-electrics' for their ability to produce contact electrification.   He also discovered that alike-charged objects would repel each other and that unlike-charged objects attract.  He also disproved certain misconceptions regarding electric charge, such as that of Dr. Stephen Gray who believed that electric properties of a body depended on its colour. Du Fay's  observations on electricity were reported in a paper written in December 1733 and printed in Volume 38 of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1734.  He became a member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1723.

text: He discovered the existence of two types of

text: electricity

text: and named them "

text: vitreous

text: " and "

text: resinous

text: " (later known as positive and negative

text: charge

text: respectively).  He noted the difference between

text: conductors

text: and

text: insulators

text: , calling them 'electrics' and 'non-electrics' for their ability to produce

text: contact electrification

text: .   He also discovered that alike-charged objects would repel each other and that unlike-charged objects attract.  He also disproved certain misconceptions regarding electric charge, such as that of Dr.

text: Stephen Gray

text: who believed that electric properties of a body depended on its colour. Du Fay's  observations on electricity were reported in a paper written in December 1733 and printed in Volume 38 of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1734.  He became a member of the

text: French Academy of Sciences

text: in 1723.

text: Intelligent Whale submerged by filling water compartments, and expelled the water by pumps and compressed air. It was estimated that it could stay submerged for about ten hours. Thirteen crewmen could be accommodated, but only six were needed to make her operational. The only known trial, reported by submarine pioneer John Philip Holland, was made by a certain General Sweeney and two others. They submerged the boat in 16 feet of water and Sweeney, clad in a diver's suit, emerged through a hole in the bottom, placed a charge under a scow, and reentered the submarine. The charge was exploded by a lanyard and a friction primer attached to the charge, sinking the scow.

text: Intelligent Whale submerged by filling water compartments, and expelled the water by pumps and compressed air. It was estimated that it could stay submerged for about ten hours. Thirteen crewmen could be accommodated, but only six were needed to make her operational. The only known trial, reported by submarine pioneer

text: John Philip Holland

text: , was made by a certain General Sweeney and two others. They submerged the boat in 16 feet of water and Sweeney, clad in a diver's suit, emerged through a hole in the bottom, placed a charge under a scow, and reentered the submarine. The charge was exploded by a lanyard and a friction primer attached to the charge, sinking the scow.

text: It can be seen that in some conductors, such as ionic solutions and plasmas, there are both positive and negative charge carriers, so an electric current in them consists of the two polarities of carrier moving in opposite directions.  In other conductors, such as metals, there are only charge carriers of one polarity, so an electric current in them just consists of charge carriers moving in one direction.

text: A useful concept used in heat transfer applications once the condition of steady state heat conduction has been reached, is the representation of thermal transfer by what is known as thermal circuits. A thermal circuit is the representation of the resistance to heat flow in each element of a circuit, as though it were an electrical resistor. The heat transferred is analogous to the electric current and the thermal resistance is analogous to the electrical resistor. The values of the thermal resistance for the different modes of heat transfer are then calculated as the denominators of the developed equations. The thermal resistances of the different modes of heat transfer are used in analyzing combined modes of heat transfer. The lack of "capacitative" elements in the following purely resistive example, means that no section of the circuit is absorbing energy or changing in distribution of temperature. This is equivalent to demanding that a state of steady state heat conduction (or transfer, as in radiation) has already been established.

text: A useful concept used in heat transfer applications once the condition of steady state heat conduction has been reached, is the representation of thermal transfer by what is known as thermal circuits. A thermal circuit is the representation of the resistance to heat flow in each element of a circuit, as though it were an

text: electrical resistor

text: . The heat transferred is analogous to the

text: electric current

text: and the thermal resistance is analogous to the electrical resistor. The values of the thermal resistance for the different modes of heat transfer are then calculated as the denominators of the developed equations. The thermal resistances of the different modes of heat transfer are used in analyzing combined modes of heat transfer. The lack of "capacitative" elements in the following purely resistive example, means that no section of the circuit is absorbing energy or changing in distribution of temperature. This is equivalent to demanding that a state of steady state heat conduction (or transfer, as in radiation) has already been established.

text: The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy quanta emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the phonons responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than photons invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.

text: The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy

text: quanta

text: emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the

text: phonons

text: responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than

text: photons

text: invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy.

text: A remaining question is how large the induced charges are.   The movement of charges is caused by the force exerted on them by the electric field of the external charged object, by Coulomb's law.  As the charges in the metal object continue to separate, the resulting positive and negative regions create their own electric field, which opposes the field of the external charge.   This process continues until very quickly (within a fraction of a second) an equilibrium is reached in which the induced charges are exactly the right size to cancel the external electric field throughout the interior of the metal object.  Then the remaining mobile charges (electrons) in the interior of the metal no longer feel a force and the net motion of the charges stops.

text: A remaining question is how large the induced charges are.   The movement of charges is caused by the

text: force

text: exerted on them by the

text: electric field

text: of the external charged object, by

text: Coulomb's law

text: .  As the charges in the metal object continue to separate, the resulting positive and negative regions create their own electric field, which opposes the field of the external charge.   This process continues until very quickly (within a fraction of a second) an

text: equilibrium

text: is reached in which the induced charges are exactly the right size to cancel the external electric field throughout the interior of the metal object.  Then the remaining mobile charges (electrons) in the interior of the metal no longer feel a force and the net motion of the charges stops.

text: Charging a capacitor (due to a voltage between the capacitor plates) causes an electric field to be applied to the dielectric between the electrodes. This field exerts a torque on the molecular dipoles, causing the directions of the dipole moments to align with the field direction. This change in the molecular dipoles is called oriented polarization and also causes heat to be generated, resulting in dielectric losses (see dissipation factor). The orientation of the dipoles does not follow the electric field synchronously, but is delayed by a time constant that depends on the material. This delay corresponds to a hysteresis response of the polarization to the external field.

text: Charging a capacitor (due to a voltage between the capacitor plates) causes an

text: electric field

text: to be applied to the

text: dielectric

text: between the electrodes. This field exerts a

text: torque

text: on the molecular

text: dipole

text: s, causing the directions of the dipole moments to align with the field direction. This change in the molecular dipoles is called

text: oriented polarization

text: and also causes heat to be generated, resulting in

text: dielectric losses

text: (see

text: dissipation factor

text: ). The orientation of the dipoles does not follow the electric field synchronously, but is delayed by a

text: time constant

text: that depends on the material. This delay corresponds to a

text: hysteresis

text: response of the polarization to the external field.

text: Recharging a large battery pack presents a high load on the electrical grid, but this can be scheduled for periods of reduced load or reduced electricity costs. In order to schedule the recharging, either the charging station or the vehicle can communicate with the smart grid. Some plug-in vehicles allow the vehicle operator to control recharging through a web interface or smartphone app. Furthermore, in a Vehicle-to-grid scenario the vehicle battery can supply energy to the grid at periods of peak demand. This requires additional communication between the grid, charging station, and vehicle electronics. SAE International is developing a range of standards for energy transfer to and from the grid including SAE J2847/1 "Communication between Plug-in Vehicles and the Utility Grid". ISO and IEC are also developing a similar series of standards known as ISO/IEC 15118: "Road vehicles -- Vehicle to grid communication interface".

text: Recharging a large battery pack presents a high load on the electrical grid, but this can be scheduled for periods of reduced load or reduced electricity costs. In order to schedule the recharging, either the charging station or the vehicle can communicate with the

text: smart grid

text: . Some plug-in vehicles allow the vehicle operator to control recharging through a web interface or smartphone app. Furthermore, in a

text: Vehicle-to-grid

text: scenario the vehicle battery can supply energy to the grid at periods of peak demand. This requires additional communication between the grid, charging station, and vehicle electronics.

text: SAE International

text: is developing a range of standards for energy transfer to and from the grid including SAE J2847/1 "Communication between Plug-in Vehicles and the Utility Grid". ISO and IEC are also developing a similar series of standards known as ISO/IEC 15118: "Road vehicles -- Vehicle to grid communication interface".

text: Charge conservation requires that the net current into a volume must necessarily equal the net change in charge within the volume.

text: The charge to be multiplied was applied to the first of these (plate A), which stood on an insulating post. A moveable insulated metal plate (B) was brought close to A (though not permitted to touch it), and then grounded. The charge on A caused charge separation on B due to electrostatic induction. Plate B was then moved away, breaking its earth connection. Since B was insulated, it acquired and retained a small charge opposite in sign to the charge on A. Plate B was transferred by means of an insulating rod to be brought into electrical contact with the third metal plate C which was insulated. Since both B and C were conducting, B would transfer a portion of its charge to C. To maximise the transferred charge, C was placed in close proximity to a final metal plate D, which was earthed.

text: The charge to be multiplied was applied to the first of these (plate A), which stood on an insulating post. A moveable insulated metal plate (B) was brought close to A (though not permitted to touch it), and then

text: grounded

text: . The charge on A caused charge separation on B due to

text: electrostatic induction

text: . Plate B was then moved away, breaking its earth connection. Since B was insulated, it acquired and retained a small charge opposite in sign to the charge on A. Plate B was transferred by means of an insulating rod to be brought into electrical contact with the third metal plate C which was insulated. Since both B and C were

text: conducting

text: , B would transfer a portion of its charge to C. To maximise the transferred charge, C was placed in close proximity to a final metal plate D, which was earthed.

text: which expresses the idea that the amount of a conserved quantity within a sphere cannot change unless some of it flows out of the sphere. For example, electric charge is conserved; the amount of charge within a sphere cannot change unless some of the charge leaves the sphere.

text: which expresses the idea that the amount of a conserved quantity within a sphere cannot change unless some of it flows out of the sphere. For example,

text: electric charge

text: is conserved; the amount of charge within a sphere cannot change unless some of the charge leaves the sphere.

text: , remains constant in the region being considered.  In practical cases this is always so when KCL is applied at a geometric point.  When investigating a finite region, however, it is possible that the charge density within the region may change.  Since charge is conserved, this can only come about by a flow of charge across the region boundary.  This flow represents a net current, and KCL is violated.

text: , remains constant in the region being considered.  In practical cases this is always so when KCL is applied at a geometric point.  When investigating a finite region, however, it is possible that the

text: charge density

text: within the region may change.  Since charge is conserved, this can only come about by a flow of charge across the region boundary.  This flow represents a net current, and KCL is violated.

text: The presence of surface charge imbalance means that the objects will exhibit attractive or repulsive forces.  This surface charge imbalance, which leads to static electricity, can be generated by touching two differing surfaces together and then separating them due to the phenomena of contact electrification and the triboelectric effect.  Rubbing two non-conductive objects generates a great amount of static electricity.  This is not the result of friction;  two non-conductive surfaces can become charged by just being placed one on top of the other.  Since most surfaces have a rough texture, it takes longer to achieve charging through contact than through rubbing.  Rubbing objects together increases amount of adhesive contact between the two surfaces.  Usually insulators, e.g., substances that do not conduct electricity, are good at both generating, and holding, a surface charge.  Some examples of these substances are rubber, plastic, glass, and pith.  Conductive objects in contact generate charge imbalance too, but retain the charges only if insulated.  The charge that is transferred during contact electrification is stored on the surface of each object. Note that the presence of electric current does not detract from the electrostatic forces nor from the sparking, from the corona discharge, or other phenomena. Both phenomena can exist simultaneously in the same system.

text: The presence of

text: surface charge

text: imbalance means that the objects will exhibit attractive or repulsive forces.  This surface charge imbalance, which leads to static electricity, can be generated by touching two differing surfaces together and then separating them due to the phenomena of

text: contact electrification

text: and the

text: triboelectric effect

text: .  Rubbing two non-conductive objects generates a great amount of static electricity.  This is not the result of friction;  two non-conductive surfaces can become charged by just being placed one on top of the other.  Since most surfaces have a rough texture, it takes longer to achieve charging through contact than through rubbing.  Rubbing objects together increases amount of adhesive contact between the two surfaces.  Usually

text: insulators

text: , e.g., substances that do not conduct electricity, are good at both generating, and holding, a surface charge.  Some examples of these substances are

text: rubber

text: plastic

text: glass

text: , and

text: pith

text: Conductive

text: objects in contact generate charge imbalance too, but retain the charges only if insulated.  The charge that is transferred during contact electrification is stored on the surface of each object. Note that the presence of

text: electric current

text: does not detract from the electrostatic forces nor from the sparking, from the

text: corona discharge

text: , or other phenomena. Both phenomena can exist simultaneously in the same system.

text: These multiple definitions are probably the reason that Quantity of Electricity has fallen into disfavor among scientists.  Physics textbooks no longer define Quantity of Electricity or Flow of Electricity.  Quantity of electricity is now regarded as an archaic usage, and it has slowly been replaced by the terms charge of electricity, then quantity of electric charge,  and today simply charge.   Since the term electricity has increasingly become corrupted by contradictions and unscientific definitions, today's experts instead use the term charge to remove any possible confusion.

text: These multiple definitions are probably the reason that Quantity of Electricity has fallen into disfavor among scientists.  Physics textbooks no longer define Quantity of Electricity or Flow of Electricity.  Quantity of electricity is now regarded as an archaic usage, and it has slowly been replaced by the terms charge of electricity, then quantity of

text: electric charge

text: ,  and today simply charge.   Since the term electricity has increasingly become corrupted by contradictions and unscientific definitions, today's experts instead use the term charge to remove any possible confusion.

text: Assuming that the ion is accelerated during a very short interval, the ion can be assumed to be travelling at constant velocity. As the ion will travel from the tip at voltage V to some nominal ground potential, the speed at which the ion is travelling can be estimated by the energy transferred into the ion during (or near) ionisation. Therefore the ion speed can be computed with the following equation, which relates kinetic energy to energy gain due to the electric field, the negative arising from the loss of electrons forming a net positive charge.

text: At locations inside the charge array, to connect an array of paired charges to an approximation involving only a dipole moment density p(r) requires additional considerations. The simplest approximation is to replace the charge array with a model of ideal (infinitesimally spaced) dipoles. In particular, as in the example above that uses a constant dipole moment density confined to a finite region, a surface charge and depolarization field results. A more general version of this model (which allows the polarization to vary with position) is the customary approach using electric susceptibility or electrical permittivity.

text: At locations inside the charge array, to connect an array of paired charges to an approximation involving only a dipole moment density p(r) requires additional considerations. The simplest approximation is to replace the charge array with a model of ideal (infinitesimally spaced) dipoles. In particular, as in the example above that uses a constant dipole moment density confined to a finite region, a surface charge and depolarization field results. A more general version of this model (which allows the polarization to vary with position) is the customary approach using

text: electric susceptibility

text: or

text: electrical permittivity

text: "In summer of 1950, E Mallinckrodt noted that a certain shiny brass electric light socket did not feel as smooth when the light was burning as it did with the light off". Then Mallinckrodt created a setup to investigate the effect scientifically. He connected an aluminum plate through a variable current limiting resistor to a 60 Hz, 110v power supply. Half of the aluminum plate was coated with an insulating varnish while the rest was left uncoated. As a result of the test he identified that the feeling of friction only appears when there is an insulating barrier between the conductive surface and the sliding finger. He concluded that the finger gets electrically polarized and this induced charge creates a force between that finger and the surface. He named this phenomena "Electrically Induced Vibrations".

text: "In summer of 1950, E Mallinckrodt noted that a certain shiny brass electric light socket did not feel as smooth when the light was burning as it did with the light off". Then Mallinckrodt created a setup to investigate the effect scientifically. He connected an aluminum plate through a variable current limiting resistor to a 60 Hz, 110v power supply. Half of the aluminum plate was coated with an

text: insulating

text: varnish

text: while the rest was left uncoated. As a result of the test he identified that the feeling of friction only appears when there is an insulating barrier between the conductive surface and the sliding finger. He concluded that the finger gets electrically polarized and this induced charge creates a force between that finger and the surface. He named this phenomena "Electrically Induced Vibrations".

text: In 1600, the English scientist William Gilbert returned to the subject in De Magnete, and coined the New Latin word electricus from ἤλεκτρον (ēlektron), the Greek word for amber, which soon gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity." He was followed in 1660 by Otto von Guericke, who invented what was probably the first electrostatic generator. Other European pioneers were Robert Boyle, who in 1675 stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum; Stephen Gray, who in 1729 classified materials as conductors and insulators; and C. F. du Fay, who proposed in 1733 that electricity comes in two varieties that cancel each other, and expressed this in terms of a two-fluid theory. When glass was rubbed with silk, du Fay said that the glass was charged with vitreous electricity, and, when amber was rubbed with fur, the amber was charged with resinous electricity. In 1839, Michael Faraday showed that the apparent division between static electricity, current electricity, and bioelectricity was incorrect, and all were a consequence of the behavior of a single kind of electricity appearing in opposite polarities. It is arbitrary which polarity is called positive and which is called negative. Positive charge can be defined as the charge left on a glass rod after being rubbed with silk.

text: In 1600, the English scientist

text: William Gilbert

text: returned to the subject in De Magnete, and coined the

text: New Latin

text: word electricus from ἤλεκτρον (ēlektron), the

text: Greek

text: word for amber, which soon gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity." He was followed in 1660 by

text: Otto von Guericke

text: , who invented what was probably the first

text: electrostatic generator

text: . Other European pioneers were

text: Robert Boyle

text: , who in 1675 stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a

text: vacuum

text: Stephen Gray

text: , who in 1729 classified materials as

text: conductors

text: and

text: insulators

text: ; and

text: C. F. du Fay

text: , who proposed in 1733 that electricity comes in two varieties that cancel each other, and expressed this in terms of a two-fluid theory. When

text: glass

text: was rubbed with

text: silk

text: , du Fay said that the glass was charged with

text: vitreous

text: electricity, and, when amber was rubbed with fur, the amber was charged with resinous electricity. In 1839,

text: Michael Faraday

text: showed that the apparent division between

text: static electricity

text: current electricity

text: , and

text: bioelectricity

text: was incorrect, and all were a consequence of the behavior of a single kind of

text: electricity

text: appearing in opposite

text: polarities

text: . It is arbitrary which polarity is called positive and which is called negative. Positive charge can be defined as the charge left on a glass rod after being rubbed with silk.

text: HEMTs' exceptional carrier mobility and switching speed come from the following conditions.  The wide band element is doped with donor atoms; thus it has excess electrons in its conduction band.  These electrons will diffuse to the adjacent narrow band material’s conduction band due to the availability of states with lower energy.  The movement of electrons will cause a change in potential and thus an electric field between the materials.  The electric field will push electrons back to the wide band element’s conduction band.  The diffusion process continues until electron diffusion and electron drift balance each other, creating a junction at equilibrium similar to a p-n junction.  Note that the undoped narrow band gap material now has excess majority charge carriers.  The fact that the charge carriers are majority carriers yields high switching speeds, and the fact that the low band gap semiconductor is undoped means that there are no donor atoms to cause scattering and thus yields high mobility.

text: HEMTs' exceptional

text: carrier mobility

text: and switching speed come from the following conditions.  The wide band element is doped with donor atoms; thus it has excess

text: electron

text: s in its conduction band.  These electrons will diffuse to the adjacent narrow band material’s conduction band due to the availability of states with lower energy.  The movement of electrons will cause a change in potential and thus an electric field between the materials.  The electric field will push electrons back to the wide band element’s conduction band.  The diffusion process continues until electron diffusion and electron drift balance each other, creating a junction at equilibrium similar to a

text: p-n junction

text: .  Note that the undoped narrow band gap material now has excess majority charge carriers.  The fact that the charge carriers are majority carriers yields high switching speeds, and the fact that the low band gap semiconductor is undoped means that there are no donor atoms to cause scattering and thus yields high mobility.

text: It was Van Marum's dream to create a larger version, and he applied to the Teylers Stichting in 1783 for funding to create such a large instrument in the hope that it would add a valuable contribution to the science of electricity. On April 11 of that year his request was granted, and on May 7 Cuthbertson was employed who finished the device a year later and it was proudly installed on Christmas Eve. The machine performed above expectations and was only modified a few times to prevent leaks of the static charge. The study of electricity leakage led to many insights in the study of electricity. The machine was last modified in 1791. For the friction, cushions were used as an improvement over the mercury bath used in the earlier model. For a complete description of the electrostatic generator, an explanation was produced in 1868 by the Parisian author Adolphe Ganot (1804-1887).

text: It was Van Marum's dream to create a larger version, and he applied to the

text: Teylers Stichting

text: in 1783 for funding to create such a large instrument in the hope that it would add a valuable contribution to the science of electricity. On April 11 of that year his request was granted, and on May 7 Cuthbertson was employed who finished the device a year later and it was proudly installed on Christmas Eve. The machine performed above expectations and was only modified a few times to prevent leaks of the static charge. The study of electricity leakage led to many insights in the study of electricity. The machine was last modified in 1791. For the friction, cushions were used as an improvement over the mercury bath used in the earlier model. For a complete description of the electrostatic generator, an explanation was produced in 1868 by the Parisian author

text: Adolphe Ganot

text: Carl was born in Rudolstadt, Germany, where he was apprenticed as a sewing machine mechanic, and when he was 14 years old he ran away to New York, where he found employment with the Singer Sewing Machine Company, travelled over a much of the United   States on their behalf. He met Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone, and became deeply interested in the invention. The Franco-Prussian War had just began and Carl Albert Unbehaun, with every other young German man, was called to enlist, which as someone opposed to all war, held no attractions and he notified the German authorities of his refused to return to the Fatherland. For this, all his legal and civil rights were forfeit, and he worked his passage to Sydney, where his knowledge of the telephone system made him a useful employee. He entered the New South Wales Telegraph Department as instrument fitter to assist in the equipment of the operating room in the Sydney Post-Office, which was under construction.In 1876 he was head-hunted by Charles Todd for the position of electrical fitter in charge of the Postal Telegraph workshop in Adelaide, and Unbehaun left New South Wales for South Australia in 1877.He built and installed the instruments for the first telephonic communication in South Australia, conducted for the Post-office Department on Christmas Day, 1877.On 14 May 1883 Adelaide's first telephone exchange, with 48 subscribers, was officially established in a corner of the telegraph operating-room of the General Post Office, Adelaide.In 1884 he took charge of the Electrical Department. He became Inspector of Telephones, later styled "Electrical Engineer and Inspector of Telephones" in 1891. He was in charge of installation of electric lighting in Parliament House, North Terrace. With Federation and the unification of Telegraph departments in 1904, he was given the title of Electrical Engineer.

text: Carl was born in

text: Rudolstadt

text: , Germany, where he was apprenticed as a sewing machine mechanic, and when he was 14 years old he ran away to New York, where he found employment with the

text: Singer Sewing Machine Company

text: , travelled over a much of the United   States on their behalf. He met

text: Alexander Graham Bell

text: , the inventor of the telephone, and became deeply interested in the invention. The

text: Franco-Prussian War

text: had just began and Carl Albert Unbehaun, with every other young German man, was called to enlist, which as someone opposed to all war, held no attractions and he notified the German authorities of his refused to return to the Fatherland. For this, all his legal and civil rights were forfeit, and he worked his passage to Sydney, where his knowledge of the telephone system made him a useful employee. He entered the

text: New South Wales

text: Telegraph Department as instrument fitter to assist in the equipment of the operating room in the Sydney Post-Office, which was under construction.In 1876 he was head-hunted by

text: Charles Todd

text: for the position of electrical fitter in charge of the Postal Telegraph workshop in Adelaide, and Unbehaun left New South Wales for South Australia in 1877.He built and installed the instruments for the first telephonic communication in South Australia, conducted for the Post-office Department on Christmas Day, 1877.On 14 May 1883 Adelaide's first telephone exchange, with 48 subscribers, was officially established in a corner of the telegraph operating-room of the

text: General Post Office, Adelaide

text: .In 1884 he took charge of the Electrical Department. He became Inspector of Telephones, later styled "Electrical Engineer and Inspector of Telephones" in 1891. He was in charge of installation of electric lighting in Parliament House,

text: North Terrace

text: . With Federation and the unification of Telegraph departments in 1904, he was given the title of Electrical Engineer.

text: The transfer case was a New Venture 271 and had a 2.72:1 low range gear ratio.  A transfer case skid plate was and is standard equipment.  A manual shift-on-the-fly transfer case is the only available, the electronic shift on-the-fly has never been an option.  As of the 2012 model year, the transfer case has changed to a Borg-Warner 44-47 manual shift-on-the fly.  Low range is now 2.64:1.

text: The

text: transfer case

text: was a

text: New Venture 271

text: and had a 2.72:1 low range gear ratio.  A transfer case skid plate was and is standard equipment.  A

text: manual shift-on-the-fly

text: transfer case is the only available, the

text: electronic shift on-the-fly

text: has never been an option.  As of the 2012 model year, the transfer case has changed to a Borg-Warner 44-47 manual shift-on-the fly.  Low range is now 2.64:1.

text: Capacitive deionization (CDI) is a technology to deionize water by applying an electrical potential difference over two porous carbon electrodes. Anions, ions with a negative charge, are removed from the water and are stored in the positively polarized electrode. Likewise, cations (positive charge) are stored in the cathode, which is the negatively polarized electrode.

text: The degree of polarization is easily understood when mapped onto an altitude-azimuth grid as shown below.  As the sun sets due West, the maximum degree of polarization can be seen in the North-Zenith-South plane.  Along the horizon, at an altitude of 0° it is highest in the North and South, and lowest in the East and West. Then as altitude increases approaching the zenith (or the plane of maximum polarization) the polarization remains high in the North and South and increases until it is again maximum at 90° in the East and West, where it is then at the zenith and within the plane of polarization.

text: One of the most prominent properties of leptons is their electric charge, Q. The electric charge determines the strength of their electromagnetic interactions. It determines the strength of the electric field generated by the particle (see Coulomb's law) and how strongly the particle reacts to an external electric or magnetic field (see Lorentz force). Each generation contains one lepton with Q = −e (conventionally the charge of a particle is expressed in units of the elementary charge) and one lepton with zero electric charge. The lepton with electric charge is commonly simply referred to as a 'charged lepton' while the neutral lepton is called a neutrino. For example, the first generation consists of the electron  with a negative electric charge and the electrically neutral electron neutrino .

text: One of the most prominent properties of leptons is their

text: electric charge

text: , Q. The electric charge determines the strength of their electromagnetic interactions. It determines the strength of the

text: electric field

text: generated by the particle (see

text: Coulomb's law

text: ) and how strongly the particle reacts to an external electric or magnetic field (see

text: Lorentz force

text: ). Each generation contains one lepton with Q = −e (conventionally the charge of a particle is expressed in units of the

text: elementary charge

text: ) and one lepton with zero electric charge. The lepton with electric charge is commonly simply referred to as a 'charged lepton' while the neutral lepton is called a neutrino. For example, the first generation consists of the electron  with a negative electric charge and the electrically neutral electron neutrino .

text: The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work.  Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.

text: The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of

text: redox reaction

text: s in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the

text: Gibbs free energy

text: of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work.  Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.

text: For the analysis of the functioning of proteins in a cell, the knowledge of their cooperation is essential. Most often proteins act together in complexes to be fully functional. The analysis of this sub organelle organisation of the cell requires techniques conserving the native state of the protein complexes. In native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (native PAGE), proteins remain in their native state and are separated in the electric field following their mass and the mass of their complexes respectively. To obtain a separation by size and not by net charge, as in IEF, an additional charge is transferred to the proteins by the use of Coomassie Brilliant Blue or lithium dodecyl sulfate. After completion of the first dimension the complexes are destroyed by applying the denaturing SDS-PAGE in the second dimension, where the proteins of which the complexes are composed of are separated by their mass.

text: For the analysis of the functioning of proteins in a

text: cell

text: , the knowledge of their cooperation is essential. Most often proteins act together in complexes to be fully functional. The analysis of this sub

text: organelle

text: organisation of the cell requires techniques conserving the native state of the

text: protein complex

text: es. In native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (

text: native PAGE

text: ), proteins remain in their native state and are separated in the electric field following their mass and the mass of their complexes respectively. To obtain a separation by size and not by net charge, as in IEF, an additional charge is transferred to the proteins by the use of

text: Coomassie Brilliant Blue

text: or lithium dodecyl sulfate. After completion of the first dimension the complexes are destroyed by applying the denaturing SDS-PAGE in the second dimension, where the proteins of which the complexes are composed of are separated by their mass.

text: Maxwell's equations established that some charges and currents ("sources") produce a local type of electromagnetic field near them that does not have the behaviour of EMR. Currents directly produce a magnetic field, but it is of a magnetic dipole type that dies out with distance from the current. In a similar manner, moving charges pushed apart in a conductor by a changing electrical potential (such as in an antenna) produce an electric dipole type electrical field, but this also declines with distance. These fields make up the near-field near the EMR source. Neither of these behaviours are responsible for EM radiation. Instead, they cause electromagnetic field behaviour that only efficiently transfers power to a receiver very close to the source, such as the magnetic induction inside a transformer, or the feedback behaviour that happens close to the coil of a metal detector. Typically, near-fields have a powerful effect on their own sources, causing an increased “load” (decreased electrical reactance) in the source or transmitter, whenever energy is withdrawn from the EM field by a receiver. Otherwise, these fields do not “propagate” freely out into space, carrying their energy away without distance-limit, but rather oscillate, returning their energy to the transmitter if it is not received by a receiver.

text: Maxwell's equations established that some charges and currents ("sources") produce a local type of

text: electromagnetic field

text: near them that does not have the behaviour of EMR. Currents directly produce a magnetic field, but it is of a

text: magnetic dipole

text: type that dies out with distance from the current. In a similar manner, moving charges pushed apart in a conductor by a changing electrical potential (such as in an antenna) produce an

text: electric dipole

text: type electrical field, but this also declines with distance. These fields make up the

text: near-field

text: near the EMR source. Neither of these behaviours are responsible for EM radiation. Instead, they cause electromagnetic field behaviour that only efficiently transfers power to a receiver very close to the source, such as the

text: magnetic induction

text: inside a

text: transformer

text: , or the feedback behaviour that happens close to the coil of a

text: metal detector

text: . Typically, near-fields have a powerful effect on their own sources, causing an increased “load” (decreased

text: electrical reactance

text: ) in the source or transmitter, whenever energy is withdrawn from the EM field by a receiver. Otherwise, these fields do not “propagate” freely out into space, carrying their energy away without distance-limit, but rather oscillate, returning their energy to the transmitter if it is not received by a receiver.

text: Between 1975 and 1980 Brian Evans Conway conducted extensive fundamental and development work on ruthenium oxide electrochemical capacitors. In 1991 he described the difference between "Supercapacitor" and "Battery" behavior in electrochemical energy storage. In 1999 he coined the term supercapacitor to explain the increased capacitance by surface redox reactions with faradaic charge transfer between electrodes and ions. His "supercapacitor" stored electrical charge partially in the Helmholtz double-layer and partially as result of faradaic reactions with "pseudocapacitance" charge transfer of electrons and protons between electrode and electrolyte. The working mechanisms of pseudocapacitors are redox reactions, intercalation and electrosorption (adsorption onto a surface). With his research, Conway greatly expanded the knowledge of electrochemical capacitors.

text: Between 1975 and 1980

text: Brian Evans Conway

text: conducted extensive fundamental and development work on

text: ruthenium oxide

text: electrochemical capacitors. In 1991 he described the difference between "Supercapacitor" and "Battery" behavior in electrochemical energy storage. In 1999 he coined the term supercapacitor to explain the increased capacitance by surface redox reactions with faradaic charge transfer between electrodes and ions. His "supercapacitor" stored electrical charge partially in the Helmholtz double-layer and partially as result of faradaic reactions with "pseudocapacitance" charge transfer of electrons and protons between electrode and electrolyte. The working mechanisms of pseudocapacitors are redox reactions,

text: intercalation

text: and electrosorption (adsorption onto a surface). With his research, Conway greatly expanded the knowledge of electrochemical capacitors.

text: Following transfer, the diffused electrons come into contact with holes on the P-side and are eliminated by recombination. Likewise for the diffused holes on the N-side. The net result is the diffused electrons and holes are gone, leaving behind the charged ions adjacent to the interface in a region with no mobile carriers (That's why it is called the depletion region; carriers are being depleted). The uncompensated ions are positive on the N side and negative on the P side. This creates an electric field that provides a force opposing the continued exchange of charge carriers. When the electric field is sufficient to arrest further transfer of holes and electrons, the depletion region has reached its equilibrium dimensions. Integrating the electric field across the depletion region determines what is called the built-in voltage (also called the junction voltage or barrier voltage or contact potential).

text: Following transfer, the diffused electrons come into contact with holes on the P-side and are eliminated by

text: recombination

text: . Likewise for the diffused holes on the N-side. The net result is the diffused electrons and holes are gone, leaving behind the

text: charge

text: d

text: ion

text: s adjacent to the interface in a region with no mobile carriers (That's why it is called the depletion region; carriers are being depleted). The uncompensated ions are positive on the N side and negative on the P side. This creates an

text: electric field

text: that provides a force opposing the continued exchange of charge carriers. When the electric field is sufficient to arrest further transfer of holes and electrons, the depletion region has reached its equilibrium dimensions. Integrating the electric field across the depletion region determines what is called the built-in voltage (also called the junction voltage or barrier voltage or

text: contact potential

text: The efficiency of converting a unit of fuel to rotation of the driving wheels includes many points of friction loss and heat loss through the exhaust or cooling system. Friction inside the engine happens along the cylinder walls, crankshaft rod bearings and main bearings, camshaft bearings, drive chains or gears, plus other miscellaneous and minor bearing surfaces. An electric motor has internal friction only at the main axle bearings. Friction outside the motor/engine includes loads from the generator / alternator, power steering pump, A/C compressor, transmission, transfer case (if four-wheel-drive), differential(s) and universal joints, plus rolling resistance of the pneumatic tires.

text: The

text: efficiency

text: of converting a unit of fuel to rotation of the driving wheels includes many points of

text: friction

text: loss and heat loss through the exhaust or cooling system. Friction inside the engine happens along the cylinder walls, crankshaft rod bearings and main bearings, camshaft bearings, drive chains or gears, plus other miscellaneous and minor bearing surfaces. An electric motor has internal friction only at the main axle bearings. Friction outside the motor/engine includes loads from the generator / alternator, power steering pump, A/C compressor, transmission, transfer case (if four-wheel-drive), differential(s) and universal joints, plus rolling resistance of the pneumatic tires.

text: Electron transfer (ET) occurs when an electron relocates from an atom or molecule) to another such chemical entity. ET is a mechanistic description of a redox reaction, wherein the oxidation state of reactant and product changes.

text: Electron transfer (ET) occurs when an

text: electron

text: relocates from an

text: atom

text: or

text: molecule

text: ) to another such chemical entity. ET is a mechanistic description of a

text: redox

text: reaction, wherein the oxidation state of reactant and product changes.

text: but there are theoretical arguments that such single-photon decays will never occur even if charge is not conserved. Charge disappearance tests are sensitive to decays without energetic photons, other unusual charge violating processes such as an electron spontaneously changing into a positron, and to electric charge moving into other dimensions.The best experimental bounds on charge disappearance are:

text: but there are theoretical arguments that such single-photon decays will never occur even if charge is not conserved. Charge disappearance tests are sensitive to decays without energetic photons, other unusual charge violating processes such as an electron spontaneously changing into a

text: positron

text: , and to electric charge moving into other dimensions.The best experimental bounds on charge disappearance are:

text: The advantages of jewel bearings include high accuracy, very small size and weight, low and predictable friction, good temperature stability, and the ability to operate without lubrication and in corrosive environments.  They are known for their low kinetic friction and highly consistent static friction. The static coefficient of friction of brass-on-steel is 0.35, while that of sapphire-on-steel is 0.10–0.15.  Sapphire surfaces are very hard and durable, with Mohs hardness of 9 and Knoop hardness of 1800, and can maintain smoothness over decades of use, thus reducing friction variability. Disadvantages include brittleness and fragility, limited availability/applicability in medium and large bearing sizes and capacities, and friction variations if the load is not axial.

text: The advantages of jewel bearings include high accuracy, very small size and weight, low and predictable friction, good temperature stability, and the ability to operate without lubrication and in corrosive environments.  They are known for their low

text: kinetic friction

text: and highly consistent

text: static friction

text: . The

text: static coefficient of friction

text: of brass-on-steel is 0.35, while that of sapphire-on-steel is 0.10–0.15.  Sapphire surfaces are very hard and durable, with

text: Mohs hardness

text: of 9 and

text: Knoop hardness

text: of 1800, and can maintain smoothness over decades of use, thus reducing friction variability. Disadvantages include brittleness and fragility, limited availability/applicability in medium and large bearing sizes and capacities, and friction variations if the load is not axial.

text: On a microscopic scale, conduction occurs within a body considered as being stationary; this means that the kinetic and potential energies of the bulk motion of the body are separately accounted for. Internal energy diffuses as rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring particles, transferring some of their microscopic kinetic and potential energies, these quantities being defined relative to the bulk of the body considered as being stationary. Heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms or molecules collide, or as several electrons move backwards and forwards from atom to atom in a disorganized way so as not to form a macroscopic electric current, or as phonons collide and scatter. Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects in thermal contact. Conduction is greater in solids because the network of relatively close fixed spatial relationships between atoms helps to transfer energy between them by vibration.

text: On a microscopic scale, conduction occurs within a body considered as being stationary; this means that the kinetic and potential energies of the bulk motion of the body are separately accounted for.

text: Internal energy

text: diffuses as rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and

text: molecule

text: s interact with neighboring particles, transferring some of their microscopic kinetic and potential energies, these quantities being defined relative to the bulk of the body considered as being stationary. Heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms or molecules collide, or as several

text: electron

text: s move backwards and forwards from atom to atom in a disorganized way so as not to form a macroscopic electric current, or as phonons collide and scatter. Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects in

text: thermal contact

text: . Conduction is greater in solids because the network of relatively close fixed spatial relationships between atoms helps to transfer energy between them by vibration.

text: Operations were transferred to the New York City Transit Authority on June 15, 1953. Passenger service on McDonald Avenue ended on October 31, 1958, and thereafter the South Brooklyn Railway started using the surface trackage solely for freight. In 1960, two more diesel electric locomotives were bought. On December 27, 1961, the line was de-electrified, due to the high cost of refurbishing the overhead trolley wire. Electric locomotives #4, 5, 6, and 7, which had third rail conduction shoes, were given to the NYCTA for subway and elevated operation.

text: Operations were transferred to the

text: New York City Transit Authority

text: on June 15, 1953. Passenger service on McDonald Avenue ended on October 31, 1958, and thereafter the South Brooklyn Railway started using the surface trackage solely for freight. In 1960, two more diesel electric locomotives were bought. On December 27, 1961, the line was de-electrified, due to the high cost of refurbishing the

text: overhead trolley wire

text: . Electric locomotives #4, 5, 6, and 7, which had

text: third rail

text: conduction shoes, were given to the NYCTA for subway and elevated operation.

text: The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of the difficulty to pass an electric current through that conductor. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease with which an electric current passes.  Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S).

text: The electrical resistance of an

text: electrical conductor

text: is a measure of the difficulty to pass an

text: electric current

text: through that conductor. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease with which an electric current passes.  Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical

text: friction

text: . The

text: SI

text: unit of electrical resistance is the

text: ohm

text: Ω

text: ), while electrical conductance is measured in

text: siemens

text: (S).

text: An ampere hour or amp hour (symbol Ah; also denoted A·h or A h) is a unit of electric charge, having dimensions of electric current times time, equal to the charge transferred by a steady current of one ampere flowing for one hour, or 3600 coulombs. The commonly seen milliampere hour (mAh or mA·h) is one-thousandth of an ampere hour (3.6 coulombs).

text: An ampere hour or amp hour (symbol Ah; also denoted A·h or A h) is a unit of

text: electric charge

text: , having

text: dimensions

text: of

text: electric current

text: times time, equal to the charge transferred by a steady current of one

text: ampere

text: flowing for one hour, or 3600

text: coulomb

text: s. The commonly seen milliampere hour (mAh or mA·h) is one-thousandth of an ampere hour (3.6 coulombs).

text: This attraction and repulsion is an electrical phenomena, and the bodies that exhibit them are said to be electrified, or electrically charged. Bodies may be electrified in many other ways, as well as by friction. The electrical properties of the two pieces of glass are similar to each other but opposite to those of the two pieces of resin: The glass attracts what the resin repels and repels what the resin attracts.

text: Saturation velocity is the maximum velocity a charge carrier in a semiconductor, generally an electron, attains in the presence of very high electric fields.  Charge carriers normally move at an average drift speed proportional to the electric field strength they experience temporally.  The proportionality constant is known as mobility of the carrier, which is a material property.  A good conductor would have a high mobility value for its charge carrier, which means higher velocity, and consequently higher current values for a given electric field strength.  There is a limit though to this process and at some high field value, a charge carrier can not move any faster, having reached its saturation velocity, due to mechanisms that eventually limit the movement of the carriers in the material.

text: Saturation velocity is the maximum velocity a charge carrier in a

text: semiconductor

text: , generally an

text: electron

text: , attains in the presence of very high

text: electric field

text: s.

text: Charge carrier

text: s normally move at an average

text: drift speed

text: proportional to the electric

text: field strength

text: they experience temporally.  The proportionality constant is known as

text: mobility

text: of the carrier, which is a material property.  A good

text: conductor

text: would have a high mobility value for its charge carrier, which means higher velocity, and consequently higher current values for a given electric field strength.  There is a limit though to this process and at some high field value, a charge carrier can not move any faster, having reached its saturation velocity, due to mechanisms that eventually limit the movement of the carriers in the material.

text: After the discovery of the electron in 1897, the Drude model, which describes electrical conduction in metals, was developed very quickly. By associating the somewhat abstract concept of moving charge with the rather more concrete motion of the charged electrons, the Drude model effectively deals with the traditional "charge current" and the Heaviside "energy current" views simultaneously. With this achievement of "unification", the energy current approach has largely lost favour, because in omitting the concepts related to conduction it has no direct model for (for example) Ohm's Law. In consequence it is less convenient to use than the "traditional" charge current approach, which defines the concepts of current, voltage, resistance, etc., as commonly used for electrical work.

text: After the discovery of the

text: electron

text: in 1897, the

text: Drude model

text: , which describes electrical conduction in metals, was developed very quickly. By associating the somewhat abstract concept of moving charge with the rather more concrete motion of the charged electrons, the Drude model effectively deals with the traditional "charge current" and the Heaviside "energy current" views simultaneously. With this achievement of "unification", the energy current approach has largely lost favour, because in omitting the concepts related to conduction it has no direct model for (for example)

text: Ohm's Law

text: . In consequence it is less convenient to use than the "traditional" charge current approach, which defines the concepts of current, voltage, resistance, etc., as commonly used for electrical work.

text: Elementary steps like proton coupled electron transfer and the movement of electrons between an electrode and substrate are special to electrochemical processes.  Electrochemical mechanisms are important to all redox chemistry including corrosion, redox active photochemistry including photosynthesis, other biological systems often involving electron transport chains and other forms of homogeneous and heterogeneous electron transfer.  Such reactions are most often studied with standard three electrode techniques such as cyclic voltammetry(CV), chronoamperometry, and bulk electrolysis as well as more complex experiments involving rotating disk electrodes and rotating ring-disk electrodes.  In the case of photoinduced electron transfer the use of time-resolved spectroscopy is common.

text: Elementary steps like

text: proton coupled electron transfer

text: and the movement of electrons between an electrode and substrate are special to electrochemical processes.  Electrochemical mechanisms are important to all

text: redox chemistry

text: including

text: corrosion

text: , redox active

text: photochemistry

text: including

text: photosynthesis

text: , other biological systems often involving

text: electron transport chain

text: s and other forms of homogeneous and heterogeneous electron transfer.  Such reactions are most often studied with standard three electrode techniques such as

text: cyclic voltammetry

text: (CV),

text: chronoamperometry

text: , and bulk electrolysis as well as more complex experiments involving

text: rotating disk electrode

text: s and

text: rotating ring-disk electrode

text: s.  In the case of

text: photoinduced electron transfer

text: the use of

text: time-resolved spectroscopy

text: is common.

text: On 26 November 2011 against Stoke City, N'Zonzi was hit with a violent conduct charge for intentionally elbowing Ryan Shawcross in the face. N'Zonzi served a three-match ban after admitting an FA charge of violent conduct. Reports speculates that N'Zonzi could head a number of high-profile departures which Kean need to sell in order to finance some of their planned arrivals . However, N'Zonzi never moved during the winter transfer window. On 11 February 2012, N'Zonzi scored his first goal of the season and set up a goal for the club top scorer Yakubu Aiyegbeni in a 3–2 win over Queens Park Rangers. On 24 March 2012, N'Zonzi scored his second goal of the season in a 2–1 loss against Bolton Wanderers. At the end of the season, Blackburn were relegated for the first time in 11 seasons and N'Zonzi told manager Steve Kean he wanted to leave.

text: On 26 November 2011 against

text: Stoke City

text: , N'Zonzi was hit with a violent conduct charge for intentionally elbowing

text: Ryan Shawcross

text: in the face. N'Zonzi served a three-match ban after admitting an FA charge of violent conduct. Reports speculates that N'Zonzi could head a number of high-profile departures which Kean need to sell in order to finance some of their planned arrivals . However, N'Zonzi never moved during the winter transfer window. On 11 February 2012, N'Zonzi scored his first goal of the season and set up a goal for the club top scorer

text: Yakubu Aiyegbeni

text: in a 3–2 win over

text: Queens Park Rangers

text: . On 24 March 2012, N'Zonzi scored his second goal of the season in a 2–1 loss against Bolton Wanderers. At the end of the season, Blackburn were relegated for the first time in 11 seasons and N'Zonzi told manager

text: Steve Kean

text: he wanted to leave.

text: Charge carrier densities involve equations concerning the electrical conductivity and related phenomena like the thermal conductivity.

text: Charge carrier densities involve equations concerning the

text: electrical conductivity

text: and related phenomena like the

text: thermal conductivity

text: Marcus theory is a theory originally developed by Rudolph A. Marcus, starting in 1956, to explain the rates of electron transfer reactions – the rate at which an electron can move or jump from one chemical species (called the electron donor) to another (called the electron acceptor). It was originally formulated to address outer sphere electron transfer reactions, in which the two chemical species only change in their charge with an electron jumping (e.g. the oxidation of an ion like Fe/Fe), but do not undergo large structural changes. It was extended to include inner sphere electron transfer contributions, in which a change of distances or geometry in the solvation or coordination shells of the two chemical species is taken into account (the Fe-O distances in Fe(HO) and Fe(HO) are different).

text: Marcus theory is a theory originally developed by

text: Rudolph A. Marcus

text: , starting in 1956, to explain the

text: rates

text: of

text: electron transfer

text: reactions – the rate at which an

text: electron

text: can move or jump from one

text: chemical species

text: (called the

text: electron donor

text: ) to another (called the

text: electron acceptor

text: ). It was originally formulated to address

text: outer sphere electron transfer

text: reactions, in which the two chemical species only change in their

text: charge

text: with an electron jumping (e.g. the oxidation of an ion like Fe/Fe), but do not undergo large structural changes. It was extended to include

text: inner sphere electron transfer

text: contributions, in which a change of distances or geometry in the

text: solvation

text: or

text: coordination shells

text: of the two chemical species is taken into account (the Fe-O distances in Fe(HO) and Fe(HO) are different).

text: In Pakistan, law enforcement authorities interrogated Rashid Rauf, a Briton of Pakistani descent, over his alleged key role in the plot. Pakistani Interior Minister Aftab Khan Sherpao said British police were conducting inquiries in Pakistan but were not involved in questioning Rauf. The UK Foreign Office sought Rauf's extradition from Pakistan, and it was reported that Pakistan planned to accept the request. However, in mid-December 2006, terrorism charges against Rauf were dropped by a Pakistani judge, who ruled there was a lack of evidence. Rauf's case was transferred from a terrorism court to a regular court where he faced lesser charges including forgery. The charges were later dropped, and Rauf was reported killed in a US drone attack in Pakistan in November 2008.

text: In Pakistan, law enforcement authorities interrogated Rashid Rauf, a Briton of Pakistani descent, over his alleged key role in the plot. Pakistani Interior Minister Aftab Khan Sherpao said British police were conducting inquiries in Pakistan but were not involved in questioning Rauf. The UK Foreign Office sought Rauf's extradition from Pakistan, and it was reported that Pakistan planned to accept the request. However, in mid-December 2006, terrorism charges against Rauf were dropped by a Pakistani judge, who ruled there was a lack of evidence. Rauf's case was transferred from a terrorism court to a regular court where he faced lesser charges including forgery. The charges were later dropped, and Rauf was reported killed in a US

text: drone attack in Pakistan

text: in November 2008.

text: Since there can be no electric field inside a conductive object to exert force on charges

text: Photochemical reduction follows from chemical reduction (redox). But, it differs in that the electrons used for reduction are generated from the photoexcitation of another molecule, called a photosensitizer. To harness the sun's energy, the photosensitizer must be able to absorb light within the visible and ultraviolet spectrum. Molecular sensitizers that meet this criterion often include a metal center, as the d-orbital splitting in organometallic species often falls within the energy range of far-UV and visible light. The reduction process begins with excitation of the photosensitizer, as mentioned. This causes the movement of an electron from the metal center into the functional ligands. This movement is termed a metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT). Back-electron transfer from the ligands to the metal after the charge transfer, which yields no net result, is prevented by including an electron-donating species in solution. Successful photosensitizers have a long-lived excited state, usually due to the interconversion from singlet to triplet states, that allow time for electron donors to interact with the metal center.Common donors in photochemical reduction include triethylamine (TEA), triethanolamine (TEOA), and 1-benzyl-1,4-dihydronicotinamide (BNAH).

text: Photochemical reduction follows from

text: chemical reduction

text: (redox). But, it differs in that the electrons used for reduction are generated from the photoexcitation of another molecule, called a

text: photosensitizer

text: . To harness the sun's energy, the photosensitizer must be able to absorb light within the visible and ultraviolet spectrum. Molecular sensitizers that meet this criterion often include a metal center, as the

text: d-orbital

text: splitting in organometallic species often falls within the energy range of far-UV and visible light. The reduction process begins with excitation of the photosensitizer, as mentioned. This causes the movement of an

text: electron

text: from the metal center into the functional

text: ligands

text: . This movement is termed a metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT). Back-electron transfer from the ligands to the metal after the charge transfer, which yields no net result, is prevented by including an electron-donating species in solution. Successful photosensitizers have a long-lived excited state, usually due to the interconversion from singlet to triplet states, that allow time for electron donors to interact with the metal center.Common donors in photochemical reduction include

text: triethylamine

text: (TEA),

text: triethanolamine

text: (TEOA), and

text: (BNAH).

text: As of 2014, time-of-day power rates are only available for customers using approved electric thermal storage heating systems, who pay between 14 and 19 cents/kW·h on-peak and 7.3 cents/kW·h off-peak. The rates and necessary metering equipment have not been offered to other customers who requested them.   Dalhousie Professor Dr. Larry Hughes  argues that they should be more widely deployed to encourage conserving power on peak, ensuring that electric vehicles and other discretionary devices charge off-peak, and otherwise levelling usage.

text: As of 2014, time-of-day power rates are only available for customers using approved electric thermal storage heating systems, who pay between 14 and 19 cents/kW·h on-peak and 7.3 cents/kW·h off-peak. The rates and necessary metering equipment have not been offered to other customers who requested them.   Dalhousie Professor Dr.

text: Larry Hughes

text: argues that they should be more widely deployed to encourage conserving power on peak, ensuring that

text: electric vehicle

text: s and other discretionary devices charge off-peak, and otherwise levelling usage.

text: Voltage, electric potential difference, electric pressure  or electric tension (formally denoted  or , but more often simply as V or U, for instance in the context of Ohm's or Kirchhoff's laws) is the difference in electric potential energy between two points per unit electric charge. The voltage between two points is equal to the work done per unit of charge against a static electric field to move the test charge between two points and is measured in units of volts (a joule per coulomb).

text: Voltage, electric potential difference, electric pressure  or electric tension (formally denoted  or , but more often simply as V or U, for instance in the context of

text: Ohm's

text: or

text: Kirchhoff's

text: laws) is the difference in

text: electric potential energy

text: between two points per unit

text: electric charge

text: . The voltage between two points is equal to the

text: work

text: done per

text: unit of charge

text: against a static

text: electric field

text: to move the

text: test charge

text: between two points and is measured in units of

text: volt

text: s (a

text: joule

text: per

text: coulomb

text: Residential consumers outside the PRA areas and thus likely not to be among the poorest, are charged below-cost electricity prices for consumption below 700 kWh/month, a very high threshold by international standards. About 80% of residential users outside the PRA areas fall into this category. This subsidy is drawn from the Tariff Stabilization Fund (FET), which was designed to reduce the impact of high oil prices. The financial burden in this case is transferred to the distribution companies, which have found themselves unable to cover their costs in a scenario of rising oil prices, low efficiency and a limited customer base that could be charged to finance the cross-subsidy. This situation has forced the government to provide much higher than expected subsidies to the sector, which in turn translates into reduced ability to finance investments in other key sectors such as health and education. The government has started to reduce cross-subsidies gradually, with the final objective of limiting them to households with monthly consumption below 200 kWh, which is closer to thresholds for subsidized residential electricity encountered in other countries.

text: Properties like friction coefficient, coefficient of thermal expansion, electrical conductivity or thermal conductivity can be adjusted by using compounds with functional fillers.

text: Properties like

text: friction

text: coefficient, coefficient of

text: thermal expansion

text: electrical conductivity

text: or

text: thermal conductivity

text: can be adjusted by using compounds with functional fillers.

text: A major difference between Gaussian and SI units is in the definition of the unit of charge. In SI, a separate base unit (the ampere) is associated with electromagnetic phenomena, with the consequence that something like electrical charge (1 coulomb = 1 ampere × 1 second) is a unique dimension of physical quantity and is not expressed purely in terms of the mechanical units (kilogram, metre, second). On the other hand, in Gaussian units, the unit of electrical charge (the statcoulomb, statC) can be written entirely as a dimensional combination of the mechanical units (gram, centimetre, second), as:

text: A major difference between Gaussian and SI units is in the definition of the unit of charge. In SI, a separate base unit (the

text: ampere

text: ) is associated with electromagnetic phenomena, with the consequence that something like electrical charge (1

text: coulomb

text: = 1 ampere × 1 second) is a unique dimension of physical quantity and is not expressed purely in terms of the mechanical units (kilogram, metre, second). On the other hand, in Gaussian units, the unit of electrical charge (the

text: statcoulomb

text: , statC) can be written entirely as a dimensional combination of the mechanical units (gram, centimetre, second), as:

text: There are two pathways of electron transfer.  In cyclic electron transfer, electrons are removed from an excited chlorophyll molecule, passed through an electron transport chain to a proton pump, and then returned to the chlorophyll.  The mobile electron carriers are, as usual, a lipid-soluble quinone and a water-soluble cytochrome.  The resulting proton gradient is used to make ATP.

text: The Oare Works is now an attractive country park, open to the public free of charge all year round. Remains of process houses have been conserved. From an informative visitor centre, signed trails radiate in various directions. An early 20th century electric-powered gunpowder mill, which was transferred to Ardeer in 1934, has been repatriated and is on display. The 18th-century works bell has also been re-deployed and is on display at Faversham's Fleur de Lis Heritage Centre.

text: the reaction enthalpy change.  With the electrophilic sulfur radical the charge transfer is largest with electron-rich alkenes such as acrylonitrile but the resulting reduction in activation energy (β is negative) is offset by a reduced enthalpy. With the nucleophilic carbon radical on the other hand both enthalpy and polar effects have the same direction thus extending the activation energy range.

text: the reaction

text: enthalpy

text: change.  With the

text: electrophilic

text: sulfur radical the charge transfer is largest with electron-rich alkenes such as acrylonitrile but the resulting reduction in activation energy (β is negative) is offset by a reduced enthalpy. With the

text: nucleophilic

text: carbon radical on the other hand both enthalpy and polar effects have the same direction thus extending the activation energy range.

text: The concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field. A small charge placed within an electric field experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires work. The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to bring a unit test charge from an infinite distance slowly to that point. It is usually measured in volts, and one volt is the potential for which one joule of work must be expended to bring a charge of one coulomb from infinity. This definition of potential, while formal, has little practical application, and a more useful concept is that of electric potential difference, and is the energy required to move a unit charge between two specified points. An electric field has the special property that it is conservative, which means that the path taken by the test charge is irrelevant: all paths between two specified points expend the same energy, and thus a unique value for potential difference may be stated. The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric potential difference that the term voltage sees greater everyday usage.

text: The concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field. A small charge placed within an electric field experiences a force, and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires

text: work

text: . The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to bring a unit test charge from an

text: infinite distance

text: slowly to that point. It is usually measured in

text: volt

text: s, and one volt is the potential for which one

text: joule

text: of work must be expended to bring a charge of one

text: coulomb

text: from infinity. This definition of potential, while formal, has little practical application, and a more useful concept is that of

text: electric potential difference

text: , and is the energy required to move a unit charge between two specified points. An electric field has the special property that it is

text: conservative

text: , which means that the path taken by the test charge is irrelevant: all paths between two specified points expend the same energy, and thus a unique value for potential difference may be stated. The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric potential difference that the term

text: voltage

text: sees greater everyday usage.

text: The ability of a fluid to retain an electrostatic charge depends on its electrical conductivity. When low conductivity fluids flow through pipelines or are mechanically agitated, contact-induced charge separation called flow electrification occurs.Fluids that have low electrical conductivity (below 50 picosiemens per meter), are called accumulators. Fluids having conductivities above 50 pS/m are called non-accumulators. In non-accumulators, charges recombine as fast as they are separated and hence electrostatic charge accumulation is not significant. In the petrochemical industry, 50 pS/m is the recommended minimum value of electrical conductivity for adequate removal of charge from a fluid.

text: The ability of a fluid to retain an electrostatic charge depends on its electrical conductivity. When low conductivity fluids flow through pipelines or are mechanically agitated, contact-induced charge separation called flow electrification occurs.Fluids that have low electrical conductivity (below 50

text: picosiemens

text: per meter), are called accumulators. Fluids having conductivities above 50 pS/m are called non-accumulators. In non-accumulators, charges recombine as fast as they are separated and hence electrostatic charge accumulation is not significant. In the petrochemical industry, 50 pS/m is the recommended minimum value of electrical conductivity for adequate removal of charge from a fluid.

text: In general, polarization is elliptical and is traced in a clockwise or counterclockwise sense, as viewed in the direction of propagation. If, however, the major and minor axes of the ellipse are equal, then the polarization is said to be circular  . If the minor axis of the ellipse is zero, the polarization is said to be linear . Rotation of the electric vector in a clockwise sense is designated right-hand polarization, and rotation in a counterclockwise sense is designated left-hand polarization

text: In general, polarization is

text: elliptical

text: and is traced in a clockwise or counterclockwise sense, as viewed in the direction of propagation. If, however, the major and

text: minor axes

text: of the

text: ellipse

text: are equal, then the polarization is said to be

text: circular

text: . If the minor axis of the ellipse is zero, the polarization is said to be linear . Rotation of the electric vector in a clockwise sense is designated right-hand polarization, and rotation in a counterclockwise sense is designated left-hand polarization

text: The term is typically applied in contexts wherein a chemical reaction is to take place, such as one involving the transfer of an electron at a battery electrode. In a battery, an electrochemical potential arising from the movement of ions balances the reaction energy of the electrodes. The maximum voltage that a battery reaction can produce is sometimes called the standard electrochemical potential of that reaction (see also Electrode potential and Table of standard electrode potentials). In instances pertaining specifically to the movement of electrically charged solutes, the potential is often expressed in units of volts. See: Concentration cell.

text: The term is typically applied in contexts wherein a

text: chemical reaction

text: is to take place, such as one involving the transfer of an electron at a

text: battery

text: electrode. In a battery, an electrochemical potential arising from the movement of ions balances the reaction energy of the electrodes. The maximum voltage that a battery reaction can produce is sometimes called the standard electrochemical potential of that reaction (see also

text: Electrode potential

text: and

entity_name: Standard electrode potential (data page)

text: Table of standard electrode potentials

text: ). In instances pertaining specifically to the movement of electrically charged solutes, the potential is often expressed in units of

text: volt

text: s. See:

text: Concentration cell

text: Mixed mode describes a trip in which a combination of the above modes are utilized. For example, a PHEV-20 Prius conversion may begin a trip with  of low speed charge-depleting, then get onto a freeway and operate in blended mode for , using  worth of all-electric range at twice the fuel economy. Finally the driver might exit the freeway and drive for another  without the internal combustion engine until the full  of all-electric range are exhausted. At this point the vehicle can revert to a charge sustaining-mode for another  until the final destination is reached. Such a trip would be considered a mixed mode, as multiple modes are employed in one trip. This contrasts with a charge-depleting trip which would be driven within the limits of a PHEV's all-electric range. Conversely, the portion of a trip which extends beyond the all-electric range of a PHEV would be driven primarily in charge-sustaining mode, as used by a conventional hybrid.

text: As the secondary coil's energy (and output voltage) continue to increase, larger pulses of displacement current further ionize and heat the air at the point of initial breakdown. This forms a very electrically conductive "root" of hotter plasma, called a leader, that projects outward from the toroid. The plasma within the leader is considerably hotter than a corona discharge, and is considerably more conductive. In fact, its properties are similar to an electric arc. The leader tapers and branches into thousands of thinner, cooler, hair-like discharges (called streamers). The streamers look like a bluish 'haze' at the ends of the more luminous leaders. The streamers transfer charge between the leaders and toroid to nearby space charge regions. The displacement currents from countless streamers all feed into the leader, helping to keep it hot and electrically conductive.

text: As the secondary coil's energy (and output voltage) continue to increase, larger pulses of displacement current further ionize and heat the air at the point of initial breakdown. This forms a very electrically conductive "root" of hotter

text: plasma

text: , called a

text: leader

text: , that projects outward from the toroid. The plasma within the leader is considerably hotter than a corona discharge, and is considerably more conductive. In fact, its properties are similar to an

text: electric arc

text: . The leader tapers and branches into thousands of thinner, cooler, hair-like discharges (called streamers). The streamers look like a bluish 'haze' at the ends of the more luminous leaders. The streamers transfer charge between the leaders and toroid to nearby space charge regions. The displacement currents from countless streamers all feed into the leader, helping to keep it hot and electrically conductive.

text: In a verdict that polarized public opinion both in Yugoslavia and beyond, the Yugoslav authorities found him guilty on the charge of high treason (for collaboration with the fascist Ustaše regime), as well as complicity in the forced conversions of Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism. He was sentenced to 16 years in prison, but served only five at Lepoglava before being transferred to house arrest with his movements confined to his home parish of Krašić.

text: In a verdict that polarized public opinion both in Yugoslavia and beyond, the Yugoslav authorities found him guilty on the charge of

text: high treason

text: (for collaboration with the

text: fascist

text: Ustaše regime), as well as complicity in the forced conversions of

text: Orthodox

text: Serbs

text: to

text: Catholicism

text: . He was sentenced to 16 years in prison, but served only five at

text: Lepoglava

text: before being transferred to

text: house arrest

text: with his movements confined to his home

text: parish

text: of Krašić.

text: In the 1950s, a second class of electric conductors were discovered based on charge-transfer salts.  An early examples were derivatives of polycyclic aromatic compounds.  For example, pyrene was shown to form semiconducting charge-transfer complex salts with halogens. In 1972, researchers found metallic conductivity(conductivity comparable to a metal) in the charge-transfer complex TTF-TCNQ.

text: In the 1950s, a second class of electric conductors were discovered based on charge-transfer salts.  An early examples were derivatives of

text: polycyclic

text: aromatic

text: compounds.  For example,

text: pyrene

text: was shown to form semiconducting charge-transfer complex

text: salts

text: with

text: halogens

text: . In 1972, researchers found metallic conductivity(conductivity comparable to a metal) in the charge-transfer complex TTF-TCNQ.

text: Chung was indicted in June 2003 for his role in the Cash-for-summit scandal on charges of doctoring company books to hide the secret money transfers of hundreds of millions of dollars by the Kim Dae Jung administration to North Korea to set up the historic North-South presidential summit in 2000. Facing up to three years in prison and apparently shamed after he was forced to testify in court about the secret money transfer days earlier, he committed suicide on August 4, 2003 by leaping from his 12th floor office. Police claimed he left several suicide notes. He was reported to have apologized for his suicide, and claimed "everything is my fault". He had been accused of secretly transferring millions of dollars to the North Korean government. Buddhist monks presided over the last rites conducted during his funeral.

text: Chung was indicted in June 2003 for his role in the

text: Cash-for-summit scandal

text: on charges of doctoring company books to hide the secret money transfers of hundreds of millions of dollars by the

text: Kim Dae Jung

text: administration to

text: North Korea

text: to set up the historic North-South presidential summit in 2000. Facing up to three years in prison and apparently shamed after he was forced to testify in court about the secret money transfer days earlier, he committed suicide on August 4, 2003 by leaping from his 12th floor office. Police claimed he left several suicide notes. He was reported to have apologized for his suicide, and claimed "everything is my fault". He had been accused of secretly transferring millions of dollars to the

text: North Korea

text: n government. Buddhist monks presided over the last rites conducted during his funeral.

text: To classify semiconductors and semimetals, the energies of their filled and empty bands must be plotted against the crystal momentum of conduction electrons. According to the Bloch theorem the conduction of electrons depends on the periodicity of the crystal lattice in different directions.

text: To classify semiconductors and semimetals, the energies of their filled and empty bands must be plotted against the

text: crystal momentum

text: of conduction electrons. According to the

text: Bloch theorem

text: the conduction of electrons depends on the periodicity of the crystal lattice in different directions.

text: The term 'polarization' derives from the early 19th-century discovery that electrolysis causes the elements in an electrolyte to be attracted towards one or the other pole i.e. the gasses were polarized towards the electrodes. Thus, initially 'polarization' was essentially a description of electrolysis itself, and in the context of electrochemical cells used to describe the effects on the electrolyte (which was then called "polarization liquid"). In time, as more electrochemical processes were invented, the term 'polarization' evolved to denote any (potentially undesirable) mechanical side-effects that occur at the interface between electrolyte and electrodes.

text: The term 'polarization' derives from the early 19th-century discovery that

text: electrolysis

text: causes the elements in an electrolyte to be attracted towards one or the other

text: pole

text: i.e. the gasses were

text: polarized

text: towards the electrodes. Thus, initially 'polarization' was essentially a description of electrolysis itself, and in the context of

text: electrochemical cells

text: used to describe the effects on the electrolyte (which was then called "polarization liquid"). In time, as more electrochemical processes were invented, the term 'polarization' evolved to denote any (potentially undesirable) mechanical side-effects that occur at the interface between electrolyte and electrodes.

text: Ferroelectrics are materials which possess an electric polarization in the absence of an externally applied electric field such that the polarization can be reversed if the electric field is reversed.  Normally materials are very nearly electrically neutral on the macroscopic level.  However, the positive and negative charges which make up the material are not necessarily distributed in a symmetric manner. If the sum of charge times distance for all elements of the basic cell does not equal zero the cell will have an electric dipole moment which is a vector quantity.  The dipole moment per unit volume is defined as the dielectric polarization.  Since all ferroelectric materials exhibit a spontaneous polarization, all ferroelectric materials are also pyroelectric (but not all pyroelectric materials are ferroelectric).

text: Ferroelectrics

text: are materials which possess an electric polarization in the absence of an externally applied electric field such that the polarization can be reversed if the electric field is reversed.  Normally materials are very nearly electrically neutral on the macroscopic level.  However, the positive and negative charges which make up the material are not necessarily distributed in a symmetric manner. If the sum of charge times distance for all elements of the basic cell does not equal zero the cell will have an electric dipole moment which is a vector quantity.  The dipole moment per unit volume is defined as the dielectric polarization.  Since all ferroelectric materials exhibit a spontaneous polarization, all ferroelectric materials are also pyroelectric (but not all pyroelectric materials are ferroelectric).

text: The electrical conductivity of a bulk layer of particles depends on both surface and volume factors.  Volume conduction, or the motions of electrical charges through the interiors of particles, depends mainly on the composition and temperature of the particles.  In the higher temperature regions, above , volume conduction controls the conduction mechanism.  Volume conduction also involves ancillary factors, such as compression of the particle layer, particle size and shape, and surface properties.

text: A polar molecule has a net dipole as a result of the opposing charges (i.e. having partial positive and partial negative charges) from polar bonds arranged asymmetrically. Water (HO) is an example of a polar molecule since it has a slight positive charge on one side and a slight negative charge on the other. The dipoles do not cancel out resulting in a net dipole. Due to the polar nature of the water molecule itself, polar molecules are generally able to dissolve in water. Other examples include sugars (like sucrose), which have many polar oxygen–hydrogen (−OH) groups and are overall highly polar.

text: A polar molecule has a net dipole as a result of the opposing charges (i.e. having partial positive and partial negative charges) from polar bonds arranged asymmetrically.

text: Water

text: (HO) is an example of a polar molecule since it has a slight positive charge on one side and a slight negative charge on the other. The dipoles do not cancel out resulting in a net dipole. Due to the polar nature of the water molecule itself, polar molecules are generally able to dissolve in water. Other examples include sugars (like

text: sucrose

text: ), which have many polar

text: oxygen–hydrogen

text: (−OH) groups and are overall highly polar.

text: Recent research regarding the electrical charges of the various glycol-protein components of the extracellular matrix shows that because of the high density of negative charges on glycosaminoglycans (provided by sulfate and carboxylate groups of the uronic acid residues) the matrix is an extensive redox system capable of absorbing and donating electrons at any point. This electron transfer function reaches into the interiors of cells as the cytoplasmic matrix is also strongly negatively charged. The entire extracellular and cellular matrix functions as a biophysical storage system or accumulator for electrical charge.

text: Before separating the proteins by mass, they are treated with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) along with other reagents (SDS-PAGE in 1-D).  This denatures the proteins (that is, it unfolds them into long, straight molecules) and binds a number of SDS molecules roughly proportional to the protein's length.  Because a protein's length (when unfolded) is roughly proportional to its mass, this is equivalent to saying that it attaches a number of SDS molecules roughly proportional to the protein's mass.  Since the SDS molecules are negatively charged, the result of this is that all of the proteins will have approximately the same mass-to-charge ratio as each other.  In addition, proteins will not migrate when they have no charge (a result of the isoelectric focusing step) therefore the coating of the protein in SDS (negatively charged) allows migration of the proteins in the second dimension (SDS-PAGE, it  is not compatible for use in the first dimension as it is charged and a nonionic or zwitterionic detergent needs to be used).In the second dimension, an electric potential is again applied, but at a 90 degree angle from the first field.  The proteins will be attracted to the more positive side of the gel (because SDS is negatively charged) proportionally to their mass-to-charge ratio.  As previously explained, this ratio will be nearly the same for all proteins.  The proteins' progress will be slowed by frictional forces.  The gel therefore acts like a molecular sieve when the current is applied, separating the proteins on the basis of their molecular weight with larger proteins being retained higher in the gel and smaller proteins being able to pass through the sieve and reach lower regions of the gel.

text: Before separating the proteins by mass, they are treated with

text: sodium dodecyl sulfate

text: (SDS) along with other reagents (

text: SDS-PAGE

text: Since the electric charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron, the net electric charge on an ion is equal to the number of protons in the ion minus the number of electrons.

text: In fact, the quantity called voltage as measured in an electronic circuit has a simple relationship to the chemical potential for electrons (Fermi level).When the leads of a voltmeter are attached to two points in a circuit, the displayed voltage is a measure of the total work transferred when a unit charge is allowed to move from one point to the other.If a simple wire is connected between two points of differing voltage (forming a short circuit), current will flow from positive to negative voltage, converting the available work into heat.

text: In fact, the quantity called voltage as measured in an electronic circuit has a simple relationship to the chemical potential for electrons (Fermi level).When the leads of a

text: voltmeter

text: are attached to two points in a circuit, the displayed voltage is a measure of the total work transferred when a unit charge is allowed to move from one point to the other.If a simple wire is connected between two points of differing voltage (forming a

text: short circuit

text: ), current will flow from positive to negative voltage, converting the available work into heat.

text: The triboelectric effect is not very predictable, and only broad generalizations can be made. Amber, for example, can acquire an electric charge by contact and separation (or friction) with a material like wool. This property was first recorded by Thales of Miletus. The word "electricity" is derived from William Gilbert's initial coinage, "electra", which originates in the Greek word for amber, . The prefix  (Greek for ‘rub’) refers to ‘friction’, as in tribology. Other examples of materials that can acquire a significant charge when rubbed together include glass rubbed with silk, and hard rubber rubbed with fur.

text: The triboelectric effect is not very predictable, and only broad generalizations can be made.

text: Amber

text: , for example, can acquire an electric charge by contact and separation (or

text: friction

text: ) with a material like

text: wool

text: . This property was first recorded by

text: Thales of Miletus

text: . The word "

text: electricity

text: " is derived from

text: William Gilbert

text: 's initial coinage, "electra", which originates in the

text: Greek

text: word for amber, . The prefix  (Greek for ‘rub’) refers to ‘friction’, as in

text: tribology

text: . Other examples of materials that can acquire a significant charge when rubbed together include

text: glass

text: rubbed with

text: silk

text: , and hard

text: rubber

text: rubbed with

text: fur

text: In 1874 he demonstrated that an electrolyte has a definite and constant amount of electrical resistance. By observing the dependence of conductivity upon dilution, he could determine the transfer velocities of the ions (charged atoms or molecules) in solution. He used alternating current to prevent the deposition of electrolysis products; this enabled him to obtain very precise results.

text: In 1874 he demonstrated that an

text: electrolyte

text: has a definite and constant amount of electrical resistance. By observing the dependence of conductivity upon

text: dilution

text: , he could determine the transfer velocities of the

text: ions

text: (charged atoms or molecules) in solution. He used

text: alternating current

text: to prevent the deposition of electrolysis products; this enabled him to obtain very precise results.

text: Transactions through mobile banking may include obtaining account balances and lists of latest transactions, electronic bill payments, and funds transfers between a customer's or another's accounts.  Some apps also enable copies of statements to be downloaded and sometimes printed at the customer's premises; and some banks charge a fee for mailing hardcopies of bank statements.

text: Transactions through mobile banking may include obtaining account balances and lists of latest transactions,

text: electronic bill payment

text: s, and

text: funds transfer

text: s between a customer's or another's

text: account

text: s.  Some apps also enable copies of statements to be downloaded and sometimes printed at the customer's premises; and some banks charge a fee for mailing hardcopies of bank statements.

text: When President Barack Obama took office he instituted a new review procedure the Guantanamo Joint Review Task Force, which was to report back to him, within a year, after conducting new assessments of the captives' status.The review classified the captives into three groups, those who should face charges, those who could safely be released or transferred to other countries, and a third group, too innocent to face charges, but too dangerous for the USA to release.  Idris was classified as safe to release.

text: When

text: President

text: Barack Obama

text: took office he instituted a new review procedure the

text: Guantanamo Joint Review Task Force

text: , which was to report back to him, within a year, after conducting new assessments of the captives' status.The review classified the captives into three groups, those who should face charges, those who could safely be released or transferred to other countries, and a third group, too innocent to face charges, but too dangerous for the USA to release.  Idris was classified as safe to release.

text: Like a gas, plasma does not have definite shape or volume. Unlike gases, plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric currents, and respond strongly to electromagnetic forces. Positively charged nuclei swim in a "sea" of freely-moving disassociated electrons, similar to the way such charges exist in conductive metal. In fact it is this electron "sea" that allows matter in the plasma state to conduct electricity.

text: Dielectrophoresis occurs when a polarizable particle is suspended in a non-uniform electric field.  The electric field polarizes the particle, and the poles then experience a force along the field lines, which can be either attractive or repulsive according to the orientation on the dipole.  Since the field is non-uniform, the pole experiencing the greatest electric field will dominate over the other, and the particle will move.  The orientation of the dipole is dependent on the relative polarizability of the particle and medium, in accordance with Maxwell–Wagner–Sillars polarization.  Since the direction of the force is dependent on field gradient rather than field direction, DEP will occur in AC as well as DC electric fields; polarization (and hence the direction of the force) will depend on the relative polarizabilities of particle and medium.  If the particle moves in the direction of increasing electric field, the behavior is referred to as positive DEP (sometime pDEP), if acting to move the particle away from high field regions, it is known as negative DEP (or nDEP). As the relative polarizabilities of the particle and medium are frequency-dependent, varying the energizing signal and measuring the way in which the force changes can be used to determine the electrical properties of particles; this also allows the elimination of electrophoretic motion of particles due to inherent particle charge.

text: Dielectrophoresis occurs when a polarizable particle is suspended in a non-uniform electric field.  The electric field polarizes the particle, and the poles then experience a

text: force

text: along the field lines, which can be either attractive or repulsive according to the orientation on the dipole.  Since the field is non-uniform, the pole experiencing the greatest electric field will dominate over the other, and the particle will move.  The orientation of the dipole is dependent on the relative polarizability of the particle and medium, in accordance with

text: Maxwell–Wagner–Sillars polarization

text: .  Since the direction of the force is dependent on field gradient rather than field direction, DEP will occur in AC as well as DC electric fields; polarization (and hence the direction of the force) will depend on the relative polarizabilities of particle and medium.  If the particle moves in the direction of increasing electric field, the behavior is referred to as positive DEP (sometime pDEP), if acting to move the particle away from high field regions, it is known as negative DEP (or nDEP). As the relative polarizabilities of the particle and medium are frequency-dependent, varying the energizing signal and measuring the way in which the force changes can be used to determine the electrical properties of particles; this also allows the elimination of

text: electrophoretic

text: motion of particles due to inherent particle charge.

text: Estonia is the first country in the EU and in the world to introduce a nationwide, publicly serviced charging system for charging the batteries of electric vehicles. The 165 fast charging stations are equipped with connectors of the CHAdeMO standard. They are located throughout the entire country, including the islands, and have a maximum distance of 40–60 km in between. The charging stations can also be navigated via a smartphone app (currently only for Android). The relatively dense network and 30 minute quick charges are built to enable a country-wide electric vehicle network. The system offers a unitary booking service and several different tariffs, some of which appear attractively low priced. The charging station network puts Estonia at the forefront in Europe even though Norway actually has a higher penetration of electric vehicles. Estonia has a rate of 1 electric vehicle per 1000 capita, whereas Norway has 4 EVs per 1000 capita.

text: Estonia is the first country in the

text: EU

text: and in the world to introduce a nationwide, publicly serviced charging system for charging the

text: batteries

text: of

text: electric vehicle

text: s. The 165 fast charging stations are equipped with connectors of the

text: CHAdeMO

text: standard. They are located throughout the entire country, including the

text: island

text: s, and have a maximum distance of 40–60 km in between. The charging stations can also be navigated via a

text: smartphone

text: app

text: (currently only for

text: Android

text: ). The relatively dense network and 30 minute quick charges are built to enable a country-wide

text: electric vehicle network

text: . The system offers a unitary booking service and several different tariffs, some of which appear attractively low priced. The charging station network puts Estonia at the forefront in

text: Europe

text: even though

text: Norway

text: actually has a higher penetration of

text: electric vehicle

text: s. Estonia has a rate of 1 electric vehicle per 1000 capita, whereas

text: Norway

text: has 4 EVs per 1000 capita.

text: During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from electron donors to electron acceptors such as oxygen, in redox reactions. These redox reactions release energy, which is used to form ATP. In eukaryotes, these redox reactions are carried out by a series of protein complexes within the inner membrane of the cell's mitochondria, whereas, in prokaryotes, these proteins are located in the cells' intermembrane space. These linked sets of proteins are called electron transport chains. In eukaryotes, five main protein complexes are involved, whereas in prokaryotes many different enzymes are present, using a variety of electron donors and acceptors.

text: During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from

text: electron donors

text: to

text: electron acceptors

text: such as

text: oxygen

text: , in

text: redox reaction

text: s. These redox reactions release energy, which is used to form ATP. In

text: eukaryote

text: s, these redox reactions are carried out by a series of

text: protein complex

text: es within the inner membrane of the cell's mitochondria, whereas, in

text: prokaryote

text: s, these proteins are located in the cells' intermembrane space. These linked sets of proteins are called

text: electron transport chain

text: s. In eukaryotes, five main protein complexes are involved, whereas in prokaryotes many different enzymes are present, using a variety of electron donors and acceptors.

text: The channel of a R stroke can be considered as a thin isolated wire of length L and diameter d in which negative electric charge has been stored. In terms of electric circuit theory, one can adopt a simple transmission line model with a capacitor, where the charge is stored, a resistance of the channel, and an inductance simulating the electric properties of the channel. At the moment of contact with the perfectly conducting Earth surface, the charge is lowered to the ground. In order to fulfill the boundary conditions at the top of the wire (zero electric current) and at the ground (zero electric voltage), only standing resonant waves modes can exit. The fundamental mode which transports electric charge to the ground most effectively, has thus a wavelength λ four times the channel length L. In the case of the K stroke, the lower boundary is the same as the upper boundary. Of course, this picture is valid only for wave mode 1 (λ/4 antenna)and perhaps for mode 2 (λ/2 antenna), because these modes do not yet "feel" the contorted configuration of the real lightning channel. The higher order modes contribute to the incoherent noisy signals in the higher frequency range (> 100 kHz).

text: The channel of a R stroke can be considered as a thin isolated wire of length L and diameter d in which negative electric charge has been stored. In terms of

text: electric circuit

text: theory, one can adopt a simple

text: transmission line

text: model with a

text: capacitor

text: , where the charge is stored, a

text: resistance

text: of the channel, and an

text: inductance

text: simulating the electric properties of the channel. At the moment of contact with the perfectly conducting Earth surface, the charge is lowered to the ground. In order to fulfill the boundary conditions at the top of the wire (zero electric current) and at the ground (zero electric voltage), only standing resonant waves modes can exit. The fundamental mode which transports electric charge to the ground most effectively, has thus a wavelength λ four times the channel length L. In the case of the K stroke, the lower boundary is the same as the upper boundary. Of course, this picture is valid only for wave mode 1 (λ/4 antenna)and perhaps for mode 2 (λ/2 antenna), because these modes do not yet "feel" the contorted configuration of the real lightning channel. The higher order modes contribute to the incoherent noisy signals in the higher frequency range (> 100 kHz).

text: Here ε is the electric permittivity of empty space.  In this equation, P is the (negative of the) field induced in the material when the "fixed" charges, the dipoles, shift in response to the total underlying field E, whereas D is the field due to the remaining charges, known as "free" charges. In general, P varies as a function of E depending on the medium, as described later in the article. In many problems, it is more convenient to work with D and the free charges than with E and the total charge.

text: Here ε is the

text: electric permittivity

text: of empty space.  In this equation, P is the (negative of the) field induced in the material when the "fixed" charges, the dipoles, shift in response to the total underlying field E, whereas D is the field due to the remaining charges, known as "free" charges. In general, P varies as a function of E depending on the medium, as described later in the article. In many problems, it is more convenient to work with D and the free charges than with E and the total charge.

text: The potential difference and subsequent electric field pull the bound electrons (negative) toward the anode (positive electrode) while the cathode (negative electrode) pulls the nucleus. As the voltage increases, the current stresses the material (by electric polarization) beyond its dielectric limit (termed strength) into a stage of electrical breakdown, marked by an electric spark, where the material transforms from being an insulator into a conductor (as it becomes increasingly ionized). The underlying process is the Townsend avalanche, where collisions between electrons and neutral gas atoms create more ions and electrons (as can be seen in the figure on the right). The first impact of an electron on an atom results in one ion and two electrons. Therefore, the number of charged particles increases rapidly (in the millions) only "after about 20 successive sets of collisions", mainly due to a small mean free path (average distance travelled between collisions).

text: The

text: potential difference

text: and subsequent

text: electric field

text: pull the bound electrons (negative) toward the

text: anode

text: (positive electrode) while the

text: cathode

text: (negative electrode) pulls the nucleus. As the

text: voltage

text: increases, the current stresses the material (by

text: electric polarization

text: ) beyond its

text: dielectric limit

text: (termed strength) into a stage of

text: electrical breakdown

text: , marked by an

text: electric spark

text: , where the material transforms from being an

text: insulator

text: into a

text: conductor

text: (as it becomes increasingly

text: ionized

text: ). The underlying process is the

text: Townsend avalanche

text: , where collisions between electrons and neutral gas atoms create more ions and electrons (as can be seen in the figure on the right). The first impact of an electron on an atom results in one ion and two electrons. Therefore, the number of charged particles increases rapidly (in the millions) only "after about 20 successive sets of collisions", mainly due to a small mean free path (average distance travelled between collisions).

text: Particles have corresponding antiparticles. A particle with red, green, or blue charge has a corresponding antiparticle in which the color charge must be the anticolor of red, green, and blue, respectively, for the color charge to be conserved in particle-antiparticle creation and annihilation. Particle physicists call these antired, antigreen, and antiblue. All three colors mixed together, or any one of these colors and its complement (or negative), is "colorless" or "white" and has a net color charge of zero. Free particles have a color charge of zero: baryons are composed of three quarks, but the individual quarks can have red, green, or blue charges, or negatives; mesons are made from a quark and antiquark, the quark can be any color, and the antiquark will have the negative of that color. This color charge differs from electromagnetic charges since electromagnetic charges have only one kind of value. Positive and negative electrical charges are the same kind of charge as they only differ by the sign.

text: Particles have corresponding

text: antiparticle

text: s. A particle with red, green, or blue charge has a corresponding

text: antiparticle

text: in which the color charge must be the anticolor of red, green, and blue, respectively, for the color charge to be conserved in particle-antiparticle

text: creation

text: and

text: annihilation

text: . Particle physicists call these antired, antigreen, and antiblue. All three colors mixed together, or any one of these colors and its

text: complement (or negative)

text: , is "colorless" or "white" and has a net color charge of zero.

text: Free particle

text: s have a color charge of zero:

text: baryon

text: s are composed of three quarks, but the individual quarks can have red, green, or blue charges, or negatives;

text: meson

text: s are made from a quark and antiquark, the quark can be any color, and the antiquark will have the negative of that color. This color charge differs from electromagnetic charges since electromagnetic charges have only one kind of value. Positive and negative electrical charges are the same kind of charge as they only differ by the sign.

text: Crutchley's first marriage showed strains by the time he graduated from college, and it had all but ended by the time he moved to Kokomo, Indiana to work at Delco Electronics Corporation. Crutchley had been working at General Motors' Central Foundry Division in Defiance, Ohio where he was responsible for the installation of a new plant security system. He applied for a transfer to Delco Electronics, Kokomo, where the systems were designed and built, and worked there for several years as an electrical systems engineer.

text: Crutchley's first marriage showed strains by the time he graduated from college, and it had all but ended by the time he moved to

text: Kokomo

text: Indiana

text: to work at

text: Delco Electronics

text: Corporation. Crutchley had been working at

text: General Motors

text: ' Central Foundry Division in Defiance, Ohio where he was responsible for the installation of a new plant security system. He applied for a transfer to Delco Electronics, Kokomo, where the systems were designed and built, and worked there for several years as an electrical systems engineer.

text: In 1946, the production restarted with a larger two-cylinder 654 cc Lloyd-made engine with a bore of 70 mm and stroke of 85 mm producing 25 bhp at 2450 rpm. The twin-cylinder alloy unit was mounted transversely at the front and drove the front wheels through a four-speed gearbox with synchromesh on all speeds including reverse. It was still a two-stroke but the bearings were pressure lubricated. A third cylinder and piston which had a reciprocating and slightly rotating motion was connected to the carburettor with ports in the cylinder walls connecting to the engine's two cylinders. This was used to draw the fuel mixture from the carburettor and transfer the mixture to each engine cylinder. This double-acting fuel charging cylinder piston was hollow with ports located in the piston walls and ports located in the charging cylinder walls connecting to each of the engine's main cylinders. One engine cylinder was charged by the charging cylinder piston's down and slightly rotating stroke which allowed the piston and charging cylinder side wall port to uncover and allow the mixture transfer to the engine cylinder. The other engine cylinder was charged with mixture by the upwards stroke of the charging cylinder piston. The engine cylinders and the fuel charging cylinders were set in a triangular configuration with the fuel charging cylinder being located centrally and receiving gravity fed fuel from the bulkhead mounted fuel tank. This method of mixture input to the engine cylinders allowed for the engine wet oil sump.

text: In 1946, the production restarted with a larger two-cylinder 654 cc Lloyd-made engine with a bore of 70 mm and stroke of 85 mm producing 25 bhp at 2450 rpm. The twin-cylinder alloy unit was mounted transversely at the front and drove the front wheels through a four-speed gearbox with

text: synchromesh

text: on all speeds including reverse. It was still a two-stroke but the bearings were pressure lubricated. A third cylinder and piston which had a reciprocating and slightly rotating motion was connected to the carburettor with ports in the cylinder walls connecting to the engine's two cylinders. This was used to draw the fuel mixture from the carburettor and transfer the mixture to each engine cylinder. This

text: double-acting

text: fuel charging cylinder piston was hollow with ports located in the piston walls and ports located in the charging cylinder walls connecting to each of the engine's main cylinders. One engine cylinder was charged by the charging cylinder piston's down and slightly rotating stroke which allowed the piston and charging cylinder side wall port to uncover and allow the mixture transfer to the engine cylinder. The other engine cylinder was charged with mixture by the upwards stroke of the charging cylinder piston. The engine cylinders and the fuel charging cylinders were set in a triangular configuration with the fuel charging cylinder being located centrally and receiving gravity fed fuel from the bulkhead mounted fuel tank. This method of mixture input to the engine cylinders allowed for the engine wet oil sump.

text: When the electron pair moves towards the attacking reagent, it is termed as the +E effect. The addition of acids to alkenes is an example of the +E effect. After the transfer takes place, the reagent gets attached to the atom where the electrons have been transferred to.

text: When the electron pair moves towards the attacking reagent, it is termed as the +E effect. The addition of

text: acids

text: to

text: alkenes

text: is an example of the +E effect. After the transfer takes place, the reagent gets attached to the atom where the electrons have been transferred to.

text: In typical mechanical systems, some type of bearing and/or lubricant must be used to reduce friction at the interface between two components. Reducing friction is vital for minimizing wear on components and preventing overheating. As the relative speed of the components rises, and as the contact force between them increases, the importance of friction mitigation increases as well. In biological joints such as the human knee, friction is reduced by means of cartilage with a very low friction coefficient, as well as lubricating synovial fluid, which has very low viscosity. Gerhard Scholtz, professor at the ''Institut für Biologie Vergleichende Zoologie'' ("Institute for Biology and Comparative Zoology") at Humboldt University of Berlin, asserts that a similar secreted lubricant or dead cellular material could allow a biological wheel to rotate freely.

text: In typical mechanical systems, some type of

text: bearing

text: and/or

text: lubricant

text: must be used to reduce friction at the interface between two components. Reducing friction is vital for minimizing

text: wear

text: on components and preventing overheating. As the relative speed of the components rises, and as the contact force between them increases, the importance of friction mitigation increases as well. In biological joints such as the human

text: knee

text: , friction is reduced by means of

text: cartilage

text: with a very low

text: friction coefficient

text: , as well as lubricating

text: synovial fluid

text: , which has very low

text: viscosity

text: . Gerhard Scholtz, professor at the ''Institut für Biologie Vergleichende Zoologie'' ("Institute for Biology and Comparative Zoology") at

text: Humboldt University of Berlin

text: , asserts that a similar

text: secreted

text: lubricant or dead cellular material could allow a biological wheel to rotate freely.

text: In an electrodialysis stack, the dilute (D) feed stream, brine or concentrate (C) stream, and electrode (E) stream are allowed to flow through the appropriate cell compartments formed by the ion exchange membranes. Under the influence of an electrical potential difference, the negatively charged ions (e.g., chloride) in the dilute stream migrate toward the positively charged anode. These ions pass through the positively charged anion exchange membrane, but are prevented from further migration toward the anode by the negatively charged cation exchange membrane and therefore stay in the C stream, which becomes concentrated with the anions. The positively charged species (e.g., sodium) in the D stream migrate toward the negatively charged cathode and pass through the negatively charged cation exchange membrane. These cations also stay in the C stream, prevented from further migration toward the cathode by the positively charged anion exchange membrane. As a result of the anion and cation migration, electric current flows between the cathode and anode. Only an equal number of anion and cation charge equivalents are transferred from the D stream into the C stream and so the charge balance is maintained in each stream. The overall result of the electrodialysis process is an ion concentration increase in the concentrate stream with a depletion of ions in the dilute solution feed stream see video.

text: In an electrodialysis stack, the dilute (D) feed stream, brine or concentrate (C) stream, and electrode (E) stream are allowed to flow through the appropriate cell compartments formed by the

text: ion exchange membranes

text: . Under the influence of an electrical potential difference, the negatively charged ions (e.g.,

text: chloride

text: ) in the dilute stream migrate toward the positively charged

text: anode

text: . These ions pass through the positively charged anion exchange membrane, but are prevented from further migration toward the anode by the negatively charged cation exchange membrane and therefore stay in the C stream, which becomes concentrated with the anions. The positively charged species (e.g.,

text: sodium

text: ) in the D stream migrate toward the negatively charged

text: cathode

text: and pass through the negatively charged cation exchange membrane. These cations also stay in the C stream, prevented from further migration toward the cathode by the positively charged anion exchange membrane. As a result of the anion and cation migration,

text: electric current

text: flows between the cathode and anode. Only an equal number of anion and cation charge equivalents are transferred from the D stream into the C stream and so the charge balance is maintained in each stream. The overall result of the electrodialysis process is an ion concentration increase in the concentrate stream with a depletion of ions in the dilute solution feed stream see video.

text: Jefimenko's equations are the solution of Maxwell's equations for an assigned distribution of electric charges and currents, under the assumption that there is no electromagnetic field other than the one produced by those charges and currents.

text: Jefimenko's equations are the solution of

text: Maxwell's equations

text: for an assigned distribution of electric charges and currents, under the assumption that there is no electromagnetic field other than the one produced by those charges and currents.

text: , at which point the current in the line is zero (by the definition of an open circuit). Since charge continues to arrive at the end of the line through the incident current, but no current is leaving the line, then conservation of electric charge requires that there must be an equal and opposite current into the end of the line. Essentially, this is Kirchhoff's current law in operation. This equal and opposite current is the reflected current,

text: , at which point the current in the line is zero (by the definition of an open circuit). Since charge continues to arrive at the end of the line through the incident current, but no current is leaving the line, then conservation of electric charge requires that there must be an equal and opposite current into the end of the line. Essentially, this is

text: Kirchhoff's current law

text: in operation. This equal and opposite current is the reflected current,

text: There are several classes of electron transfer, defined by the state of the two redox centers and their connectivity

text: In a simplified view of an ionic bond, the bonding electron is not shared at all, but transferred. In this type of bond, the outer atomic orbital of one atom has a vacancy which allows the addition of one or more electrons. These newly added electrons potentially occupy a lower energy-state (effectively closer to more nuclear charge) than they experience in a different atom. Thus, one nucleus offers a more tightly bound position to an electron than does another nucleus, with the result that one atom may transfer an electron to the other. This transfer causes one atom to assume a net positive charge, and the other to assume a net negative charge. The bond then results from electrostatic attraction between atoms and the atoms become positive or negatively charged ions. Ionic bonds may be seen as extreme examples of polarization in covalent bonds. Often, such bonds have no particular orientation in space, since they result from equal electrostatic attraction of each ion to all ions around them. Ionic bonds are strong (and thus ionic substances require high temperatures to melt) but also brittle, since the forces between ions are short-range and do not easily bridge cracks and fractures. This type of bond gives rise to the physical characteristics of crystals of classic mineral salts, such as table salt.

text: In a simplified view of an

text: ionic bond

text: , the bonding electron is not shared at all, but transferred. In this type of bond, the outer

text: atomic orbital

text: of one atom has a vacancy which allows the addition of one or more electrons. These newly added electrons potentially occupy a lower energy-state (effectively closer to more nuclear charge) than they experience in a different atom. Thus, one nucleus offers a more tightly bound position to an electron than does another nucleus, with the result that one atom may transfer an electron to the other. This transfer causes one atom to assume a net positive charge, and the other to assume a net negative charge. The bond then results from electrostatic attraction between atoms and the atoms become positive or negatively charged

text: ion

text: s. Ionic bonds may be seen as extreme examples of polarization in covalent bonds. Often, such bonds have no particular orientation in space, since they result from equal electrostatic attraction of each ion to all ions around them. Ionic bonds are strong (and thus ionic substances require high temperatures to melt) but also brittle, since the forces between ions are short-range and do not easily bridge cracks and fractures. This type of bond gives rise to the physical characteristics of crystals of classic mineral salts, such as table salt.

text: (A continuous transfer of charge from one node to another is equivalent to a current, so I (the symbol for electric current) is used.)

text: The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the contact surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces). This can be beneficial as in polishing. The work of friction is used to mix and join materials such as in the process of friction welding. Excessive erosion or wear of mating sliding surfaces occurs when work due to frictional forces rise to unacceptable levels. Harder corrosion particles caught between mating surfaces in relative motion (fretting) exacerbates wear of frictional forces. Bearing seizure or failure may result from excessive wear due to work of friction. As surfaces are worn by work due to friction, fit and surface finish of an object may degrade until it no longer functions properly.

text: The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the contact surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces). This can be beneficial as in

text: polishing

text: . The work of friction is used to mix and join materials such as in the process of

text: friction welding

text: . Excessive erosion or wear of mating sliding surfaces occurs when work due to frictional forces rise to unacceptable levels.

text: Harder

text: corrosion particles caught between mating surfaces in relative motion (

text: fretting

text: ) exacerbates wear of frictional forces. Bearing seizure or failure may result from excessive wear due to work of friction. As surfaces are worn by work due to friction,

text: fit

text: and

text: surface finish

text: of an object may degrade until it no longer functions properly.

text: It is believed that the old deities, Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl transferred tonalli to human fetuses by “simultaneously breath[ing] the tonalli into the child and ignit[ing] a fire in its chest”. This Fire Drilling process involves an upright wooden piece being twirled rapidly on a flat base. It produces heat through friction, although this seemingly simple instrument requires considerable skill to make anything but smoke. The fire maker blows on an ignited spark to fan it into a vigorous flame, and the breathing (or blowing air) and friction in the chest animate an infant. The Franciscan friars connected this idea of Fire Drilling, namely, the conception of tonalli as breath, to Christianity as the infusion of breath into the body recalls the beginning of Genesis, where God the Father breathes life into Adam.

text: It is believed that the old deities, Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl transferred tonalli to human fetuses by “simultaneously breath[ing] the tonalli into the child and ignit[ing] a fire in its chest”. This Fire Drilling process involves an upright wooden piece being twirled rapidly on a flat base. It produces heat through friction, although this seemingly simple instrument requires considerable skill to make anything but smoke. The fire maker blows on an ignited spark to fan it into a vigorous flame, and the breathing (or blowing air) and friction in the chest animate an infant. The Franciscan friars connected this idea of Fire Drilling, namely, the conception of tonalli as breath, to

text: Christianity

text: as the infusion of breath into the body recalls the beginning of

text: Genesis

text: , where God the Father breathes life into Adam.

text: It is now known that electrical charges are transferred to the insulator's surface through small spark discharges that occur along the boundary between the gas and insulator surface. Once transferred to the insulator, these excess charges become temporarily stranded. The shapes of the resulting charge distributions reflect the shape of the spark discharges which, in turn, depend on the high voltage polarity and pressure of the gas. Using a higher applied voltage will generate larger diameter and more branched figures. It is now known that positive Lichtenberg figures have longer, branching structures because long sparks within air can more easily form and propagate from positively charged high voltage terminals. This property has been used to measure the transient voltage polarity and magnitude of lightning surges on electrical power lines.

text: where P is the electric polarization – the volume density of electric dipole moments, and D is the electric displacement field. Since E and P are defined separately, this equation can be used to define D. The physical interpretation of D is not as clear as E (effectively the field applied to the material) or P (induced field due to the dipoles in the material), but still serves as a convenient mathematical simplification, since Maxwell's equations can be simplified in terms of free charges and currents.

text: where P is the

text: electric polarization

text: – the volume density of

text: electric dipole moment

text: s, and D is the

text: electric displacement field

text: . Since E and P are defined separately, this equation can be used to define D. The physical interpretation of D is not as clear as E (effectively the field applied to the material) or P (induced field due to the dipoles in the material), but still serves as a convenient mathematical simplification, since Maxwell's equations can be simplified in terms of

text: free charges and currents

text: In 1737 Du Fay and Hauksbee independently discovered what they believed to be two kinds of frictional electricity; one generated from rubbing glass, the other from rubbing resin. From this, Du Fay theorized that electricity consists of two electrical fluids, "vitreous" and "resinous", that are separated by friction and that neutralize each other when combined. This two-fluid theory would later give rise to the concept of positive and negative electrical charges devised by Benjamin Franklin.

text: In order for current to flow, it is not necessary for one charged particle to travel from the machine producing the current to that consuming it. Instead, the charged particle simply needs to nudge its neighbor a finite amount who’ll nudge its neighbor and on and on until a particle is nudged into the consumer, thus powering the machine. Essentially what is occurring here is a long chain of momentum transfer between mobile charge carriers; the Drude model of conduction describes this process more rigorously. This momentum transfer model makes metal an ideal choice for a conductor as metals, characteristically, possess a delocalized sea of electrons which gifts the electrons enough mobility to collide and thus effect a momentum transfer.

text: In order for current to flow, it is not necessary for one charged particle to travel from the machine producing the current to that consuming it. Instead, the charged particle simply needs to nudge its neighbor a finite amount who’ll nudge its neighbor and on and on until a particle is nudged into the consumer, thus powering the machine. Essentially what is occurring here is a long chain of momentum transfer between mobile charge carriers; the

text: Drude model

text: of conduction describes this process more rigorously. This momentum transfer model makes metal an ideal choice for a conductor as metals, characteristically, possess a delocalized

text: sea of electrons

text: which gifts the electrons enough mobility to collide and thus effect a momentum transfer.

text: In chemistry, intervalence charge transfer, often abbreviated IVCT or even IT, is an electron transfer (thermal or photoinduced) between two metal sites differing only in oxidation state. Quite often such electron transfer reverses the oxidation states of the sites. The term is frequently extended to the case of metal-to-metal charge transfer between non-equivalent metal centres.

text: This does not mean that individual positive and negative charges cannot be created or destroyed.  Electric charge is carried by subatomic particles such as electrons and protons, which can be created and destroyed.  In particle physics, charge conservation means that in elementary particle reactions that create charged particles, equal numbers of positive and negative particles are always created, keeping the net amount of charge unchanged.  Similarly, when particles are destroyed, equal numbers of positive and negative charges are destroyed.

text: This does not mean that individual positive and negative charges cannot be created or destroyed.  Electric charge is carried by

text: subatomic particle

text: s such as

text: electron

text: s and

text: proton

text: s, which can be created and destroyed.  In

text: particle physics

text: , charge conservation means that in elementary particle reactions that create charged particles, equal numbers of positive and negative particles are always created, keeping the net amount of charge unchanged.  Similarly, when particles are destroyed, equal numbers of positive and negative charges are destroyed.

text: A federal grand jury charged the electrical engineer with failure to pay taxes for three years on more than $221,000 in income and with attempting to conceal his earnings by transferring assets to fraudulent trusts and overseas bank accounts.

text: A federal

text: grand jury

text: charged the electrical engineer with failure to pay taxes for three years on more than $221,000 in income and with attempting to conceal his earnings by transferring assets to fraudulent trusts and overseas bank accounts.

text: Up to the time of Franklin's historic kite experiment, the identity of the electricity developed by rubbing and by electrostatic machines (frictional electricity) with lightning had not been generally established. Dr. Wall, Abbot Nollet, Hauksbee, Stephen Gray and John Henry Winkler had indeed suggested the resemblance between the phenomena of "electricity" and "lightning", Gray having intimated that they only differed in degree. It was doubtless Franklin, however, who first proposed tests to determine the sameness of the phenomena. In a letter to Peter Comlinson of London, on 19 October 1752, Franklin, referring to his kite experiment, wrote,On 10 May 1742 Thomas-François Dalibard, at Marley (near Paris), using a vertical iron rod 40 feet long, obtained results corresponding to those recorded by Franklin and somewhat prior to the date of Franklin's experiment. Franklin's important demonstration of the sameness of frictional electricity and lightning doubtless added zest to the efforts of the many experimenters in this field in the last half of the 18th century, to advance the progress of the science.

text: Up to the time of Franklin's historic kite experiment, the identity of the electricity developed by rubbing and by

text: electrostatic machine

text: s (

text: frictional electricity

text: ) with lightning had not been generally established. Dr. Wall,

text: Abbot Nollet

text: Hauksbee

text: Stephen Gray

text: and John Henry Winkler had indeed suggested the resemblance between the phenomena of "electricity" and "lightning", Gray having intimated that they only differed in degree. It was doubtless Franklin, however, who first proposed tests to determine the sameness of the phenomena. In a letter to Peter Comlinson of London, on 19 October 1752, Franklin, referring to his kite experiment, wrote,On 10 May 1742

text: Thomas-François Dalibard

text: , at Marley (near Paris), using a vertical iron rod 40 feet long, obtained results corresponding to those recorded by Franklin and somewhat prior to the date of Franklin's experiment. Franklin's important demonstration of the sameness of frictional electricity and lightning doubtless added zest to the efforts of the many experimenters in this field in the last half of the 18th century, to advance the

text: progress of the science

text: In special relativity, the statement of charge conservation is that the Lorentz invariant divergence of J is zero:

text: In special relativity, the statement of

text: charge conservation

text: is that the

text: Lorentz invariant

text: divergence of J is zero:

text: In the early 1700s, Francis Hauksbee and French chemist Charles François de Fay independently discovered what they believed were two kinds of frictional electricity—one generated from rubbing glass, the other from rubbing resin. From this, Du Fay theorized that electricity consists of two electrical fluids, vitreous and resinous, that are separated by friction, and that neutralize each other when combined. American scientist Ebenezer Kinnersley later also independently reached the same conclusion. A decade later Benjamin Franklin proposed that electricity was not from different types of electrical fluid, but a single electrical fluid showing an excess (+) or deficit (-). He gave them the modern charge nomenclature of positive and negative respectively. Franklin thought of the charge carrier as being positive, but he did not correctly identify which situation was a surplus of the charge carrier, and which situation was a deficit.

text: In the early 1700s,

text: Francis Hauksbee

text: and French chemist

text: Charles François de Fay

text: independently discovered what they believed were two kinds of frictional electricity—one generated from rubbing glass, the other from rubbing resin. From this, Du Fay theorized that electricity consists of two

text: electrical fluids

text: , vitreous and resinous, that are separated by friction, and that neutralize each other when combined. American scientist

text: Ebenezer Kinnersley

text: later also independently reached the same conclusion. A decade later

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: proposed that electricity was not from different types of electrical fluid, but a single electrical fluid showing an excess (+) or deficit (-). He gave them the modern

text: charge

text: nomenclature of positive and negative respectively. Franklin thought of the charge carrier as being positive, but he did not correctly identify which situation was a surplus of the charge carrier, and which situation was a deficit.

text: On November 6, 1994, twin polar bear cubs Klondike and Snow were born to a first-time mother named Ulu, who rejected the cubs. They were successfully raised by zoo staff and became a popular attraction. The bears were transferred to SeaWorld Orlando. In 2012 Snow was transferred from Sea World in Orlando, Florida to the Reid Park Zoo in Tucson, Arizona, where she died unexpectedly on September 2, 2012. Klondike died at SeaWorld Orlando on September 13, 2013.  Their story is commemorated at the Denver Zoo by a bronze sculpture located across from the main polar bear viewing area.

text: On November 6, 1994, twin

text: polar bear

text: cubs Klondike and Snow were born to a first-time mother named Ulu, who rejected the cubs. They were successfully raised by zoo staff and became a popular attraction. The bears were transferred to

text: SeaWorld Orlando

text: . In 2012 Snow was transferred from Sea World in Orlando, Florida to the

text: Reid Park Zoo

text: in Tucson, Arizona, where she died unexpectedly on September 2, 2012. Klondike died at SeaWorld Orlando on September 13, 2013.  Their story is commemorated at the Denver Zoo by a

text: bronze

text: sculpture located across from the main polar bear viewing area.

text: In 1954, researchers at Bell Laboratories and elsewhere reported charge-transfer complexes with resistivities as low as 8 ohm·cm in combinations of perylene with iodine or bromine. In 1962, the well-known acceptor tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) was reported. Tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) was synthesized in 1970 and found to be a strong electron donor.  In 1973, it was discovered that a combination of these components form a strong charge-transfer complex, henceforth referred to as TTF-TCNQ.  The complex is formed in solution and may be crystallized into a well-formed crystalline solid. The solid shows almost metallic electrical conductance and was the first discovered purely organic conductor. In a TTF-TCNQ crystal, TTF and TCNQ molecules are arranged independently in separate parallel-aligned stacks, and an electron transfer occurs from donor (TTF) to acceptor (TCNQ) stacks. Hence, electrons and electron holes are separated and concentrated in the stacks and can traverse in a one-dimensional direction along the TCNQ and TTF columns, respectively, when an electric potential is applied to the ends of a crystal in the stack direction.

text: In 1954, researchers at

text: Bell Laboratories

text: and elsewhere reported charge-transfer complexes with resistivities as low as 8 ohm·cm in combinations of

text: perylene

text: with

text: iodine

text: or

text: bromine

text: . In 1962, the well-known acceptor

text: tetracyanoquinodimethane

text: (TCNQ) was reported.

text: Tetrathiafulvalene

text: (TTF) was synthesized in 1970 and found to be a strong electron donor.  In 1973, it was discovered that a combination of these components form a strong charge-transfer complex, henceforth referred to as TTF-TCNQ.  The complex is formed in solution and may be crystallized into a well-formed crystalline solid. The solid shows almost metallic electrical conductance and was the first discovered purely organic

text: conductor

text: . In a TTF-TCNQ crystal, TTF and TCNQ molecules are arranged independently in separate parallel-aligned stacks, and an electron transfer occurs from donor (TTF) to acceptor (TCNQ) stacks. Hence, electrons and

text: electron hole

text: s are separated and concentrated in the stacks and can traverse in a one-dimensional direction along the TCNQ and TTF columns, respectively, when an electric potential is applied to the ends of a crystal in the stack direction.

text: Electrical & Electronics engineering deals with the generation, transfer and conversion of electric power with the aid of mechanical, electronic circuits and computer systems.

text: The standard is based on IEC 61851 Electric vehicle conductive charging system which establishes general characteristics, including charging modes and connection configurations, and requirements for specific implementations (including safety requirements) of both electric vehicle (EV) and electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) in a charging system. For example, it specifies mechanisms such that, first, power is not supplied unless a vehicle is connected and, second, the vehicle is immobilized while still connected.

text: The best experimental tests of electric charge conservation are searches for particle decays that would be allowed if electric charge is not always conserved.  No such decays have ever been seen.The best experimental test comes from searches for the energetic photon from an electron decaying into a neutrino and a single photon:

text: The best experimental tests of electric charge conservation are searches for

text: particle decay

text: s that would be allowed if electric charge is not always conserved.  No such decays have ever been seen.The best experimental test comes from searches for the energetic photon from an

text: electron

text: decaying into a

text: neutrino

text: and a single

text: photon

text: This assumes that the state in question approaches the vacuum asymptotically at spatial infinity. The first integral is the surface integral at spatial infinity and the second integral is zero by the Gauss law. Also assume that α(r,θ,φ) approaches α(θ,φ) as r approaches infinity (in polar coordinates). Then, the Noether charge only depends upon the value of α at spatial infinity but not upon the value of α at finite values. This is consistent with the idea that symmetry transformations not affecting the boundaries are gauge symmetries whereas those that do are global symmetries. If α(θ,φ) = 1 all over the S, we get the electric charge. But for other functions, we also get conserved charges (which are not so well known).

text: This assumes that the state in question approaches the vacuum asymptotically at spatial infinity. The first integral is the surface integral at spatial infinity and the second integral is zero by the

text: Gauss law

text: . Also assume that α(r,θ,φ) approaches α(θ,φ) as r approaches infinity (in

text: polar coordinates

text: ). Then, the Noether charge only depends upon the value of α at spatial infinity but not upon the value of α at finite values. This is consistent with the idea that symmetry transformations not affecting the boundaries are gauge symmetries whereas those that do are global symmetries. If α(θ,φ) = 1 all over the S, we get the electric charge. But for other functions, we also get conserved charges (which are not so well known).

text: In the first step the energy W of the transfer of a specific amount of charge is calculated, e.g. for the system in a state when both spheres carry half of the amount of charge which is to be transferred. This state of the system can be reached by transferring the respective charge from the donor sphere to the vacuum and then back to the acceptor sphere.  Then the spheres in this state of charge give rise to a defined electric field in the solvent which creates the total solvent polarization P + P.  By the same token this polarization of the solvent interacts with the charges.

text: If a positive charge is brought near a nonconductive object, the electrons in each molecule are attracted toward it, and move to the side of the molecule facing the charge, while the positive nuclei are repelled and move slightly to the opposite side of the molecule.  Since the negative charges are now closer to the external charge than the positive charges, their attraction is greater than the repulsion of the positive charges, resulting in a small net attraction of the molecule toward the charge.   This is called polarization, and the polarized molecules are called dipoles.  This effect is microscopic, but since there are so many molecules, it adds up to enough force to move a light object like Styrofoam.  This is the principle of operation of a pith-ball electroscope.

text: If a positive charge is brought near a nonconductive object, the electrons in each molecule are attracted toward it, and move to the side of the molecule facing the charge, while the positive

text: nuclei

text: are repelled and move slightly to the opposite side of the molecule.  Since the negative charges are now closer to the external charge than the positive charges, their attraction is greater than the repulsion of the positive charges, resulting in a small net attraction of the molecule toward the charge.   This is called

text: polarization

text: , and the polarized molecules are called

text: dipole

text: s.  This effect is microscopic, but since there are so many molecules, it adds up to enough force to move a light object like Styrofoam.  This is the principle of operation of a

text: pith-ball electroscope

text: Around 1900, Paul Drude developed the foundation for classical conduction. He reasoned that since metals conduct electricity so well, they must contain free electrons that move through a lattice of positive ions. This motion of electrons led to the formation of Ohm's laws, as well as related the motion in a conductor to two types of conduction: heat and electrical.  The free-moving electrons act just as a gas would; moving in every direction throughout the lattice. These electrons collide with the lattice ions as they move about, which is key in understanding thermal equilibrium. The average velocity due to the thermal energy is zero since the electrons are going in every direction, leading to velocity vectors that are randomly oriented. What is not zero, and is in fact a high value, is the speed of these electrons, which can be calculated using the equation

text: Around 1900,

text: Paul Drude

text: developed the foundation for classical conduction. He reasoned that since metals conduct

text: electricity

text: so well, they must contain free electrons that move through a lattice of positive ions. This motion of electrons led to the formation of

text: Ohm's law

text: s, as well as related the motion in a

text: conductor

text: to two types of conduction:

text: heat

text: and

text: electrical

text: .  The free-moving electrons act just as a gas would; moving in every direction throughout the lattice. These electrons collide with the lattice ions as they move about, which is key in understanding

text: thermal equilibrium

text: . The average velocity due to the thermal energy is zero since the electrons are going in every direction, leading to velocity vectors that are randomly oriented. What is not zero, and is in fact a high value, is the speed of these electrons, which can be calculated using the equation

text: Although Green Deal assessments could be conducted from 1 October 2012, none were done in the first month and only five had been completed nationwide by 28 January 2013. The scheme requires an assessment of £150 or more to determine what if any work can be done. The cost of this is likely to deter many people. The Government believes Green Deal loans will be repaid at a rate no more than 6.92% - this is significantly higher than average household loans. On a loan of £5,000, the overall rate that is repayable is just under 8% over 10 years, or 7.7% over 25 years. Further to these charges there will be an initial set up charge followed by a £20 annual fee. Failure to repay a Green Deal will lead to disconnection of gas and electricity supplies. Recent surveys have found little awareness among the general public for the Green Deal. The high interest rates and charges of the scheme have been heavily criticized.

text: that would appear to be required for charge conservation is omitted, because S is a macroscopic surface and the loss of one electron has a negligible effect.

text: The terms elastance and elastivity were coined by Oliver Heaviside in 1886.  Heaviside coined a great many of the terms used in circuit analysis today, such as impedance, inductance, admittance, conductance and so on.  Heaviside's terminology followed the model of resistance and resistivity with the -ance ending used for extensive properties and the -ivity ending used for intensive properties.  The extensive properties are used in circuit analysis (they are the "values" of components) and the intensive properties are used in field analysis.  Heaviside's nomenclature was designed to highlight the connection between corresponding quantities in field and circuit.  Elastivity is the intensive property of a material corresponding to the bulk property of a component, elastance.  It is the reciprocal of permittivity.  As Heaviside put it,Here, permittance is Heaviside's term for capacitance.  He did not like any term that suggested that a capacitor was a container for holding charge.  The terms current in his time for a capacitor were condenser (suggesting that the "electric fluid" could be condensed out) and leyden after the Leyden jar, an early form of capacitor, also suggesting some sort of storage.  Heaviside preferred the analogy of a mechanical spring under compression, hence his preference for terms that suggested a property of a spring.  This preference was a result of Heaviside following James Clerk Maxwell's view of electric current, or at least, Heaviside's interpretation of it.  In this view, electric current is a flow caused by the electromotive force and is the analogue of velocity caused by a mechanical force.  At the capacitor, this current causes a "displacement" whose rate of change is equal to the current.  The displacement is viewed as an electric strain, like a mechanical strain in a compressed spring.  The existence of a flow of physical charge is denied, as is the build up of charge on the capacitor plates.  This is replaced with the concept of divergence of the displacement field at the plates, which is numerically equal to the charge collected on the plates in the charge flow view.

text: The terms elastance and elastivity were coined by

text: Oliver Heaviside

text: in 1886.  Heaviside coined a great many of the terms used in

text: circuit analysis

text: today, such as

text: impedance

text: inductance

text: admittance

text: conductance

text: and so on.  Heaviside's terminology followed the model of

text: resistance

text: and

text: resistivity

text: with the -ance ending used for

text: extensive properties

text: and the -ivity ending used for

text: intensive properties

text: .  The extensive properties are used in circuit analysis (they are the "values" of components) and the intensive properties are used in

text: field analysis

text: .  Heaviside's nomenclature was designed to highlight the connection between corresponding quantities in field and circuit.  Elastivity is the intensive property of a material corresponding to the bulk property of a component, elastance.  It is the reciprocal of

text: permittivity

text: .  As Heaviside put it,Here, permittance is Heaviside's term for capacitance.  He did not like any term that suggested that a

text: capacitor

text: was a container for holding charge.  The terms current in his time for a capacitor were condenser (suggesting that the "electric fluid" could be condensed out) and leyden after the

text: Leyden jar

text: , an early form of capacitor, also suggesting some sort of storage.  Heaviside preferred the analogy of a mechanical spring under compression, hence his preference for terms that suggested a property of a spring.  This preference was a result of Heaviside following

text: James Clerk Maxwell

text: 's view of electric current, or at least, Heaviside's interpretation of it.  In this view, electric current is a flow caused by the

text: electromotive force

text: and is the analogue of

text: velocity

text: caused by a mechanical

text: force

text: .  At the capacitor, this current causes a "

text: displacement

text: " whose rate of change is equal to the current.  The displacement is viewed as an electric

text: strain

text: , like a mechanical strain in a compressed spring.  The existence of a flow of physical charge is denied, as is the build up of charge on the capacitor plates.  This is replaced with the concept of

text: divergence

text: of the displacement field at the plates, which is numerically equal to the charge collected on the plates in the charge flow view.

text: A third method is Doriano Brogioli's capacitive method, which is relatively new and has so far only been tested on lab scale. With this method energy can be extracted out of the mixing of saline water and freshwater by cyclically charging up electrodes in contact with saline water, followed by a discharge in freshwater. Since the amount of electrical energy which is needed during the charging step is less than one gets out during the discharge step, each completed cycle effectively produces energy. An intuitive explanation of this effect is that the great number of ions in the saline water efficiently neutralizes the charge on each electrode by forming a thin layer of opposite charge very close to the electrode surface, known as an electric double layer. Therefore, the voltage over the electrodes remains low during the charge step and charging is relatively easy. In between the charge and discharge step, the electrodes are brought in contact with freshwater. After this, there are less ions available to neutralize the charge on each electrode such that the voltage over the electrodes increases. The discharge step which follows is therefore able to deliver a relatively high amount of energy. A physical explanation is that on an electrically charged capacitor, there is a mutually attractive electric force between the electric charge on the electrode, and the ionic charge in the liquid. In order to pull ions away from the charged electrode, osmotic pressure must do work. This work done increases the electrical potential energy in the capacitor. An electronic explanation is that capacitance is a function of ion density. By introducing a salinity gradient and allowing some of the ions to diffuse out of the capacitor, this reduces the capacitance, and so the voltage must increase, since the voltage equals the ratio of charge to capacitance.

text: A third method is

text: Doriano Brogioli

text: 's capacitive method, which is relatively new and has so far only been tested on lab scale. With this method energy can be extracted out of the mixing of saline water and freshwater by cyclically charging up

text: electrode

text: s in contact with saline water, followed by a discharge in freshwater. Since the amount of electrical energy which is needed during the charging step is less than one gets out during the discharge step, each completed cycle effectively produces energy. An intuitive explanation of this effect is that the great number of

text: ion

text: s in the saline water efficiently neutralizes the charge on each electrode by forming a thin layer of opposite charge very close to the electrode surface, known as an

text: electric double layer

text: . Therefore, the

text: voltage

text: over the electrodes remains low during the charge step and charging is relatively easy. In between the charge and discharge step, the electrodes are brought in contact with freshwater. After this, there are less ions available to neutralize the charge on each electrode such that the voltage over the electrodes increases. The discharge step which follows is therefore able to deliver a relatively high amount of energy. A physical explanation is that on an electrically charged capacitor, there is a mutually attractive

text: electric force

text: between the

text: electric charge

text: on the electrode, and the ionic charge in the liquid. In order to pull ions away from the charged electrode, osmotic pressure must do

text: work

text: . This work done increases the electrical potential energy in the capacitor. An electronic explanation is that

text: capacitance

text: is a function of ion density. By introducing a salinity gradient and allowing some of the ions to diffuse out of the capacitor, this reduces the capacitance, and so the voltage must increase, since the voltage equals the ratio of charge to capacitance.

text: The sabot of a large calibre APDS consists of a light high strength alloy full diameter pot and base unit, which is screwed together. The front part of the pot has 3-4 petals (sabots) which are covered with a centering band (often a nylon derivative). The rear half has a rubber obturator and driving band (again nylon) held in place by the screw-in base unit. The base unit, if a tracer element is attached to the sub-projectile, has a hole located at the centre. Before firing, the sub-projectile and sabot are locked together. Due to the high setback forces, friction between the pot and sub-projectile allows spin to be transferred, so stabilising the sub-projectile. Small/medium calibre APDS use a lightweight high strength alloy base pot and three or more plastic petals. To transfer the spin to the core in small/medium calibre weapons, the core tends to have a notch at its base. Under bore acceleration, which can be higher than 100,000 g, the uneven base is forced into the softer pot material, locking the sub-projectile to the pot and imparting spin. Not all small/medium calibre APDS rely on this technique, another method for spin coupling is by using the forward plastic petals. The petals are of a slightly larger diameter than the lands in the rifled bore. This forces the petals tightly against the core, increasing the friction between them and allowing the spin to be transferred.

text: The sabot of a large calibre APDS consists of a light high strength alloy full diameter pot and base unit, which is screwed together. The front part of the pot has 3-4 petals (sabots) which are covered with a centering band (often a

text: nylon

text: derivative). The rear half has a rubber

text: obturator

text: and driving band (again nylon) held in place by the screw-in base unit. The base unit, if a tracer element is attached to the sub-projectile, has a hole located at the centre. Before firing, the sub-projectile and sabot are locked together. Due to the high

text: setback force

text: s, friction between the pot and sub-projectile allows spin to be transferred, so stabilising the sub-projectile. Small/medium calibre APDS use a lightweight high strength alloy base pot and three or more plastic petals. To transfer the spin to the core in small/medium calibre weapons, the core tends to have a notch at its base. Under bore acceleration, which can be higher than 100,000 g, the uneven base is forced into the softer pot material, locking the sub-projectile to the pot and imparting spin. Not all small/medium calibre APDS rely on this technique, another method for spin coupling is by using the forward plastic petals. The petals are of a slightly larger diameter than the

text: lands

text: in the rifled bore. This forces the petals tightly against the core, increasing the friction between them and allowing the spin to be transferred.

text: If a piece of metal is touched against an electrolytic material, the metal will spontaneously become charged, while the electrolyte will acquire an equal and opposite charge.  Upon first contact, a chemical reaction called a 'half-cell reaction' occurs on the metal surface.  As metal ions are transferred to or from the electrolyte, and as the metal and electrolyte become oppositely charged, the increasing voltage at the thin insulating layer between metal and electrolyte will oppose the motion of the flowing ions, causing the chemical reaction to come to a stop.  If a second piece of a different type of metal is placed in the same electrolyte bath, it will charge up and rise to a different voltage.  If the first metal piece is touched against the second, the voltage on the two metal pieces will be forced closer together, and the chemical reactions will run constantly.  In this way the 'contact electrification' becomes continuous.  At the same time, an electric current will appear, with the path forming a closed loop which leads from one metal part to the other, through the chemical reactions on the first metal surface, through the electrolyte, then back through the chemical reactions on the second metal surface.  In this way, contact electrification leads to the invention of the Galvanic cell or battery. See also: Dry pile

text: If a piece of metal is touched against an

text: electrolytic

text: material, the metal will spontaneously become charged, while the electrolyte will acquire an equal and opposite charge.  Upon first contact, a chemical reaction called a '

text: half-cell reaction

text: ' occurs on the metal surface.  As metal ions are transferred to or from the electrolyte, and as the metal and electrolyte become oppositely charged, the increasing voltage at the thin insulating

text: layer

text: between metal and electrolyte will oppose the motion of the flowing ions, causing the chemical reaction to come to a stop.  If a second piece of a different type of metal is placed in the same electrolyte bath, it will charge up and rise to a different voltage.  If the first metal piece is touched against the second, the voltage on the two metal pieces will be forced closer together, and the chemical reactions will run constantly.  In this way the 'contact electrification' becomes continuous.  At the same time, an electric current will appear, with the path forming a closed loop which leads from one metal part to the other, through the chemical reactions on the first metal surface, through the electrolyte, then back through the chemical reactions on the second metal surface.  In this way, contact electrification leads to the invention of the

text: Galvanic cell

text: or

text: battery

text: . See also:

text: Dry pile

text: High salt concentrations cause conditions similar to the interactions experienced by a polymer in a favorable solvent. Polyelectrolytes, while charged, are still mainly non-polar with carbon backbones. While the charges on the polymer backbone exert an electrostatic force that drives the polymer into a more open and loose conformation, if the surrounding solution has a high concentration of salt, then the charge repulsion will be screened. Once this charge is screened the polyelectrolyte will act as any other non-polar polymer would in a high ionic strength solution and begin to minimize interactions with the solvent. This leads to a much more clumped and dense polymer deposited onto the surface.

text: When President Barack Obama took office in January 2009, he made a number of promises about the future of Guantanamo.He promised the use of torture would cease at the camp.  He promised to institute a new review system, convening a task force to review material on detainees that was made up of officials from six agencies, whereas the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense.  Reporting back a year later, the Joint Review Task Force recommended release and repatriation of 53 detainees. It classified other individuals as too dangerous to be transferred from Guantanamo, although there was insufficient evidence to charge them with crimes. On April 9, 2013, that document was made public after a Freedom of Information Act request. Some 71 detainees were determined to be eligible for a Periodic Review Board assessment, similar to a parole board, to determine if they could be released.Mohammed al Qahtani was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama promised that those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a Periodic Review Board. Qahtani was denied approval for transfer on July 18, 2016.

text: When

text: President

text: Barack Obama

text: took office in January 2009, he made a number of promises about the future of Guantanamo.He promised the use of torture would cease at the camp.  He promised to institute a new review system, convening a task force to review material on detainees that was made up of officials from six agencies, whereas the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense.  Reporting back a year later, the

text: Joint Review Task Force

text: recommended release and repatriation of 53 detainees. It classified other individuals as too dangerous to be transferred from Guantanamo, although there was insufficient evidence to charge them with crimes. On April 9, 2013, that document was made public after a

entity_name: Freedom of Information Act (United States)

text: Freedom of Information Act

text: request. Some 71 detainees were determined to be eligible for a Periodic Review Board assessment, similar to a parole board, to determine if they could be released.Mohammed al Qahtani was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama promised that those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a

text: Periodic Review Board

text: . Qahtani was denied approval for transfer on July 18, 2016.

text: On January 21, 2009, the day he was inaugurated, United States President Barack Obama issued three Executive orders related to the detention of individuals in Guantanamo.That new review system was composed of officials from six departments, where the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense.  When it reported back, a year later, the Joint Review Task Force classified some individuals as too dangerous to be transferred from Guantanamo, even though there was no evidence to justify laying charges against them. On April 9, 2013, that document was made public after a Freedom of Information Act request.Saifullah Paracha was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama said those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a Periodic Review Board.

text: On January 21, 2009, the day he was inaugurated,

text: United States President

text: Barack Obama

text: issued three

text: Executive orders

text: related to the detention of individuals in Guantanamo.That new review system was composed of officials from six departments, where the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense.  When it reported back, a year later, the

text: Joint Review Task Force

text: classified some individuals as too dangerous to be transferred from Guantanamo, even though there was no evidence to justify laying charges against them. On April 9, 2013, that document was made public after a

text: Freedom of Information Act

text: request.Saifullah Paracha was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama said those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a

text: Periodic Review Board

text: The SI unit of quantity of electric charge is the coulomb, which is equivalent to about  (e is the charge of a proton). Hence, the charge of an electron is approximately . The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that has passed through the cross section of an electrical conductor carrying one ampere within one second. The symbol Q is often used to denote a quantity of electricity or charge. The quantity of electric charge can be directly measured with an electrometer, or indirectly measured with a ballistic galvanometer.

text: The

text: SI

text: unit of

text: quantity of electric charge

text: is the coulomb, which is equivalent to about  (e is the charge of a proton). Hence, the charge of an electron is approximately . The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that has passed through the

text: cross section

text: of an

text: electrical conductor

text: carrying one

text: ampere

text: within one

text: second

text: . The symbol Q is often used to denote a quantity of electricity or charge. The quantity of electric charge can be directly measured with an

text: electrometer

text: , or indirectly measured with a

text: ballistic galvanometer

text: In real two-phase (debris) mass flows there exists a strong coupling between the solid and the fluid momentum transfer, where the solid's normal stress is reduced by buoyancy, which in turn diminishes the frictional resistance, enhances the pressure gradient, and reduces the drag on the solid component. Buoyancy is an important aspect of two-phase debris flow, because it enhances flow mobility (longer travel distances) by reducing the frictional resistance in the mixture. Buoyancy is present as long as there is fluid in the mixture. It reduces the solid normal stress, solid lateral normal stresses, and the basal shear stress (thus, frictional resistance) by a factor (

text: In real two-phase (debris) mass flows there exists a strong coupling between the

text: solid

text: and the

text: fluid

text: momentum transfer

text: , where the solid's normal

text: stress

text: is reduced by

text: buoyancy

text: , which in turn diminishes the

text: friction

text: al resistance, enhances the

text: pressure gradient

text: , and reduces the

text: drag

text: on the solid component. Buoyancy is an important aspect of two-phase debris flow, because it enhances flow mobility (longer travel distances) by reducing the frictional resistance in the

text: mixture

text: . Buoyancy is present as long as there is fluid in the mixture. It reduces the solid normal stress, solid lateral normal stresses, and the basal

text: shear stress

text: (thus, frictional resistance) by a factor (

text: The conservation of charge, for example, in the notation of Maxwell's equations,

text: The conservation of charge, for example, in the notation of

text: Maxwell's equations

text: In 1729, Stephen Gray conducted a series of experiments that demonstrated the difference between conductors and non-conductors (insulators), showing amongst other things that a metal wire and even pack thread conducted electricity, whereas silk did not. In one of his experiments he sent an electric current through 800 feet of hempen thread which was suspended at intervals by loops of silk thread. When he tried to conduct the same experiment substituting the silk for finely spun brass wire, he found that the electric current was no longer carried throughout the hemp cord, but instead seemed to vanish into the brass wire. From this experiment he classified substances into two categories: "electrics" like glass, resin and silk and "non-electrics" like metal and water. "Non-electrics" conducted charges while "electrics" held the charge.

text: In 1729,

text: Stephen Gray

text: conducted a series of experiments that demonstrated the difference between conductors and non-conductors (insulators), showing amongst other things that a metal wire and even pack thread conducted electricity, whereas silk did not. In one of his experiments he sent an

text: electric current

text: through 800 feet of hempen thread which was suspended at intervals by loops of silk thread. When he tried to conduct the same experiment substituting the silk for finely spun brass wire, he found that the electric current was no longer carried throughout the hemp cord, but instead seemed to vanish into the brass wire. From this experiment he classified substances into two categories: "electrics" like glass, resin and silk and "non-electrics" like metal and water. "Non-electrics" conducted charges while "electrics" held the charge.

text: In chemistry, polarity is a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups having an electric dipole or multipole moment.

text: In

text: chemistry

text: , polarity is a separation of

text: electric charge

text: leading to a molecule or its

text: chemical group

text: s having an electric

text: dipole

text: or

text: multipole

text: moment.

text: On December 22, 1885 the Ministry of Communications was established, combining the Bureau of Posts and Post Station Maintenance and Shipping Bureau formerly under the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce with the Telegraph Bureau and Lighthouse Management Bureau formerly under the Ministry of Industry. On August 16, 1891, the ministry was also placed in charge of the nascent Japanese electric power industry. On July 21, 1892, the Railway Bureau was transferred to the Ministry of Communications from the Home Ministry and from November 10, 1893, the ministry was charged with the supervision of all land and water transportation businesses.

text: On December 22, 1885 the Ministry of Communications was established, combining the Bureau of Posts and

text: Post Station

text: Maintenance and Shipping Bureau formerly under the

text: Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce

text: with the Telegraph Bureau and Lighthouse Management Bureau formerly under the

text: Ministry of Industry

text: . On August 16, 1891, the ministry was also placed in charge of the nascent Japanese electric power industry. On July 21, 1892, the Railway Bureau was transferred to the Ministry of Communications from the

text: Home Ministry

text: and from November 10, 1893, the ministry was charged with the supervision of all land and water transportation businesses.

text: Gauss's law describes the relationship between a static electric field and the electric charges that cause it: The static electric field points away from positive charges and towards negative charges. In the field line description, electric field lines begin only at positive electric charges and end only at negative electric charges.  'Counting' the number of field lines passing through a closed surface, therefore, yields the total charge (including bound charge due to polarization of material) enclosed by that surface divided by dielectricity of free space (the vacuum permittivity). More technically, it relates the electric flux through any hypothetical closed "Gaussian surface" to the enclosed electric charge.

text: Gauss's law

text: describes the relationship between a static

text: electric field

text: and the

text: electric charge

text: s that cause it: The static electric field points away from positive charges and towards negative charges. In the field line description, electric field lines begin only at positive electric charges and end only at negative electric charges.  'Counting' the number of field lines passing through a

text: closed surface

text: , therefore, yields the total charge (including bound charge due to polarization of material) enclosed by that surface divided by dielectricity of free space (the

text: vacuum permittivity

text: ). More technically, it relates the

text: electric flux

text: through any hypothetical

text: closed

text: Gaussian surface

text: " to the enclosed electric charge.

text: In inorganic chemistry, most charge-transfer complexes involve electron transfer between metal atoms and ligands. The charge-transfer bands of transition metal complexes result from shift of charge density between molecular orbitals (MO) that are predominantly metal in character and those that are predominantly ligand in character. If the transfer occurs from the MO with ligand-like character to the metal-like one, the complex is called a ligand-to-metal charge-transfer (LMCT) complex. If the electronic charge shifts from the MO with metal-like character to the ligand-like one, the complex is called a metal-to-ligand charge-transfer (MLCT) complex. Thus, a MLCT results in oxidation of the metal center, whereas a LMCT results in the reduction of the metal center. Resonance Raman spectroscopy is also a powerful technique to assign and characterize charge-transfer bands in these complexes.

text: In

text: inorganic chemistry

text: , most charge-transfer complexes involve electron transfer between metal atoms and

text: ligand

text: s. The charge-transfer bands of transition metal complexes result from shift of charge density between

text: molecular orbitals

text: (MO) that are predominantly metal in character and those that are predominantly ligand in character. If the transfer occurs from the MO with ligand-like character to the metal-like one, the complex is called a ligand-to-metal charge-transfer (LMCT) complex. If the electronic charge shifts from the MO with metal-like character to the ligand-like one, the complex is called a metal-to-ligand charge-transfer (MLCT) complex. Thus, a MLCT results in oxidation of the metal center, whereas a LMCT results in the reduction of the metal center.

text: Resonance Raman spectroscopy

text: is also a powerful technique to assign and characterize charge-transfer bands in these complexes.

text: Applying a voltage at the capacitor terminals moves the polarized ions or charged atoms in the electrolyte to the opposite polarized electrode. Between the surfaces of the electrodes and the adjacent electrolyte an electric double-layer forms. One layer of ions on the electrode surface and the second layer of adjacent polarized and solvated ions in the electrolyte move to the opposite polarized electrode. The two ion layers are separated by a single layer of electrolyte molecules. Between the two layers, a static electric field forms that results in double-layer capacitance. Accompanied by the electric double-layer, some de-solvated electrolyte ions pervade the separating solvent layer and are adsorbed by the electrode's surface atoms. They are specifically adsorbed and deliver their charge to the electrode. In other words, the ions in the electrolyte within the Helmholtz double-layer also act as electron donors and transfer electrons to the electrode atoms, resulting in a faradaic current. This faradaic charge transfer, originated by a fast sequence of reversible redox reactions, electrosorptions or intercalation processes between electrolyte and the electrode surface is called pseudocapacitance.

text: Applying a voltage at the capacitor terminals moves the polarized

text: ion

text: s or charged atoms in the electrolyte to the opposite polarized electrode. Between the surfaces of the electrodes and the adjacent electrolyte an electric

text: double-layer

text: forms. One layer of ions on the electrode surface and the second layer of adjacent polarized and solvated ions in the electrolyte move to the opposite polarized electrode. The two ion layers are separated by a single layer of electrolyte molecules. Between the two layers, a

text: static

text: electric field

text: forms that results in

text: double-layer capacitance

text: . Accompanied by the electric double-layer, some

text: de-solvated

text: electrolyte ions pervade the separating solvent layer and are

text: adsorbed

text: by the electrode's surface atoms. They are specifically adsorbed and deliver their charge to the electrode. In other words, the ions in the electrolyte within the Helmholtz double-layer also act as

text: electron donor

text: s and transfer electrons to the electrode atoms, resulting in a

text: faradaic current

text: . This faradaic

text: charge transfer

text: , originated by a fast sequence of reversible

text: redox

text: reactions,

text: electrosorptions

text: or

text: intercalation

text: processes between electrolyte and the electrode surface is called pseudocapacitance.

text: As sunlight shines on the solar array, it transfers energy to the electrons within the photovoltaic cells, thus allowing them to conduct electricity and causing a current to flow. This current then travels to the MPPTs which alter the load across the solar array in order to ensure that it is generating electricity as efficiently as possible. The MPPTs have to constantly monitor the output of the photovoltaic cells because that output depends on the light intensity which can change rapidly if some cells become shaded. The electricity then flows into the battery where it can be stored for later use such as to drive the car while there is no sunlight. Although the battery is primarily charged by the solar panels, it can also be externally charged by the conventionally generated electricity at your home or workplace. The battery then discharges the current into the motor controllers which converts it into a form that can be used to power the electric motor. Motor controllers are also used to manage things like speed regulation, cruise control and regenerative braking. Regenerative braking is using the existing motors as generators by converting the rotational energy of the wheels back into electrical energy, slowing the car down and recharging the battery at the same time, instead of just using conventional mechanical breaks. Lastly, the energy that was once in the sunlight shining on the car, reaches the electric motors which operate on the principles of electromagnetism to turn that electrical energy into rotational energy that spins the wheels and drives the car forward.

text: As sunlight shines on the solar array, it transfers energy to the electrons within the photovoltaic cells, thus allowing them to conduct electricity and causing a current to flow. This current then travels to the MPPTs which alter the load across the solar array in order to ensure that it is generating electricity as efficiently as possible. The MPPTs have to constantly monitor the output of the photovoltaic cells because that output depends on the light intensity which can change rapidly if some cells become shaded. The electricity then flows into the battery where it can be stored for later use such as to drive the car while there is no sunlight. Although the battery is primarily charged by the solar panels, it can also be externally charged by the conventionally generated electricity at your home or workplace. The battery then discharges the current into the motor controllers which converts it into a form that can be used to power the electric motor. Motor controllers are also used to manage things like speed regulation,

text: cruise control

text: and

text: regenerative braking

text: . Regenerative braking is using the existing motors as generators by converting the rotational energy of the wheels back into electrical energy, slowing the car down and recharging the battery at the same time, instead of just using conventional mechanical breaks. Lastly, the energy that was once in the sunlight shining on the car, reaches the electric motors which operate on the principles of electromagnetism to turn that electrical energy into rotational energy that spins the wheels and drives the car forward.

text: The Charge Transfer theory states that a lightning strike to a protected structure can be prevented by reducing the electrical potential between the protected structure and the thundercloud. This is done by transferring electric charge (such as from the nearby Earth to the sky or vice versa). Transferring electric charge from the Earth to the sky is done by installing engineered products composed of many points above the structure. It is noted that pointed objects will indeed transfer charge to the surrounding atmosphere and that a considerable electric current can be measured through the conductors as ionization occurs at the point when an electric field is present, such as happens when thunderclouds are overhead.

text: When an object falls into a black hole, any information about the shape of the object or distribution of charge on it is evenly distributed along the horizon of the black hole, and is lost to outside observers. The behavior of the horizon in this situation is a dissipative system that is closely analogous to that of a conductive stretchy membrane with friction and electrical resistance—the membrane paradigm. This is different from other field theories such as electromagnetism, which do not have any friction or resistivity at the microscopic level, because they are time-reversible. Because a black hole eventually achieves a stable state with only three parameters, there is no way to avoid losing information about the initial conditions: the gravitational and electric fields of a black hole give very little information about what went in. The information that is lost includes every quantity that cannot be measured far away from the black hole horizon, including approximately conserved quantum numbers such as the total baryon number and lepton number. This behavior is so puzzling that it has been called the black hole information loss paradox.

text: When an object falls into a black hole, any

text: information

text: about the shape of the object or distribution of charge on it is evenly distributed along the horizon of the black hole, and is lost to outside observers. The behavior of the horizon in this situation is a

text: dissipative system

text: that is closely analogous to that of a conductive stretchy membrane with friction and

text: electrical resistance

text: —the

text: membrane paradigm

text: . This is different from other

text: field theories

text: such as electromagnetism, which do not have any friction or resistivity at the microscopic level, because they are

text: time-reversible

text: . Because a black hole eventually achieves a stable state with only three parameters, there is no way to avoid losing information about the initial conditions: the gravitational and electric fields of a black hole give very little information about what went in. The information that is lost includes every quantity that cannot be measured far away from the black hole horizon, including

text: approximately conserved

text: quantum number

text: s such as the total

text: baryon number

text: and

text: lepton number

text: . This behavior is so puzzling that it has been called the

text: black hole information loss paradox

text: In electromagnetic theory, the continuity equation is an empirical law expressing (local) charge conservation. Mathematically it is an automatic consequence of Maxwell's equations, although charge conservation is more fundamental than Maxwell's equations.  It states that the divergence of the current density J (in amperes per square meter) is equal to the negative rate of change of the charge density ρ (in coulombs per cubic metre),

text: In

text: electromagnetic theory

text: , the continuity equation is an empirical law expressing (local)

text: charge conservation

text: . Mathematically it is an automatic consequence of

text: Maxwell's equations

text: , although charge conservation is more fundamental than Maxwell's equations.  It states that the

text: divergence

text: of the

text: current density

text: J (in

text: amperes

text: per square meter) is equal to the negative rate of change of the

text: charge density

text: ρ (in

text: coulomb

text: s per cubic metre),

text: Very close to the antenna, in the reactive region, energy of a certain amount, if not absorbed by a receiver, is held back and is stored very near the antenna surface. This energy is carried back and forth from the antenna to the reactive near field by electromagnetic radiation of the type that slowly changes electrostatic and magnetostatic effects. For example, current flowing in the antenna creates a purely magnetic component in the near field, which then collapses as the antenna current begins to reverse, causing transfer of the field's magnetic energy back to electrons in the antenna as the changing magnetic field causes a self-inductive effect on the antenna that generated it. This returns energy to the antenna in a regenerative way, so that it is not lost. A similar process happens as electric charge builds up in one section of the antenna under the pressure of the signal voltage, and causes a local electric field around that section of antenna, due to the antenna's self-capacitance. When the signal reverses so that charge is allowed to flow away from this region again, the built-up electric field assists in pushing electrons back in the new direction of their flow, as with the discharge of any unipolar capacitor. This again transfers energy back to the antenna current.

text: Very close to the antenna, in the reactive region,

text: energy

text: of a certain amount, if not absorbed by a receiver, is held back and is stored very near the antenna surface. This energy is carried back and forth from the antenna to the reactive near field by electromagnetic radiation of the type that slowly changes

text: electrostatic

text: and magnetostatic effects. For example, current flowing in the antenna creates a purely magnetic component in the near field, which then collapses as the antenna current begins to reverse, causing transfer of the field's magnetic energy back to electrons in the antenna as the changing magnetic field causes a self-inductive effect on the antenna that generated it. This returns energy to the antenna in a regenerative way, so that it is not lost. A similar process happens as electric charge builds up in one section of the antenna under the pressure of the signal voltage, and causes a local electric field around that section of antenna, due to the antenna's

text: self-capacitance

text: . When the signal reverses so that charge is allowed to flow away from this region again, the built-up electric field assists in pushing electrons back in the new direction of their flow, as with the discharge of any unipolar capacitor. This again transfers energy back to the antenna current.

text: The oxidative pathway relies, just like the isomerization pathway, on a protein relay. The first member of this protein relay is a small periplasmic protein (21 kDa) called DsbA, which has two cysteine residues that must be oxidized for it to be active. When in its oxidized state, the protein is able to form disulfide bonds between cysteine residues in newly synthesized, and yet unfolded proteins by the transfer of its own disulfide bond onto the folding protein. After the transfer of this disulfide bond, DsbA is in a reduced state. For it to act catalytically again, it must be reoxidized. This is made possible by a 21 kDa inner membrane protein, called DsbB, which has two pairs of cysteine residues. A mixed disulfide is formed between a cysteine residue of DsbB and one of DsbA. Eventually, this cross-link between the two proteins is broken by a nucleophilic attack of the second cystein residue in the DsbA active site. On his turn, DsbB is reoxidized by transferring electrons to oxidized ubiquinone, which passes them to cytochrome oxidases, which finally reduce oxygen; this is in aerobic conditions. As molecular oxygen serves as the terminal electron acceptor in aerobic conditions, oxidative folding is conveniently coupled to it through the respiratory chain. In anaerobic conditions however, DsbB passes its electrons to menaquinone, followed by a transfer of electrons to fumarate reductase or nitrate reductase.

text: The oxidative pathway relies, just like the isomerization pathway, on a protein relay. The first member of this protein relay is a small periplasmic protein (21 kDa) called

text: DsbA

text: , which has two cysteine residues that must be oxidized for it to be active. When in its oxidized state, the protein is able to form disulfide bonds between cysteine residues in newly synthesized, and yet unfolded proteins by the transfer of its own disulfide bond onto the folding protein. After the transfer of this disulfide bond, DsbA is in a reduced state. For it to act catalytically again, it must be reoxidized. This is made possible by a 21 kDa

text: inner membrane

text: protein, called

text: DsbB

text: , which has two pairs of cysteine residues. A mixed disulfide is formed between a cysteine residue of DsbB and one of DsbA. Eventually, this cross-link between the two proteins is broken by a

text: nucleophilic attack

text: of the second cystein residue in the DsbA

text: active site

text: . On his turn, DsbB is reoxidized by transferring

text: electron

text: s to oxidized

text: ubiquinone

text: , which passes them to

text: cytochrome

text: oxidases, which finally reduce

text: oxygen

text: ; this is in

text: aerobic

text: conditions. As molecular oxygen serves as the terminal electron acceptor in aerobic conditions, oxidative folding is conveniently coupled to it through the

text: respiratory chain

text: . In anaerobic conditions however, DsbB passes its electrons to

text: menaquinone

text: , followed by a transfer of electrons to

text: fumarate reductase

text: or

text: nitrate reductase

text: The other pathway, non-cyclic photophosphorylation, is a two-stage process involving two different chlorophyll photosystems. Being a light reaction, non-cyclic photophosphorylation occurs in the frets or stroma lamellae. First, a water molecule is broken down into 2H + 1/2 O + 2e by a process called photolysis (or water-splitting). The two electrons from the water molecule are kept in photosystem II, while the 2H and 1/2O are left out for further use. Then a photon is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments surrounding the reaction core center of the photosystem. The light excites the electrons of each pigment, causing a chain reaction that eventually transfers energy to the core of photosystem II, exciting the two electrons that are transferred to the primary electron acceptor, pheophytin. The deficit of electrons is replenished by taking electrons from another molecule of water. The electrons transfer from pheophytin to plastoquinone, which takes the 2e from Pheophytin, and two H atoms from the stroma and forms PQH, which later is broken into PQ, the 2e is released to Cytochrome bf complex and the two H ions are released into thylakoid lumen. The electrons then pass through the Cyt b and Cyt f. Then they are passed to plastocyanin,  providing the energy for hydrogen ions (H) to be pumped into the thylakoid space. This creates a gradient, making H ions flow back into the stroma of the chloroplast, providing the energy for the regeneration of ATP.

text: The other pathway, non-cyclic photophosphorylation, is a two-stage process involving two different chlorophyll photosystems. Being a light reaction, non-cyclic photophosphorylation occurs in the

text: frets

text: or

text: stroma lamellae

text: . First, a water molecule is broken down into 2H + 1/2 O + 2e by a process called

text: photolysis

text: (or water-splitting). The two electrons from the water molecule are kept in photosystem II, while the 2H and 1/2O are left out for further use. Then a photon is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments surrounding the reaction core center of the photosystem. The light excites the electrons of each pigment, causing a chain reaction that eventually transfers energy to the core of photosystem II, exciting the two electrons that are transferred to the primary electron acceptor,

text: pheophytin

text: . The deficit of electrons is replenished by taking electrons from another molecule of water. The electrons transfer from pheophytin to

text: plastoquinone

text: , which takes the 2e from Pheophytin, and two H atoms from the

text: stroma

text: and forms PQH, which later is broken into PQ, the 2e is released to

text: Cytochrome bf complex

text: and the two H ions are released into thylakoid

text: lumen

text: . The electrons then pass through the Cyt b and Cyt f. Then they are passed to

text: plastocyanin

text: ,  providing the energy for hydrogen ions (H) to be pumped into the thylakoid space. This creates a gradient, making H ions flow back into the stroma of the chloroplast, providing the energy for the regeneration of ATP.

text: Even when an object's net charge is zero, charge can be distributed non-uniformly in the object (e.g., due to an external electromagnetic field, or bound polar molecules). In such cases the object is said to be polarized. The charge due to polarization is known as bound charge, while charge on an object produced by electrons gained or lost from outside the object is called free charge. The motion of electrons in conductive metals in a specific direction is known as electric current.

text: Even when an object's net charge is zero, charge can be distributed non-uniformly in the object (e.g., due to an external

text: electromagnetic field

text: , or bound polar molecules). In such cases the object is said to be

text: polarized

text: . The charge due to polarization is known as

text: bound charge

text: , while charge on an object produced by electrons gained or lost from outside the object is called free charge. The motion of electrons in conductive

text: metal

text: s in a specific direction is known as

text: electric current

text: Most electric cars have used conductive coupling to supply electricity for recharging after the California Air Resources Board settled on the SAE J1772-2001 standard as the charging interface for electric vehicles in California in June 2001. In Europe, the ACEA has decided to use the Type 2 connector from the range of IEC_62196 plug types for conductive charging of electric vehicles in the European Union as the Type 1 connector (SAE J1772-2009) does not provide for three-phase charging.

text: Most electric cars have used

text: conductive coupling

text: to supply electricity for recharging after the

text: California Air Resources Board

text: settled on the

text: SAE J1772

text: -2001 standard as the charging interface for electric vehicles in California in June 2001. In Europe, the

entity_name: European Automobile Manufacturers Association

text: ACEA

text: has decided to use the Type 2 connector from the range of

text: IEC_62196 plug types

text: for conductive charging of electric vehicles in the European Union as the Type 1 connector (SAE J1772-2009) does not provide for three-phase charging.

text: Share registries are connected to FASTER via electronic links. Stock may be transferred for the benefit of a non-participant, by means of Client transfer. A transfer message is sent by a broker to FASTER, to transfer between the client and the broker's FTA. The transfer message is passed to the registry, who then updates the stock register. The shareholders are identified by a Common Shareholder Number (CSN). Outward transfers are protected by means of a FASTER identification number (FIN). This number is like a PIN, known only to the shareholder, and passed to the broker during a sale.

text: Share registries

text: are connected to FASTER via electronic links. Stock may be transferred for the benefit of a non-participant, by means of Client transfer. A transfer message is sent by a broker to FASTER, to transfer between the client and the broker's FTA. The transfer message is passed to the registry, who then updates the stock register. The shareholders are identified by a Common Shareholder Number (CSN). Outward transfers are protected by means of a FASTER identification number (FIN). This number is like a

text: PIN

text: , known only to the shareholder, and passed to the broker during a sale.

text: In the upper regions of the atmosphere the air is highly rarefied, and conducts like the rarefied gases in fluorescent tubes. The lower air is, when dry, a non-conductor. The upper stratum is positively charged, while the Earth's surface is itself negatively charged; the stratum of denser air between acting like the dielectric of a capacitor in keeping the opposite charges separate. The theory of atmospheric electricity equally explains many phenomena: free electricity causes thunderstorms, and electricity of a lower voltage is manifested during a display of the aurora borealis.

text: In the upper regions of the atmosphere the air is highly

text: rarefied

text: , and conducts like the rarefied gases in

text: fluorescent tube

text: s. The lower air is, when dry, a non-conductor. The

text: upper stratum

text: is positively charged, while the Earth's surface is itself negatively charged; the stratum of denser air between acting like the dielectric of a

text: capacitor

text: in keeping the opposite charges separate. The theory of atmospheric electricity equally explains many phenomena: free electricity causes thunderstorms, and electricity of a lower voltage is manifested during a display of the

text: aurora borealis

text: Friction has collaborated several times with British singer-songwriter and rapper Example. Since Friction's 2011 remix of his #1 hit single "Changed the Way You Kiss Me", Example has co-written songs for Friction ("Led Astray" and "Long Gone Memory") and Friction has co-produced an album track for Example ("Snakeskin"). Friction also collaborated with English electronic musician Skream in the 2013 song "Kingpin" (featuring UK grime MCs Scrufizzer, P Money and Riko Dan from Roll Deep).On 10 January 2012, BBC Radio 1's Zane Lowe made Friction's song "Led Astray" his Hottest Record in the World.

text: Friction has collaborated several times with

text: British

text: singer-songwriter and rapper

text: Example

text: . Since Friction's 2011 remix of his #1 hit single "

text: Changed the Way You Kiss Me

text: ", Example has co-written songs for Friction ("Led Astray" and "Long Gone Memory") and Friction has co-produced an album track for Example ("Snakeskin"). Friction also collaborated with English electronic musician

text: Skream

text: in the 2013 song "Kingpin" (featuring UK

text: grime

text: MCs

text: Scrufizzer

text: P Money

text: and Riko Dan from

text: Roll Deep

text: ).On 10 January 2012,

text: BBC Radio 1

text: 's

text: Zane Lowe

text: made Friction's song "Led Astray" his Hottest Record in the World.

text: Normally, in a conductor, increasing electric field causes higher charge carrier (usually electron) speeds and results in higher current consistent with Ohm's Law. In a multi-valley semiconductor, though, higher energy may push the carriers into a higher energy state where they actually have higher effective mass and thus slow down. In effect, carrier velocities and current drop as the voltage is increased. While this transfer occurs, the material exhibits a decrease in current – that is, a negative differential resistance.  At higher voltages, the normal increase of current with voltage relation resumes once the bulk of the carriers are kicked into the higher energy-mass valley.  Therefore the negative resistance only occurs over a limited range of voltages.

text: Normally, in a conductor, increasing

text: electric field

text: causes higher charge

text: carrier

text: (usually electron) speeds and results in higher current consistent with

text: Ohm's Law

text: . In a multi-valley semiconductor, though, higher energy may push the carriers into a higher energy state where they actually have higher

text: effective mass

text: and thus slow down. In effect, carrier velocities and current drop as the voltage is increased. While this transfer occurs, the material exhibits a decrease in current – that is, a negative differential resistance.  At higher voltages, the normal increase of current with voltage relation resumes once the bulk of the carriers are kicked into the higher energy-mass valley.  Therefore the negative resistance only occurs over a limited range of voltages.

text: Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (; 14 June  1736 – 23 August 1806) was a French physicist. He was best known for developing Coulomb's law, the definition of the electrostatic force of attraction and repulsion, but also did important work on friction. The SI unit of electric charge, the coulomb, was named after him.

text: Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (; 14 June  1736 – 23 August 1806) was a

text: French

text: physicist

text: . He was best known for developing

text: Coulomb's law

text: , the definition of the

text: electrostatic force

text: of attraction and repulsion, but also did important work on

text: friction

text: . The

text: SI unit

text: of

text: electric charge

text: , the

text: coulomb

text: , was named after him.

text: Polarization is the sum of the E-plane orientations over time projected onto an imaginary plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the radio wave. In the most general case, polarization is elliptical, meaning that the polarization of the radio waves varies over time. Two special cases are linear polarization (the ellipse collapses into a line) as we have discussed above, and circular polarization (in which the two axes of the ellipse are equal). In linear polarization the electric field of the radio wave oscillates back and forth along one direction; this can be affected by the mounting of the antenna but usually the desired direction is either horizontal or vertical polarization. In circular polarization, the electric field (and magnetic field) of the radio wave rotates at the radio frequency circularly around the axis of propagation. Circular or elliptically polarized radio waves are designated as right-handed or left-handed using the "thumb in the direction of the propagation" rule. Note that for circular polarization, optical researchers use the opposite right hand rule from the one used by radio engineers.

text: Polarization is the sum of the E-plane orientations over time projected onto an imaginary plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the radio wave. In the most general case, polarization is

text: elliptical

text: , meaning that the polarization of the radio waves varies over time. Two special cases are

text: linear polarization

text: (the ellipse collapses into a line) as we have discussed above, and

text: circular polarization

text: (in which the two axes of the ellipse are equal). In linear polarization the electric field of the radio wave oscillates back and forth along one direction; this can be affected by the mounting of the antenna but usually the desired direction is either horizontal or vertical polarization. In circular polarization, the electric field (and magnetic field) of the radio wave rotates at the radio frequency circularly around the axis of propagation. Circular or elliptically polarized radio waves are

text: designated as right-handed or left-handed

text: using the "thumb in the direction of the propagation" rule. Note that for circular polarization, optical researchers use the opposite

text: right hand rule

text: from the one used by radio engineers.

text: Photoinduced electron transfer (PET) is an excited state electron transfer process by which excited electron is transferred from donor to acceptor. Due to PET a charge separation is generated, i.e., redox reaction takes place in excited state (this phenomenon is not observed in Dexter electron transfer).

text: Photoinduced electron transfer (PET) is an excited state

text: electron transfer

text: process by which excited electron is transferred from donor to acceptor. Due to PET a charge separation is generated, i.e.,

text: redox

text: reaction takes place in excited state (this phenomenon is not observed in

text: Dexter electron transfer

text: The Act begins on 1 July 2012, and operates on a financial year basis. It is administered by the Clean Energy Regulator and the responsible Minister.  A carbon pollution cap limits the sum of: (a)     the total number of auctioned carbon units; and (b)     the total number of free carbon units issued in accordance with the Jobs and Competitiveness Program; and (c)  the total number of free carbon units issued to coal-fired electricity generators.If a person (including a corporation) is responsible for covered emissions of greenhouse gas from the operation of a facility, the facility's annual emissions are above a threshold, and the person does not surrender one eligible emissions unit for each tonne of carbon dioxide equivalence of the gas, the person is liable to pay unit shortfall charge. The financial years beginning on 1 July 2012, 1 July 2013 and 1 July 2014 are fixed charge years (otherwise known in popular terms as the 'carbon tax').  In a fixed charge year, carbon units will be issued under the Act for a fixed charge. Later financial years are flexible charge years which involve emissions trading. In a flexible charge year, carbon units will be issued under the Act as the result of an auction plus by means of free allocation to coal fired generators and emissions-intensive trade-exposed (EITE) industries. However, in the flexible charge years beginning on 1 July 2015, 1 July 2016 and 1 July 2017, some carbon units may be issued for a fixed charge (to act as a cap). Furthermore, free carbon units will be issued under the Jobs and Competitiveness Program (which deals with emissions-intensive trade-exposed (EITE) activities).  Free carbon units will be issued to coal-fired electricity generators. If a carbon unit was not issued for a fixed charge, the unit is transferable. The Climate Change Authority will conduct periodic reviews of the Act.

text: For heat conduction from one fluid to another through a barrier, it is sometimes important to consider the conductance of the thin film of fluid that remains stationary next to the barrier. This thin film of fluid is difficult to quantify because its characteristics depend upon complex conditions of turbulence and viscosity—but when dealing with thin high-conductance barriers it can sometimes be quite significant.

text: For heat conduction from one fluid to another through a barrier, it is sometimes important to consider the conductance of the

text: thin film

text: of fluid that remains stationary next to the barrier. This thin film of fluid is difficult to quantify because its characteristics depend upon complex conditions of

text: turbulence

text: and

text: viscosity

text: —but when dealing with thin high-conductance barriers it can sometimes be quite significant.

text: The main payment system of Transantiago is a Contactless smart card called Tarjeta Bip! similar to the Multivia card, which was previously operated by the metro. This card is used both in buses and metro as a prepaid card. The access to the reduced or free transfer fares is only possible when using this card, as the electronic system associated to the card automatically recognizes if users are starting their trip or just making a transfer. In this way, the system can determine whether the basic fare is to be charged or if a transfer or free fare applies. Passengers who do not have the card may pay in cash (only in feeder buses), but at a higher fare and without possibility of reduced transfers.

text: The main payment system of Transantiago is a

text: Contactless smart card

text: called Tarjeta Bip! similar to the

text: Multivia

text: card, which was previously operated by the metro. This card is used both in buses and metro as a prepaid card. The access to the reduced or free transfer fares is only possible when using this card, as the electronic system associated to the card automatically recognizes if users are starting their trip or just making a transfer. In this way, the system can determine whether the basic fare is to be charged or if a transfer or free fare applies. Passengers who do not have the card may pay in cash (only in feeder buses), but at a higher fare and without possibility of reduced transfers.

text: The presence of surface charge imbalance means that the objects will exhibit attractive or repulsive forces. This surface charge imbalance, which yields static electricity, can be generated by touching two differing surfaces together and then separating them due to the phenomena of contact electrification and the triboelectric effect. Rubbing two nonconductive objects generates a great amount of static electricity. This is not just the result of friction; two nonconductive surfaces can become charged by just being placed one on top of the other. Since most surfaces have a rough texture, it takes longer to achieve charging through contact than through rubbing. Rubbing objects together increases amount of adhesive contact between the two surfaces. Usually insulators, e.g., substances that do not conduct electricity, are good at both generating, and holding, a surface charge.  Some examples of these substances are rubber, plastic, glass, and pith. Conductive objects only rarely generate charge imbalance except, for example, when a metal surface is impacted by solid or liquid nonconductors. The charge that is transferred during contact electrification is stored on the surface of each object. Static electric generators, devices which produce very high voltage at very low current and used for classroom physics demonstrations, rely on this effect.

text: The presence of

text: surface charge

text: imbalance means that the objects will exhibit attractive or repulsive forces. This surface charge imbalance, which yields static electricity, can be generated by touching two differing surfaces together and then separating them due to the phenomena of

text: contact electrification

text: and the

text: triboelectric effect

text: . Rubbing two nonconductive objects generates a great amount of static electricity. This is not just the result of friction; two nonconductive surfaces can become charged by just being placed one on top of the other. Since most surfaces have a rough texture, it takes longer to achieve charging through contact than through rubbing. Rubbing objects together increases amount of adhesive contact between the two surfaces. Usually

text: insulators

text: rubber

text: plastic

text: glass

text: , and

text: pith

text: Conductive

text: objects only rarely generate charge imbalance except, for example, when a metal surface is impacted by solid or liquid nonconductors. The charge that is transferred during contact electrification is stored on the surface of each object.

text: Static electric generators

text: , devices which produce very high voltage at very low current and used for classroom physics demonstrations, rely on this effect.

text: determines the degree of polarity of the array, but for a neutral array it is simply a vector property of the array with no information about the array's absolute location. The dipole moment density of the array p(r) contains both the location of the array and its dipole moment. When it comes time to calculate the electric field in some region containing the array, Maxwell's equations are solved, and the information about the charge array is contained in the polarization density P(r) of Maxwell's equations. Depending upon how fine-grained an assessment of the electric field is required, more or less information about the charge array will have to be expressed by P(r). As explained below, sometimes it is sufficiently accurate to take P(r) = p(r). Sometimes a more detailed description is needed (for example, supplementing the dipole moment density with an additional quadrupole density) and sometimes even more elaborate versions of P(r) are necessary.

text: In physics, a field is a physical quantity, typically a number or tensor, that has a value for each point in space and time. For example, on a weather map, the surface wind velocity is described by assigning a vector to each point on a map. Each vector represents the speed and direction of the movement of air at that point. As another example, an electric field can be thought of as a "condition in space" emanating from an electric charge and extending throughout the whole of space. When a test electric charge is placed in this electric field, the particle accelerates due to a force. Physicists have found the notion of a field to be of such practical utility for the analysis of forces that they have come to think of a force as due to a field.

text: In physics, a field is a

text: physical quantity

text: , typically a number or

text: tensor

text: , that has a value for each

text: point

text: in space and time. For example, on a weather map, the surface wind

text: velocity

text: is described by assigning a vector to each point on a map. Each vector represents the speed and direction of the movement of air at that point. As another example, an

text: electric field

text: can be thought of as a "condition in space" emanating from an

text: electric charge

text: and extending throughout the whole of space. When a

text: test electric charge

text: is placed in this electric field, the particle accelerates due to a force. Physicists have found the notion of a field to be of such practical utility for the analysis of forces that they have come to think of a force as due to a field.

text: The non-radiative dielectric (NRD) waveguide  has been introduced by Yoneyama in 1981. In Fig. 1 the cross section of NRD guide is shown: it consists of a dielectric rectangular slab of height a  and width b, which is placed between two metallic parallel plates of suitable width. The structure is practically the same as the H waveguide, proposed by Tischer in 1953. Due to the dielectric slab, the electromagnetic field is confined in the vicinity of the dielectric region, whereas in the outside region, for suitable frequencies, the electromagnetic field decays exponentially. Therefore, if the metallic plates are sufficiently extended, the field is practically negligible at the end of the plates and therefore the situation does not greatly differ from the ideal case in which the plates are infinitely extended. The polarization of the electric field in the required mode is mainly parallel to the conductive walls. As it is known, if the electric field is parallel to the walls, the conduction losses decrease in the metallic walls at the increasing frequency, whereas, if the field is perpendicular to the walls, losses increase at the increasing frequency. Since the NRD waveguide has been deviced for its implementation at millimeter waves, the selected polarization minimizes the ohmic losses in the metallic walls.

text: The non-radiative dielectric (NRD) waveguide  has been introduced by Yoneyama in 1981. In Fig. 1 the cross section of NRD guide is shown: it consists of a

text: dielectric

text: rectangular slab of height a  and width b, which is placed between two metallic parallel plates of suitable width. The structure is practically the same as the H waveguide, proposed by Tischer in 1953. Due to the dielectric slab, the

text: electromagnetic field

text: is confined in the vicinity of the dielectric region, whereas in the outside region, for suitable frequencies, the electromagnetic field decays exponentially. Therefore, if the metallic plates are sufficiently extended, the field is practically negligible at the end of the plates and therefore the situation does not greatly differ from the ideal case in which the plates are infinitely extended. The

text: polarization

text: of the

text: electric field

text: in the required mode is mainly parallel to the conductive walls. As it is known, if the electric field is parallel to the walls, the conduction losses decrease in the metallic walls at the increasing frequency, whereas, if the field is perpendicular to the walls, losses increase at the increasing frequency. Since the NRD waveguide has been deviced for its implementation at

text: millimeter wave

text: s, the selected polarization minimizes the ohmic losses in the metallic walls.

text: Charge carriers (such as electrons) have a property known as spin which is a small quantity of angular momentum intrinsic to the carrier. An electric current is generally unpolarized (consisting of 50% spin-up and 50% spin-down electrons); a spin polarized current is one with more electrons of either spin. By passing a current through a thick magnetic layer (usually called the “fixed layer”), one can produce a spin-polarized current.  If this spin-polarized current is directed into a second, thinner magnetic layer (the “free layer”), angular momentum can be transferred to this layer, changing its orientation.  This can be used to excite oscillations or even flip the orientation of the magnet.  The effects are usually only seen in nanometer scale devices.

text: Charge carriers (such as electrons) have a property known as

text: spin

text: which is a small quantity of

text: angular momentum

text: intrinsic to the carrier. An electric current is generally unpolarized (consisting of 50% spin-up and 50% spin-down electrons); a spin polarized current is one with more electrons of either spin. By passing a current through a thick magnetic layer (usually called the “fixed layer”), one can produce a spin-polarized current.  If this spin-polarized current is directed into a second, thinner magnetic layer (the “free layer”), angular momentum can be transferred to this layer, changing its orientation.  This can be used to excite

text: oscillations

text: or even flip the orientation of the magnet.  The effects are usually only seen in nanometer scale devices.

text: An electrolytic cell has three component parts: an electrolyte and two electrodes (a cathode and an anode). The electrolyte is usually a solution of water or other solvents in which ions are dissolved. Molten salts such as sodium chloride are also electrolytes. When driven by an external voltage applied to the electrodes, the ions in the electrolyte are attracted to an electrode with the opposite charge, charge-transferring (also called faradaic or redox) reactions can take place. Only with an external electrical potential (i.e. voltage) of correct polarity and sufficient magnitude can an electrolytic cell decompose a normally stable, or inert chemical compound in the solution. The electrical energy provided can produce a chemical reaction which would not occur spontaneously otherwise.

text: An electrolytic cell has three component parts: an

text: electrolyte

text: and two electrodes (a

text: cathode

text: and an

text: anode

text: ). The

text: electrolyte

text: is usually a

text: solution

text: of

text: water

text: or other

text: solvent

text: s in which ions are dissolved. Molten salts such as

text: sodium chloride

text: are also electrolytes. When driven by an external

text: voltage

text: applied to the electrodes, the ions in the electrolyte are attracted to an electrode with the opposite charge, charge-transferring (also called faradaic or redox) reactions can take place. Only with an external

text: electrical potential

text: (i.e. voltage) of correct polarity and sufficient magnitude can an electrolytic cell decompose a normally stable, or

text: inert

text: chemical compound in the solution. The electrical energy provided can produce a chemical reaction which would not occur spontaneously otherwise.

text: . Similarly, the intensity of electromagnetic forces depends upon the strength (electric charge) of the electromagnetic field.

text: . Similarly, the intensity of electromagnetic forces depends upon the strength (

text: electric charge

text: ) of the electromagnetic field.

text: A charge-transfer complex (CT complex) or electron-donor-acceptor complex is an association of two or more molecules, or of different parts of one large molecule, in which a fraction of electronic charge is transferred between the molecular entities. The resulting electrostatic attraction provides a stabilizing force for the molecular complex. The source molecule from which the charge is transferred is called the electron donor and the receiving species is called the electron acceptor.

text: A charge-transfer complex (CT complex) or electron-donor-acceptor complex is an association of two or more

text: molecule

text: s, or of different parts of one large molecule, in which a fraction of electronic charge is transferred between the molecular entities. The resulting

text: electrostatic

text: attraction provides a stabilizing force for the molecular complex. The source molecule from which the charge is transferred is called the

text: electron donor

text: and the receiving species is called the

text: electron acceptor

text: On January 21, 2009, the day he was inaugurated, United States President Barack Obama issued three Executive orders related to the detention of individuals in Guantanamo.That new review system was composed of officials from six departments, where the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense.  When it reported back, a year later, the Joint Review Task Force classified some individuals as too dangerous to be transferred from Guantanamo, even though there was no evidence to justify laying charges against them. On April 9, 2013, that document was made public after a Freedom of Information Act request.Mohamad Farik bin Amin was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama said those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a Periodic Review Board.

text: United States President

text: Barack Obama

text: issued three

text: Executive orders

text: Joint Review Task Force

text: Freedom of Information Act

text: request.Mohamad Farik bin Amin was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama said those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a

text: Periodic Review Board

text: Although the part 'tribo-' comes from the Greek for "rubbing", τρίβω (τριβή: friction), the two materials only need to come into contact for electrons to be exchanged.  After coming into contact, a chemical bond is formed between parts of the two surfaces, called adhesion, and charges move from one material to the other to equalize their electrochemical potential.  This is what creates the net charge imbalance between the objects.  When separated, some of the bonded atoms have a tendency to keep extra electrons, and some a tendency to give them away, though the imbalance will be partially destroyed by tunneling or electrical breakdown (usually corona discharge).  In addition, some materials may exchange ions of differing mobility, or exchange charged fragments of larger molecules.

text: Although the part 'tribo-' comes from the Greek for "rubbing", τρίβω (τριβή: friction), the two materials only need to come into contact for electrons to be exchanged.  After coming into contact, a chemical bond is formed between parts of the two surfaces, called

text: adhesion

text: , and charges move from one material to the other to equalize their

text: electrochemical potential

text: .  This is what creates the net charge imbalance between the objects.  When separated, some of the bonded atoms have a tendency to keep extra electrons, and some a tendency to give them away, though the imbalance will be partially destroyed by

text: tunneling

text: or

text: electrical breakdown

text: (usually

text: corona discharge

text: ).  In addition, some materials may exchange ions of differing mobility, or exchange charged fragments of larger molecules.

text: The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction) or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example, a curling stone sliding along the ice experiences a kinetic force slowing it down. For an example of potential movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward; if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road.

text: The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction) or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example, a

text: curling

text: stone sliding along the ice experiences a kinetic force slowing it down. For an example of potential movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward; if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road.

text: Fundamentally, all electrical measurements of bilayers involve the placement of an electrode on either side of the membrane. By applying a bias across these electrodes and measuring the resulting current, it is possible to determine the resistance of the bilayer. This resistance is typically quite high for intact bilayers, often exceeding 100 GΩ since the hydrophobic core is impermeable to charged hydrated species. Because this resistance is so large, the presence of even a few nanometer-scale holes results in a dramatic increase in current and can be easily determined. The sensitivity of this system is such that even the activity of single ion channels can be resolved. In such DC measurements, it is necessary to use electrochemically active electrodes to provide the necessary positive charges on one side and negative charges on the other. The most common system is the silver/silver chloride electrode since this reaction is stable, reversible, involves a single electron transfer and can produce large currents. In addition to simple DC current measurements it is also possible to perform AC electrical characterization to extract information about the capacitance and complex impedance of a bilayer. Because capacitance is inversely proportional to thickness and bilayers are very thin they typically have a very large capacitance, on the order of 2µF/cm. Capacitance measurements are particularly useful when dealing with black lipid membranes, as they can be used to determine when the solvent/lipid plug thins down to a single bilayer.

text: Fundamentally, all electrical measurements of bilayers involve the placement of an electrode on either side of the membrane. By applying a bias across these electrodes and measuring the resulting current, it is possible to determine the

text: resistance

text: of the bilayer. This resistance is typically quite high for intact bilayers, often exceeding 100 GΩ since the hydrophobic core is impermeable to charged hydrated species. Because this resistance is so large, the presence of even a few nanometer-scale holes results in a dramatic increase in current and can be easily determined. The sensitivity of this system is such that even the activity of single

text: ion channels

text: can be resolved. In such DC measurements, it is necessary to use electrochemically active electrodes to provide the necessary positive charges on one side and negative charges on the other. The most common system is the

text: silver/silver chloride

text: electrode since this reaction is stable, reversible, involves a single electron transfer and can produce large currents. In addition to simple DC current measurements it is also possible to perform AC electrical characterization to extract information about the capacitance and complex

text: impedance

text: of a bilayer. Because capacitance is inversely proportional to thickness and bilayers are very thin they typically have a very large capacitance, on the order of 2µF/cm. Capacitance measurements are particularly useful when dealing with black lipid membranes, as they can be used to determine when the solvent/lipid plug thins down to a single bilayer.

text: CG lightning can occur with both positive and negative polarity. The polarity is that of the charge in the region that originated the lightning leaders. An average bolt of negative lightning carries an electric current of 30,000 amperes (30 kA), and transfers 15 coulombs of electric charge and 500 megajoules of energy. Large bolts of lightning can carry up to 120 kA and 350 coulombs.

text: CG lightning can occur with both positive and negative polarity. The polarity is that of the charge in the region that originated the lightning leaders. An average bolt of

text: negative

text: lightning carries an

text: electric current

text: of 30,000

text: ampere

text: s (30 kA), and transfers 15

text: coulomb

text: s of

text: electric charge

text: and 500

text: megajoules

text: of

text: energy

text: . Large bolts of lightning can carry up to 120 kA and 350 coulombs.

text: Charging through conduction is based on the age-old technology of metal to metal connection. The technology involves contact between a charged object and a neutral object. In contrast to induction, where the charged object is brought near but never contacted to the object being charged, conduction charging involves making the physical connection of the charged object to the neutral object. Because charging by conduction involves contact, it is often called charging by contact and has the least transfer loss.

text: Telcordia maintains its headquarters in Piscataway, New Jersey, and operates a software development facility in Chennai, India. Telcordia pioneered the prepaid charging system, the Intelligent Network. Most of the development work in intelligent networks is conducted in the laboratories in India and the United States. The headquarters campus in Piscataway and its offices and laboratories in Red Bank, New Jersey, are former Bell Labs locations that were transferred to Telcordia.

text: Telcordia maintains its headquarters in

text: Piscataway

text: , New Jersey, and operates a software development facility in

text: Chennai

text: India

text: . Telcordia pioneered the prepaid charging system, the

text: Intelligent Network

text: . Most of the development work in intelligent networks is conducted in the laboratories in India and the United States. The headquarters campus in Piscataway and its offices and laboratories in

text: Red Bank

text: , New Jersey, are former

text: Bell Labs

text: locations that were transferred to Telcordia.

text: A double layer is a structure in a plasma which consists of two parallel layers of opposite electrical charge. The sheets of charge, which are not necessarily planar, produce localised excursions of electric potential, resulting in a relatively strong electric field between the layers and weaker but more extensive compensating fields outside, which restore the global potential. Ions and electrons within the double layer are accelerated, decelerated, or deflected by the electric field, depending on their direction of motion.

text: A double layer is a

text: structure

text: in a

text: plasma

text: which consists of two parallel layers of opposite electrical charge. The sheets of charge, which are not necessarily planar, produce localised excursions of

text: electric potential

text: , resulting in a relatively strong electric field between the layers and weaker but more extensive compensating fields outside, which restore the global potential. Ions and electrons within the double layer are accelerated, decelerated, or deflected by the electric field, depending on their direction of motion.

text: The person-in-charge on the dock is called a Loading master-PIC and the person-in charge on the barge will be the Tankerman-PIC who possesses a merchant mariner's document. Additionally, the person-in-charge on a tanker ship will be the deck officer who monitors the transfer of product in the cargo control room. Transfer operations and commencement of a transfer is highly regulated throughout the world with consideration of the environment with potential of water pollution occurring if petroleum product is released into the water during the transfer. Federal, state, and local laws must be observed during marine transfer operations. Additionally, all persons-in-charge must have special training in order to obtain the proper credentials such as licensing and endorsement on their merchant mariner documents.

text: The person-in-charge on the dock is called a

text: Loading master

text: -PIC and the person-in charge on the barge will be the Tankerman-PIC who possesses a

text: merchant mariner's document

text: . Additionally, the person-in-charge on a tanker ship will be the

text: deck officer

text: who monitors the transfer of product in the cargo control room. Transfer operations and commencement of a transfer is highly regulated throughout the world with consideration of the environment with potential of

text: water pollution

text: occurring if petroleum product is released into the water during the transfer. Federal, state, and local laws must be observed during marine transfer operations. Additionally, all persons-in-charge must have special training in order to obtain the proper credentials such as licensing and endorsement on their merchant mariner documents.

text: A dielectric material (dielectric for short) is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as they do in a conductor, but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field and negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric field that reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself. If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded molecules, those molecules not only become polarized, but also reorient so that their symmetry axes align to the field.

text: A dielectric material (dielectric for short) is an electrical

text: insulator

text: that can be

text: polarized

text: by an applied

text: electric field

text: . When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as they do in a

text: conductor

text: , but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization. Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field and negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric field that reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself. If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded molecules, those molecules not only become polarized, but also reorient so that their symmetry axes align to the field.

text: A famous method for measuring e is Millikan's oil-drop experiment. A small drop of oil in an electric field would move at a rate that balanced the forces of gravity, viscosity (of traveling through the air), and electric force. The forces due to gravity and viscosity could be calculated based on the size and velocity of the oil drop, so electric force could be deduced. Since electric force, in turn, is the product of the electric charge and the known electric field, the electric charge of the oil drop could be accurately computed. By measuring the charges of many different oil drops, it can be seen that the charges are all integer multiples of a single small charge, namely e.

text: A famous method for measuring e is Millikan's oil-drop experiment. A small drop of oil in an electric field would move at a rate that balanced the forces of

text: gravity

text: viscosity

text: (of traveling through the air), and

text: electric force

text: . The forces due to gravity and viscosity could be calculated based on the size and velocity of the oil drop, so electric force could be deduced. Since electric force, in turn, is the product of the electric charge and the known electric field, the electric charge of the oil drop could be accurately computed. By measuring the charges of many different oil drops, it can be seen that the charges are all integer multiples of a single small charge, namely e.

text: An electret is a stable dielectric material with a permanently embedded static electric charge (which, due to the high resistance and chemical stability of the material, will not decay for hundreds of years). The name comes from electrostatic and magnet; drawing analogy to the formation of a magnet by alignment of magnetic domains in a piece of iron. Electrets are commonly made by first melting a suitable dielectric material such as a plastic or wax that contains polar molecules, and then allowing it to re-solidify in a powerful electrostatic field. The polar molecules of the dielectric align themselves to the direction of the electrostatic field, producing a permanent electrostatic "bias". Modern electret microphones use PTFE plastic, either in film or solute form, to form the electret.

text: An

text: electret

text: is a stable

text: dielectric

text: material with a permanently embedded static

text: electric charge

text: (which, due to the high

text: resistance

text: and chemical stability of the material, will not decay for hundreds of years). The name comes from electrostatic and magnet; drawing analogy to the formation of a

text: magnet

text: by alignment of magnetic domains in a piece of iron. Electrets are commonly made by first melting a suitable

text: dielectric

text: material such as a plastic or wax that contains

text: polar

text: molecules

text: , and then allowing it to re-solidify in a powerful electrostatic field. The polar molecules of the dielectric align themselves to the direction of the electrostatic field, producing a permanent electrostatic "bias". Modern electret microphones use

text: PTFE

text: plastic, either in film or solute form, to form the electret.

text: The triboelectric effect is a type of contact electrification in which certain materials become electrically charged when they are brought into contact with a different material and then separated.  One of the materials acquires a positive charge, and the other acquires an equal negative charge.  The polarity and strength of the charges produced differ according to the materials, surface roughness, temperature, strain, and other properties.  Amber, for example, can acquire an electric charge by friction with a material like wool. This property, first recorded by Thales of Miletus, was the first electrical phenomenon investigated by humans. Other examples of materials that can acquire a significant charge when rubbed together include glass rubbed with silk, and hard rubber rubbed with fur.

text: The

text: triboelectric effect

text: is a type of contact electrification in which certain materials become electrically charged when they are brought into contact with a different material and then separated.  One of the materials acquires a positive charge, and the other acquires an equal negative charge.  The polarity and strength of the charges produced differ according to the materials, surface roughness, temperature, strain, and other properties.  Amber, for example, can acquire an electric charge by friction with a material like wool. This property, first recorded by

text: Thales of Miletus

text: , was the first electrical phenomenon investigated by humans. Other examples of materials that can acquire a significant charge when rubbed together include glass rubbed with silk, and hard rubber rubbed with fur.

text: Around June 1752, Ben Franklin reportedly performed his famous kite experiment. L. G. Lemonnier (1752) reproduced Franklin's experiment with an aerial, but substituted the ground wire with some dust particles (testing attraction). He went on to document the fair weather condition, the clear-day electrification of the atmosphere, and the diurnal variation of the atmosphere's electricity. G. Beccaria (1775) confirmed Lemonnier's diurnal variation data and determined that the atmosphere's charge polarity was positive in fair weather. H. B. Saussure (1779) recorded data relating to a conductor's induced charge in the atmosphere. Saussure's instrument (which contained two small spheres suspended in parallel with two thin wires) was a precursor to the electrometer. Saussure found that the fair weather condition had an annual variation. Saussure found that there was a variation with height, as well. In 1785, C. A. Coulomb discovered the conductivity of air. His discovery was contrary to the prevailing thought at the time that the atmospheric gases were insulators (which they are to some extent, or at least not very good conductors when not ionized). His research was unfortunately completely ignored. P. Erman (1804) theorized that the Earth was negatively charged. J. C. A. Peltier (1842) tested and confirmed Erman's idea. Lord Kelvin (1860s) proposed that atmospheric positive charges explained the fair weather condition and, later, recognized the existence of atmospheric electric fields.

text: Around June 1752,

text: Ben Franklin

text: reportedly performed his famous kite experiment.

text: L. G. Lemonnier

text: (1752) reproduced Franklin's experiment with an aerial, but substituted the ground wire with some dust particles (testing attraction). He went on to document the fair weather condition, the clear-day electrification of the atmosphere, and the

text: diurnal

text: variation of the atmosphere's electricity.

text: G. Beccaria

text: (1775) confirmed Lemonnier's diurnal variation data and determined that the atmosphere's charge polarity was positive in fair weather.

text: H. B. Saussure

text: (1779) recorded data relating to a conductor's induced charge in the atmosphere. Saussure's instrument (which contained two small spheres suspended in parallel with two thin wires) was a precursor to the

text: electrometer

text: . Saussure found that the fair weather condition had an annual variation. Saussure found that there was a variation with height, as well. In 1785,

text: C. A. Coulomb

text: discovered the conductivity of air. His discovery was contrary to the prevailing thought at the time that the atmospheric gases were insulators (which they are to some extent, or at least not very good conductors when not

text: ionized

text: ). His research was unfortunately completely ignored.

text: P. Erman

text: (1804) theorized that the Earth was negatively charged.

text: J. C. A. Peltier

text: (1842) tested and confirmed Erman's idea.

text: Lord Kelvin

text: (1860s) proposed that atmospheric positive charges explained the fair weather condition and, later, recognized the existence of atmospheric electric fields.

text: The studies of crystalline ionic conductors where excess ions were provided by point defect continued though 1950s, and the specific mechanism of conduction was established for each compound depending on its ionic structure. The emergence of glassy and polymeric electrolytes in the late 1970s provided new ionic conduction mechanisms. A relatively wide range of conductivites was attained in glasses, wherein mobile ions were dynamically decoupled from the matrix. It was found that the conductivity could be increased by doping a glass with certain salts, or by using a glass mixture. The conductivity values could be as high as 0.03 S/cm at room temperature, with activation energies as low as 20 kJ/mol. Compared to crystals, glasses have isotropic properties, continuously tunable composition and good workability; they lack the detrimental grain boundaries and can be molded into any shape, but understanding their ionic transport was complicated by the lack of long-range order.

text: The studies of crystalline ionic conductors where excess ions were provided by point defect continued though 1950s, and the specific mechanism of conduction was established for each compound depending on its ionic structure. The emergence of glassy and polymeric electrolytes in the late 1970s provided new ionic conduction mechanisms. A relatively wide range of conductivites was attained in glasses, wherein mobile ions were dynamically decoupled from the matrix. It was found that the conductivity could be increased by doping a glass with certain salts, or by using a glass mixture. The conductivity values could be as high as 0.03 S/cm at room temperature, with activation energies as low as 20 kJ/mol. Compared to crystals, glasses have

text: isotropic

text: properties, continuously tunable composition and good workability; they lack the detrimental

text: grain boundaries

text: and can be molded into any shape, but understanding their ionic transport was complicated by the lack of long-range order.

text: Typical oxidizing agents undergo permanent chemical alteration through covalent or ionic reaction chemistry, resulting in the complete and irreversible transfer of one or more electrons. In many chemical circumstances, however, the transfer of electronic charge from an electron donor may be only fractional, meaning an electron is not completely transferred, but results in an electron resonance between the donor and acceptor. This leads to the formation of charge transfer complexes in which the components largely retain their chemical identities.

text: Typical oxidizing agents undergo permanent chemical alteration through covalent or ionic reaction chemistry, resulting in the complete and irreversible transfer of one or more electrons. In many chemical circumstances, however, the transfer of electronic charge from an

text: electron donor

text: may be only fractional, meaning an electron is not completely transferred, but results in an electron resonance between the donor and acceptor. This leads to the formation of

text: charge transfer complex

text: es in which the components largely retain their chemical identities.

text: Other forms of electronic transfers include, for example, electronic funds transfer system (EFTS). This is the system one uses when one gives one's bank account number and routing information to someone owed money and that party transfers the money from one's account. It is also the system used in some payments made via a bank's online bill payment service.  EFTS transfers differ from wire transfers in important legal ways. An EFTS payment is essentially an electronic personal check, whereas a wire transfer is more like an electronic cashier's check.

text: Other forms of electronic transfers include, for example,

text: electronic funds transfer

text: system (EFTS). This is the system one uses when one gives one's bank account number and routing information to someone owed money and that party transfers the money from one's account. It is also the system used in some payments made via a bank's online bill payment service.  EFTS transfers differ from wire transfers in important legal ways. An EFTS payment is essentially an electronic personal check, whereas a wire transfer is more like an electronic cashier's check.

text: The Online Electric Vehicle (OLEV) is an electric vehicle that charges wirelessly while moving using electromagnetic induction (the wireless transfer of power through magnetic fields). It functions by using a segmented "recharging" road that induces a current in "pick-up" modules on the vehicle.

text: The Online Electric Vehicle (OLEV) is an electric vehicle that charges wirelessly while moving using

text: electromagnetic induction

text: (the wireless transfer of power through

text: magnetic field

text: s). It functions by using a segmented "recharging" road that induces a current in "pick-up" modules on the vehicle.

text: When surfaces in contact move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic energy into thermal energy (that is, it converts work to heat). This property can have dramatic consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire. Kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy whenever motion with friction occurs, for example when a viscous fluid is stirred. Another important consequence of many types of friction can be wear, which may lead to performance degradation and/or damage to components. Friction is a component of the science of tribology.

text: When surfaces in contact move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces converts

text: kinetic energy

text: into

text: thermal energy

text: (that is, it converts

text: work

text: to

text: heat

text: ). This property can have dramatic consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire. Kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy whenever motion with friction occurs, for example when a

text: viscous

text: fluid is stirred. Another important consequence of many types of friction can be

text: wear

text: , which may lead to performance degradation and/or damage to components. Friction is a component of the science of

text: tribology

text: And yet Quantity of Electricity still persists in its original definition in many major contemporary references.  For example, in the modern SI units of physics, the SI definition of coulombis given as both the unit quantity of electric charge and also the unit quantity of electricity.  Encyclopædia Britannica defines the coulomb as the unit quantity of electricity. The Merriam-Webster dictionary, in definition 1a, defines electricity as charge.   And until the late 1980s, the glossary in the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics used the term "quantity of electricity" in place of "electric charge" in most of its definitions.  Chemistry students will be familiar with Faraday's discovery that a unit quantity of electricity, when passed through an electrolysis cell, liberates a certain number of atoms of metal or gas.  Under these definitions, electricity is not a form of energy.

text: And yet Quantity of Electricity still persists in its original definition in many major contemporary references.  For example, in the modern

text: SI

text: units of physics, the SI definition of coulombis given as both the unit quantity of electric charge and also the unit quantity of electricity.

text: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: defines the coulomb as the unit quantity of electricity. The Merriam-Webster dictionary, in definition 1a, defines electricity as charge.   And until the late 1980s, the glossary in the

text: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics

text: used the term "quantity of electricity" in place of "electric charge" in most of its definitions.  Chemistry students will be familiar with Faraday's discovery that a unit quantity of electricity, when

text: passed through an electrolysis cell

text: , liberates a certain number of atoms of metal or gas.  Under these definitions, electricity is not a form of energy.

text: Processes transferring energy from a non-thermal carrier to heat as a carrier do produce entropy (Example: mechanical/electrical friction, established by Count Rumford).Either the produced entropy or heat are measured (calorimetry) or the transferred energy of the non-thermal carrier may be measured.

text: Processes transferring energy from a non-thermal carrier to heat as a carrier do produce entropy (Example: mechanical/electrical friction, established by

text: Count Rumford

text: ).Either the produced entropy or heat are measured (calorimetry) or the transferred energy of the non-thermal carrier may be measured.

text: Additionally, the presence of electrical action in Earth's atmosphere, due to the accumulation of static charges, generated by friction of the air upon itself, released to ground in an instant, in a massive down-rush of current (moving electronic charges) the moment the accumulated charge exceeds the breakdown voltage of air, accounts for the phenomenon of lightning.

text: Additionally, the presence of electrical action in Earth's atmosphere, due to the accumulation of

text: static charge

text: s, generated by friction of the air upon itself, released to ground in an instant, in a massive down-rush of current (moving electronic charges) the moment the accumulated charge exceeds the breakdown voltage of air, accounts for the phenomenon of lightning.

text: Bashir was a closed friend of Nadeem Ahmed Advocate, he started his education with Nadeem Ahmed Advocate, and later Bashir was commissioned in the army in 1984 and is a graduate of Military College of Signals, Rawalpindi where he gained his B.Eng. in Electronics and Communication Engineering with a specialization in electronic signals technology from the College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering. After his degree, he was inducted in Corps of Engineers as a 2nd Lieutenant in 1986. In 1990, Shahid was transferred to Army Aviation Corps where he did a one-year-long aviation course, was inducted into the Army Aviation Corps as an Aviation Pilot of PA-AH-1 Cobra.In 1996, he was transferred to the Pakistan Army Corps of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering where he started his engineering career from Air Weapons Complex. At AWC, he met with  Awais Ali Khan, a U.S. educated-mechanical engineer who expertise in drs given a charge of one regiment of the Pakistan Army Corps of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, and was posted as a commanding officer at the Shamsi Air Force Base. The Shamsi Air Force Base is a Pakistan Air Force's secret air base allegedly use by the Central Intelligence Agency for Predator drone attacks on militants in Pakistan's Federally Administered Tribal Areas.

text: Bashir was a closed friend of Nadeem Ahmed Advocate, he started his education with Nadeem Ahmed Advocate, and later Bashir was commissioned in the army in 1984 and is a graduate of

text: Military College of Signals

text: Rawalpindi

text: where he gained his

text: B.Eng.

text: in

text: Electronics and Communication Engineering

text: with a specialization in

text: electronic signals technology

text: from the

entity_name: College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering

text: College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering

text: . After his degree, he was inducted in

text: Corps of Engineers

text: as a

text: 2nd Lieutenant

text: in 1986. In 1990, Shahid was transferred to

text: Army Aviation Corps

text: where he did a one-year-long aviation course, was inducted into the Army Aviation Corps as an Aviation Pilot of

text: PA-AH-1 Cobra

text: .In 1996, he was transferred to the

text: Pakistan Army Corps of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering

text: where he started his engineering career from

text: Air Weapons Complex

text: . At AWC, he met with  Awais Ali Khan, a U.S. educated-mechanical engineer who expertise in drs given a charge of one

text: regiment

text: of the Pakistan Army Corps of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering, and was posted as a commanding officer at the

text: Shamsi Air Force Base

text: . The

text: Shamsi Air Force Base

text: is a Pakistan Air Force's secret air base allegedly use by the

text: Central Intelligence Agency

text: for Predator drone attacks on militants in Pakistan's

text: Federally Administered Tribal Areas

text: The maximum of the ET rate is expected at ΔG = 0. Here Δe = 0  and q = 0 (Fig. 2) which means that the electron may jump in the precursor complex at its equilibrium polarization. No thermal activation is necessary: the reaction is barrierless. In the inverted region the polarization corresponds to the difficult to imagine notion of a charge distribution where the donor has received and the acceptor given off charge. Of course, in real world this does not happen, it is not a real charge distribution which creates this critical polarization, but the thermal fluctuation in the solvent. This polarization necessary for transfer in the inverted region can be created – with some probability – as well as any other one. The electron is just waiting for it for jumping.

text: This section covers money transfers. The bill states "[n]o person engaged in the business of betting or wagering may knowingly accept" any money transfers in any way from a person participating in unlawful Internet gambling. This includes credit cards, electronic fund transfers, and even paper checks. But the restriction on transfers is limited to Internet gambling businesses, not mere players. It also would not cover payment processors or ISPs, even under a theory of aiding and abetting. The Act clearly does not make it a crime to knowingly transmit funds for illegal gambling. Neither the player nor the intermediary can be charged with this crime. The language of the Act even eliminates the possibility of charging financial institutions and computer hosts under a theory of aiding and abetting, since it explicitly states, in the definitions section, that being in the business of gambling does not include a "financial transaction provider," or an ISP.

text: These machines belong to a class of electrostatic generators called influence machines, which separate electric charges through electrostatic induction, or influence, not depending on friction for their operation. Earlier machines in this class were developed by Wilhelm Holtz (1865 and 1867), August Toepler (1865), J. Robert Voss (1880), and others. The older machines are less efficient and exhibit an unpredictable tendency to switch their polarity. The Wimshurst does not have this defect.

text: These machines belong to a class of electrostatic generators called

text: influence machine

text: s, which separate

text: electric charge

text: s through

text: electrostatic induction

text: , or influence, not depending on friction for their operation. Earlier machines in this class were developed by

text: Wilhelm Holtz

text: (1865 and 1867),

text: August Toepler

text: (1865), J. Robert Voss (1880), and others. The older machines are less efficient and exhibit an unpredictable tendency to switch their polarity. The Wimshurst does not have this defect.

text: As part of the Monetary Control Act of 1980 the Federal Reserve System charged banks for float, which improved check processing efficiency. To reduce 'transportation float', banks have been able to scan their checks since the 1990s, and present them electronically at the Federal Reserve. With increasing electronic funds transfer, float averaged only $774 million per day in 2000. Electronic cheques and particularly the Check Clearing for the 21st Century Act in the United States, or Check 21 as it is more commonly called, have been designed to target cheque kiting.

text: As part of the

entity_name: Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act

text: Monetary Control Act of 1980

text: the Federal Reserve System charged banks for float, which improved check processing efficiency. To reduce 'transportation float', banks have been able to scan their checks since the 1990s, and present them electronically at the Federal Reserve. With increasing

text: electronic funds transfer

text: , float averaged only $774 million per day in 2000. Electronic cheques and particularly the

text: Check Clearing for the 21st Century Act

text: in the United States, or Check 21 as it is more commonly called, have been designed to target cheque kiting.

text: Paraelectricity is the ability of many materials (specifically ceramics) to become polarized under an applied electric field. Unlike ferroelectricity, this can happen even if there is no permanent electric dipole that exists in the material, and removal of the fields results in the polarization in the material returning to zero. The mechanisms that cause paraelectric behaviour are the distortion of individual ions (displacement of the electron cloud from the nucleus) and polarization of molecules or combinations of ions or defects.

text: Paraelectricity

text: is the ability of many materials (specifically

text: ceramic

text: s) to become polarized under an applied

text: electric field

text: . Unlike

text: ferroelectricity

text: , this can happen even if there is no permanent

text: electric dipole

text: that exists in the material, and removal of the fields results in the

text: polarization

text: in the material returning to zero. The mechanisms that cause paraelectric behaviour are the distortion of individual

text: ions

text: (displacement of the electron cloud from the nucleus) and polarization of molecules or combinations of ions or defects.

text: Alternatively, introductory treatments of magnetism introduce the Biot–Savart law, which describes the magnetic field associated with an electric current. An observer at rest with respect to a system of static, free charges will see no magnetic field. However, a moving observer looking at the same set of charges does perceive a current, and thus a magnetic field.  That is, the magnetic field is simply the electric field, as seen in a moving coordinate system.

text: Alternatively, introductory treatments of

text: magnetism

text: introduce the

text: Biot–Savart law

text: , which describes the magnetic field associated with an

text: electric current

text: . An observer at rest with respect to a system of static, free charges will see no magnetic field. However, a moving observer looking at the same set of charges does perceive a current, and thus a magnetic field.  That is, the magnetic field is simply the electric field, as seen in a moving coordinate system.

text: Reentry heating differs from the normal atmospheric heating associated with jet aircraft, and this governed TPS design and characteristics. The skin of high-speed jet aircraft can also become hot, but this is from frictional heating due to atmospheric friction, similar to warming one's hands by rubbing them together. The orbiter reentered the atmosphere as a blunt body by having a very high (40-degree) angle of attack, with its broad lower surface facing the direction of flight. Over 80% of the heating the orbiter experiences during reentry is caused by compression of the air ahead of the hypersonic vehicle, in accordance with the basic thermodynamic relation between pressure and temperature.  A hot shock wave was created in front of the vehicle, which deflected most of the heat and prevented the orbiter's surface from directly contacting the peak heat.  Therefore reentry heating was largely convective heat transfer between the shock wave and the orbiter's skin through superheated plasma. The key to a reusable shield against this type of heating is very low-density material, similar to how a thermos bottle inhibits convective heat transfer.

text: Reentry heating differs from the normal atmospheric heating associated with jet aircraft, and this governed TPS design and characteristics. The skin of high-speed jet aircraft can also become hot, but this is from frictional heating due to atmospheric

text: friction

text: , similar to warming one's hands by rubbing them together. The orbiter reentered the atmosphere as a

text: blunt body

text: by having a very high (40-degree)

text: angle of attack

text: , with its broad lower surface facing the direction of flight. Over 80% of the heating the orbiter experiences during reentry is caused by compression of the air ahead of the hypersonic vehicle, in accordance with the basic

text: thermodynamic relation between pressure and temperature

text: .  A hot

text: shock wave

text: was created in front of the vehicle, which deflected most of the heat and prevented the orbiter's surface from directly contacting the peak heat.  Therefore reentry heating was largely

text: convective heat transfer

text: between the shock wave and the orbiter's skin through superheated

text: plasma

text: . The key to a reusable shield against this type of heating is very low-density material, similar to how a

text: thermos bottle

text: inhibits convective heat transfer.

text: Rudolph A. Marcus of the California Institute of Technology found that when the driving force increases beyond a certain level, electron transfer will begin to slow down instead of speed up (Marcus, 1992)  and he received a Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1992 for this contribution to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems. The implication of the work is that a vectoral electron transport process may be greater the smaller the potential, as in living systems.

text: Very high electrical and thermal conductivity is common to the elements in group 11, because their single s electron is free and does not interact with the filled d subshell, as such interactions (which occur in the preceding transition metals) lower electron mobility. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, but it is not widely used for this property because of the higher cost. An exception is in radio-frequency engineering, particularly at VHF and higher frequencies where silver plating improves electrical conductivity because those currents tend to flow on the surface of conductors rather than through the interior. During World War II in the US,  tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper. Pure silver has the highest thermal conductivity of any metal, although the conductivity of carbon (in the diamond allotrope) and superfluid helium-4 are even higher. Silver also has the lowest contact resistance of any metal.

text: Very high electrical and thermal conductivity is common to the elements in group 11, because their single s electron is free and does not interact with the filled d subshell, as such interactions (which occur in the preceding transition metals) lower electron mobility. The

text: electrical conductivity

text: of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, but it is not widely used for this property because of the higher cost. An exception is in

text: radio-frequency engineering

text: , particularly at

text: VHF

text: and higher frequencies where silver plating improves electrical conductivity because those

text: currents tend to flow on the surface of conductors

text: rather than through the interior. During

text: World War II

text: in the US,  tons of silver were used in

text: electromagnets

text: for enriching

text: uranium

text: , mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper. Pure silver has the highest

text: thermal conductivity

text: of any metal, although the conductivity of

text: carbon

text: (in the

text: diamond

text: allotrope

text: ) and

text: superfluid helium-4

text: are even higher. Silver also has the lowest

text: contact resistance

text: of any metal.

text: The other electron, which was transferred to the b heme, is used to reduce the b heme, which in turn transfers the electron to the ubiquinone bound at the Q site. The movement of this electron is energetically unfavourable, as the electron is moving towards the negatively charged side of the membrane. This is offset by a favourable change in E from −100 mV in B to +50mV in the B heme.  The attached ubiquinone is thus reduced to a semiquinone radical. The proton taken up by Glu272 is subsequently transferred to a hydrogen-bonded water chain as Glu272 rotates 170° to hydrogen bond a water molecule, in turn hydrogen-bonded to a propionate of the b heme.

text: The other electron, which was transferred to the b heme, is used to reduce the b heme, which in turn transfers the electron to the ubiquinone bound at the Q site. The movement of this electron is energetically unfavourable, as the electron is moving towards the negatively charged side of the membrane. This is offset by a favourable change in E from −100 mV in B to +50mV in the B heme.  The attached ubiquinone is thus reduced to a

text: semiquinone

text: radical. The proton taken up by Glu272 is subsequently transferred to a hydrogen-bonded water chain as Glu272 rotates 170° to hydrogen bond a water molecule, in turn hydrogen-bonded to a

text: propionate

text: of the b heme.

text: Capacitance is an electrical property which is created by applying an electrical charge to two conductive objects with a gap between them. A simple demonstration is two parallel conductive plates of the same profile with a gap between them and a charge applied to them. In this situation, the Capacitance can be expressed by the equation:

text: Capacitance

text: is an electrical property which is created by applying an

text: electrical charge

text: to two conductive objects with a gap between them. A simple demonstration is two parallel conductive plates of the same profile with a gap between them and a charge applied to them. In this situation, the Capacitance can be expressed by the

text: equation

text: Applying a voltage at the electrochemical capacitor terminals moves electrolyte ions to the opposite polarized electrode and forms a double-layer in which a single layer of solvent molecules acts as separator. Pseudocapacitance can originate when specifically adsorbed ions out of the electrolyte pervade the double-layer. This pseudocapacitance stores electrical energy by means of reversible faradaic redox reactions on the surface of suitable electrodes in an electrochemical capacitor with a electric double-layer. Pseudocapacitance is accompanied with an electron charge-transfer between electrolyte and electrode coming from a de-solvated and adsorbed ion whereby only one electron per charge unit is participating. This faradaic charge transfer originates by a very fast sequence of reversible redox, intercalation or electrosorption processes. The adsorbed ion has no chemical reaction with the atoms of the electrode (no chemical bonds arise) since only a charge-transfer take place.

text: Applying a voltage at the electrochemical capacitor terminals moves electrolyte ions to the opposite polarized electrode and forms a double-layer in which a single layer of

text: solvent

text: molecules acts as separator. Pseudocapacitance can originate when specifically adsorbed ions out of the electrolyte pervade the double-layer. This pseudocapacitance stores

text: electrical energy

text: by means of reversible

text: faradaic

text: redox reactions

text: on the surface of suitable electrodes in an electrochemical capacitor with a

text: electric double-layer

text: . Pseudocapacitance is accompanied with an

text: electron

text: charge-transfer

text: between

text: electrolyte

text: and electrode coming from a

text: de-solvated

text: and

text: adsorbed

text: ion whereby only one electron per charge unit is participating. This faradaic charge transfer originates by a very fast sequence of reversible redox,

text: intercalation

text: or

text: electrosorption

text: processes. The adsorbed ion has no

text: chemical reaction

text: with the atoms of the electrode (no chemical bonds arise) since only a charge-transfer take place.

text: If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei, then that object has a net electric charge. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei, the object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the triboelectric effect.

text: If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei, then that object has a net electric charge. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei, the object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the

text: triboelectric effect

text: As a result of these reactions, six Arsenal players, two Manchester United players and Arsenal Football Club itself were charged with improper conduct by The Football Association. As a club, Arsenal were charged with "failing to ensure the proper behaviour of their players", while their players' charges ranged from one charge of improper conduct for Ashley Cole's "involvement in a confrontation with Cristiano Ronaldo after the final whistle" to Lauren's two counts of violent behaviour for "kicking out at Quinton Fortune following the penalty award and for forcibly pushing Ruud van Nistelrooy in the back following the final whistle", and two counts of improper conduct for "confronting Van Nistelrooy after Patrick Vieira's sending-off, and for confronting Ryan Giggs after the final whistle". Manchester United as a club were not charged, but Ryan Giggs was charged with improper conduct for "his involvement in a confrontation with Lauren after the match had ended" and Cristiano Ronaldo was charged with improper conduct for "confronting Martin Keown at the conclusion of the match". Phil Neville was also warned about his future behaviour.

text: As a result of these reactions, six Arsenal players, two Manchester United players and Arsenal Football Club itself were charged with improper conduct by

text: The Football Association

text: . As a club, Arsenal were charged with "failing to ensure the proper behaviour of their players", while their players' charges ranged from one charge of improper conduct for Ashley Cole's "involvement in a confrontation with Cristiano Ronaldo after the final whistle" to Lauren's two counts of violent behaviour for "kicking out at Quinton Fortune following the penalty award and for forcibly pushing Ruud van Nistelrooy in the back following the final whistle", and two counts of improper conduct for "confronting Van Nistelrooy after Patrick Vieira's sending-off, and for confronting Ryan Giggs after the final whistle". Manchester United as a club were not charged, but Ryan Giggs was charged with improper conduct for "his involvement in a confrontation with Lauren after the match had ended" and Cristiano Ronaldo was charged with improper conduct for "confronting Martin Keown at the conclusion of the match".

text: Phil Neville

text: was also warned about his future behaviour.

text: Since the electron and the tau have equal charges, the electric charge of S clearly must vanish to respect the conservation of electric charge. A Feynman diagram with S as the intermediate particle is able to convert a tau into an electron (plus some neutral decay products of the S). The MEG experiment at the Paul Scherrer Institute near Zurich will search for a similar process, in which an antimuon decays to a photon and an antielectron. In the Standard Model, such a process proceeds only by emission and re-absorption of a charged W boson, which changes the tau into a neutrino and then an electron, emitting a photon to conserve energy and momentum.

text: Since the electron and the tau have equal charges, the electric charge of S clearly must vanish to respect the conservation of electric charge. A

text: Feynman diagram

text: with S as the intermediate particle is able to convert a tau into an electron (plus some neutral decay products of the S). The

text: MEG experiment

text: at the

text: Paul Scherrer Institute

text: near

text: Zurich

text: will search for a similar process, in which an

text: antimuon

text: decays to a

text: photon

text: and an

text: antielectron

text: . In the Standard Model, such a process proceeds only by emission and re-absorption of a charged

text: W boson

text: , which changes the tau into a

text: neutrino

text: and then an electron, emitting a

text: photon

text: to

text: conserve energy

text: and

text: momentum

text: Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons. More than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. The protons have a positive electric charge, the electrons have a negative electric charge, and the neutrons have no electric charge. If the number of protons and electrons are equal, that atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge, respectively, and it is called an ion.

text: Every atom is composed of a

text: nucleus

text: and one or more

text: electron

text: s bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more

text: proton

text: s and typically a similar number of

text: neutron

text: s. Protons and neutrons are called

text: nucleon

text: s. More than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. The protons have a positive

text: electric charge

text: , the electrons have a negative electric charge, and the neutrons have no electric charge. If the number of protons and electrons are equal, that atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge, respectively, and it is called an

text: ion

text: Spin valves work because of a quantum property of electrons (and other particles) called spin.  Due to a split in the density of states of electrons at the Fermi energy in ferromagnets, there is a net spin polarisation. An electric current passing through a ferromagnet therefore carries both charge and a spin component. In comparison, a normal metal has an equal number of electrons with up and down spins so, in equilibrium situations, such materials can sustain a charge current with a zero net spin component. However, by passing a current from a ferromagnet into a normal metal it is possible for spin to be transferred. A normal metal can thus transfer spin between separate ferromagnets, subject to a long enough spin diffusion length.

text: Spin valves work because of a quantum property of electrons (and other particles) called

text: spin

text: .  Due to a split in the

text: density of states

text: of electrons at the

text: Fermi energy

text: in ferromagnets, there is a net spin polarisation. An electric current passing through a ferromagnet therefore carries both

text: charge

text: and a spin component. In comparison, a normal metal has an equal number of electrons with up and down spins so, in equilibrium situations, such materials can sustain a charge current with a zero net spin component. However, by passing a current from a ferromagnet into a normal metal it is possible for spin to be transferred. A normal metal can thus transfer spin between separate ferromagnets, subject to a long enough

text: spin diffusion

text: length.

text: Water-soluble diazonium salts react with carbon nanotubes via charge transfer in which they extract electrons from SWNT and form a stable covalent aryl bond. This covalent aryl bond forms with extremely high affinity for electrons with energies near the Fermi level, E of the nanotube. Metallic SWNT have a greater electron density near E resulting in their higher reactivity over semiconducting nanotubes. The reactant forms a charge-transfer complex at the nanotube surface, where electron donation from the latter stabilizes the transition state and accelerates the forward rate. Once the bond symmetry of the nanotube is disrupted by the formation of this defect, adjacent carbons increase in reactivity and initial selectivity for metallic SWNT is amplified. Under carefully controlled conditions this behavior can be exploited to obtain highly selective functionalization of metallic nanotubes to the near exclusion of the semiconductors.

text: Water-soluble diazonium salts react with carbon nanotubes via charge transfer in which they extract electrons from SWNT and form a stable covalent

text: aryl

text: bond. This covalent aryl bond forms with extremely high affinity for electrons with energies near the

text: Fermi level

text: , E of the nanotube. Metallic SWNT have a greater electron density near E resulting in their higher reactivity over semiconducting nanotubes. The reactant forms a

text: charge-transfer complex

text: at the nanotube surface, where electron donation from the latter stabilizes the

text: transition state

text: and accelerates the

text: forward rate

text: . Once the bond symmetry of the nanotube is disrupted by the formation of this defect, adjacent carbons increase in reactivity and initial selectivity for metallic SWNT is amplified. Under carefully controlled conditions this behavior can be exploited to obtain highly selective functionalization of metallic nanotubes to the near exclusion of the semiconductors.

text: (where e is the elementary charge). Therefore, the electrical conductivity σ satisfies:

text: (where e is the

text: elementary charge

text: ). Therefore, the electrical conductivity σ satisfies:

text: The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant regardless of changes within the system itself. This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from gauge invariance of the wave function. The conservation of charge results in the charge-current continuity equation. More generally, the net change in charge density ρ within a volume of integration V is equal to the area integral over the current density J through the closed surface S = ∂V, which is in turn equal to the net current I:

text: The total electric charge of an

text: isolated system

text: remains constant regardless of changes within the system itself. This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from

text: gauge invariance

text: of the

text: wave function

text: . The conservation of charge results in the charge-current

text: continuity equation

text: . More generally, the net change in

text: charge density

text: ρ within a volume of integration V is equal to the area integral over the

text: current density

text: J through the closed surface S = ∂V, which is in turn equal to the net

text: current

text: I:

text: A similar charging mechanism can occur within low conductivity fluids flowing through pipelines—a process called flow electrification. Fluids which have low electrical conductivity (below 50 picosiemens per meter), are called accumulators. Fluids having conductivities above 50 pS/m are called non-accumulators. In non-accumulators, charges recombine as fast as they are separated and hence electrostatic charge generation is not significant. In the petrochemical industry, 50 pS/m is the recommended minimum value of electrical conductivity for adequate removal of charge from a fluid.

text: Materials that lack electron conduction are insulators if they lack other mobile charges as well. For example, if a liquid or gas contains ions, then the ions can be made to flow as an electric current, and the material is a conductor. Electrolytes and plasmas contain ions and act as conductors whether or not electron flow is involved.

text: Materials that lack electron conduction are insulators if they lack other mobile charges as well. For example, if a liquid or gas contains ions, then the ions can be made to flow as an electric current, and the material is a conductor.

text: Electrolyte

text: s and

text: plasmas

text: contain ions and act as conductors whether or not electron flow is involved.

text: The interim report of the NPE partnership classifies electric vehicles in 3 categories, all-electric city cars, family cars and light trucks with an electric range for city transport. Development is sketched in phases 2010-2013, 2014–2017, 2018–2020 and post-2020 with the government goal to get 1 million electric cars up to 2020 and 6 million electric cars up to 2030 (for comparison there are 44 million cars in Germany in 2010). Batteries are not expected to show great advancements in terms of capacity but the safety will increase and the prices will fall to 250-300 €/kWh in the 2018-2020 time frame. In the post-2020 time frame new battery types are expected – instead of lithium-ion the fourth generation batteries will be introduced to the mobility market including lithium-air, lithium-sulfur and zinc-air batteries. As for charging stations a wide network of fast-charging points is considered possible with 22 kW (400 V 32 A) stations to be introduced in 2010-2013 and 44 kW (400 V 63 A) stations to be introduced in 2014-2017. For the time beyond 2020 there is an expectation of charging stations at 60 kW (400 V DC 150 A) allowing to charge the standard 20kWh battery pack to 80% in less than 10 minutes whereas this station type requires integration with smart grid technology and a strict world-wide standard (including SAE procedures). The "early adoptors" of electric vehicles are identified to be from the middle class owning multiple cars as well as owning a garage – the existence of a public network of charging stations is considered to be not (sic!) a prerequisite for market introduction in the first phases. Instead government funds should back the investments in privately owned charging stations for example with faster tax write off and cheap credits from the government KfW bank.

text: The interim report of the NPE partnership classifies electric vehicles in 3 categories, all-electric city cars, family cars and light trucks with an electric range for city transport. Development is sketched in phases 2010-2013, 2014–2017, 2018–2020 and post-2020 with the government goal to get 1 million electric cars up to 2020 and 6 million electric cars up to 2030 (for comparison there are 44 million cars in Germany in 2010). Batteries are not expected to show great advancements in terms of capacity but the safety will increase and the prices will fall to 250-300 €/kWh in the 2018-2020 time frame. In the post-2020 time frame new battery types are expected – instead of

text: lithium-ion

text: the fourth generation batteries will be introduced to the mobility market including

text: lithium-air

text: lithium-sulfur

text: and

text: zinc-air

text: batteries. As for charging stations a wide network of fast-charging points is considered possible with 22 kW (400 V 32 A) stations to be introduced in 2010-2013 and 44 kW (400 V 63 A) stations to be introduced in 2014-2017. For the time beyond 2020 there is an expectation of charging stations at 60 kW (400 V DC 150 A) allowing to charge the standard 20kWh battery pack to 80% in less than 10 minutes whereas this station type requires integration with smart grid technology and a strict world-wide standard (including SAE procedures). The "early adoptors" of electric vehicles are identified to be from the middle class owning multiple cars as well as owning a garage – the existence of a public network of charging stations is considered to be not (sic!) a prerequisite for market introduction in the first phases. Instead government funds should back the investments in privately owned charging stations for example with faster tax write off and cheap credits from the government

text: KfW

text: bank.

text: Park & Charge is a European infrastructure for charging  electric vehicles.

text: Park & Charge is a European infrastructure for charging

text: electric vehicles

text: In 1898, Jagadish Chandra Bose conducted the first microwave experiment on twisted structures. These twisted structures match the geometries that are known as artificial chiral media in today's terminology. By this time, he had also researched double refraction (birefringence) in crystals. Other research included polarization of electric field "waves" that crystals produce. He discovered this type of polarization in other materials including a class of dielectrics.

text: In 1898, Jagadish Chandra Bose conducted the first

text: microwave

text: experiment on twisted structures. These twisted structures match the geometries that are known as artificial

text: chiral media

text: in today's terminology. By this time, he had also researched

text: double refraction

text: (birefringence) in crystals. Other research included

text: polarization

text: of

text: electric field "waves"

text: that crystals produce. He discovered this type of polarization in other materials including a class of

text: dielectric

text: s.

text: The nature of the attraction in a charge-transfer complex is not a stable chemical bond, and is thus much weaker than covalent forces. Many such complexes can undergo an electronic transition into an excited electronic state. The excitation energy of this transition occurs very frequently in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum, which produces the characteristic intense color for these complexes. These optical absorption bands are often referred to as charge-transfer bands (CT bands). Optical spectroscopy is a powerful technique to characterize charge-transfer bands.

text: The nature of the attraction in a charge-transfer complex is not a stable chemical bond, and is thus much weaker than

text: covalent forces

text: . Many such complexes can undergo an

text: electronic transition

text: into an

text: excited electronic state

text: . The excitation energy of this transition occurs very frequently in the visible region of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: , which produces the characteristic intense color for these complexes. These

text: optical absorption bands

text: are often referred to as charge-transfer bands (CT bands). Optical spectroscopy is a powerful technique to characterize charge-transfer bands.

text: Charge control is a technology that lets an electric utility control, in real time, the charging of a gridable (plug-in) vehicle, such as a plug-in hybrid (PHEV) or a battery electric vehicle (BEV). Through charge control, the utility is able to postpone charging of the vehicle during time of peak demand. Additionally, this technology may enable the owner and the power company to track the vehicle's usage and performance, while on the road and while charging.

text: Charge control is a technology that lets an

text: electric utility

text: control, in real time, the charging of a gridable (plug-in) vehicle, such as a

text: plug-in hybrid

text: (PHEV) or a

text: battery electric vehicle

text: (BEV). Through charge control, the utility is able to postpone charging of the vehicle during time of

text: peak demand

text: . Additionally, this technology may enable the owner and the power company to track the vehicle's usage and performance, while on the road and while

text: charging

text: Bound charges set up electric dipoles in response to an applied electric field E, and polarize other nearby dipoles tending to line them up, the net accumulation of charge from the orientation of the dipoles is the bound charge. They are called bound because they cannot be removed: in the dielectric material the charges are the electrons bound to the nuclei.

text: Bound charges set up electric dipoles in response to an applied

text: electric field

text: E, and polarize other nearby dipoles tending to line them up, the net accumulation of charge from the orientation of the dipoles is the bound charge. They are called bound because they cannot be removed: in the dielectric material the charges are the

text: electron

text: s bound to the

text: nuclei

text: Friction is not itself a fundamental force. Dry friction arises from a combination of inter-surface adhesion, surface roughness, surface deformation, and surface contamination. The complexity of these interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles  impractical and necessitates the use of empirical methods for analysis and the development of theory.

text: Friction is not itself a

text: fundamental force

text: . Dry friction arises from a combination of inter-surface adhesion, surface roughness, surface deformation, and surface contamination. The complexity of these interactions makes the calculation of friction from

text: first principle

text: s  impractical and necessitates the use of

text: empirical method

text: s for analysis and the development of theory.

text: , this equation is exactly the continuity equation, appearing in many situations in physics where we need to describe the local conservation of quantities. The best example is in classical electrodynamics, where  corresponds to current density corresponding to electric charge, and the density is the charge-density. The corresponding continuity equation describes the local conservation of charges.

text: , this equation is exactly the

text: continuity equation

text: , appearing in many situations in physics where we need to describe the local conservation of quantities. The best example is in classical electrodynamics, where  corresponds to current density corresponding to electric charge, and the density is the charge-density. The corresponding continuity equation describes the local conservation of charges.

text: To date, the only such system to enter widespread production is ferroelectric RAM, or F-RAM (sometimes referred to as FeRAM). F-RAM is a random-access memory similar in construction to DRAM but (instead of a dielectric layer like in DRAM) contains a thin ferroelectric film of lead zirconate titanate [Pb(Zr,Ti)O], commonly referred to as PZT. The Zr/Ti atoms in the PZT change polarity in an electric field, thereby producing a binary switch. Unlike RAM devices, F-RAM retains its data memory when power is shut off or interrupted, due to the PZT crystal maintaining polarity.  Due to this crystal structure and how it is influenced, F-RAM offers distinct properties from other nonvolatile memory options, including extremely high endurance (exceeding 10 for 3.3 V devices), ultra low power consumption (since F-RAM does not require a charge pump like other non-volatile memories), single-cycle write speeds, and gamma radiation tolerance. Ramtron International has developed, produced, and licensed ferroelectric RAM (F-RAM), and other companies that have licensed and produced F-RAM technology include Texas Instruments, Rohm, and Fujitsu.

text: To date, the only such system to enter widespread production is

text: ferroelectric RAM

text: , or F-RAM (sometimes referred to as FeRAM). F-RAM is a

text: random-access memory

text: similar in construction to

text: DRAM

text: but (instead of a

text: dielectric

text: layer like in DRAM) contains a thin ferroelectric film of lead zirconate titanate [Pb(Zr,Ti)O], commonly referred to as PZT. The Zr/Ti atoms in the PZT change polarity in an electric field, thereby producing a binary switch. Unlike RAM devices, F-RAM retains its data memory when power is shut off or interrupted, due to the PZT crystal maintaining polarity.  Due to this crystal structure and how it is influenced, F-RAM offers distinct properties from other nonvolatile memory options, including extremely high endurance (exceeding 10 for 3.3 V devices), ultra low power consumption (since F-RAM does not require a charge pump like other non-volatile memories), single-cycle write speeds, and gamma radiation tolerance.

text: Ramtron International

text: has developed, produced, and licensed

text: ferroelectric RAM

text: (F-RAM), and other companies that have licensed and produced F-RAM technology include

text: Texas Instruments

text: Rohm

text: , and

text: Fujitsu

text: To conduct such an experiment one requires at least two electrodes.  The working electrode, which makes contact with the analyte, must apply the desired potential in a controlled way and facilitate the transfer of charge to and from the analyte.  A second electrode acts as the other half of the cell.  This second electrode must have a known potential with which to gauge the potential of the working electrode, furthermore it must balance the charge added or removed by the working electrode.  While this is a viable setup, it has a number of shortcomings.  Most significantly, it is extremely difficult for an electrode to maintain a constant potential while passing current to counter redox events at the working electrode.

text: To conduct such an experiment one requires at least two electrodes.  The

text: working electrode

text: , which makes contact with the analyte, must apply the desired potential in a controlled way and facilitate the transfer of charge to and from the analyte.  A second electrode acts as the other half of the cell.  This second electrode must have a known potential with which to gauge the potential of the working electrode, furthermore it must balance the charge added or removed by the working electrode.  While this is a viable setup, it has a number of shortcomings.  Most significantly, it is extremely difficult for an electrode to maintain a constant potential while passing current to counter redox events at the working electrode.

text: In order for an ion to pass through a pore it must dissociate itself from the water molecules that cover it in successive layers of solvation. The tendency to dehydrate, or the facility to do this, is related to the size of the ion: larger ions can do it more easily that the smaller ions, so that a pore with weak polar centres will preferentially allow passage of larger ions over the smaller ones.When the interior of the channel is composed of polar groups from the side chains of the component amino acids, the interaction of a dehydrated ion with these centres can be more important than the facility for dehydration in conferring the specificity of the channel. For example, a channel made up of histidines and arginines, with positively charged groups, will selectively repel ions of the same polarity, but will facilitate the passage of negatively charged ions.  Also, in this case, the smallest ions will be able to interact more closely due to the spatial arrangement of the molecule (stericity), which greatly increases the charge-charge interactions and therefore exaggerates the effect.

text: In order for an ion to pass through a pore it must dissociate itself from the water molecules that cover it in successive layers of

text: solvation

text: . The tendency to dehydrate, or the facility to do this, is related to the size of the ion: larger ions can do it more easily that the smaller ions, so that a pore with weak polar centres will preferentially allow passage of larger ions over the smaller ones.When the interior of the channel is composed of polar groups from the side chains of the component amino acids, the interaction of a dehydrated ion with these centres can be more important than the facility for dehydration in conferring the specificity of the channel. For example, a channel made up of histidines and arginines, with positively charged groups, will selectively repel ions of the same polarity, but will facilitate the passage of negatively charged ions.  Also, in this case, the smallest ions will be able to interact more closely due to the spatial arrangement of the molecule (stericity), which greatly increases the charge-charge interactions and therefore exaggerates the effect.

text: Another way of looking at muon-catalyzed fusion is to try to visualize the ground state orbit of a muon around either a deuteron or a triton.  Suppose the muon happens to have fallen into an orbit around a deuteron initially, which it has about a 50% chance of doing if there are approximately equal numbers of deuterons and tritons present, forming an electrically neutral muonic deuterium atom (d-μ) that acts somewhat like a "fat, heavy neutron" due both to its relatively small size (again, about 207 times smaller than an electrically neutral electronic deuterium atom (d-e)) and to the very effective "shielding" by the muon of the positive charge of the proton in the deuteron.  Even so, the muon still has a much greater chance of being transferred to any triton that comes near enough to the muonic deuterium than it does of forming a muonic molecular ion.  The electrically neutral muonic tritium atom (t-μ) thus formed will act somewhat like an even "fatter, heavier neutron," but it will most likely hang on to its muon, eventually forming a muonic molecular ion, most likely due to the resonant formation of a hyperfine molecular state within an entire deuterium molecule D (d=e=d), with the muonic molecular ion acting as a "fatter, heavier nucleus" of the "fatter, heavier" neutral "muonic/electronic" deuterium molecule ([d-μ-t]=e=d), as predicted by Vesman, an Estonian graduate student, in 1967.

text: Another way of looking at muon-catalyzed fusion is to try to visualize the ground state orbit of a muon around either a deuteron or a triton.  Suppose the muon happens to have fallen into an orbit around a deuteron initially, which it has about a 50% chance of doing if there are approximately equal numbers of deuterons and tritons present, forming an electrically neutral muonic deuterium atom (d-μ) that acts somewhat like a "fat, heavy neutron" due both to its relatively small size (again, about 207 times smaller than an electrically neutral electronic deuterium atom (d-e)) and to the very effective "shielding" by the muon of the positive charge of the proton in the deuteron.  Even so, the muon still has a much greater chance of being transferred to any triton that comes near enough to the muonic deuterium than it does of forming a muonic molecular ion.  The electrically neutral muonic tritium atom (t-μ) thus formed will act somewhat like an even "fatter, heavier neutron," but it will most likely hang on to its muon, eventually forming a muonic molecular ion, most likely due to the resonant formation of a

text: hyperfine

text: molecular state within an entire deuterium

text: molecule

text: D (d=e=d), with the muonic molecular ion acting as a "fatter, heavier nucleus" of the "fatter, heavier" neutral "muonic/electronic" deuterium molecule ([d-μ-t]=e=d), as predicted by Vesman, an Estonian graduate student, in 1967.

text: In an eddy current brake the magnetic field may be created by a permanent magnet, or an electromagnet so the braking force can be turned on and off or varied by varying the electric current in the electromagnet's windings.  Another advantage is that since the brake does not work by friction, there are no brake shoe surfaces to wear out, necessitating replacement, as with friction brakes.  A disadvantage is that since the braking force is proportional to velocity the brake has no holding force when the moving object is stationary, as is provided by static friction in a friction brake, so in vehicles it must be supplemented by a friction brake.

text: In an eddy current brake the magnetic field may be created by a

text: permanent magnet

text: , or an

text: electromagnet

text: so the braking force can be turned on and off or varied by varying the

text: electric current

text: in the electromagnet's windings.  Another advantage is that since the brake does not work by

text: friction

text: , there are no

text: brake shoe

text: surfaces to

text: wear

text: out, necessitating replacement, as with friction brakes.  A disadvantage is that since the braking force is proportional to velocity the brake has no holding force when the moving object is stationary, as is provided by

text: static friction

text: in a friction brake, so in vehicles it must be supplemented by a friction brake.

text: TCNQ achieved great attention because it forms charge-transfer salts with high electrical conductivity. These discoveries were influential in the development of organic electronics.  Illustrative is the product from treatment of TCNQ with the electron donor tetrathiafulvene (TTF), TCNQ forms an ion pair, the TTF-TCNQ complex, in which TCNQ is the acceptor. This salt crystallizes in a one-dimensionally stacked polymer, consisting of segregated stacks of cations and anions of the donors and the acceptors, respectively. The complex crystal is an organic semiconductor that exhibits metallic electric conductivity.

text: TCNQ achieved great attention because it forms

text: charge-transfer salt

text: s with high electrical conductivity. These discoveries were influential in the development of

text: organic electronics

text: .  Illustrative is the product from treatment of TCNQ with the

text: electron donor

text: tetrathiafulvene

text: (TTF), TCNQ forms an ion pair, the TTF-TCNQ complex, in which TCNQ is the acceptor. This salt crystallizes in a one-dimensionally stacked polymer, consisting of segregated stacks of cations and anions of the donors and the acceptors, respectively. The complex crystal is an

text: organic semiconductor

text: that exhibits metallic

text: electric conductivity

text: It is the force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it or makes an effortto move across it. The friction force opposes the motion of the object. Friction resultswhen two surfaces are pressed together closely, causing attractive intermolecular forcesbetween the molecules of the two different surface. As such, friction depends uponthe nature of the two surfaces and upon the degree to which they are pressed together.Friction always acts parallel to the surface in contact and opposite the direction ofmotion. The friction force can be calculated using the equation.

text: Electrons may enter an electron transport chain at the level of a mobile cytochrome or quinone carrier.  For example, electrons from inorganic electron donors (nitrite, ferrous iron, etc.) enter the electron transport chain at the cytochrome level. When electrons enter at a redox level greater than NADH, the electron transport chain must operate in reverse to produce this necessary, higher-energy molecule.

text: On January 21, 2009, the day he was inaugurated, United States President Barack Obama issued three Executive orders related to the detention of individuals in Guantanamo.That new review system was composed of officials from six departments, where the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense.  When it reported back, a year later, the Joint Review Task Force classified some individuals as too dangerous to be transferred from Guantanamo, even though there was no evidence to justify laying charges against them. On April 9, 2013, that document was made public after a Freedom of Information Act request.Faiz Mohammed Ahmed Al Kandari was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama said those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a Periodic Review Board.

text: United States President

text: Barack Obama

text: issued three

text: Executive orders

text: Joint Review Task Force

text: Freedom of Information Act

text: request.Faiz Mohammed Ahmed Al Kandari was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama said those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a

text: Periodic Review Board

text: Shrinking the two-sphere model to the molecular level creates the problem that in the self-exchange reaction the charge can no longer be transferred in arbitrary amounts, but only as a single electron. However, the polarization still is determined by the total ensemble of the solvent molecules and therefore can still be treated classically, i.e. the polarization energy is not subject to quantum limitations. Therefore, the energy of solvent reorganization can be calculated as being due to a hypothetical transfer and back transfer of a partial elementary charge according to the Marcus formula. Thus the reorganization energy for chemical redox reactions, which is a Gibbs free energy, is also a parabolic function of Δe of this hypothetical transfer, For the self exchange reaction, where for symmetry reasons Δe = 0.5, the Gibbs free energy of activation is ΔG(0) = λ/4 (see Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 intersection of the parabolas I and f, f(0), respectively).

text: Biological membranes are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. They surround cells and organelles with a semi-permeable barrier that prevents free flow of substances. The membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer structure and often embedded or otherwise associated proteins, along with cholesterol and glycolipids. The phospholipid bilayer is a two-layer structure mainly composed of phospholipids, which are amphiphilic molecules that have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions. The hydrophilic region contains the polar head group. This region is exposed to aqueous substances located mainly in the exterior portion of the biomembrane. The hydrophilic region consists of the non-polar acyl chains or fatty acids groups facing the interior of the biomembrane. Phospholipids consist of two non-polar hydrocarbon chains with ester or ether bonds to the phosphate group which is also linked by ester or ether bonds to the polar hydrophilic region. The phospholipid carries a negative charge due to the presence of the phosphate group. Its overall polarity depends on the charges of the hydroxyl groups or alcohols such as choline, ethanolamine, inositol, serine, etc. attached to the phosphate group.  There are six basic functions that are associated with biomembranes:

text: Biological membranes

text: are found in both

text: prokaryotic

text: and

text: eukaryotic

text: cells. They surround cells and

text: organelle

text: s with a semi-permeable barrier that prevents free flow of substances. The membrane consists of a

text: phospholipid bilayer

text: structure and often embedded or otherwise associated proteins, along with

text: cholesterol

text: and

text: glycolipid

text: s. The

text: phospholipid

text: bilayer is a two-layer structure mainly composed of phospholipids, which are

text: amphiphilic

text: molecules that have

text: hydrophilic

text: and

text: hydrophobic

text: regions. The hydrophilic region contains the polar head group. This region is exposed to aqueous substances located mainly in the exterior portion of the biomembrane. The hydrophilic region consists of the non-polar acyl chains or fatty acids groups facing the interior of the biomembrane. Phospholipids consist of two non-polar hydrocarbon chains with ester or ether bonds to the phosphate group which is also linked by ester or ether bonds to the polar hydrophilic region. The phospholipid carries a negative charge due to the presence of the phosphate group. Its overall polarity depends on the charges of the hydroxyl groups or alcohols such as choline, ethanolamine, inositol, serine, etc. attached to the phosphate group.  There are six basic functions that are associated with biomembranes:

text: In semiconductor detectors, ionizing radiation is measured by the number of charge carriers set free in the detector material which is arranged between two electrodes, by the radiation. Ionizing radiation produces free electrons and holes. The number of electron-hole pairs is proportional to the energy of the radiation to the semiconductor.  As a result, a number of electrons are transferred from the valence band to the conduction band, and an equal number of holes are created in the valence band.  Under the influence of an electric field, electrons and holes travel to the electrodes, where they result in a pulse that can be measured in an outer circuit, as described by the Shockley-Ramo theorem. The holes travel in the opposite direction and can also be measured. As the amount of energy required to create an electron-hole pair is known, and is independent of the energy of the incident radiation, measuring the number of electron-hole pairs allows the intensity of the incident radiation to be determined.

text: In semiconductor detectors, ionizing radiation is measured by the number of

text: charge carrier

text: s set free in the detector material which is arranged between two

text: electrode

text: s, by the radiation. Ionizing radiation produces free

text: electron

text: s and

text: holes

text: . The number of electron-hole pairs is proportional to the energy of the radiation to the semiconductor.  As a result, a number of electrons are transferred from the

text: valence band

text: to the

text: conduction band

text: , and an equal number of holes are created in the valence band.  Under the influence of an

text: electric field

text: , electrons and holes travel to the electrodes, where they result in a pulse that can be measured in an outer

text: circuit

text: , as described by the

text: Shockley-Ramo theorem

text: . The holes travel in the opposite direction and can also be measured. As the amount of energy required to create an electron-hole pair is known, and is independent of the energy of the incident radiation, measuring the number of electron-hole pairs allows the intensity of the incident radiation to be determined.

text: Electrostatic generators generate electricity by building up electric charge.  Early types were friction machines, later ones were influence machines that worked by electrostatic induction.  The Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic generator still used in research today.

text: Electrostatic generator

text: s generate electricity by building up electric charge.  Early types were

text: friction

text: machines, later ones were influence machines that worked by

text: electrostatic induction

text: .  The

text: Van de Graaff generator

text: is an electrostatic generator still used in research today.

text: Goldman became the attorney of Leon Trotsky, cloistered in exile in Mexico City, and defended him there in April 1937 against the charges leveled against him by the regime of Joseph Stalin in hearings conducted before a high-profile commission headed by liberal educator John Dewey. Goldman also served as an intermediary for Trotsky in the transfer of his personal and political archive to the library at Harvard University.

text: Goldman became the attorney of

text: Leon Trotsky

text: , cloistered in exile in

text: Mexico City

text: , and defended him there in April 1937 against the charges leveled against him by the regime of

text: Joseph Stalin

text: in hearings conducted before a high-profile

text: commission

text: headed by liberal educator

text: John Dewey

text: . Goldman also served as an intermediary for Trotsky in the transfer of his personal and political archive to the library at

text: Harvard University

text: An example illustrating the foregoing involves the transfer of “profit” fees and charges by a local government in connection with the provision of electric service.  This occurs when the local government intentionally overcharges ratepayers for electric service and then subsequently transfers a percentage of the utility fee and charge proceeds (known as “profit”) to the general fund of the local agency to be spent at the discretion of local politicians.  If the local agency also levies a utility users tax on electric service, which tax proceeds are also typically placed in the general fund of the local agency to be spent at the discretion of local politicians, then it may be a better option to pursue a compensatory initiative under Proposition 218 providing for the repeal or reduction of the utility users tax as it pertains to electric service.  In this instance, a successfully constructed compensatory initiative would at least offset any resulting increase in general fund revenues from the utility fund transfer with a corresponding reduction (or elimination) of utility tax revenues.

text: The equation would apply equally to masses (or other conserved quantities), where the word mass is substituted for the words electric charge above.

text: While the term insulator implies low electrical conduction, dielectric typically means materials with a high polarizability. The latter is expressed by a number called the relative permittivity (also known in older texts as dielectric constant). The term insulator is generally used to indicate electrical obstruction while the term dielectric is used to indicate the energy storing capacity of the material (by means of polarization). A common example of a dielectric is the electrically insulating material between the metallic plates of a capacitor. The polarization of the dielectric by the applied electric field increases the capacitor's surface charge for the given electric field strength.

text: While the term insulator implies low

text: electrical conduction

text: , dielectric typically means materials with a high

text: polarizability

text: . The latter is expressed by a number called the

text: relative permittivity

text: (also known in older texts as dielectric constant). The term insulator is generally used to indicate electrical obstruction while the term dielectric is used to indicate the energy storing capacity of the material (by means of polarization). A common example of a dielectric is the electrically insulating material between the metallic plates of a

text: capacitor

text: . The polarization of the dielectric by the applied electric field increases the capacitor's surface charge for the given electric field strength.

text: Substances that have the ability to reduce other substances (cause them to gain electrons) are said to be reductive or reducing and are known as reducing agents, reductants, or reducers. The reductant (reducing agent) transfers electrons to another substance, and is thus itself oxidized. And, because it "donates" electrons, the reducing agent is also called an electron donor. Electron donors can also form charge transfer complexes with electron acceptors.

text: Substances that have the ability to reduce other substances (cause them to gain electrons) are said to be reductive or reducing and are known as

text: reducing agent

text: s, reductants, or reducers. The reductant (reducing agent) transfers electrons to another substance, and is thus itself oxidized. And, because it "donates" electrons, the reducing agent is also called an

text: electron donor

text: . Electron donors can also form

text: charge transfer complex

text: es with electron acceptors.

text: A fine mist of oil droplets was sprayed into a chamber above the plates.  The oil was of a type usually used in vacuum apparatus and was chosen because it had an extremely low vapour pressure. Ordinary oil would evaporate under the heat of the light source causing the mass of the oil drop to change over the course of the experiment. Some oil drops became electrically charged through friction with the nozzle as they were sprayed. Alternatively, charging could be brought about by including an ionising radiation source (such as an X-ray tube). The droplets entered the space between the plates and, because they were charged, could be made to rise and fall by changing the voltage across the plates.

text: A fine mist of oil droplets was sprayed into a chamber above the plates.  The oil was of a type usually used in

text: vacuum

text: apparatus and was chosen because it had an extremely low

text: vapour pressure

text: . Ordinary oil would evaporate under the heat of the light source causing the mass of the oil drop to change over the course of the experiment. Some oil drops became electrically charged through friction with the nozzle as they were sprayed. Alternatively, charging could be brought about by including an ionising radiation source (such as an

text: X-ray tube

text: ). The droplets entered the space between the plates and, because they were charged, could be made to rise and fall by changing the voltage across the plates.

text: In PCET, the proton and the electron (i) start from different orbitals and (ii) are transferred to different orbitals.  They transfer in a concerted elementary step.  PCET contrast to step-wise mechanisms in which the electron and proton are transferred sequentially.

text: By convention, the flavor quantum numbers (strangeness, charm, bottomness, and topness) carry the same sign as the electric charge of the particle. So, since the strange and bottom quarks have a negative charge, they have flavor quantum numbers equal to −1. And since the charm and top quarks have positive electric charge, their flavor quantum numbers are +1.

text: The law of superposition allows Coulomb's law to be extended to include any number of point charges. The force acting on a point charge due to a system of point charges is simply the vector addition of the individual forces acting alone on that point charge due to each one of the charges. The resulting force vector is parallel to the electric field vector at that point, with that point charge removed.

text: The

text: law of superposition

text: allows Coulomb's law to be extended to include any number of point charges. The force acting on a point charge due to a system of point charges is simply the

text: vector addition

text: of the individual forces acting alone on that point charge due to each one of the charges. The resulting force vector is parallel to the

text: electric field

text: vector at that point, with that point charge removed.

text: In solid-state physics, a band gap, also called an energy gap or bandgap, is an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist. In graphs of the electronic band structure of solids, the band gap generally refers to the energy difference (in electron volts) between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band in insulators and semiconductors.  It is the energy required to promote a valence electron bound to an atom to become a conduction electron, which is free to move within the crystal lattice and serve as a charge carrier to conduct electric current.  It is closely related to the HOMO/LUMO gap in chemistry. If the valence band is completely full and the conduction band is completely empty, then electrons cannot move in the solid; however, if some electrons transfer from the valence to the conduction band, then current can flow (see carrier generation and recombination). Therefore, the band gap is a major factor determining the electrical conductivity of a solid. Substances with large band gaps are generally insulators, those with smaller band gaps are semiconductors, while conductors either have very small band gaps or none, because the valence and conduction bands overlap.

text: In

text: solid-state physics

text: , a band gap, also called an energy gap or bandgap, is an energy range in a

text: solid

text: where no

text: electron

text: states can exist. In graphs of the

text: electronic band structure

text: of solids, the band gap generally refers to the energy difference (in

text: electron volt

text: s) between the top of the

text: valence band

text: and the bottom of the

text: conduction band

text: in

text: insulators

text: and

text: semiconductor

text: s.  It is the energy required to promote a

text: valence electron

text: bound to an atom to become a

text: conduction electron

text: , which is free to move within the crystal lattice and serve as a charge carrier to conduct

text: electric current

text: .  It is closely related to the

text: HOMO/LUMO gap

text: in chemistry. If the valence band is completely full and the conduction band is completely empty, then electrons cannot move in the solid; however, if some electrons transfer from the valence to the conduction band, then current can flow (see

text: carrier generation and recombination

text: ). Therefore, the band gap is a major factor determining the

text: electrical conductivity

text: of a solid. Substances with large band gaps are generally

text: insulators

text: , those with smaller band gaps are

text: semiconductor

text: s, while

text: conductors

text: either have very small band gaps or none, because the valence and conduction bands overlap.

text: A point charge is an idealized model of a particle which has an electric charge. A point charge is an electric charge at a mathematical point with no dimensions.

text: A point charge is an idealized model of a particle which has an

text: electric charge

text: . A point charge is an electric charge at a

text: mathematical point

text: with no dimensions.

text: In physics, charge conservation is the principle that electric charge can neither be created nor destroyed.  The net quantity of electric charge, the amount of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge in the universe, is always conserved.  Charge conservation was first proposed by British scientist William Watson in 1746 and American stateman and scientist Benjamin Franklin in 1747, although the first convincing proof was given by Michael Faraday in 1843.

text: In

text: physics

text: , charge conservation is the principle that

text: electric charge

text: can neither be created nor destroyed.  The net quantity of electric charge, the amount of

text: positive charge

text: minus the amount of

text: negative charge

text: in the universe, is always

text: conserved

text: .  Charge conservation was first proposed by British scientist

text: William Watson

text: in 1746 and American stateman and scientist

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: in 1747, although the first convincing proof was given by

text: Michael Faraday

text: in 1843.

text: X-rays carry no charge, but at the energies involved, Auger decay of ionized species in a specimen is more probable than radiative decay. High-energy radiation exceeding the ionization potential also generates free electrons which are negligible compared to those produced by electron beams which are charged. Charging of the sample following ionization is an extremely weak possibility when it cannot be guaranteed the ionized electrons leaving the surface or remaining in the sample are adequately balanced from other sources in time. The energy transfer to electrons as a result of ionizing radiation results in separated positive and negative charges which quickly recombine due partly to the long range of the Coulomb force. Insulating films like gate oxides and resists have been observed to charge to a positive or negative potential under electron-beam irradiation. Insulating films are eventually neutralized locally by space charge (electrons entering and exiting the surface) at the resist-vacuum interface and Fowler-Nordheim injection from the substrate. The range of the electrons in the film can be affected by the local electric field. The situation is complicated by the presence of holes (positively charged electron vacancies) which are generated along with the secondary electrons, and which may be expected to follow them around. As neutralization proceeds, any initial charge concentration effectively starts to spread out. The final chemical state of the film is reached after neutralization is completed, after all the electrons have eventually slowed down. Usually, excepting X-ray steppers, charging can be further controlled by flood gun or resist thickness or charge dissipation layer.

text: X-rays carry no charge, but at the energies involved, Auger decay of ionized species in a specimen is more probable than radiative decay. High-energy radiation exceeding the ionization potential also generates free electrons which are negligible compared to those produced by electron beams which are charged. Charging of the sample following ionization is an extremely weak possibility when it cannot be guaranteed the ionized electrons leaving the surface or remaining in the sample are adequately balanced from other sources in time. The energy transfer to electrons as a result of ionizing radiation results in separated positive and negative charges which quickly recombine due partly to the long range of the Coulomb force. Insulating films like gate oxides and resists have been observed to charge to a positive or negative potential under electron-beam irradiation. Insulating films are eventually neutralized locally by space charge (electrons entering and exiting the surface) at the resist-vacuum interface and

text: Fowler-Nordheim injection

text: from the substrate. The range of the electrons in the film can be affected by the local electric field. The situation is complicated by the presence of holes (positively charged electron vacancies) which are generated along with the secondary electrons, and which may be expected to follow them around. As neutralization proceeds, any initial charge concentration effectively starts to spread out. The final chemical state of the film is reached after neutralization is completed, after all the electrons have eventually slowed down. Usually, excepting X-ray steppers, charging can be further controlled by flood gun or resist thickness or charge dissipation layer.

text: On January 21, 2009, the day he was inaugurated, United States President Barack Obama issued three Executive orders related to the detention of individuals in Guantanamo.That new review system was composed of officials from six departments, where the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense.  When it reported back, a year later, the Joint Review Task Force classified some individuals as too dangerous to be transferred from Guantanamo, even though there was no evidence to justify laying charges against them. On April 9, 2013, that document was made public after a Freedom of Information Act request.Mohammed Abdul Malik Bajabu was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama said those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a Periodic Review Board.

text: United States President

text: Barack Obama

text: issued three

text: Executive orders

text: Joint Review Task Force

text: Freedom of Information Act

text: request.Mohammed Abdul Malik Bajabu was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama said those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a

text: Periodic Review Board

text: Adding an electron through an ion-ion reaction is called electron transfer dissociation (ETD). Similar to electron-capture dissociation, ETD induces fragmentation of cations  (e.g. peptides or proteins) by transferring electrons to them. It was invented by Donald F. Hunt, Joshua Coon, John E. P. Syka and Jarrod Marto at the University of Virginia.

text: Adding an electron through an ion-ion reaction is called

text: electron transfer dissociation

text: (ETD). Similar to electron-capture dissociation, ETD induces fragmentation of cations  (e.g.

text: peptide

text: s or

text: protein

text: s) by transferring

text: electron

text: s to them. It was invented by

text: Donald F. Hunt

text: Joshua Coon

text: , John E. P. Syka and Jarrod Marto at the

text: University of Virginia

text: While generating discharges, electrical energy from the secondary and toroid is transferred to the surrounding air as electrical charge, heat, light, and sound. The process is similar to charging or discharging a capacitor, except that a Tesla coil uses AC instead of DC.  The current that arises from shifting charges within a capacitor is called a displacement current. Tesla coil discharges are formed as a result of displacement currents as pulses of electrical charge are rapidly transferred between the high-voltage toroid and nearby regions within the air (called space charge regions). Although the space charge regions around the toroid are invisible, they play a profound role in the appearance and location of Tesla coil discharges.

text: While generating discharges, electrical energy from the secondary and toroid is transferred to the surrounding air as electrical charge, heat, light, and sound. The process is similar to charging or discharging a

text: capacitor

text: , except that a Tesla coil uses AC instead of DC.  The current that arises from shifting charges within a capacitor is called a

text: displacement current

text: . Tesla coil discharges are formed as a result of displacement currents as pulses of electrical charge are rapidly transferred between the high-voltage toroid and nearby regions within the air (called

text: space charge

text: regions). Although the space charge regions around the toroid are invisible, they play a profound role in the appearance and location of Tesla coil discharges.

text: High conductivity in a material comes from it having many partially filled states and much state delocalization.Metals are good electrical conductors and have many partially filled states with energies near their Fermi level.Insulators, by contrast, have few partially filled states, their Fermi levels sit within band gaps with few energy states to occupy.Importantly, an insulator can be made to conduct by increasing its temperature: heating provides energy to promote some electrons across the band gap, inducing partially filled states in both the band of states beneath the band gap (valence band) and the band of states above the band gap (conduction band).An (intrinsic) semiconductor has a band gap that is smaller than that of an insulator and at room temperature significant numbers of electrons can be excited to cross the band gap.

text: High conductivity in a material comes from it having many partially filled states and much state delocalization.Metals are good

text: electrical conductor

text: s and have many partially filled states with energies near their Fermi level.

text: Insulators

text: , by contrast, have few partially filled states, their Fermi levels sit within

text: band gap

text: s with few energy states to occupy.Importantly, an insulator can be made to conduct by increasing its temperature: heating provides energy to promote some electrons across the band gap, inducing partially filled states in both the band of states beneath the band gap (

text: valence band

text: ) and the band of states above the band gap (

text: conduction band

text: ).An (intrinsic) semiconductor has a band gap that is smaller than that of an insulator and at room temperature significant numbers of electrons can be excited to cross the band gap.

text: Conductive wireless charging or simply conductive charging uses conductive power transfer to eliminate wires between the charger and the charging device. It requires the use of a charging board as the power transmitter to deliver the power, and a charging device, with a built-in receiver, to receive the power.  Once the charging board recognizes the valid receiver, the charging begins.

text: Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction:

text: Friction is the

text: force

text: resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction:

text: Polarization is observed in the light of the sky, as this is due to sunlight scattered by aerosols as it passes through the earth's atmosphere. The scattered light produces the brightness and color in clear skies. This partial polarization of scattered light can be used to darken the sky in photographs, increasing the contrast. This effect is most strongly observed at points on the sky making a 90° angle to the sun. Polarizing filters use these effects to optimize the results of photographing scenes in which reflection or scattering by the sky is involved.

text: Polarization is observed in the light of the

text: sky

text: , as this is due to sunlight scattered by

text: aerosols

text: as it passes through the

text: earth's atmosphere

text: . The

text: scattered

text: light produces the brightness and color in clear skies. This partial polarization of scattered light can be used to darken the sky in photographs, increasing the contrast. This effect is most strongly observed at points on the sky making a 90° angle to the sun. Polarizing filters use these effects to optimize the results of photographing scenes in which reflection or scattering by the sky is involved.

text: ESD prevention within an EPA may include using appropriate ESD-safe packing material, the use of conductive filaments on garments worn by assembly workers, conducting wrist straps and foot-straps to prevent high voltages from accumulating on workers' bodies, anti-static mats or conductive flooring materials to conduct harmful electric charges away from the work area, and humidity control. Humid conditions prevent electrostatic charge generation because the thin layer of moisture that accumulates on most surfaces serves to dissipate electric charges.

text: ESD prevention within an EPA may include using appropriate ESD-safe packing material, the use of conductive filaments on garments worn by assembly workers,

text: conducting wrist strap

text: s and foot-straps to prevent high voltages from accumulating on workers' bodies,

text: anti-static mats

text: or conductive flooring materials to conduct harmful electric charges away from the work area, and

text: humidity

text: control. Humid conditions prevent electrostatic charge generation because the thin layer of moisture that accumulates on most surfaces serves to dissipate electric charges.

text: Hullermann was transferred in 2008 to Bad Tölz as a chaplain for tourists and ordered not to have contact with youths. Despite these orders, he conducted church services involving young people.  The priest in charge of Hullerman at Bad Tölz said that his superiors had given him no warningof Hullermann's history of child abuse.  Parishioners at Bad Tölz described Hullermann as friendly, down to earth and popular with churchgoers, especially children and teenagers.

text: Hullermann was transferred in 2008 to

text: Bad Tölz

text: as a chaplain for tourists and ordered not to have contact with youths. Despite these orders, he conducted church services involving young people.  The priest in charge of Hullerman at Bad Tölz said that his superiors had given him no warningof Hullermann's history of child abuse.  Parishioners at Bad Tölz described Hullermann as friendly, down to earth and popular with churchgoers, especially children and teenagers.

text: The thermal conductance of that particular construction is the inverse of the thermal resistance. Thermal conductivity and conductance are analogous to electrical conductivity (A·m·V) and electrical conductance (A·V).

text: The thermal conductance of that particular construction is the inverse of the thermal resistance. Thermal conductivity and conductance are

text: analogous

text: to

text: electrical conductivity

text: (A·m·V) and

text: electrical conductance

text: (A·V).

text: Under normal circumstances,  even polar materials do not display a net dipole moment.  As a consequence there are no electric dipole equivalents of bar magnets because the intrinsic dipole moment is neutralized by "free" electric charge that builds up on the surface by internal conduction or from the ambient atmosphere.  Polar crystals only reveal their nature when perturbed in some fashion that momentarily upsets the balance with the compensating surface charge.

text: Even if gauge symmetry is exact, however, there might be apparent electric charge non-conservation if charge could leak from our normal 3-dimensional space into hidden extra dimensions.

text: Even if gauge symmetry is exact, however, there might be apparent electric charge non-conservation if charge could leak from our normal 3-dimensional space into hidden

text: extra dimensions

text: This establishes the important principle that electrostatic charges on conductive objects reside on the surface of the object.  External electric fields induce surface charges on metal objects that exactly cancel the field within.

text: With the Liberty engine, operating at 500 to 2,000 rpm and with the Hispano-Suiza 300 hp operating at 1,400 to 2,200, it was found that the friction torque increases approximately as a linear function of engine speed at a given air density, and approximately as a linear function of density at a constant speed. This means that the friction horsepower increases approximately as the square of the speed. Actually the reIation of torque and speedis such that the friction horsepower increases with speed raised to a power between the first and second, this power increasing with speed, approaching the square. The relation depends upon the engine design and speed and the air density. Any statements as to the distribution of the friction losses are based upon incomplete evidence; the indications are, however, that the pumping losses are about half of the total friction. There is no doubt that for a given process of combustion and at a constant speed the engine power is directly proportional to the weight of charge supplied; in other words, proportional to the charge density at the beginning of compression. As a consequence, if operating conditions are sensibly constant except for altitude, the engine power -will be closely proportional to the air density. The volumetric efficiency increases with increase of air temperature at constant pressure, so that power does not decrease as fast as the air density when the temperature is raised, due to changes in vaporization and heat transfer.

text: With the Liberty engine, operating at 500 to 2,000 rpm and with the Hispano-Suiza 300 hp operating at 1,400 to 2,200, it was found that the friction torque increases approximately as a linear function of engine speed at a given

text: air density

text: , and approximately as a linear function of density at a constant speed. This means that the friction horsepower increases approximately as the square of the speed. Actually the reIation of torque and speedis such that the friction horsepower increases with speed raised to a power between the first and second, this power increasing with speed, approaching the square. The relation depends upon the engine design and speed and the air density. Any statements as to the distribution of the friction losses are based upon incomplete evidence; the indications are, however, that the pumping losses are about half of the total friction. There is no doubt that for a given process of combustion and at a constant speed the engine power is directly proportional to the weight of charge supplied; in other words, proportional to the charge density at the beginning of compression. As a consequence, if operating conditions are sensibly constant except for altitude, the engine power -will be closely proportional to the air density. The volumetric efficiency increases with increase of air temperature at constant pressure, so that power does not decrease as fast as the air density when the temperature is raised, due to changes in vaporization and heat transfer.

text: Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat (internal energy) by microscopic collisions  of particles and movement of electrons within a body. The microscopically colliding objects, that include molecules, atoms, and electrons, transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic and potential energy, jointly known as internal energy. Conduction takes place in all phases of matter, such as solids, liquids, gases and plasmas.  The rate at which energy is conducted as heat between two bodies is a function of the temperature difference (temperature gradient) between the two bodies and the properties of the conductive medium through which the heat is transferred. Thermal conduction was originally called diffusion.

text: Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat (

text: internal energy

text: ) by microscopic collisions  of particles and movement of electrons within a body. The microscopically colliding objects, that include molecules, atoms, and electrons, transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic and potential energy, jointly known as internal energy. Conduction takes place in all phases of

text: matter

text: , such as solids, liquids, gases and plasmas.  The rate at which energy is conducted as heat between two bodies is a function of the temperature difference (

text: temperature gradient

text: ) between the two bodies and the properties of the conductive medium through which the heat is transferred. Thermal conduction was originally called diffusion.

text: The ratcheting CVT is a transmission that relies on static friction and is based on a set of elements that successively become engaged and then disengaged between the driving system and the driven system, often using oscillating or indexing motion in conjunction with one-way clutches or ratchets that rectify and sum only "forward" motion. The transmission ratio is adjusted by changing linkage geometry within the oscillating elements, so that the summed maximum linkage speed is adjusted, even when the average linkage speed remains constant. Power is transferred from input to output only when the clutch or ratchet is engaged, and therefore when it is locked into a static friction mode where the driving & driven rotating surfaces momentarily rotate together without slippage.

text: Historically, the IVI was the first known electroacoustic phenomenon. It was predicted by Peter Debye in 1933. He pointed out that the difference in the effective mass or friction coefficient between anions and cations would result in different displacement amplitudes in a longitudinal wave. This difference creates an alternating electric potential between various points in a sound wave. This effect was extensively used in the 1950s and 1960s for characterizing ion solvation. These works are mostly associated with the names of Zana and Yaeger, who published a review of their studies in 1982.

text: Historically, the IVI was the first known

text: electroacoustic phenomenon

text: . It was predicted by

text: Peter Debye

text: in 1933. He pointed out that the difference in the

text: effective mass

text: or

text: friction coefficient

text: between

text: anion

text: s and

text: cation

text: s would result in different displacement amplitudes in a

text: longitudinal wave

text: . This difference creates an alternating

text: electric potential

text: between various points in a

text: sound wave

text: . This effect was extensively used in the 1950s and 1960s for characterizing ion

text: solvation

text: . These works are mostly associated with the names of Zana and Yaeger, who published a review of their studies in 1982.

text: Conduction is the result of many series of hops through this four-dimensional array and as short-range hops are favoured, it is the average nearest-neighbour "distance" between states which determines the overall conductivity.  Thus the conductivity has the form

text: Polarization is a general property of waves that describes the orientation of their oscillations. For transverse waves such as many electromagnetic waves, it describes the orientation of the oscillations in the plane perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel. The oscillations may be oriented in a single direction (linear polarization), or the oscillation direction may rotate as the wave travels (circular or elliptical polarization). Circularly polarised waves can rotate rightward or leftward in the direction of travel, and which of those two rotations is present in a wave is called the wave's chirality.

text: Polarization is a general property of waves that describes the orientation of their oscillations. For

text: transverse wave

text: s such as many electromagnetic waves, it describes the orientation of the oscillations in the plane perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel. The oscillations may be oriented in a single direction (

text: linear polarization

text: ), or the oscillation direction may rotate as the wave travels (

text: circular

text: or

text: elliptical polarization

text: ). Circularly polarised waves can rotate rightward or leftward in the direction of travel, and which of those two rotations is present in a wave is called the wave's

text: chirality

text: The electrophorus consists of a dielectric plate (originally a 'cake' of resinous material such as pitch or wax, but in modern versions plastic is used) and a metal plate with an insulating handle. The dielectric plate is first charged through the triboelectric effect by rubbing it with fur or cloth. For this discussion, imagine the dielectric gains negative charge by rubbing, as in the illustration below. The metal plate is then placed onto the dielectric plate. The dielectric does not transfer a significant fraction of its surface charge to the metal because the microscopic contact is poor. Instead the electrostatic field of the charged dielectric causes the charges in the metal plate to separate. It develops two regions of charge — the positive charges in the plate are attracted to the side facing down toward the dielectric, charging it positively, while the negative charges are repelled to the side facing up, charging it negatively,  with the plate remaining electrically neutral as a whole. Then, the side facing up is momentarily grounded (which can be done by touching it with a finger), draining off the negative charge. Finally, the metal plate, now carrying only one sign of charge (positive in our example), is lifted.Since the charge on the dielectric is not depleted in this process, the charge on the metal plate can be used for experiments, for example by touching it to metal conductors allowing the charge to drain away, and the uncharged metal plate can be placed back on the dielectric and the process repeated to get another charge. This can be repeated as often as desired, so in principle an unlimited amount of induced charge can be obtained from a single charge on the dielectric. For this reason Volta called it elettroforo perpetuo (the perpetual electricity bearer). In actual use the charge on the dielectric will eventually (within a few days at most) leak off through the surface of the cake or the atmosphere to recombine with opposite charges around to restore neutrality.

text: The electrophorus consists of a

text: dielectric

text: plate (originally a 'cake' of resinous material such as pitch or wax, but in modern versions plastic is used) and a metal plate with an insulating handle. The dielectric plate is first charged through the

text: triboelectric effect

text: by rubbing it with fur or cloth. For this discussion, imagine the dielectric gains negative charge by rubbing, as in the illustration below. The metal plate is then placed onto the dielectric plate. The dielectric does not transfer a significant fraction of its surface charge to the metal because the microscopic contact is poor. Instead the

text: electrostatic field

text: Surfactants are classified into four main types, each with different properties and applications: anionic, cationic, nonionic and zwitterionic (or amphoteric). Anionic surfactants are compounds that contain an anionic polar group. Examples of anionic surfactants include sodium dodecyl sulfate and dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate. Included in this class of surfactants are sodium alkylcarboxylates (soaps).  Cationic surfactats are similar in nature to anionic surfactants, except the surfactant molecules carry a positive charge at the hydrophilic portion. Many of these compounds are quaternary ammonium salts, as well as cetrimonium bromide (CTAB). Non-ionic surfactants are non-charged and together with anionic surfactants make up the majority of oil-dispersant formulations. The hydrophilic portion of the surfactant contains polar functional groups, such as -OH or -NH. Zwitterionic surfactants are the most expensive, and are used for specific applications. These compounds have both positively and negatively charged components. An example of a zwitterionic compound is phosphatidylcholine, which as a lipid is largely insoluble in water.

text: Surfactants are classified into four main types, each with different properties and applications:

text: anion

text: ic, cationic, nonionic and

text: zwitterion

text: ic (or amphoteric). Anionic surfactants are compounds that contain an anionic polar group. Examples of anionic surfactants include

text: sodium dodecyl sulfate

text: and

text: dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate

text: . Included in this class of surfactants are sodium alkylcarboxylates (soaps).  Cationic surfactats are similar in nature to anionic surfactants, except the surfactant molecules carry a positive charge at the hydrophilic portion. Many of these compounds are

text: quaternary ammonium salts

text: , as well as

text: cetrimonium bromide

text: (CTAB). Non-ionic surfactants are non-charged and together with anionic surfactants make up the majority of oil-dispersant formulations. The hydrophilic portion of the surfactant contains polar

text: functional groups

text: , such as -OH or -NH. Zwitterionic surfactants are the most expensive, and are used for specific applications. These compounds have both positively and negatively charged components. An example of a zwitterionic compound is

text: phosphatidylcholine

text: , which as a lipid is largely insoluble in water.

text: Radioactive material from the ground and galactic cosmic rays ionize a small fraction  of the atmospheric gas within the lower and middle atmosphere  and make the gas electrically conducting. Electrons quickly  attach to neutral particles forming negative ions. The positive ions are mostly singly charged. The electric conductivity depends on the mobility of the ions . That mobility  is proportional to the reciprocal air density. Thus, the electric conductivity increases almost  exponentially with altitude.  The ions move with the neutral gas making the conductivity isotropic.

text: Radioactive material from the ground and galactic cosmic rays ionize a small fraction  of the atmospheric gas within the lower and middle atmosphere  and make the gas electrically conducting. Electrons quickly  attach to neutral particles forming negative ions. The positive ions are mostly singly charged. The electric conductivity depends on the mobility of the ions . That mobility  is proportional to the reciprocal air density. Thus, the electric conductivity increases almost  exponentially with altitude.  The ions move with the neutral gas making the conductivity

text: isotropic

text: Conductive metal objects contain mobile electric charges (electrons) that can move about freely in the metal.  In an uncharged state, each part of the metal contains equal quantities of positive and negative charges, intimately mixed, so no part of it has a net charge.  If an external charged object is brought near a piece of metal, the force of the charge causes these internal charges to separate.   The charges of opposite polarity to the external charge are attracted to it, and move to the surface of the object facing the charge.  The charges of the same polarity are repelled and move to the surface of the metal away from the charge.  This is called electrostatic induction.  In Procedure 2 above, as the charge C is lowered into the container, the charges in the metal of the container separate.  If C has a positive charge, the negative charges in the metal are attracted to it and move to the inner surface of the container, while the positive charges are repelled and move to the outside surface.  If C has a negative charge, the charges have opposite polarity.  Since the container was originally uncharged, the two regions have equal and opposite charges.  The induction process is reversible: in Procedure 4, when C is removed, the attraction of the opposite charges cause them to intermingle again, and the charge on the surfaces reduces to zero.

text: Conductive metal objects contain mobile

text: electric charge

text: s (

text: electron

text: s) that can move about freely in the metal.  In an uncharged state, each part of the metal contains equal quantities of positive and negative charges, intimately mixed, so no part of it has a net charge.  If an external charged object is brought near a piece of metal, the force of the charge causes these internal charges to separate.   The charges of opposite polarity to the external charge are attracted to it, and move to the surface of the object facing the charge.  The charges of the same polarity are repelled and move to the surface of the metal away from the charge.  This is called

text: electrostatic induction

text: .  In Procedure 2 above, as the charge C is lowered into the container, the charges in the metal of the container separate.  If C has a positive charge, the negative charges in the metal are attracted to it and move to the inner surface of the container, while the positive charges are repelled and move to the outside surface.  If C has a negative charge, the charges have opposite polarity.  Since the container was originally uncharged, the two regions have equal and opposite charges.  The induction process is reversible: in Procedure 4, when C is removed, the attraction of the opposite charges cause them to intermingle again, and the charge on the surfaces reduces to zero.

text: Since there is no electric field in the intervening volume of the metal, the charge distribution on the outside surface of the container and its electric field is completely unaffected by the charges inside the container.  If the charged object inside the container is moved about as in Procedure 3, the induced charge distribution on the inside surface will redistribute itself, maintaining the cancellation of the electric fields outside the inner surface.  So the charges on the outside surface will be completely unaffected, along with any charges in the outside world.  From the outside, the metal container acts exactly like it simply has a surface charge +Q, with no charges inside.    Similarly, if an external charge is brought near the container from outside, the induced charge distribution on the outside surface will redistribute to cancel its electric field inside the container.  So the charges inside the container will not "feel" any electric field and will not change.  In summary, the regions inside and outside of the container are electrically isolated from each other,  electric fields from one region cannot penetrate or affect the other.  This is the principle of electrostatic shielding used in the Faraday cage.

text: Since there is no electric field in the intervening volume of the metal, the charge distribution on the outside surface of the container and its electric field is completely unaffected by the charges inside the container.  If the charged object inside the container is moved about as in Procedure 3, the induced charge distribution on the inside surface will redistribute itself, maintaining the cancellation of the electric fields outside the inner surface.  So the charges on the outside surface will be completely unaffected, along with any charges in the outside world.  From the outside, the metal container acts exactly like it simply has a surface charge +Q, with no charges inside.    Similarly, if an external charge is brought near the container from outside, the induced charge distribution on the outside surface will redistribute to cancel its electric field inside the container.  So the charges inside the container will not "feel" any electric field and will not change.  In summary, the regions inside and outside of the container are electrically isolated from each other,  electric fields from one region cannot penetrate or affect the other.  This is the principle of

text: electrostatic shielding

text: used in the

text: Faraday cage

text: When two solid bodies are in contact, a resistance to heat transfer exists between the bodies. The study of heat conduction between such bodies is called thermal contact conductance (Or thermal contact resistance).

text: When two solid bodies are in contact, a resistance to

text: heat transfer

text: exists between the bodies. The study of

text: heat conduction

text: between such bodies is called

text: thermal contact conductance

text: (Or thermal contact resistance).

text: If two different insulators are touched together, such as when a piece of rubber is touched against a piece of glass, then the surface of the rubber will acquire an excess negative charge, and the glass will acquire an equal positive charge.  If the surfaces are then pulled apart, a very high voltage is produced.  This so-called "tribo" or "rubbing" effect is not well understood.  It may be caused by electron-stealing via quantum tunneling, or by transfer of surface ions.  Friction is not required, although in many situations it greatly increases the phenomenon.  Certain phenomena related to frictionally generated electrostatic charges have been known since antiquity, though of course the modern theory of electricity was developed after the Scientific Revolution.

text: If two different

text: insulators

text: are touched together, such as when a piece of rubber is touched against a piece of glass, then the surface of the rubber will acquire an excess negative charge, and the glass will acquire an equal positive charge.  If the surfaces are then pulled apart, a very

text: high voltage

text: is produced.  This so-called "tribo" or "rubbing" effect is not well understood.  It may be caused by electron-stealing via

text: quantum tunneling

text: , or by transfer of surface ions.  Friction is not required, although in many situations it greatly increases the phenomenon.  Certain phenomena related to frictionally generated electrostatic charges have been known since antiquity, though of course the modern theory of electricity was developed after the

text: Scientific Revolution

text: The hydraulic load on this type of spillway gate (Tainter gate) is transmitted from the cylindrical skin plate, which is in contact with the reservoir, through a number of struts to a convergence at the trunnion hub. The hub collects the load from the struts and transfers it across an interface to the trunnion pin, which is stationary and is connected to the dam. When the gate is operated, the hub rotates around the pin. The struts are primarily compression members, but friction at the pin-hub interface induces a bending stress during gate operation. Typically, and in this case, the struts are oriented such that the trunnion friction stress is applied to the weak axis of the struts (see Section modulus). In order to better handle these loads, the struts are connected with diagonal braces that take the stress as axial loads.

text: The hydraulic load on this type of

text: spillway

text: gate (

text: Tainter gate

text: ) is transmitted from the cylindrical skin plate, which is in contact with the reservoir, through a number of struts to a convergence at the trunnion hub. The hub collects the load from the struts and transfers it across an interface to the trunnion pin, which is stationary and is connected to the dam. When the gate is operated, the hub rotates around the pin. The struts are primarily compression members, but friction at the pin-hub interface induces a bending stress during gate operation. Typically, and in this case, the struts are oriented such that the trunnion friction stress is applied to the weak axis of the struts (see

text: Section modulus

text: ). In order to better handle these loads, the struts are connected with diagonal braces that take the stress as axial loads.

text: The Ram 1500 PHEV demonstrator has a 345 hp 5.7L Hemi V8 gasoline engine mated to a two-mode hybrid transmission and a 12.9 kWh 355V lithium-ion battery from Electrovaya. This setup allows an all-electric range of more than , but as a blended plug-in hybrid, the RAM PHEV does not run exclusively all-electric during EV mode. The fully charged plug-in starts off with charge depletion with limited regeneration at the high end of the state of charge (SoC). That ramps up to a full regenerative capability somewhere in the 70 to 95% range and depletes down to about 20%. Once depleted, it comes into a narrow charge-sustaining range. The plug-in pick-up meets AT-PZEV emissions standards, making it the only full-size V8 pickup with an AT-PZEV rating. Its fuel economy in charge-depleting mode is more than  in city driving. The Ram 1500 PHEV is capable of towing up to .

text: The Ram 1500 PHEV demonstrator has a 345 hp 5.7L

text: Hemi

text: V8 gasoline engine mated to a two-mode hybrid transmission and a 12.9

text: kWh

text: lithium-ion battery

text: from

text: Electrovaya

text: . This setup allows an

text: all-electric range

text: of more than , but as a

text: blended

text: plug-in hybrid, the RAM PHEV does not run exclusively all-electric during

text: EV mode

text: . The fully charged plug-in starts off with

text: charge depletion

text: with limited regeneration at the high end of the

text: state of charge

text: (SoC). That ramps up to a full regenerative capability somewhere in the 70 to 95% range and depletes down to about 20%. Once depleted, it comes into a narrow

text: charge-sustaining

text: range. The plug-in pick-up meets

text: AT-PZEV

text: emissions standards, making it the only full-size V8 pickup with an AT-PZEV rating. Its

text: fuel economy

text: in charge-depleting mode is more than  in city driving. The Ram 1500 PHEV is capable of towing up to .

text: Pseudocapacitance is the electrochemical storage of electricity in an electrochemical capacitor (Pseudocapacitor). This faradaic charge transfer originates by a very fast sequence of reversible faradaic redox, electrosorption or intercalation processes on the surface of suitable electrodes. Pseudocapacitance is accompanied by an electron charge-transfer between electrolyte and electrode coming from a de-solvated and adsorbed ion. One electron per charge unit is involved. The adsorbed ion has no chemical reaction with the atoms of the electrode (no chemical bonds arise) since only a charge-transfer takes place.

text: Pseudocapacitance is the

text: electrochemical

text: storage of electricity in an

text: electrochemical capacitor

text: Pseudocapacitor

text: ). This faradaic charge transfer originates by a very fast sequence of reversible

text: faradaic

text: redox

text: electrosorption

text: or

text: intercalation

text: processes on the surface of suitable

text: electrode

text: s. Pseudocapacitance is accompanied by an

text: electron

text: charge-transfer

text: between

text: electrolyte

text: and electrode coming from a

text: de-solvated

text: and

text: adsorbed

text: ion

text: . One electron per charge unit is involved. The adsorbed ion has no

text: chemical reaction

text: with the

text: atom

text: s of the electrode (no

text: chemical bond

text: s arise) since only a charge-transfer takes place.

text: The law of conservation of mass dictates that the quantity of each element does not change in a chemical reaction. Thus, each side of the chemical equation must represent the same quantity of any particular element. Likewise, the charge is conserved in a chemical reaction. Therefore, the same charge must be present on both sides of the balanced equation.

text: The

text: law of conservation of mass

text: dictates that the quantity of each element does not change in a chemical reaction. Thus, each side of the chemical equation must represent the same quantity of any particular element. Likewise, the charge is conserved in a chemical reaction. Therefore, the same charge must be present on both sides of the balanced equation.

text: No warrants were produced for the arrests and according to an article published in the state-run newspaper New Light of Myanmar, they will be charged under Law 5/96, which provides for up to 20 years in prison, for their involvement in “acts undermining the efforts to successfully carry out peaceful transfer of state power and facilitate the proceedings of the National Convention.” Following the arrests, members of the security forces allegedly searched the homes of the afore-mentioned individuals and confiscated documents and compact discs. Reports claimed that they were detained at Kyaikkasan Detention Centre before being transferred to the notorious Insein Prison outside Yangon where they were at risk of torture, including beatings and electric shocks.

text: No

text: warrants

text: were produced for the arrests and according to an article published in the state-run newspaper

text: New Light of Myanmar

text: , they will be charged under Law 5/96, which provides for up to 20 years in prison, for their involvement in “acts undermining the efforts to successfully carry out peaceful transfer of state power and facilitate the proceedings of the

text: National Convention

text: .” Following the arrests, members of the security forces allegedly searched the homes of the afore-mentioned individuals and confiscated documents and compact discs. Reports claimed that they were detained at Kyaikkasan Detention Centre before being transferred to the notorious

text: Insein Prison

text: outside

text: Yangon

text: where they were at risk of torture, including beatings and electric shocks.

text: When an electric field is applied to a dielectric material its molecules respond by forming microscopic electric dipoles – their atomic nuclei move a tiny distance in the direction of the field, while their electrons move a tiny distance in the opposite direction. This produces a macroscopic bound charge in the material even though all of the charges involved are bound to individual molecules. For example, if every molecule responds the same, similar to that shown in the figure, these tiny movements of charge combine to produce a layer of positive bound charge on one side of the material and a layer of negative charge on the other side. The bound charge is most conveniently described in terms of the polarization  of the material, its dipole moment per unit volume. If  is uniform, a macroscopic separation of charge is produced only at the surfaces where  enters and leaves the material. For non-uniform , a charge is also produced in the bulk.

text: When an electric field is applied to a

text: dielectric material

text: its molecules respond by forming microscopic

text: electric dipole

text: s – their

text: atomic nuclei

text: move a tiny distance in the direction of the field, while their

text: electron

text: s move a tiny distance in the opposite direction. This produces a macroscopic bound charge in the material even though all of the charges involved are bound to individual molecules. For example, if every molecule responds the same, similar to that shown in the figure, these tiny movements of charge combine to produce a layer of positive

text: bound charge

text: on one side of the material and a layer of negative charge on the other side. The bound charge is most conveniently described in terms of the

text: polarization

text: of the material, its dipole moment per unit volume. If  is uniform, a macroscopic separation of charge is produced only at the surfaces where  enters and leaves the material. For non-uniform , a charge is also produced in the bulk.

text: A study from 2008 finds that the initial saltation of sand particles induces a static electric field by friction. Saltating sand acquires a negative charge relative to the ground which in turn loosens more sand particles which then begin saltating. This process has been found to double the number of particles predicted by previous theories.

text: The understanding of friction was further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1785). Coulomb investigated the influence of four main factors on friction: the nature of the materials in contact and their surface coatings; the extent of the surface area; the normal pressure (or load); and the length of time that the surfaces remained in contact (time of repose). Coulomb further considered the influence of sliding velocity, temperature and humidity, in order to decide between the different explanations on the nature of friction that had been proposed. The distinction between static and dynamic friction is made in Coulomb's friction law (see below), although this distinction was already drawn by Johann Andreas von Segner in 1758.The effect of the time of repose was explained by Pieter van Musschenbroek (1762) by considering the surfaces of fibrous materials, with fibers meshing together, which takes a finite time in which the friction increases.

text: The understanding of friction was further developed by

text: Charles-Augustin de Coulomb

text: (1785). Coulomb investigated the influence of four main factors on friction: the nature of the materials in contact and their surface coatings; the extent of the surface area; the normal pressure (or load); and the length of time that the surfaces remained in contact (time of repose). Coulomb further considered the influence of sliding velocity, temperature and humidity, in order to decide between the different explanations on the nature of friction that had been proposed. The distinction between static and dynamic friction is made in Coulomb's friction law (see below), although this distinction was already drawn by

text: Johann Andreas von Segner

text: in 1758.The effect of the time of repose was explained by

text: Pieter van Musschenbroek

text: (1762) by considering the surfaces of fibrous materials, with fibers meshing together, which takes a finite time in which the friction increases.

text: A potential limitation of the polar regions is that the inflow of solar wind can create an electrical charge on the leeward side of crater rims. The resulting voltage difference can affect electrical equipment, change surface chemistry, erode surfaces and levitate Lunar dust.

text: A potential limitation of the polar regions is that the inflow of

text: solar wind

text: can create an electrical charge on the leeward side of crater rims. The resulting voltage difference can affect electrical equipment, change surface chemistry, erode surfaces and levitate Lunar dust.

text: Atoms can be ionized by bombardment with radiation, but the more usual process of ionization encountered in chemistry is the transfer of electrons between atoms or molecules. This transfer is usually driven by the attaining of stable ("closed shell") electronic configurations. Atoms will gain or lose electrons depending on which action takes the least energy.

text: Atoms can be ionized by bombardment with

text: radiation

text: , but the more usual process of ionization encountered in

text: chemistry

text: is the transfer of electrons between atoms or molecules. This transfer is usually driven by the attaining of stable ("closed shell") electronic configurations. Atoms will gain or lose electrons depending on which action takes the least energy.

text: A geosynchronous transfer orbit or geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) is a Hohmann transfer orbit used to reach geosynchronous or geostationary orbit using high thrust chemical engines.It is a highly elliptical Earth orbit with an apogee of , or  above sea level, which corresponds to the geostationary (GEO) altitude.  The period of a standard geosynchronous transfer orbit is about 10.5 hours. The argument of perigee is such that apogee occurs on or near the equator. Perigee can be anywhere above the atmosphere, but is usually restricted to a few hundred kilometers above the Earth's surface to reduce launcher delta-V (V) requirements and to limit the orbital lifetime of the spent booster so as to curtail space junk. If using low-thrust engines such as electrical propulsion to get from the transfer orbit to geostationary orbit, the transfer orbit can be supersynchronous (having an apogee above the final geosynchronous orbit). This method however takes much longer to achieve due to the low thrust injected into the orbit.  The typical launch vehicle injects the satellite to a supersynchronous orbit having the apogee above 42,164 km. The satellite's low thrust engines are thrusted continuously around the geostationary transfer orbits in an inertial direction. This inertial direction is set to be in the velocity vector at apogee but with an outer plane direction. The outer plane direction removes the initial inclination set by the initial transfer orbit while the inner plane direction raises simultaneously the perigee and lowers the apogee of the intermediate geostationary transfer orbit. In case of using the Hohmann transfer orbit, only a few days are required to reach the geosynchronous orbit. By using low thrust engines or electrical propulsion, months are required until the satellite reaches its final orbit.

text: A geosynchronous transfer orbit or geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) is a

text: Hohmann transfer orbit

text: used to reach

text: geosynchronous

text: or

text: geostationary orbit

text: using high thrust chemical engines.It is a

text: highly elliptical Earth orbit

text: with an

text: apogee

text: of , or  above sea level, which corresponds to the geostationary (GEO) altitude.  The period of a standard geosynchronous transfer orbit is about 10.5 hours. The

text: argument of perigee

text: is such that apogee occurs on or near the equator. Perigee can be anywhere above the atmosphere, but is usually restricted to a few hundred kilometers above the Earth's surface to

text: reduce launcher delta-V (V)

text: requirements and to

text: limit the orbital lifetime of the spent booster

text: so as to curtail

text: space junk

text: . If using low-thrust engines such as

entity_name: Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion

text: electrical propulsion

text: to get from the transfer orbit to geostationary orbit, the transfer orbit can be

text: supersynchronous

text: (having an apogee above the final geosynchronous orbit). This method however takes much longer to achieve due to the low thrust injected into the orbit.  The typical launch vehicle injects the satellite to a supersynchronous orbit having the apogee above 42,164 km. The satellite's low thrust engines are thrusted continuously around the geostationary transfer orbits in an inertial direction. This inertial direction is set to be in the velocity vector at apogee but with an outer plane direction. The outer plane direction removes the initial inclination set by the initial transfer orbit while the inner plane direction raises simultaneously the perigee and lowers the apogee of the intermediate geostationary transfer orbit. In case of using the Hohmann transfer orbit, only a few days are required to reach the geosynchronous orbit. By using low thrust engines or electrical propulsion, months are required until the satellite reaches its final orbit.

text: Sometimes macroscopic objects contain ions distributed throughout the material, rigidly bound in place, giving an overall net positive or negative charge to the object. Also, macroscopic objects made of conductive elements, can more or less easily (depending on the element) take on or give off electrons, and then maintain a net negative or positive charge indefinitely. When the net electric charge of an object is non-zero and motionless, the phenomenon is known as static electricity. This can easily be produced by rubbing two dissimilar materials together, such as rubbing amber with fur or glass with silk. In this way non-conductive materials can be charged to a significant degree, either positively or negatively. Charge taken from one material is moved to the other material, leaving an opposite charge of the same magnitude behind. The law of conservation of charge always applies, giving the object from which a negative charge is taken a positive charge of the same magnitude, and vice versa.

text: Sometimes macroscopic objects contain ions distributed throughout the material, rigidly bound in place, giving an overall net positive or negative charge to the object. Also, macroscopic objects made of conductive elements, can more or less easily (depending on the element) take on or give off electrons, and then maintain a net negative or positive charge indefinitely. When the net electric charge of an object is non-zero and motionless, the phenomenon is known as

text: static electricity

text: . This can easily be produced by rubbing two dissimilar materials together, such as rubbing

text: amber

text: with

text: fur

text: or

text: glass

text: with

text: silk

text: . In this way non-conductive materials can be charged to a significant degree, either positively or negatively. Charge taken from one material is moved to the other material, leaving an opposite charge of the same magnitude behind. The law of

text: conservation of charge

text: always applies, giving the object from which a negative charge is taken a positive charge of the same magnitude, and vice versa.

text: Coupling is also the transfer of electrical energy from one circuit segment to another.  For example, energy is transferred from a power source to an electrical load by means of conductive coupling, which may be either resistive or hard-wire.  An AC potential may be transferred from one circuit segment to another having a DC potential by use of a capacitor.  Electrical energy may be transferred from one circuit segment to another segment with different impedance by use of a transformer.  This is known as impedance matching.  These are examples of electrostatic and electrodynamic inductive coupling.

text: Coupling is also the transfer of electrical energy from one circuit segment to another.  For example, energy is transferred from a

text: power source

text: to an

text: electrical load

text: by means of

text: conductive coupling

text: , which may be either

text: resistive

text: or

text: hard-wire

text: .  An AC potential may be transferred from one circuit segment to another having a DC potential by use of a

text: capacitor

text: .  Electrical energy may be transferred from one circuit segment to another segment with different

text: impedance

text: by use of a transformer.  This is known as impedance matching.  These are examples of

text: electrostatic

text: and

text: electrodynamic

text: inductive coupling.

text: Polarization is predictable from an antenna's geometry, although in some cases it is not at all obvious (such as for the quad antenna). An antenna's linear polarization is generally along the direction (as viewed from the receiving location) of the antenna's currents when such a direction can be defined. For instance, a vertical whip antenna or Wi-Fi antenna vertically oriented will transmit and receive in the vertical polarization. Antennas with horizontal elements, such as most rooftop TV antennas in the United States, are horizontally polarized (broadcast TV in the U.S. usually uses horizontal polarization). Even when the antenna system has a vertical orientation, such as an array of horizontal dipole antennas, the polarization is in the horizontal direction corresponding to the current flow. The polarization of a commercial antenna is an essential specification.

text: Polarization is predictable from an antenna's geometry, although in some cases it is not at all obvious (such as for the

text: quad antenna

text: ). An antenna's linear polarization is generally along the direction (as viewed from the receiving location) of the antenna's currents when such a direction can be defined. For instance, a vertical

text: whip antenna

text: or

text: Wi-Fi

text: antenna vertically oriented will transmit and receive in the vertical polarization. Antennas with horizontal elements, such as most rooftop TV antennas in the United States, are horizontally polarized (broadcast TV in the U.S. usually uses horizontal polarization). Even when the antenna system has a vertical orientation, such as an

text: array

text: of horizontal dipole antennas, the polarization is in the horizontal direction corresponding to the current flow. The polarization of a commercial antenna is an essential specification.

text: Just as the transfer of hydrogen ions between chemical species determines the pH of an aqueous solution, the transfer of electrons between chemical species determines the reduction potential of an aqueous solution. Like pH, the reduction potential represents how strongly electrons are transferred to or from species in solution. It does not characterize the amount of electrons available for oxidation or reduction, in much the same way that pH does not characterize the buffering capacity.

text: Just as the transfer of

text: hydrogen

text: ions between chemical species determines the

text: pH

text: of an aqueous solution, the transfer of electrons between chemical species determines the reduction potential of an aqueous solution. Like pH, the reduction potential represents how strongly electrons are transferred to or from species in solution. It does not characterize the amount of electrons available for oxidation or reduction, in much the same way that pH does not characterize the buffering capacity.

text: The oscillating electric and magnetic fields surrounding moving electric charges in an antenna device can be divided into two regions, depending on distance  D from the antenna. The boundary between the regions is somewhat vaguely defined. The fields have different characteristics in these regions, and different technologies are used for transferring power:

text: In circularly polarized light the direction of the electric field rotates at the frequency of the light, either clockwise or counter-clockwise. In a material, this electric field causes a force on the charged particles comprising the material (because of their low mass, the electrons are most heavily affected). The motion thus effected will be circular, and circularly moving charges will create their own (magnetic) field in addition to the external magnetic field. There will thus be two different cases: the created field will be parallel to the external field for one (circular) polarization, and in the opposing direction for the other polarization direction – thus the net B field is enhanced in one direction and diminished in the opposite direction. This changes the dynamics of the interaction for each beam and one of the beams will be slowed down more than the other, causing a phase difference between the left- and right-polarized beam. When the two beams are added after this phase shift, the result is again a linearly polarized beam, but with a rotation in the polarization direction.

text: In

text: circularly polarized light

text: the direction of the electric field rotates at the frequency of the light, either clockwise or counter-clockwise. In a material, this electric field causes a force on the charged particles comprising the material (because of their low mass, the electrons are most heavily affected). The motion thus effected will be circular, and circularly moving charges will create their own (magnetic) field in addition to the external magnetic field. There will thus be two different cases: the created field will be parallel to the external field for one (circular) polarization, and in the opposing direction for the other polarization direction – thus the net B field is enhanced in one direction and diminished in the opposite direction. This changes the dynamics of the interaction for each beam and one of the beams will be slowed down more than the other, causing a phase difference between the left- and right-polarized beam. When the two beams are added after this phase shift, the result is again a linearly polarized beam, but with a rotation in the polarization direction.

text: The polarization of an antenna refers to the orientation of the electric field (E-plane) of the radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by its orientation; note that this designation is totally distinct from the antenna's directionality. Thus, a simple straight wire antenna will have one polarization when mounted vertically, and a different polarization when mounted horizontally. As a transverse wave, the magnetic field of a radio wave is at right angles to that of the electric field, but by convention, talk of an antenna's "polarization" is understood to refer to the direction of the electric field.

text: The

text: polarization

text: of an antenna refers to the orientation of the electric field (

text: E-plane

text: ) of the radio wave with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by its orientation; note that this designation is totally distinct from the antenna's directionality. Thus, a simple straight wire antenna will have one polarization when mounted vertically, and a different polarization when mounted horizontally. As a

text: transverse wave

text: , the magnetic field of a radio wave is at right angles to that of the electric field, but by convention, talk of an antenna's "polarization" is understood to refer to the direction of the electric field.

text: In a nonlinear media, the dielectric polarization P responds nonlinearly to the electric field E of the light.  As a parametric process is in general coherent, many parametric nonlinear processes will depend on phase matching and will usually be polarization dependent.

text: In a

text: nonlinear media

text: , the dielectric

text: polarization

text: P responds nonlinearly to the

text: electric field

text: E of the light.  As a parametric process is in general coherent, many parametric nonlinear processes will depend on

text: phase matching

text: and will usually be

text: polarization

text: dependent.

text: The unreported experiment found in folio 116V tested the constant rate of acceleration in falling bodies due to gravity. This experiment consisted of dropping a ball from specified heights onto a deflector in order to transfer its motion from vertical to horizontal. The data from the inclined plane experiments were used to calculate the expected horizontal motion. However, discrepancies were found in the results of the experiment: the observed horizontal distances disagreed with the calculated distances expected for a constant rate of acceleration. Galileo attributed the discrepancies to air resistance in the unreported experiment, and friction in the inclined plane experiment. These discrepancies forced Galileo to assert that the postulate held only under "ideal conditions," i.e., in the absence of friction and/or air resistance.

text: Quarks and gluons have color charge, which is always conserved like electric charge, and there is a continuity equation for such color charge currents (explicit expressions for currents are given at gluon field strength tensor).

text: Quark

text: s and

text: gluon

text: s have

text: color charge

text: , which is always conserved like electric charge, and there is a continuity equation for such color charge currents (explicit expressions for currents are given at

text: gluon field strength tensor

text: Polarization can be used to filter out unwanted signals, such as jamming. If a jammer and receiver do not have the same polarization, the jamming signal will incur a loss that reduces its effectiveness.  The four basic polarizations are linear horizontal, linear vertical, right-hand circular, and left-hand circular.  The signal loss inherent in a cross polarized (transmitter different from receiver) pair is 3 dB for dissimilar types, and 17 dB for opposites.

text: Polarization

text: can be used to filter out unwanted signals, such as jamming. If a jammer and receiver do not have the same polarization, the jamming signal will incur a loss that reduces its effectiveness.  The four basic polarizations are linear horizontal, linear vertical, right-hand circular, and left-hand circular.  The signal loss inherent in a cross polarized (transmitter different from receiver) pair is 3

text: dB

text: for dissimilar types, and 17 dB for opposites.

text: The fuze mechanism is designed to set off the detonator, either by striking it with a spring-loaded firing pin, compressing a friction sensitive pyrotechnic composition, or by passing an electric charge through it. Most mines employ a spring-loaded striker that hits a stab detonator when activated by the victim. Typically, the detonator contains a tiny pellet of lead azide. The fuze is the most complicated component in any mine, although the amount of effort required to design and manufacture a simple fuze mechanism is quite low, similar to the retraction mechanism in a ballpoint pen. More sophisticated examples, such as the Italian SB-33 mine have a fuze mechanism that detonates the mine if subject to gradual, steady pressure, but locks the fuze if subject to a sudden shock. This defeats one of the main methods of clearing a path through a minefield — detonating the mines with explosive devices, such as mine-clearing line charges.

text: The

text: fuze

text: mechanism is designed to set off the

text: detonator

text: , either by striking it with a spring-loaded

text: firing pin

text: , compressing a friction sensitive pyrotechnic composition, or by passing an electric charge through it. Most mines employ a spring-loaded striker that hits a stab detonator when activated by the victim. Typically, the detonator contains a tiny pellet of

text: lead azide

text: . The fuze is the most complicated component in any mine, although the amount of effort required to design and manufacture a simple fuze mechanism is quite low, similar to the retraction mechanism in a

text: ballpoint pen

text: . More sophisticated examples, such as the Italian

text: SB-33 mine

text: have a fuze mechanism that detonates the mine if subject to gradual, steady pressure, but locks the fuze if subject to a sudden shock. This defeats one of the main methods of clearing a path through a minefield — detonating the mines with explosive devices, such as

text: mine-clearing line charge

text: s.

text: In physics, a charge carrier is a particle free to move, carrying an electric charge, especially the particles that carry electric charges in electrical conductors.   Examples are electrons, ions and holes.  In a conducting medium, an electric field can exert force on these free particles, causing a net motion of the particles through the medium; this is what constitutes an electric current.  In different conducting media, different particles serve to carry charge:

text: In

text: physics

text: , a charge carrier is a

text: particle free to move

text: , carrying an

text: electric charge

text: , especially the particles that carry

text: electric charge

text: s in

text: electrical conductor

text: s.   Examples are

text: electron

text: s,

text: ion

text: s and

text: holes

text: .  In a conducting medium, an

text: electric field

text: can exert force on these free particles, causing a net motion of the particles through the medium; this is what constitutes an

text: electric current

text: .  In different conducting media, different particles serve to carry charge:

text: An intermediate case between Frenkel and Wannier excitons, charge-transfer excitons (sometimes called simply CT excitons) occur when the electron and the hole occupy adjacent molecules. They occur primarily in ionic crystals. Unlike Frenkel and Wannier excitons they display a static electric dipole moment.

text: An intermediate case between Frenkel and Wannier excitons, charge-transfer excitons (sometimes called simply CT excitons) occur when the electron and the hole occupy adjacent molecules. They occur primarily in ionic crystals. Unlike Frenkel and Wannier excitons they display a static

text: electric dipole moment

text: Thus, electron transfer proceeds efficiently from the first electron acceptor to the next, creating an electron transport chain that ends if it has reached NADPH.

text: Thus, electron transfer proceeds efficiently from the first electron acceptor to the next, creating an electron transport chain that ends if it has reached

entity_name: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

text: NADPH

text: CrossCharge is a device for charging electric vehicles (EV) without driver intervention, using conductive charging. CrossCharge is the world’s first conductive charging system for an electric vehicle. It connects potentially any EV car battery to the electrical power source while the driver walks away; a true park and walk system. The system consists of two halves (or rather, two bars referred as crossbars) – one installed on the vehicle and one installed on the floor of a garage or in a parking lot. The automated ground unit detects the car above it and brings the two pieces together instigating an electric current to flow into the cross point of vehicle side bar, charging the EV. As the vehicle is parked over the charger, the device remains seamlessly connected to the vehicle and brings it to fully charged state – ready for the next use. Some major benefits include maximizing user convenience to promote EV adoption. In addition, the device in particular has passed all safety regulations and thus is the safest hands-free charger to be available on the market. CrossCharge is expected to be available in the spring of 2013.

text: CrossCharge is a device for charging

text: electric vehicle

text: s (EV) without driver intervention, using

text: conductive charging

text: . CrossCharge is the world’s first conductive charging system for an electric vehicle. It connects potentially any EV car battery to the electrical power source while the driver walks away; a true park and walk system. The system consists of two halves (or rather, two bars referred as crossbars) – one installed on the vehicle and one installed on the floor of a garage or in a parking lot. The automated ground unit detects the car above it and brings the two pieces together instigating an

text: electric current

text: to flow into the cross point of vehicle side bar, charging the EV. As the vehicle is parked over the charger, the device remains seamlessly connected to the vehicle and brings it to fully charged state – ready for the next use. Some major benefits include maximizing user convenience to promote EV adoption. In addition, the device in particular has passed all safety regulations and thus is the safest hands-free charger to be available on the market. CrossCharge is expected to be available in the spring of 2013.

text: The hydrophobic effect can be quantified by measuring the partition coefficients of non-polar molecules between water and non-polar solvents. The partition coefficients can be transformed to free energy of transfer which includes enthalpic and entropic components, ΔG = ΔH - TΔS. These components are experimentally determined by calorimetry. The hydrophobic effect was found to be entropy-driven at room temperature because of the reduced mobility of water molecules in the solvation shell of the non-polar solute; however, the enthalpic component of transfer energy was found to be favorable, meaning it strengthened water-water hydrogen bonds in the solvation shell due to the reduced mobility of water molecules. At the higher temperature, when water molecules become more mobile, this energy gain decreases along with the entropic component. The hydrophobic effect depends on the temperature, which leads to "cold denaturation" of proteins.

text: The hydrophobic effect can be quantified by measuring the

text: partition coefficient

text: s of non-polar molecules between water and non-polar solvents. The partition coefficients can be transformed to

text: free energy

text: of transfer which includes

text: enthalpic

text: and entropic components, ΔG = ΔH - TΔS. These components are experimentally determined by

text: calorimetry

text: . The hydrophobic effect was found to be entropy-driven at room temperature because of the reduced mobility of water molecules in the solvation shell of the non-polar solute; however, the enthalpic component of transfer energy was found to be favorable, meaning it strengthened water-water hydrogen bonds in the solvation shell due to the reduced mobility of water molecules. At the higher temperature, when water molecules become more mobile, this energy gain decreases along with the entropic component. The hydrophobic effect depends on the temperature, which leads to "cold

text: denaturation

text: " of proteins.

text: Pseudocapacitors store electrical energy faradaically by electron charge transfer between electrode and electrolyte. This is accomplished through electrosorption, reduction-oxidation reactions (redox reactions), and intercalation processes, termed pseudocapacitance.

text: Pseudocapacitors store electrical energy

text: faradaically

text: by electron charge transfer between

text: electrode

text: and

text: electrolyte

text: . This is accomplished through

text: electrosorption

text: , reduction-oxidation reactions (

text: redox reactions

text: ), and

text: intercalation

text: processes, termed

text: pseudocapacitance

text: Most electric vehicles (EVs) have an on-board charger that uses a rectifier circuit to transform alternating current from the electrical grid (mains AC) to direct current (DC) suitable for recharging the EV's battery pack. Cost and thermal issues limit how much power the rectifier can handle, so beyond around 240 V AC and 75 A it is better for an external charging station to deliver direct current (DC) to the vehicle's battery pack. Given these limits, most conventional charging solutions are based on either 240V/30A service in the USA and Japan, 240 V, 70 A service in Canada or the 230 V, 15 A or 3Φ, 400 V, 32 A service in Europe and Australia. (While AC charging systems have been specified with higher limits - SAE J1772-2009 has an option for 240 V, 80 A and VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2 has 3Φ, 400 V, 63 A - these charging station types have been rarely deployed in the US and only electric vehicles made by Tesla have a matching rectifier.)

text: Most electric vehicles (EVs) have an on-board charger that uses a

text: rectifier

text: circuit to transform

text: alternating current

text: from the

text: electrical grid

text: (mains AC) to

text: direct current

text: (DC) suitable for recharging the EV's battery pack. Cost and thermal issues limit how much power the rectifier can handle, so beyond around 240 V AC and 75 A it is better for an external

text: charging station

text: to deliver direct current (DC) to the vehicle's battery pack. Given these limits, most conventional charging solutions are based on either 240V/30A service in the USA and Japan, 240 V, 70 A service in Canada or the 230 V, 15 A or 3Φ, 400 V, 32 A service in Europe and Australia. (While AC charging systems have been specified with higher limits -

text: SAE J1772-2009

text: has an option for 240 V, 80 A and

text: VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2

text: has 3Φ, 400 V, 63 A - these charging station types have been rarely deployed in the US and only electric vehicles made by Tesla have a matching rectifier.)

text: In 2010 the French government's Autorité de la concurrence (the department is in charge of regulating competition) fined eleven banks, including Groupe BPCE, the sum of 384,900,000 Euros for colluding to charge unjustified fees on cheque processing, especially for extra fees charged during the transition from paper cheque transfer to "Exchanges Check-Image" electronic transfer.

text: In 2010 the French government's

text: Autorité de la concurrence

text: (the department is in charge of regulating competition) fined eleven banks, including Groupe BPCE, the sum of 384,900,000 Euros for

text: colluding to charge unjustified fees on cheque processing

text: , especially for extra fees charged during the transition from paper cheque transfer to "Exchanges Check-Image" electronic transfer.

text: This simple method, discovered by Martin and Eah in 2010, generates nearly monodisperse "naked" gold nanoparticles in water. Precisely controlling the reduction stoichiometry by adjusting the ratio of NaBH-NaOH ions to HAuCl-HCl ions within the "sweet zone," along with heating, enables reproducible diameter tuning between 3–6 nm. The aqueous particles are colloidally stable due to their high charge from the excess ions in solution. These particles can be coated with various hydrophilic functionalities, or mixed with hydrophobic molecules for applications in non-polar solvents. In non-polar solvents the nanoparticles remain highly charged, and self-assemble on liquid droplets to form 2D monolayer films of monodisperse nanoparticles.

text: The rocket net or similar-looking item is placed at the target location after days or week of pre-baiting the target species in, or is place in an area where it is likely to capture the target animals, to allow animals to become accustom to its presence.  When the biologist is ready to use the actual rocket net, the net is folded accordion style in a line or packed in the rocket net bock.  The rear or trailing edge of the net is staked to the ground by ropes and the leading edge of the net is attached to a number of rockets (typically 3 or 4) via longer ropes.  The rockets are placed on the box, staked to the ground, or placed on post for additional elevation when taller animals are trapped.  The charges are placed in the rocket and the wires attached to a shunted electrical blasting line.  Once all the charges are connected, the line is tested, and the area is safe, it is attached to the capacitor blasting machine.  When the animals are in place, the operator activates the blasting machine and the electrical charge ignites the rockets, propelling the net over the animals.  The biologists and their team then remove the animals for whatever study they are conducting.

text: gives a conservation law - the conservation of charge:

text: gives a

text: conservation law

text: - the

text: conservation of charge

text: Although ionic compounds contain charged atoms or clusters, these materials do not typically conduct electricity to any significant extent when the substance is solid. In order to conduct, the charged particles must be mobile rather than stationary in a crystal lattice. This is achieved to some degree at high temperatures when the defect concentration increases the ionic mobility and solid state ionic conductivity is observed. When the ionic compounds are dissolved in a liquid or are melted into a liquid, they can conduct electricity because the ions become completely mobile. This conductivity gain upon dissolving or melting is sometimes used as a defining characteristic of ionic compounds.

text: Although ionic compounds contain charged atoms or clusters, these materials do not typically

text: conduct electricity

text: to any significant extent when the substance is solid. In order to conduct, the charged particles must be

text: mobile

text: rather than stationary in a

text: crystal lattice

text: . This is achieved to some degree at high temperatures when the defect concentration increases the ionic mobility and

text: solid state ionic conductivity

text: is observed. When the ionic compounds are

text: dissolved in a liquid

text: or are melted into a

text: liquid

text: , they can conduct electricity because the ions become completely mobile. This conductivity gain upon dissolving or melting is sometimes used as a defining characteristic of ionic compounds.

text: Possible solutions for greater efficiency of electron delivery include the immobilization of hydrogenase with the most exposed FeS cluster close enough to the electrode or the use of a redox mediator to carry out the electron transfer. Direct electron transfer is also possible through the adsorption of the enzyme on graphite electrodes or covalent attachment to the electrode. Another solution includes the entrapment of hydrogenase in a conductive polymer.

text: Undoubtedly, the loudest noise heard and one of the most devastating Navy accidents in Hampton Roads during World War II occurred at 11 AM September 17, 1943. A NAS ordnance department truck was pulling four trailers loaded with depth charges on the taxiway between NAS and the NOB piers. Each trailer was designed to carry four aerial depth charges. To save time, two additional charges were loaded on top of each trailer. Compounding the problem, the charges on top were not properly chained down. One of the charges slipped loose and became wedged between the trailer and the ground. The friction of being dragged against the road caused the charge to begin smoking.

text: Gauge symmetry is closely related to charge conservation. Suppose that there existed some process by which one could briefly violate conservation of charge by creating a charge q at a certain point in space, 1, moving it to some other point 2, and then destroying it. We might imagine that this process was consistent with conservation of energy. We could posit a rule stating that creating the charge required an input of energy E=qV and destroying it released E=qV, which would seem natural since qV measures the extra energy stored in the electric field because of the existence of a charge at a certain point. Outside of the interval during which the particle exists, conservation of energy would be satisfied, because the net energy released by creation and destruction of the particle, qV-qV, would be equal to the work done in moving the particle from 1 to 2, qV-qV. But although this scenario salvages conservation of energy, it violates gauge symmetry. Gauge symmetry requires that the laws of physics be invariant under the transformation

text: Gauge symmetry is closely related to

text: charge conservation

text: . Suppose that there existed some process by which one could briefly violate conservation of charge by creating a charge q at a certain point in space, 1, moving it to some other point 2, and then destroying it. We might imagine that this process was consistent with conservation of energy. We could posit a rule stating that creating the charge required an input of energy E=qV and destroying it released E=qV, which would seem natural since qV measures the extra energy stored in the electric field because of the existence of a charge at a certain point. Outside of the interval during which the particle exists, conservation of energy would be satisfied, because the net energy released by creation and destruction of the particle, qV-qV, would be equal to the work done in moving the particle from 1 to 2, qV-qV. But although this scenario salvages conservation of energy, it violates gauge symmetry. Gauge symmetry requires that the laws of physics be invariant under the transformation

text: Thus, the conservation of electric charge, as expressed by the continuity equation, gives the result:

text: Cells, being poorly conductive particles, alter the effective cross-section of the conductive microchannel. If these particles are less conductive than the surrounding liquid medium, the electrical resistance across the channel increases, causing the electric current passing across the channel to briefly decrease. By monitoring such pulses in electric current, the number of particles for a given volume of fluid can be counted. The size of the electric current change is related to the size of the particle, enabling a particle size distribution to be measured, which can be correlated to mobility, surface charge, and concentration of the particles.

text: In electrodynamics and quantum electrodynamics, in addition to the global U(1) symmetry related to the electric charge, there are also position dependent gauge transformations. Noether's theorem states that for every infinitesimal symmetry transformation that is local (local in the sense that the transformed value of a field at a given point only depends on the field configuration in an arbitrarily small neighborhood of that point), there is a corresponding conserved charge called the Noether charge, which is the space integral of a Noether density (assuming the integral converges and there is a Noether current satisfying the continuity equation).<ref>

text: In

text: electrodynamics

text: and

text: quantum electrodynamics

text: , in addition to the

text: global

text: symmetry related to the

text: electric charge

text: , there are also position dependent

text: gauge transformation

text: s.

text: Noether's theorem

text: states that for every infinitesimal symmetry transformation that is local (local in the sense that the transformed value of a field at a given point only depends on the field configuration in an arbitrarily small neighborhood of that point), there is a corresponding conserved charge called the

text: Noether charge

text: , which is the space integral of a Noether density (assuming the integral converges and there is a

text: Noether current

text: satisfying the

text: continuity equation

text: ).<ref>

text: John Townsend was born in Galway, County Galway, Ireland, son of Edward Townsend, a Professor of Civil Engineering at Queen's College, Galway and Judith Townsend. In 1885, he entered Trinity College Dublin and came top of the class in mathematics with a BA in 1890. He became a Clerk Maxwell Scholar and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became a research student at the same time as Ernest Rutherford. At the Cavendish laboratory, he studied under J. J. Thomson. He developed the "Townsend's collision theory". Townsend supplied important work to the electrical conductivity of gases ("Townsend discharge" circa 1897). This work determined the elementary electrical charge with the droplet method. This method was improved later by Robert Andrews Millikan.

text: John Townsend was born in

text: Galway

text: County Galway

text: , Ireland, son of Edward Townsend, a Professor of

text: Civil Engineering

text: at

text: Queen's College, Galway

text: and Judith Townsend. In 1885, he entered

text: Trinity College Dublin

text: and came top of the class in mathematics with a BA in 1890. He became a

text: Clerk Maxwell

text: Scholar and entered

text: Trinity College, Cambridge

text: , where he became a research student at the same time as

text: Ernest Rutherford

text: . At the

text: Cavendish laboratory

text: , he studied under

text: J. J. Thomson

text: . He developed the "Townsend's collision theory". Townsend supplied important work to the electrical conductivity of gases ("

text: Townsend discharge

text: " circa 1897). This work determined the

text: elementary electrical charge

text: with the droplet method. This method was improved later by

text: Robert Andrews Millikan

text: When circularly polarized light passes through an absorbing optically active medium, the speeds between right and left polarizations differ (c ≠ c) as well as their wavelength (λ ≠ λ) and the extent to which they are absorbed (ε≠ε). Circular dichroism is the difference Δε ≡ ε- ε. The electric field of a light beam causes a linear displacement of charge when interacting with a molecule (electric dipole), whereas its magnetic field causes a circulation of charge (magnetic dipole). These two motions combined cause an excitation of an electron in a helical motion, which includes translation and rotation and their associated operators. The experimentally determined relationship between the rotational strength (R) of a sample and the Δε is given by

text: When circularly polarized light passes through an absorbing optically active medium, the speeds between right and left polarizations differ (c ≠ c) as well as their

text: wavelength

text: (λ ≠ λ) and the extent to which they are absorbed (ε≠ε). Circular dichroism is the difference Δε ≡ ε- ε. The electric field of a light beam causes a linear displacement of charge when interacting with a molecule (

text: electric dipole

text: ), whereas its magnetic field causes a circulation of charge (

text: magnetic dipole

text: ). These two motions combined cause an excitation of an

text: electron

text: in a helical motion, which includes

text: translation

text: and

text: rotation

text: and their associated

text: operators

text: . The experimentally determined relationship between the

text: rotational strength

text: (R) of a sample and the Δε is given by

text: Two years later, Fr. Širca was transferred to the Church of St. Jerome in Chicago, Illinois, and Fr. Petričak once again became pastor. In the meantime, money was raised to buy, enlarge, and repair the church and rectory, and install central heating and electricity, in order to properly conduct the growing religious and social activities of the new parish. Religious societies and a choir were started. More space was needed, so in 1923, the small church added a hall in the basement.

text: Two years later, Fr. Širca was transferred to the Church of St. Jerome in

text: Chicago, Illinois

text: , and Fr. Petričak once again became pastor. In the meantime, money was raised to buy, enlarge, and repair the church and rectory, and install central heating and electricity, in order to properly conduct the growing religious and social activities of the new parish. Religious societies and a choir were started. More space was needed, so in 1923, the small church added a hall in the basement.

text: In the more recent innovation of online payday loans, consumers complete the loan application online (or in some instances via fax, especially where documentation is required). The funds are then transferred by direct deposit to the borrower's account, and the loan repayment and/or the finance charge is electronically withdrawn on the borrower's next payday.

text: In the more recent innovation of online payday loans, consumers complete the loan application online (or in some instances via

text: fax

text: , especially where documentation is required). The funds are then transferred by

text: direct deposit

text: to the borrower's account, and the loan repayment and/or the finance charge is electronically withdrawn on the borrower's next payday.

text: Transition metal complexes often have spectacular colors caused by electronic transitions by the absorption of light. For this reason they are often applied as pigments. Most transitions that are related to colored metal complexes are either d–d transitions or charge transfer bands.  In a d–d transition, an electron in a d orbital on the metal is excited by a photon to another d orbital of higher energy.  A charge transfer band entails promotion of an electron from a metal-based orbital into an empty ligand-based orbital (Metal-to-Ligand Charge Transfer or MLCT).  The converse also occurs: excitation of an electron in a ligand-based orbital into an empty metal-based orbital (Ligand to Metal Charge Transfer or LMCT).  These phenomena can be observed with the aid of electronic spectroscopy; also known as UV-Vis. For simple compounds with high symmetry, the d–d transitions can be assigned using Tanabe–Sugano diagrams.  These assignments are gaining increased support with computational chemistry.

text: Transition metal complexes often have spectacular colors caused by electronic transitions by the absorption of light. For this reason they are often applied as

text: pigments

text: . Most transitions that are related to colored metal complexes are either d–d transitions or charge transfer bands.  In a d–d transition, an electron in a d orbital on the metal is excited by a photon to another d orbital of higher energy.  A charge transfer band entails promotion of an electron from a metal-based orbital into an empty ligand-based orbital (

text: Metal-to-Ligand Charge Transfer

text: or MLCT).  The converse also occurs: excitation of an electron in a ligand-based orbital into an empty metal-based orbital (

text: Ligand to Metal Charge Transfer

text: or LMCT).  These phenomena can be observed with the aid of electronic spectroscopy; also known as

text: UV-Vis

text: . For simple compounds with high symmetry, the d–d transitions can be assigned using

text: Tanabe–Sugano diagram

text: s.  These assignments are gaining increased support with

text: computational chemistry

text: During handling, powdered sulfur tends to acquire a slight negative charge, while red lead tends to acquire a slight positive charge. The negatively electrified sulfur is attracted to the positively electrified areas of the plate, while the positively electrified red lead is attracted to the negatively electrified areas. In addition to the distribution of colors thereby produced, there is also a marked difference in the form of the figure, according to the polarity of the electrical charge that was applied to the plate. If the charge areas were positive, a widely extending patch is seen on the plate, consisting of a dense nucleus, from which branches radiate in all directions. Negatively charged areas are considerably smaller and have a sharp circular or fan-like boundary entirely devoid of branches. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz employed Lichtenberg dust figures in his seminal work proving Maxwell's electromagnetic wave theories.

text: During handling, powdered sulfur tends to acquire a slight negative charge, while red lead tends to acquire a slight positive charge. The negatively electrified sulfur is attracted to the positively electrified areas of the plate, while the positively electrified red lead is attracted to the negatively electrified areas. In addition to the distribution of colors thereby produced, there is also a marked difference in the form of the figure, according to the polarity of the electrical charge that was applied to the plate. If the charge areas were positive, a widely extending patch is seen on the plate, consisting of a dense nucleus, from which branches radiate in all directions. Negatively charged areas are considerably smaller and have a sharp circular or fan-like boundary entirely devoid of branches.

text: Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

text: employed Lichtenberg dust figures in his seminal work proving

text: Maxwell's

text: electromagnetic wave theories.

text: Electronic Document Transfer (EDT) Hub captures documents and distributes them electronically to any GP practice or organisation connected to it.  EDT Hub is used widely within the NHS, in England where it is currently being used within over forty NHS Trusts.  EDT is also deployed throughout the NHS in Scotland EDT Hub comes in two versions, uni-directional and multi-directional.  Uni-directional hubs allow one way transfers of documents from a source (in a hospital) to an end point (the patient's General Practitioner).  Multi-directional hubs allow document transfers to happen between any end points,  The EDT Hub can be fully integrated with the Docman document management system and can be used with other clinical systems currently deployed within the NHS.

text: Electronic Document Transfer (EDT) Hub captures documents and distributes them electronically to any GP practice or organisation connected to it.  EDT Hub is used widely within the

text: NHS

text: , in

text: England

text: where it is currently being used within over forty

text: NHS Trust

text: s.  EDT is also deployed throughout the

text: NHS in Scotland

text: EDT Hub comes in two versions, uni-directional and multi-directional.  Uni-directional hubs allow one way transfers of documents from a source (in a hospital) to an end point (the patient's General Practitioner).  Multi-directional hubs allow document transfers to happen between any end points,  The EDT Hub can be fully integrated with the

text: Docman

text: document management system and can be used with other clinical systems currently deployed within the NHS.

text: For the low molecular weight molecules, ionization occurs by charge transfer: an electron or a proton.  There are three possibilities for the charge transfer.  First, charge transfer between a solvent ion and an analyte on the surface.  Second, charge transfer between a gas phase ion and analyte on the surface; in this case the solvent ion is evaporated before reaching the sample surface.  This is achieved when the spray to surface distance is large.  Third, charge transfer between a gas phase ion and a gas phase analyte molecule. This occurs when a sample has a high vapour pressure.

text: With each change in input polarity, current flows up the "stack" of capacitors through the diodes, until they are all charged.   All the capacitors are charged to a voltage of 2V, except for C1, which is charged to V.  The key to the voltage multiplication is that while the capacitors are charged in parallel, they are connected to the load in series.  Since C2 and C4 are in series between the output and ground, the total output voltage (under no-load conditions)  is V = 4V.

text: In metals, thermal conductivity approximately tracks electrical conductivity according to the Wiedemann–Franz law, as freely moving valence electrons transfer not only electric current but also heat energy.  However, the general correlation between electrical and thermal conductance does not hold for other materials, due to the increased importance of phonon carriers for heat in non-metals. Highly electrically conductive silver is less thermally conductive than diamond, which is an electrical insulator, but due to its orderly array of atoms it is conductive of heat via phonons.

text: In metals, thermal conductivity approximately tracks electrical conductivity according to the

text: Wiedemann–Franz law

text: , as freely moving

text: valence electron

text: s transfer not only electric current but also heat energy.  However, the general correlation between electrical and thermal conductance does not hold for other materials, due to the increased importance of

text: phonon

text: carriers for heat in non-metals. Highly electrically conductive

text: silver

text: is less thermally conductive than

text: diamond

text: , which is an

text: electrical insulator

text: , but due to its orderly array of atoms it is conductive of heat via phonons.

text: Thus, for example, the electric charge is the generator of the U(1) symmetry of electromagnetism. The conserved current is the electric current.

text: Thus, for example, the

text: electric charge

text: is the generator of the

text: symmetry of

text: electromagnetism

text: . The conserved current is the

text: electric current

text: Ecological energetics- Electric potential energy- Electrochemical energy conversion- Embodied energy- Encircled energy- Energy- Energy accidents- Energy accounting- Energy amplifier- Energy analyser- Energy applications of nanotechnology- Energy balance (biology)- Energy bar- Energy barrier- Energy being- Energy carrier- Energy Catalyzer- Energy cell- Energy charge- Energy conservation- Energy conversion efficiency- Energy crop- Energy current- Energy density- Energy-depth relationship in a rectangular channel- Energy development- Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy- Energy distance- Energy drift- Energy drink- Energy efficiency gap- Energy-Efficient Ethernet- Energy-efficient landscaping- Energy elasticity- Energy engineering- Energy (esotericism)- Energy expenditure- Energy factor- Energy field disturbance- Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy- Energy transfer- Energy flow (ecology)- Energy flux- Energy forestry- Energy functional- Energy gel- Energy harvesting- Energy input labeling- Energy landscape- Energy level- Energy level splitting- Energy management software- Energy management system- Energy–maneuverability theory- Energy Manufacturing Co. Inc- Energy medicine- Energy–momentum relation- Energy monitoring and targeting- Energy Probe- Energy profile (chemistry)- Energy quality- Energy recovery ventilation- Energy security- Energy (signal processing)- Energy Slave- Energy Star- Energy statistics- Energy Storage Challenge- Energy storage- Energy system- Energy technology- Energy tower (downdraft)- Energy transfer- Energy transfer upconversion- Energy transformation- Energy value of coal- Energy vortex (stargate)- Enthalpy- Entropy- Equipartition theorem- E-statistic- Exertion

text: Ecological energetics

text: Electric potential energy

text: Electrochemical energy conversion

text: Embodied energy

text: Encircled energy

text: Energy

text: Energy accidents

text: Energy accounting

text: Energy amplifier

text: Energy analyser

text: Energy applications of nanotechnology

text: Energy balance (biology)

text: Energy bar

text: Energy barrier

text: Energy being

text: Energy carrier

text: Energy Catalyzer

text: Energy cell

text: Energy charge

text: Energy conservation

text: Energy conversion efficiency

text: Energy crop

text: Energy current

text: Energy density

entity_name: Energy–depth relationship in a rectangular channel

text: Energy-depth relationship in a rectangular channel

text: Energy development

text: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: Energy distance

text: Energy drift

text: Energy drink

text: Energy efficiency gap

text: Energy-Efficient Ethernet

text: Energy-efficient landscaping

text: Energy elasticity

text: Energy engineering

text: Energy (esotericism)

text: Energy expenditure

text: Energy factor

text: Energy field disturbance

entity_name: Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy

text: Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy

text: Energy transfer

text: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Energy flux

text: Energy forestry

text: Energy functional

text: Energy gel

text: Energy harvesting

text: Energy input labeling

text: Energy landscape

text: Energy level

text: Energy level splitting

text: Energy management software

text: Energy management system

text: Energy–maneuverability theory

text: Energy Manufacturing Co. Inc

text: Energy medicine

text: Energy–momentum relation

text: Energy monitoring and targeting

text: Energy Probe

text: Energy profile (chemistry)

text: Energy quality

text: Energy recovery ventilation

text: Energy security

text: Energy (signal processing)

text: Energy Slave

text: Energy Star

text: Energy statistics

text: Energy Storage Challenge

text: Energy storage

text: Energy system

text: Energy technology

text: Energy tower (downdraft)

text: Energy transfer

text: Energy transfer upconversion

text: Energy transformation

text: Energy value of coal

text: Energy vortex (stargate)

text: Enthalpy

text: Entropy

text: Equipartition theorem

text: E-statistic

text: Exertion

text: The 1s electron configuration of hydrogen, while superficially similar to that of the alkali metals (ns), is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the hydron H, or gain one to form the hydride ion H. In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals; in the latter case, the halogens, but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well. Group 14 is also a good fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as ionisation energy and electron affinity, but makes chemical nonsense because hydrogen cannot be tetravalent. Thus none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory, although group 1 is the most common placement (if one is chosen) because the hydron is by far the most important of all monatomic hydrogen species, being the foundation of acid-base chemistry. As an example of hydrogen's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size, the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 fm compared to the 50–220 pm size of most other atoms and ions) and so is nonexistent in condensed systems other than in association with other atoms or molecules. Indeed, transferring of protons between chemicals is the basis of acid-base chemistry. Also unique is hydrogen's ability to form hydrogen bonds, which are an effect of charge-transfer, electrostatic, and electron correlative contributing phenomena. While analogous lithium bonds are also known, they are mostly electrostatic. Nevertheless, hydrogen can take on the same structural role as the alkali metals in some molecular crystals, and has a close relationship with the lightest alkali metals (especially lithium).

text: The 1s electron configuration of hydrogen, while superficially similar to that of the alkali metals (ns), is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the

text: hydron

text: H, or gain one to form the

text: hydride

text: ion H. In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals; in the latter case, the halogens, but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well. Group 14 is also a good fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as

text: ionisation energy

text: and

text: electron affinity

text: , but makes chemical nonsense because hydrogen cannot be tetravalent. Thus none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory, although group 1 is the most common placement (if one is chosen) because the hydron is by far the most important of all monatomic hydrogen species, being the foundation of acid-base chemistry. As an example of hydrogen's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size, the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150

text: fm

text: compared to the 50–220 pm size of most other atoms and ions) and so is nonexistent in condensed systems other than in association with other atoms or molecules. Indeed, transferring of protons between chemicals is the basis of

text: acid-base chemistry

text: . Also unique is hydrogen's ability to form

text: hydrogen bond

text: s, which are an effect of charge-transfer,

text: electrostatic

text: , and electron correlative contributing phenomena. While analogous lithium bonds are also known, they are mostly electrostatic. Nevertheless, hydrogen can take on the same structural role as the alkali metals in some molecular crystals, and has a close relationship with the lightest alkali metals (especially lithium).

text: Work must be done on the charges by some source of energy in the device, to make them move toward the positive terminal against the electric field, so conservation of energy requires that negative static resistances have a source of power. The power may come from an internal source which converts some other form of energy to electric power as in a battery or generator, or from a separate connection to an external power supply circuit as in an amplifying device like a transistor, vacuum tube, or op amp.

text: Work

text: must be done on the charges by some source of energy in the device, to make them move toward the positive terminal against the electric field, so

text: conservation of energy

text: requires that negative static resistances have a source of power. The power may come from an internal source which converts some other form of energy to electric power as in a battery or generator, or from a separate connection to an external power supply circuit as in an amplifying device like a

text: transistor

text: vacuum tube

text: , or

text: op amp

text: Within proteins, electrons are transferred between flavin cofactors, iron–sulfur clusters, and cytochromes. There are several types of iron–sulfur cluster. The simplest kind found in the electron transfer chain consists of two iron atoms joined by two atoms of inorganic sulfur; these are called [2Fe–2S] clusters. The second kind, called [4Fe–4S], contains a cube of four iron atoms and four sulfur atoms. Each iron atom in these clusters is coordinated by an additional amino acid, usually by the sulfur atom of cysteine. Metal ion cofactors undergo redox reactions without binding or releasing protons, so in the electron transport chain they serve solely to transport electrons through proteins. Electrons move quite long distances through proteins by hopping along chains of these cofactors. This occurs by quantum tunnelling, which is rapid over distances of less than 1.4 m.

text: Within proteins, electrons are transferred between

text: flavin

text: cofactors, iron–sulfur clusters, and cytochromes. There are several types of iron–sulfur cluster. The simplest kind found in the electron transfer chain consists of two iron atoms joined by two atoms of inorganic

text: sulfur

text: ; these are called [2Fe–2S] clusters. The second kind, called [4Fe–4S], contains a cube of four iron atoms and four sulfur atoms. Each iron atom in these clusters is coordinated by an additional

text: amino acid

text: , usually by the sulfur atom of

text: cysteine

text: . Metal ion cofactors undergo redox reactions without binding or releasing protons, so in the electron transport chain they serve solely to transport electrons through proteins. Electrons move quite long distances through proteins by hopping along chains of these cofactors. This occurs by

text: quantum tunnelling

text: , which is rapid over distances of less than 1.4 m.

text: If the electric charge of an object can be assumed to be at rest, then it has potential energy due to its position relative to other charged objects.  The electrostatic potential energy is the energy of an electrically charged particle (at rest) in an electric field. It is defined as the work that must be done to move it from an infinite distance away to its present location, adjusted for non-electrical forces on the object. This energy will generally be non-zero if there is another electrically charged object nearby.

text: If the electric charge of an object can be assumed to be at rest, then it has potential energy due to its position relative to other charged objects.  The

text: electrostatic potential energy

text: is the energy of an electrically charged particle (at rest) in an electric field. It is defined as the

text: work

text: that must be done to move it from an infinite distance away to its present location, adjusted for non-electrical forces on the object. This energy will generally be non-zero if there is another electrically charged object nearby.

text: Friction is the resistance that one surface or object encounters when moving on another.

text: Despite competition from other materials, copper remains the preferred electrical conductor in nearly all categories of electrical wiring except overhead electric power transmission where aluminium is often preferred. Copper wire is used in power generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications, electronics circuitry, and countless types of electrical equipment. Electrical wiring is the most important market for the copper industry. This includes structural power wiring, power distribution cable, appliance wire, communications cable, automotive wire and cable, and magnet wire. Roughly half of all copper mined is used for electrical wire and cable conductors. Many electrical devices rely on copper wiring because of its multitude of inherent beneficial properties, such as its high electrical conductivity, tensile strength, ductility, creep (deformation) resistance, corrosion resistance, low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, ease of soldering, malleability, and ease of installation.

text: Despite competition from other materials, copper remains the preferred

text: electrical conductor

text: in nearly all categories of electrical wiring except overhead

text: electric power transmission

text: where

text: aluminium

text: is often preferred. Copper wire is used in

text: power generation

text: power transmission

text: power distribution

text: telecommunications

text: electronics

text: circuitry, and countless types of

text: electrical equipment

text: Electrical wiring

text: is the most important market for the copper industry. This includes structural power wiring, power distribution cable, appliance wire, communications cable, automotive wire and cable, and magnet wire. Roughly half of all copper mined is used for electrical wire and cable conductors. Many electrical devices rely on copper wiring because of its multitude of inherent beneficial properties, such as its high

text: electrical conductivity

text: tensile strength

text: ductility

text: creep (deformation)

text: resistance,

text: corrosion

text: resistance, low

text: thermal expansion

text: , high

text: thermal conductivity

text: , ease of

text: solder

text: ing,

text: malleability

text: , and ease of installation.

text: District judges and magistrates of the State Courts are appointed to their positions by the Legal Service Commission (LSC) on a term basis, and do not enjoy security of tenure. These judges can be transferred by the LSC from the courts to other government departments to serve as legal officers, and vice versa. This may be said to create a risk of executive interference. The transfer of Senior District Judge Michael Khoo is often cited as an illustration of this. Opposition Member of Parliament J.B. Jeyaretnam and a co-accused had each been charged with three charges of having fraudulently transferred cheques to prevent the distribution of money to the creditors of the Workers' Party of Singapore, and one charge of making a false declaration. In January 1981, Khoo acquitted the defendants of all charges except a single charge of fraud involving a cheque for S$400. He sentenced Jeyaretnam to a $1,000 fine, which was below the amount of $2,000 that would have caused him to lose his seat in Parliament. Upon the Public Prosecutor's appeal to the High Court, Chief Justice Wee Chong Jin ordered retrials on the two charges of cheque fraud that the defendants had been acquitted of. In August 1981, before the retrials, Khoo was transferred to the Attorney General's Chambers to take up appointment as a deputy public prosecutor. The defendants were convicted of the charges by a different senior district judge and sentenced to three months' imprisonment each. Jeyaretnam and his co-accused then appealed to the High Court, which confirmed their convictions but reduced the sentences to a fine of $5,000 each. However, a commission of inquiry convened in 1986 to examine Khoo's transfer determined that no evidence of executive interference in the State Courts had been presented, and that the transfer had been decided by the Chief Justice in consultation with the Attorney-General. It did not investigate why the transfer was made. In Parliamentary debates before and after the inquiry it was suggested on the one hand that the transfer had been routine and the timing coincidental, and on the other that it was related to Khoo's competence in handling the case. The reason for the transfer was never clearly established.

text: District judges and magistrates of the

text: State Courts

text: are appointed to their positions by the Legal Service Commission (LSC) on a term basis, and do not enjoy security of tenure. These judges can be transferred by the LSC from the courts to other government departments to serve as legal officers, and

text: vice versa

text: . This may be said to create a risk of executive interference. The transfer of Senior District Judge Michael Khoo is often cited as an illustration of this. Opposition

entity_name: List of members of the 13th Parliament of Singapore

text: Member of Parliament

text: J.B. Jeyaretnam

text: and a co-accused had each been charged with three charges of having fraudulently transferred cheques to prevent the distribution of money to the creditors of the

text: Workers' Party of Singapore

text: , and one charge of making a false declaration. In January 1981, Khoo acquitted the defendants of all charges except a single charge of fraud involving a cheque for

text: S$

text: 400. He sentenced Jeyaretnam to a $1,000 fine, which was below the amount of $2,000 that would have caused him to lose his seat in Parliament. Upon the Public Prosecutor's appeal to the High Court,

text: Chief Justice

text: Wee Chong Jin

text: ordered retrials on the two charges of

text: cheque fraud

text: that the defendants had been acquitted of. In August 1981, before the retrials, Khoo was transferred to the Attorney General's Chambers to take up appointment as a deputy public prosecutor. The defendants were convicted of the charges by a different senior district judge and sentenced to three months' imprisonment each. Jeyaretnam and his co-accused then appealed to the High Court, which confirmed their convictions but reduced the sentences to a fine of $5,000 each. However, a commission of inquiry convened in 1986 to examine Khoo's transfer determined that no evidence of executive interference in the State Courts had been presented, and that the transfer had been decided by the Chief Justice in consultation with the Attorney-General. It did not investigate why the transfer was made. In Parliamentary debates before and after the inquiry it was suggested on the one hand that the transfer had been routine and the timing coincidental, and on the other that it was related to Khoo's competence in handling the case. The reason for the transfer was never clearly established.

text: He is label manager of Shogun Audio, and was a regular DJ on the BBC 1Xtra D&B M1X Show. Friction is not to be confused with Birmingham-based DJ Fricktion who specialises in Open Format Genres, or Bobby Friction of the BBC Asian Network.

text: He is label manager of

text: Shogun Audio

text: , and was a regular DJ on the

text: BBC 1Xtra

text: D&B M1X Show. Friction is not to be confused with Birmingham-based DJ Fricktion who specialises in Open Format Genres, or Bobby Friction of the BBC Asian Network.

text: The three most widely used oxalates are bis(2,4,6-trichlorophenyl)oxalate (TCPO), Bis(2,4,5-trichlorophenyl-6-carbopentoxyphenyl)oxalate (CPPO) and bis(2,4-dinitrophenyl) oxalate (DNPO). Other aryl oxalates have been synthesized and evaluated with respect to their possible analytical applications [2]. Divanillyl oxalate, a more eco-friendly or "green" oxalate for chemiluminescence, decomposes into the nontoxic, biodegradable compound vanillin and works in nontoxic, biodegradable triacetin [16] . Peroxyoxalate CL is an example of indirect or sensitized chemiluminescence in which the energy from an excited intermediate is transferred to a suitable fluorescent molecule, which relaxes to the ground state by emitting a photon.  Rauhut and co-workers have reported that the intermediate responsible for providing the energy of excitation is 1,2-dioxetanedione [1,3]. The peroxyoxalate reaction is able to excite many different compounds, having emissions spanning the visible and infrared regions of the spectrum [3,4], and the reaction can supply up to 440 kJ mol-1, corresponding to excitation at 272 nm [5]. It has been found, however, that the chemiluminescence intensity corrected for quantum yield decreases as the singlet excitation energy of the fluorescent molecule increases [6]. There is also a linear relationship between the corrected chemiluminescence intensity and the oxidation potential of the molecule [6]. This suggests the possibility of an electron transfer step in the mechanism, as demonstrated in several other chemiluminescence systems [7-10]. It has been postulated that a transient charge transfer complex is formed between the intermediate 1,2-dioxetanedione and the fluorescer [11], and a modified mechanism was proposed involving the transfer of an electron from the fluorescer to the reactive intermediate [12]. The emission of light is thought to result from the annihilation of the fluorescer radical cation with the carbon dioxide radical anion formed when the 1,2-dioxetanedione decomposes [13]. This process is called chemically induced electron exchange luminescence (CIEEL).

text: The three most widely used

text: oxalate

text: s are

text: TCPO

text: Bis(2,4,5-trichlorophenyl-6-carbopentoxyphenyl)oxalate

text: (CPPO) and

text: bis(2,4-dinitrophenyl) oxalate

text: (DNPO). Other

text: aryl oxalate

text: s have been synthesized and evaluated with respect to their possible analytical applications [2].

text: Divanillyl oxalate

text: , a more eco-friendly or "green"

text: oxalate

text: for chemiluminescence, decomposes into the nontoxic, biodegradable compound

text: vanillin

text: and works in nontoxic, biodegradable

text: triacetin

text: [16] . Peroxyoxalate CL is an example of indirect or sensitized chemiluminescence in which the energy from an excited intermediate is transferred to a suitable fluorescent molecule, which relaxes to the ground state by emitting a photon.  Rauhut and co-workers have reported that the intermediate responsible for providing the energy of excitation is

text: [1,3]. The peroxyoxalate reaction is able to excite many different compounds, having emissions spanning the visible and infrared regions of the spectrum [3,4], and the reaction can supply up to 440 kJ mol-1, corresponding to excitation at 272 nm [5]. It has been found, however, that the chemiluminescence intensity corrected for quantum yield decreases as the singlet excitation energy of the fluorescent molecule increases [6]. There is also a linear relationship between the corrected chemiluminescence intensity and the oxidation potential of the molecule [6]. This suggests the possibility of an electron transfer step in the mechanism, as demonstrated in several other

text: chemiluminescence

text: systems [7-10]. It has been postulated that a transient charge transfer complex is formed between the intermediate

text: and the

text: fluorescer

text: [11], and a modified mechanism was proposed involving the transfer of an electron from the

text: fluorescer

text: to the reactive intermediate [12]. The emission of light is thought to result from the annihilation of the

text: fluorescer

text: radical cation

text: with the carbon dioxide

text: radical anion

text: formed when the 1,2-dioxetanedione decomposes [13]. This process is called

text: chemically induced electron exchange luminescence

text: (CIEEL).

text: In 2010 the French government's Autorité de la concurrence (the department in charge of regulating competition) fined eleven banks, including Société Générale, the sum of 384,900,000 Euros for colluding to charge unjustified fees on check processing, especially for extra fees charged during the transition from paper check transfer to "Exchanges Check-Image" electronic transfer.

text: In 2010 the French government's

text: Autorité de la concurrence

text: (the department in charge of regulating competition) fined eleven banks, including Société Générale, the sum of 384,900,000 Euros for

entity_name: French check processing fee controversy of 2010

text: colluding to charge unjustified fees on check processing

text: , especially for extra fees charged during the transition from paper check transfer to "Exchanges Check-Image" electronic transfer.

text: Considering an ionic bond, in this the electron(s) is(are) not shared but transferred between the atoms conveying definite charges to each participant in the bond. The "size" of the charge depends on the number of electrons transferred so an aluminium atom with a +3 charge has a relatively large positive charge. That positive charge then exerts an attractive force on the electron cloud of the other ion, which has accepted the electrons from the aluminium (or other) positive ion.

text: Shankar attended elementary school in Usilampatti, Tamil Nadu, and St. Mary’s High School in Madurai, India. Shankar was prominent and active in theater and drama during his school life and took part in numerous plays and debates. He also was in the school’s Track, Cricket, and Badminton teams. Shankar enrolled in Palani Andawar Polytechnic in Palani and after a year transferred to Tamil Nadu Polytechic in Madurai, there he graduated with a Degree in Electrical and Electronic Engineering and continued his Engineering studies at Thiagarajar College of Engineering in Madurai and completed his Bachelors course in Electrical and Electronics Engineering, thereafter he completed Masters in Administration at Madurai Kamaraj University followed with Masters in Business Administration in the United States of America.

text: Shankar attended elementary school in Usilampatti, Tamil Nadu, and St. Mary’s High School in Madurai, India. Shankar was prominent and active in theater and drama during his school life and took part in numerous plays and debates. He also was in the school’s Track, Cricket, and Badminton teams. Shankar enrolled in Palani Andawar Polytechnic in Palani and after a year transferred to Tamil Nadu Polytechic in Madurai, there he graduated with a Degree in Electrical and Electronic Engineering and continued his Engineering studies at Thiagarajar College of Engineering in Madurai and completed his Bachelors course in Electrical and Electronics Engineering, thereafter he completed Masters in Administration at

text: Madurai Kamaraj University

text: followed with Masters in Business Administration in the United States of America.

text: The Hall effect is due to the nature of the current in a conductor. Current consists of the movement of many small charge carriers, typically electrons, holes, ions (see Electromigration) or all three. When a magnetic field is present, these charges experience a force, called the Lorentz force. When such a magnetic field is absent, the charges follow approximately straight, 'line of sight' paths between collisions with impurities, phonons, etc. However, when a  magnetic field with a perpendicular component is applied, their paths between collisions are curved so that moving charges accumulate on one face of the material. This leaves equal and opposite charges exposed on the other face, where there is a scarcity of mobile charges. The result is an asymmetric distribution of charge density across the Hall element, arising from a force that is perpendicular to both the 'line of sight' path and the applied magnetic field. The separation of charge establishes an electric field that opposes the migration of further charge, so a steady electrical potential is established for as long as the charge is flowing.

text: The Hall effect is due to the nature of the current in a conductor. Current consists of the movement of many small

text: charge carrier

text: s, typically

text: electron

text: s,

text: holes

text: ion

text: s (see

text: Electromigration

text: ) or all three. When a magnetic field is present, these charges experience a force, called the

text: Lorentz force

text: . When such a magnetic field is absent, the charges follow approximately straight, 'line of sight' paths between collisions with impurities,

text: phonons

text: , etc. However, when a  magnetic field with a perpendicular component is applied, their paths between collisions are curved so that moving charges accumulate on one face of the material. This leaves equal and opposite charges exposed on the other face, where there is a scarcity of mobile charges. The result is an asymmetric distribution of charge density across the Hall element, arising from a force that is perpendicular to both the 'line of sight' path and the applied magnetic field. The separation of charge establishes an

text: electric field

text: that opposes the migration of further charge, so a steady

text: electrical potential

text: is established for as long as the charge is flowing.

text: The plotters planned to use peroxide-based liquid explosives, the Metropolitan Police said that the plot involved acetone peroxide, (TATP). Which is sensitive to heat, shock, and friction, and can be initiated with fire or an electrical charge, and can also be used to produce improvised detonators.

text: The plotters planned to use

text: peroxide

text: -based

text: liquid explosives

text: , the Metropolitan Police said that the plot involved

text: acetone peroxide

text: , (TATP). Which is sensitive to heat, shock, and friction, and can be initiated with fire or an electrical charge, and can also be used to produce improvised detonators.

text: Charge conservation can also be understood as a consequence of symmetry through Noether's theorem, a central result in theoretical physics that asserts that each conservation law is associated with a symmetry of the underlying physics.  The symmetry that is associated with charge conservation is the global gauge invariance of the electromagnetic field.  This is related to the fact that the electric and magnetic fields are not changed by different choices of the value representing the zero point of electrostatic potential

text: Charge conservation can also be understood as a consequence of symmetry through

text: Noether's theorem

text: , a central result in theoretical physics that asserts that each

text: conservation law

text: is associated with a

text: symmetry

text: of the underlying physics.  The symmetry that is associated with charge conservation is the global

text: gauge invariance

text: of the

text: electromagnetic field

text: .  This is related to the fact that the electric and magnetic fields are not changed by different choices of the value representing the zero point of

text: electrostatic potential

text: A gas sensor composed of SWNHs could be fabricated with an electrokinetic method using dielectrophoresis (DEP). Conductanceof the DEP-fabricated SWNH sensor increased or decreased upon exposure to ppm-levels of NO or NH, respectively, similar to the previously obtained CNT gas sensors which suggests that the SWNH aggregate behaves as a p-type semiconductor. The comparison reveals that intrinsic NO sensitivity of the SWNHs is lower than that of single-wall CNTs but comparable with the intrinsic sensitivity of multiple-wall CNTs (MWCNTs). Another gas sensor using coating film of SWHNs aimed to detect ozone in water. This sensor is based on the phenomena that the electric resistance of the SWNHs-film decreased with the adsorption of ozone molecules due to charge transfer from the surface of SWNHs to O molecules. The shift of the electric resistance of the SWNH-film was correlated with the ozone concentration and temperature based on monolayer adsorption model with consideration of activation energies of the relevant adsorption, desorption, and sensitivity of charge transfer.

text: A

text: gas sensor

text: composed of SWNHs could be fabricated with an electrokinetic method using dielectrophoresis (DEP). Conductanceof the DEP-fabricated SWNH sensor increased or decreased upon exposure to ppm-levels of NO or NH, respectively, similar to the previously obtained CNT gas sensors which suggests that the SWNH aggregate behaves as a p-type semiconductor. The comparison reveals that intrinsic NO sensitivity of the SWNHs is lower than that of single-wall CNTs but comparable with the intrinsic sensitivity of multiple-wall CNTs (MWCNTs). Another gas sensor using coating film of SWHNs aimed to detect ozone in water. This sensor is based on the phenomena that the electric resistance of the SWNHs-film decreased with the adsorption of ozone molecules due to charge transfer from the surface of SWNHs to O molecules. The shift of the electric resistance of the SWNH-film was correlated with the ozone concentration and temperature based on

text: monolayer

text: adsorption model with consideration of activation energies of the relevant adsorption, desorption, and sensitivity of charge transfer.

text: Fins are extensions on exterior surfaces of objects that increase the rate of heat transfer to or from the object by increasing convection. This is achieved by increasing the surface area of the body, which in turn increases the heat transfer rate by a sufficient degree. This is an efficient way of increasing the rate, since the alternative way of doing so is by increasing either the heat transfer coefficient (which depends on the nature of materials being used and the conditions of use) or the temperature gradient (which depends on the conditions of use). Clearly, changing the shape of the bodies is more convenient. Fins are therefore a very popular solution to increase the heat transfer from surfaces and are widely used in a number of objects. The fin material should preferably have high thermal conductivity. In most applications the fin is surrounded by a fluid in motion, which heats or cools it quickly due to the large surface area, and subsequently the heat gets transferred to or from the body quickly due to the high thermal conductivity of the fin. For optimal Heat transfer performance with minimal cost, the dimensions and shape of the fin have to be calculated for specific applications, and this is called design of a fin. A common way of doing so is by creating a model of the fin and then simulating it under required service conditions.

text: Fins

text: are extensions on exterior surfaces of objects that increase the rate of

text: heat transfer

text: to or from the object by increasing

text: convection

text: . This is achieved by increasing the

text: surface area

text: of the body, which in turn increases the heat transfer rate by a sufficient degree. This is an efficient way of increasing the rate, since the alternative way of doing so is by increasing either the

text: heat transfer coefficient

text: (which depends on the nature of materials being used and the conditions of use) or the

text: temperature gradient

text: (which depends on the conditions of use). Clearly, changing the shape of the bodies is more convenient. Fins are therefore a very popular solution to increase the heat transfer from surfaces and are widely used in a number of objects. The fin material should preferably have high

text: thermal conductivity

text: . In most applications the fin is surrounded by a fluid in motion, which heats or cools it quickly due to the large surface area, and subsequently the heat gets transferred to or from the body quickly due to the high thermal conductivity of the fin. For optimal Heat transfer performance with minimal cost, the dimensions and shape of the fin have to be calculated for specific applications, and this is called

text: design

text: of a fin. A common way of doing so is by creating a

text: model

text: of the fin and then

text: simulating

text: it under required service conditions.

text: Conductive materials have a low electrical resistance, thus electrons flow easily across the surface or through these materials.  Charges go to ground or to another conductive object that the material contacts.

text: The process by which electric current passes through a material is termed electrical conduction, and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a conductor such as metal, and electrolysis, where ions (charged atoms) flow through liquids, or through plasmas such as electrical sparks. While the particles themselves can move quite slowly, sometimes with an average drift velocity only fractions of a millimetre per second, the electric field that drives them itself propagates at close to the speed of light, enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires.

text: The process by which electric current passes through a material is termed

text: electrical conduction

text: , and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where electrons flow through a

text: conductor

text: such as metal, and

text: electrolysis

text: , where

text: ion

text: s (charged

text: atom

text: s) flow through liquids, or through

text: plasma

text: s such as electrical sparks. While the particles themselves can move quite slowly, sometimes with an average

text: drift velocity

text: only fractions of a millimetre per second, the

text: electric field

text: that drives them itself propagates at close to the

text: speed of light

text: , enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires.

text: A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive region can either be a vacuum or an electrical insulator material known as a dielectric. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

text: A capacitor consists of two

text: conductor

text: s separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive region can either be a

text: vacuum

text: or an electrical insulator material known as a

text: dielectric

text: . Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, and even a

text: semiconductor

text: depletion region

text: chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net

text: electric charge

text: and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In

text: SI

text: units, a capacitance of one

text: farad

text: means that one

text: coulomb

text: of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one

text: volt

text: across the device.

text: The landing was planned to take place on Meridiani Planum during the dust storm season, which would have provided a chance to characterise a dust-loaded atmosphere during entry and descent, measure the dust's static electricity  charge —typically produced by friction— and to conduct surface measurements associated with a dust-rich environment.

text: The landing was planned to take place on

text: Meridiani Planum

text: during the dust storm season, which would have provided a chance to characterise a dust-loaded atmosphere during entry and descent, measure the dust's

text: static electricity

text: charge —typically produced by friction— and to conduct surface measurements associated with a dust-rich environment.

text: Glass rods can also be used to demonstrate electrification by friction. This occurs when there are two surfaces rubbing together. In this instance, rubbing a glass rod with silk transfers negative charge from it. This effect is known as the triboelectric effect and can be performed with a variety of materials. Because glass rods and silk are relatively common, they are often chosen to demonstrate this effect.

text: Glass rods can also be used to demonstrate electrification by friction. This occurs when there are two surfaces rubbing together. In this instance, rubbing a glass rod with silk transfers negative charge from it. This effect is known as the

text: triboelectric effect

text: and can be performed with a variety of materials. Because glass rods and silk are relatively common, they are often chosen to demonstrate this effect.

text: The department is charged with issuing licenses for the operations of electricity producers, stands in continuous contact with license-seekers in the fields of production, conduction and distribution, advises the Authority assembly regarding the granting of licenses and oversees the fulfillment of their terms and conditions under law.

text: The department is charged with issuing licenses for the operations of

entity_name: List of countries by electricity production

text: electricity producer

text: s, stands in continuous contact with license-seekers in the fields of production, conduction and distribution, advises the Authority assembly regarding the granting of licenses and oversees the fulfillment of their terms and conditions under law.

text: A Redirection of Transfer charge is included in bank charges and are only required on specific transfer occasions only. A redirection fee is a bank charge that is only paid to a bank when a mistake is made by another bank and a sum of amount is transferred into a wrong bank account in another bank. This may occur between continents,countries or states. A redirection fee is often expensive when required as the bank requiring this may not have legal rights to freeze the account the funds are mistakenly transferred into. It may also require urgent attention depending on the banking rules of the country and it takes a period of 30–45 minutes for a redirected transfer to be completed. This is normally caused in a Bank Wire Transfer, Telegraphic Transfer also known as Telex Transfer (T/T) and most times, local bank to bank transfer. A redirection fee is only needed to be paid to the bank the funds are in and the bank will have to redirect the transfer to its correct destination. Most banks calculate this type of bank charge according to the amount in question.

text: Evidence of lightning activity can often be found in the paleomagnetic record.  Lightning strikes are the result of tremendous charge buildup in clouds.  This excess charge is transferred to the ground via lightning channels, which carry a strong electric current.  Because of the intensity of this electric current, when lightning hits the ground, it can produce a strong, albeit brief, magnetic field.  Thus, as the electric current travels through soils, rocks, plant roots, etc., it locks a unique magnetic signature within these materials through a process known as lightning-induced remanent magnetization (LIRM).  Evidence of LIRM is manifested in concentric magnetic field lines surrounding the location of the lightning strike point.  LIRM anomalies normally occur close to the location of the lightning strike, usually encapsulated within several meters of the point of contact.  The anomalies are generally linear or radial, which, just like actual lightning channels, branch out from a central point.  It is possible to determine the intensity of the electric current from a lightning strike by examining the LIRM signatures.  Since rocks and soils already have some preexisting magnetic field, the intensity of the electric current can be determined by examining the change between the "natural" magnetic field and the magnetic field induced by the lightning current, which generally acts parallel to the direction of the lightning channel.  Another characteristic feature of an LIRM anomaly compared to other magnetic anomalies is that the electric current intensity is generally stronger.  However, some have suggested that the anomalies, like other characteristics in the geologic record, might fade over time as the magnetic field redistributes.

text: Evidence of lightning activity can often be found in the

text: paleomagnetic

text: record.  Lightning strikes are the result of tremendous charge buildup in clouds.  This excess charge is transferred to the ground via lightning channels, which carry a strong

text: electric current

text: The pressure gradient in an ultrasonic wave moves particles relative to the fluid. This motion disturbs the double layer that exists at the particle-fluid interface. The picture illustrates the mechanism of this distortion. Practically all particles in fluids carry a surface charge. This surface charge is screened with an equally charged diffuse layer; this structure is called the double layer. Ions of the diffuse layer are located in the fluid and can move with the fluid. Fluid motion relative to the particle drags these diffuse ions in the direction of one or the other of the particle's poles. The picture shows ions dragged towards the left hand pole. As a result of this drag, there is an excess of negative ions in the vicinity of the left hand pole and an excess of positive surface charge at the right hand pole. As a result of this charge excess, particles gain a dipole moment. These dipole moments generate an electric field that in turn generates measurable electric current. This phenomenon is widely used for measuring zeta potential in concentrated colloids.

text: The

text: pressure gradient

text: in an ultrasonic wave moves particles relative to the fluid. This motion disturbs the

text: double layer

text: that exists at the particle-fluid

text: interface

text: . The picture illustrates the mechanism of this distortion. Practically all particles in fluids carry a

text: surface charge

text: . This surface charge is screened with an equally charged diffuse layer; this structure is called the

text: double layer

text: . Ions of the diffuse layer are located in the fluid and can move with the fluid. Fluid motion relative to the particle drags these diffuse ions in the direction of one or the other of the particle's poles. The picture shows ions dragged towards the left hand pole. As a result of this drag, there is an excess of negative ions in the vicinity of the left hand pole and an excess of positive

text: surface charge

text: at the right hand pole. As a result of this charge excess, particles gain a

text: dipole moment

text: . These dipole moments generate an electric field that in turn generates measurable electric current. This phenomenon is widely used for measuring

text: zeta potential

text: in concentrated

text: colloids

text: Electric charges on conductors reside entirely on their external surface (see Faraday cage), and tend to concentrate more around sharp points and edges than on flat surfaces. This means that the electric field generated by charges on a sharp conductive point is much stronger than the field generated by the same charge residing on a large smooth spherical conductive shell. When this electric field strength exceeds what is known as the corona discharge inception voltage (CIV) gradient, it ionizes the air about the tip, and a small faint purple jet of plasma can be seen in the dark on the conductive tip. Ionization of the nearby air molecules result in generation of ionized air molecules having the same polarity as that of the charged tip. Subsequently, the tip repels the like-charged ion cloud, and the ion cloud immediately expands due to the repulsion between the ions themselves. This repulsion of ions creates an electric "wind" that emanates from the tip, which is usually accompanied by a hissing noise due to the change in air pressure at the tip. An opposite force acts on the tip that may recoil if not tight to ground.

text: Electric charges on conductors reside entirely on their external surface (see

text: Faraday cage

text: ), and tend to concentrate more around sharp points and edges than on flat surfaces. This means that the

text: electric field

text: generated by charges on a sharp

text: conductive

text: point is much stronger than the field generated by the same charge residing on a large smooth spherical conductive shell. When this

text: electric field strength

text: exceeds what is known as the corona discharge inception voltage (CIV) gradient, it ionizes the air about the tip, and a small faint purple jet of

text: plasma

text: can be seen in the dark on the conductive tip. Ionization of the nearby air molecules result in generation of

text: ionized

text: air molecules having the same polarity as that of the charged tip. Subsequently, the tip repels the like-charged ion cloud, and the ion cloud immediately expands due to the repulsion between the ions themselves. This repulsion of ions creates an electric "wind" that emanates from the tip, which is usually accompanied by a hissing noise due to the change in air pressure at the tip. An opposite force acts on the tip that may recoil if not tight to ground.

text: Through the latter part of the 1890s and during the construction of Wardenclyffe, Tesla applied for patents covering the many elements that would make up his wireless system. The system he came up with was based on electrical conduction with an electrical charge being conducted through the ground and as well as through a theorized conducting layer in the atmosphere. The design consisted of a grounded Tesla coil as a resonance transformer transmitter that he thought would be able to create a displacement of Earth's electric charge by alternately charging and discharging the oscillator's elevated terminal. This would work in conjunction with a second Tesla coil used in receive mode at a distant location, also with a grounded helical resonator and an elevated terminal. He believed that the placement of a grounded resonance transformer at another point on the Earths surface in the roll of a receiver tuned to the same frequency as the transmitter would allow electric current flowing through the Earth between the two. He also believed waves of electric current from the sending tower could be made to reflect back from the far side of the globe, resulting in amplified stationary waves of electric current that could be utilized at any point on the globe, localizing power delivery directly to the receiving station. Another aspect of his system was electricity returned via "an equivalent electric displacement"" in the atmosphere via a charged conductive upper layer that he thought existed, a theory dating back to an 1872 idea for a proposed wireless transmission-reception system developed by Mahlon Loomis. The current could be used at the receiver for telecommunications and to drive electrical devices.

text: Through the latter part of the 1890s and during the construction of Wardenclyffe, Tesla applied for patents covering the many elements that would make up his wireless system. The system he came up with was based on electrical conduction with an electrical charge being conducted through the ground and as well as through a theorized conducting layer in the atmosphere. The design consisted of a grounded

text: Tesla coil

text: as a resonance transformer transmitter that he thought would be able to create a displacement of Earth's electric charge by alternately charging and discharging the oscillator's elevated terminal. This would work in conjunction with a second Tesla coil used in receive mode at a distant location, also with a grounded helical resonator and an elevated terminal. He believed that the placement of a grounded resonance transformer at another point on the Earths surface in the roll of a receiver tuned to the same frequency as the transmitter would allow electric current flowing through the Earth between the two. He also believed waves of electric current from the sending tower could be made to reflect back from the far side of the globe, resulting in amplified stationary waves of electric current that could be utilized at any point on the globe, localizing power delivery directly to the receiving station. Another aspect of his system was electricity returned via "an equivalent electric displacement"" in the atmosphere via a charged conductive upper layer that he thought existed, a theory dating back to an 1872 idea for a proposed wireless transmission-reception system developed by

text: Mahlon Loomis

text: . The current could be used at the receiver for telecommunications and to drive electrical devices.

text: In 2010 the French government's Autorité de la concurrence (the department in charge of regulating competition) fined eleven banks €384,900,000 for colluding to charge unjustified fees for check processing, especially for extra fees charged during the transition from paper check transfer to "Exchanges Check-Image" electronic transfer.

text: In 2010 the French government's

text: Autorité de la concurrence

text: (the department in charge of regulating competition) fined eleven banks

text: 384,900,000 for colluding to charge unjustified fees for check processing, especially for extra fees charged during the transition from paper check transfer to "Exchanges Check-Image" electronic transfer.

text: .  This is the ultimate theoretical origin of charge conservation.

text: For a closed system, with matter transfer excluded, the changes in internal energy are due to heat transfer  and due to work. The latter can be split into two kinds, pressure-volume work , and frictional and other kinds, such as electrical polarization, which do not alter the volume of the system, and are called isochoric, . Accordingly, the internal energy change  for a process may be written

text: On January 21, 2009, the day he was inaugurated, United States President Barack Obama issued three Executive orders related to the detention of individuals in Guantanamo.He put in place a new review system composed of officials from six departments, where the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense.  When it reported back, a year later, the Joint Review Task Force classified some individuals as too dangerous to be transferred from Guantanamo, even though there was no evidence to justify laying charges against them. On April 9, 2013, that document was made public after a Freedom of Information Act request.Haroon al-Afghani was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama said those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a Periodic Review Board.

text: United States President

text: Barack Obama

text: issued three

text: Executive orders

text: related to the detention of individuals in Guantanamo.He put in place a new review system composed of officials from six departments, where the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense.  When it reported back, a year later, the

text: Joint Review Task Force

text: Freedom of Information Act

text: request.Haroon al-Afghani was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama said those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a

text: Periodic Review Board

text: The effect of this equation can be seen in the case of an object with a "frozen in" polarization like a bar electret, the electric analogue to a bar magnet.  There is no free charge in such a material, but the inherent polarization gives rise to an electric field, demonstrating that the D field is not determined entirely by the free charge.  The electric field is determined by using the above relation along with other boundary conditions on the polarization density to yield the bound charges, which will, in turn, yield the electric field.

text: The effect of this equation can be seen in the case of an object with a "frozen in" polarization like a bar

text: electret

text: , the electric analogue to a bar magnet.  There is no free charge in such a material, but the inherent polarization gives rise to an electric field, demonstrating that the D field is not determined entirely by the free charge.  The electric field is determined by using the above relation along with other boundary conditions on the

text: polarization density

text: to yield the bound charges, which will, in turn, yield the electric field.

text: Owing respectively to Green's theorem and the divergence theorem, such a field is necessarily a conservative one, and it is free from sources or sinks, having net flux equal to zero through any open domain without holes.  (These two observations combine as real and imaginary parts in Cauchy's integral theorem.) In fluid dynamics, such a vector field is a potential flow .  In magnetostatics, such vector fields model static magnetic fields on a region of the plane containing no current.  In electrostatics, they model static electric fields in a region of the plane containing no electric charge.

text: Owing respectively to

text: Green's theorem

text: and the

text: divergence theorem

text: , such a field is necessarily a

text: conservative

text: one, and it is free from sources or sinks, having net flux equal to zero through any open domain without holes.  (These two observations combine as real and imaginary parts in

text: Cauchy's integral theorem

text: .) In

text: fluid dynamics

text: , such a vector field is a

text: potential flow

text: .  In

text: magnetostatics

text: , such vector fields model static

text: magnetic field

text: s on a region of the plane containing no current.  In

text: electrostatics

text: , they model static electric fields in a region of the plane containing no electric charge.

text: Where r and r are the radii of the spheres and R is their separation, ε and ε are the static and high frequency (optical) dielectric constants of the solvent, Δe the amount of charge transferred. The graph of G vs. Δe is a parabola (Fig. 1). In Marcus theory the energy belonging to the transfer of a unit charge (Δe = 1) is called the (outer sphere) reorganization energy λ, i.e. the energy of a state where the polarization would correspond to the transfer of a unit amount of charge, but the real charge distribution is that before the transfer. In terms of exchange direction the system is symmetric.

text: The phenomenon of polarization arises when wave motion can occur simultaneously in two orthogonal directions. Transverse waves can be polarized, for instance. When polarization is used as a descriptor without qualification, it usually refers to the special, simple case of linear polarization. A transverse wave is linearly polarized if it oscillates in only one direction or plane. In the case of linear polarization. it is often useful to add the relative orientation of that plane, perpendicular to the direction of travel, in which the oscillation occurs, such as "horizontal" for instance, if the plane of polarization is parallel to the ground. Electromagnetic waves propagating in free space, for instance, are transverse; they can be polarized by the use of a polarizing filter.

text: The phenomenon of polarization arises when wave motion can occur simultaneously in two

text: orthogonal

text: directions.

text: Transverse wave

text: s can be polarized, for instance. When polarization is used as a descriptor without qualification, it usually refers to the special, simple case of

text: linear polarization

text: . A transverse wave is linearly polarized if it oscillates in only one direction or plane. In the case of linear polarization. it is often useful to add the relative orientation of that plane, perpendicular to the direction of travel, in which the oscillation occurs, such as "horizontal" for instance, if the plane of polarization is parallel to the ground.

text: Electromagnetic waves

text: propagating in free space, for instance, are transverse; they can be polarized by the use of a

text: polarizing filter

text: In a second step the energy W  of the reversible (back) transfer of the charge to the first sphere, again via the vacuum,  is calculated.  However, the atom and orientation polarization P is kept fixed, only the electron polarization P may adjust to the field of the new charge distribution and the fixed P. After this second step the system is in the desired state with an electron polarization corresponding to the starting point of the redox reaction and an atom and orientation polarization corresponding to the "transition state". The energy W + W of this state is, thermodynamically speaking, a Gibbs free energy G.

text: In an electromagnetic wave, both the electric field and magnetic field are oscillating but in different directions; by convention the "polarization" of light refers to the polarization of the electric field. Light which can be approximated as a plane wave in free space or in an isotropic medium propagates as a transverse wave—both the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel. The oscillation of these fields may be in a single direction (linear polarization), or the field may rotate at the optical frequency (circular or elliptical polarization). In that case the direction of the fields' rotation, and thus the specified polarization, may be either clockwise or counter clockwise; this is referred to as the wave's chirality or handedness.

text: In an

text: electromagnetic wave

text: , both the

text: electric field

text: and

text: magnetic field

text: are oscillating but in different directions; by convention the "polarization" of light refers to the polarization of the electric field. Light which can be approximated as a

text: plane wave

text: in free space or in an

text: isotropic

text: medium propagates as a

text: transverse wave

text: —both the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the wave's direction of travel. The oscillation of these fields may be in a single direction (

text: linear polarization

text: ), or the field may rotate at the optical frequency (

text: circular

text: or

text: elliptical polarization

text: ). In that case the direction of the fields' rotation, and thus the specified polarization, may be either clockwise or counter clockwise; this is referred to as the wave's

text: chirality

text: or handedness.

text: Frictional machines were, in time, gradually superseded by the second class of instrument mentioned above, namely, influence machines. These operate by electrostatic induction and convert mechanical work into electrostatic energy by the aid of a small initial charge which is continually being replenished and reinforced. The first suggestion of an influence machine appears to have grown out of the invention of Volta's electrophorus. The electrophorus is a single-plate capacitor used to produce imbalances of electric charge via the process of electrostatic induction.

text: Frictional machines were, in time, gradually superseded by the second class of instrument mentioned above, namely, influence machines. These operate by

text: electrostatic induction

text: and convert mechanical work into electrostatic energy by the aid of a small initial charge which is continually being replenished and reinforced. The first suggestion of an influence machine appears to have grown out of the invention of

text: Volta

text: 's

text: electrophorus

text: . The electrophorus is a single-plate

text: capacitor

text: used to produce imbalances of

text: electric charge

text: via the process of

text: electrostatic induction

text: Several steps are involved in electron transfer dissociation. Usually a protein mixture is first separated using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Next multiply-protonated precursor molecules are generated by electrospray ionization and injected into the mass spectrometer. (Only molecules with a charge of 2+ or greater can be used in ETD.) In order for an electron to be transferred to the positive precursor molecules radical anions are generated and put into the ion trap with them. During the ion/ion reaction an electron is transferred to the positively-charged protein or peptide, causing fragmentation along the peptide backbone. Finally the resultant fragments are mass analyzed.

text: Several steps are involved in electron transfer dissociation. Usually a protein mixture is first separated using

text: high performance liquid chromatography

text: (HPLC). Next multiply-protonated

text: precursor molecules

text: are generated by electrospray ionization and injected into the mass spectrometer. (Only molecules with a charge of 2+ or greater can be used in ETD.) In order for an electron to be transferred to the positive precursor molecules radical anions are generated and put into the ion trap with them. During the ion/ion reaction an electron is transferred to the positively-charged protein or peptide, causing fragmentation along the peptide backbone. Finally the resultant fragments are mass analyzed.

text: In order to maintain a low junction temperature to keep good performance of an LED, every method of removing heat from LEDs should be considered.  Conduction, convection, and radiation are the three means of heat transfer.  Typically, LEDs are encapsulated in a transparent resin, which is a poor thermal conductor.  Nearly all heat produced is conducted through the back side of the chip.  Heat is generated from the PN junction by electrical energy that was not converted to useful light, and conducted to outside ambience through a long path, from junction to solder point, solder point to board, and board to the heat sink and then to the atmosphere.  A typical LED side view and its thermal model are shown in the figures.

text: In order to maintain a low

text: junction temperature

text: to keep good performance of an

text: LED

text: , every method of removing heat from LEDs should be considered.

text: Conduction

text: convection

text: , and

text: radiation

text: are the three means of heat transfer.  Typically, LEDs are encapsulated in a transparent

text: resin

text: , which is a poor

text: thermal conductor

text: .  Nearly all heat produced is conducted through the back side of the chip.  Heat is generated from the

text: PN junction

text: by electrical energy that was not converted to useful light, and conducted to outside ambience through a long path, from junction to

text: solder

text: point, solder point to board, and board to the

text: heat sink

text: and then to the atmosphere.  A typical LED side view and its thermal model are shown in the figures.

text: Polarization (also polarisation) is a parameter applying to waves that specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillation. Electromagnetic waves such as light exhibit multiple polarizations, as do many other types of waves such as gravitational waves and sound waves in solids. On the other hand, sound waves in a gas or liquid only oscillate in the wave's direction of propagation, and the oscillation of ocean waves is always in the vertical direction. In these cases one doesn't normally speak of "polarization" since the oscillation's direction is not in question.

text: Polarization (

entity_name: American and British English spelling differences

text: also

text: polarisation) is a parameter applying to

text: wave

text: s that specifies the geometrical orientation of the

text: oscillation

text: Electromagnetic wave

text: s such as

text: light

text: exhibit multiple polarizations, as do many other types of waves such as

text: gravitational wave

text: s and sound waves in solids. On the other hand,

text: sound wave

text: s in a gas or liquid only

text: oscillate in the wave's direction of propagation

text: , and the oscillation of

text: ocean waves

text: is always in the vertical direction. In these cases one doesn't normally speak of "polarization" since the oscillation's direction is not in question.

text: The triboelectric effect is related to friction only because they both involve adhesion.  However, the effect is greatly enhanced by rubbing the materials together, as they touch and separate many times.  For surfaces with differing geometry, rubbing may also lead to heating of protrusions, causing pyroelectric charge separation which may add to the existing contact electrification, or which may oppose the existing polarity.  Surface nano-effects are not well understood, and the atomic force microscope has enabled rapid progress in this field of physics.

text: The triboelectric effect is related to

text: friction

text: only because they both involve

text: adhesion

text: .  However, the effect is greatly enhanced by rubbing the materials together, as they touch and separate many times.  For surfaces with differing geometry, rubbing may also lead to heating of protrusions, causing

text: pyroelectric

text: charge separation which may add to the existing

text: contact electrification

text: , or which may oppose the existing polarity.  Surface nano-effects are not well understood, and the

text: atomic force microscope

text: has enabled rapid progress in this field of physics.

text: The working mechanism of the triboelectric nanogenerator can be described as the periodic change of the potential difference induced by the cycled separation and re-contact of the opposite triboelectric charges on the inner surfaces of the two sheets. When a mechanical agitation is applied onto the device to bend or press it, the inners surfaces of the two sheets will get into close contact and the charge transfer will begin, leaving one side of the surface with positive charges and the other with negative charges. This is just the triboelectric effect. When the deformation is released, the two surfaces with opposite charges will separate automatically, so that these opposite triboelectrc charges will generate an electric field in between and thus induce a potential difference across the top and bottom electrodes. In order to screen this potential difference, the electrons will be driven to flow from one electrode to the other through the external load. The electricity generated in this process will continue until the potentials of the two electrodes get back to even again. Subsequently, when the two sheets are pressed towards each other again, the triboelectric-charge-induced potential difference will begin to decrease to zero, so that the transferred charges will flow back through the external load, to generate another current pulse in the opposite direction. When this periodic mechanical deformation lasts, the alternating current (AC) signals will be continuously generated.

text: The working mechanism of the triboelectric nanogenerator can be described as the periodic change of the

text: potential

text: difference induced by the cycled separation and re-contact of the opposite triboelectric charges on the inner surfaces of the two sheets. When a mechanical agitation is applied onto the device to bend or press it, the inners surfaces of the two sheets will get into close contact and the charge transfer will begin, leaving one side of the surface with positive charges and the other with negative charges. This is just the

text: triboelectric effect

text: . When the deformation is released, the two surfaces with opposite charges will separate automatically, so that these opposite triboelectrc charges will generate an

text: electric field

text: in between and thus induce a potential difference across the top and bottom electrodes. In order to screen this potential difference, the electrons will be driven to flow from one electrode to the other through the external load. The electricity generated in this process will continue until the potentials of the two electrodes get back to even again. Subsequently, when the two sheets are pressed towards each other again, the triboelectric-charge-induced potential difference will begin to decrease to zero, so that the transferred charges will flow back through the external load, to generate another

text: current

text: pulse in the opposite direction. When this periodic mechanical deformation lasts, the

text: alternating current

text: (AC) signals will be continuously generated.

text: Tesla's top priority at Colorado Springs was the development of a wireless system that could transmit electrical energy over great distances, as proposed in his 1900 Century magazine article.  He claimed that it is possible to transmit energy on a worldwide scale, applying a method that involves electrical conduction through the earth and the periodic alteration of Earth's electrostatic charge.  In 1900 he received the patents SYSTEM OF TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY and APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY.  They describe two hypothetical wireless stations, one consisting of a large Tesla coil magnifying transmitter and the other a similar Tesla coil receiver, each with an elevated air terminal electrode suspended by balloon at an altitude of , where the atmospheric pressure is lower.  Tesla believed atmospheric ionization would allow energy to be transmitted at high voltages (millions of volts) over long distances by electrical conduction.  Another claim was that such a high elevation of the air terminal electrodes is not absolutely necessary.  By 1901 Tesla had come to believe the entire planet could be made to act as a giant electrical resonator and that by driving sufficiently powerful current pulses into Earth at a harmonic of its fundamental resonant frequency using a grounded Tesla coil transmitter working against a relatively short elevated capacitive air terminal electrode, its natural electrostatic potential could be made to oscillate, and this alternating current could be received at any location with a Tesla coil receiver and similar capacitive air terminal electrode arrangement tuned to resonance with the transmitter.  Tesla demonstrated the coupling of a Tesla coil transmitter and a Tesla coil receiver in an experiment at his Experimental Station in Colorado Springs, transmitting enough electrical energy to power a 10-watt incandescent lamp at a distance of 1,938 feet (591 m) from the station's magnifying transmitter.

text: Experimental Station

text: in Colorado Springs, transmitting enough electrical energy to power a 10-watt incandescent lamp at a distance of 1,938 feet (591 m) from the station's magnifying transmitter.

text: A marine transfer operation occurs between three main stakeholders which includes the Loading Master-PIC, Vessel Person-In -Charge PIC, and marine surveyor or inspector. These individuals communicate prior to the transfer agreeing on the sequence of events that will occur before, during, and after the transfer. During the course of the transfer the Loading Master is in continuous two way radio contact with the vessel Person-In-Charge and standing by to stop the transfer immediately if any problems develop such as leaks at the transfer hose or loading arm.

text: One volt is defined as the difference in electric potential between two points of a conducting wire when an electric current of one ampere dissipates one watt of power between those points. It is also equal to the potential difference between two parallel, infinite planes spaced 1 meter apart that create an electric field of 1 newton per coulomb. Additionally, it is the potential difference between two points that will impart one joule of energy per coulomb of charge that passes through it. It can be expressed in terms of SI base units (m, kg, s, and A) as

text: One volt is defined as the difference in

text: electric potential

text: between two points of a

text: conducting wire

text: when an

text: electric current

text: of one

text: ampere

text: dissipates one

text: watt

text: of

text: power

text: between those points. It is also equal to the potential difference between two parallel, infinite planes spaced 1

text: meter

text: apart that create an

text: electric field

text: of 1

text: newton

text: per

text: coulomb

text: . Additionally, it is the potential difference between two points that will impart one

text: joule

text: of

text: energy

text: per

text: coulomb

text: of charge that passes through it. It can be expressed in terms of SI base units (

text: m

text: kg

text: s

text: , and

text: A

text: ) as

text: ) will develop a bound polarization charge. It can be shown that the resulting electric field inside the dielectric containing the particle is modified in a way that can be described by an image charge inside the other dielectric. Inside the other dielectric, however, the image charge is not present.

text: So positive charges are attracted to the right-hand stream by the ring, and positive charge drips into the positively charged right bucket. Negative charges are attracted to the left-hand stream and negative charge drips into the negatively charged left bucket.  This process of charge separation that occurs in the water is called electrostatic induction.   The higher the charge that accumulates in each bucket, the higher the electrical potential on the rings and the more effective this process of electrostatic induction is.  During the induction process, there is an electric current that flows in the form of positive or negative ions in the water of the supply lines.  This is separate from the bulk flow of water that falls through the rings and breaks into droplets on the way to the containers.  For example, as water approaches the negatively charged ring on the right, any free electrons in the water can easily flee toward the left, against the flow of water.

text: So positive charges are attracted to the right-hand stream by the ring, and positive charge drips into the positively charged right bucket. Negative charges are attracted to the left-hand stream and negative charge drips into the negatively charged left bucket.  This process of charge separation that occurs in the water is called

text: electrostatic induction

text: .   The higher the charge that accumulates in each bucket, the higher the electrical potential on the rings and the more effective this process of electrostatic induction is.  During the induction process, there is an electric current that flows in the form of positive or negative ions in the water of the supply lines.  This is separate from the bulk flow of water that falls through the rings and breaks into droplets on the way to the containers.  For example, as water approaches the negatively charged ring on the right, any free electrons in the water can easily flee toward the left, against the flow of water.

text: The limiting current, in electrochemistry, is the limiting value of a faradaic current that is approached as the rate of charge-transfer to an electrode is increased . The limiting current can be approached, for example, by increasing the electric potential or decreasing the rate of mass transfer to the electrode. It is independent of the applied potential over a finite range, and is usually evaluated by subtracting the appropriate residual current from the measured total current.A limiting current can have the character of an adsorption, catalytic, diffusion, or kinetic current, and may include a migration current.

text: The limiting current, in electrochemistry, is the limiting value of a

text: faradaic current

text: that is approached as the rate of

text: charge-transfer

text: to an

text: electrode

text: is increased . The limiting current can be approached, for example, by increasing the

text: electric potential

text: or decreasing the rate of

text: mass transfer

text: to the electrode. It is independent of the applied potential over a finite range, and is usually evaluated by subtracting the appropriate residual current from the measured total current.A limiting current can have the character of an

text: adsorption

text: catalytic

text: diffusion

text: , or kinetic current, and may include a migration current.

text: Suspended particles have an electric surface charge, strongly affected by surface adsorbed species, on which an external electric field exerts an electrostatic Coulomb force. According to the double layer theory, all surface charges in fluids are screened by a diffuse layer of ions, which has the same absolute charge but opposite sign with respect to that of the surface charge. The electric field also exerts a force on the ions in the diffuse layer which has direction opposite to that acting on the surface charge. This latter force is not actually applied to the particle, but to the ions in the diffuse layer located at some distance from the particle surface, and part of it is transferred all the way to the particle surface through viscous stress. This part of the force is also called electrophoretic retardation force.When the electric field is applied and the charged particle to be analyzed is at steady movement through the diffuse layer, the total resulting force is zero :

text: Suspended particles have an

text: electric surface charge

text: , strongly affected by surface adsorbed species, on which an external electric field exerts an

text: electrostatic

text: Coulomb force

text: . According to the

text: double layer

text: theory, all surface charges in fluids are screened by a

text: diffuse layer

text: of ions, which has the same absolute charge but opposite sign with respect to that of the surface charge. The electric field also exerts a force on the ions in the

text: diffuse layer

text: which has direction opposite to that acting on the

text: surface charge

text: . This latter force is not actually applied to the particle, but to the

text: ions

text: in the diffuse layer located at some distance from the particle surface, and part of it is transferred all the way to the particle surface through

text: viscous

text: stress

text: . This part of the force is also called electrophoretic retardation force.When the electric field is applied and the charged particle to be analyzed is at steady movement through the diffuse layer, the total resulting force is zero :

text: With covalent bonds, an electron moves by hopping to a neighboring bond.  The Pauli exclusion principle requires that the electron be lifted into the higher anti-bonding state of that bond.   For delocalized states, for example in one dimension – that is in a nanowire, for every energy there is a state with electrons flowing in one direction and another state with the electrons flowing in the other. For a net current to flow, more states for one direction than for the other direction must be occupied. For this to occur, energy is required, as in the semiconductor the next higher states lie above the band gap. Often this is stated as: full bands do not contribute to the electrical conductivity. However, as a semiconductor's temperature rises above absolute zero, there is more energy in the semiconductor to spend on lattice vibration and on exciting electrons into the conduction band. The current-carrying electrons in the conduction band are known as free electrons, though they are often simply called electrons if that is clear in context.

text: With covalent bonds, an electron moves by hopping to a neighboring bond.  The

text: Pauli exclusion principle

text: requires that the electron be lifted into the higher anti-bonding state of that bond.   For delocalized states, for example in one dimension – that is in a

text: nanowire

text: , for every energy there is a state with electrons flowing in one direction and another state with the electrons flowing in the other. For a net current to flow, more states for one direction than for the other direction must be occupied. For this to occur, energy is required, as in the semiconductor the next higher states lie above the band gap. Often this is stated as: full bands do not contribute to the

text: electrical conductivity

text: . However, as a semiconductor's temperature rises above

text: absolute zero

text: , there is more energy in the semiconductor to spend on lattice vibration and on exciting electrons into the conduction band. The current-carrying electrons in the conduction band are known as free electrons, though they are often simply called electrons if that is clear in context.

text: Since gluons carry color charge, two gluons can also interact. A typical interaction vertex (called the three gluon vertex) for gluons involves g + g → g. This is shown here, along with its color-line representation. The color-line diagrams can be restated in terms of conservation laws of color; however, as noted before, this is not a gauge invariant language. Note that in a typical non-abelian gauge theory the gauge boson carries the charge of the theory, and hence has interactions of this kind; for example, the W boson in the electroweak theory. In the electroweak theory, the W also carries electric charge, and hence interacts with a photon.

text: Since gluons carry color charge, two gluons can also interact. A typical interaction vertex (called the three gluon vertex) for gluons involves g + g → g. This is shown here, along with its color-line representation. The color-line diagrams can be restated in terms of conservation laws of color; however, as noted before, this is not a gauge invariant language. Note that in a typical

text: non-abelian gauge theory

text: the

text: gauge boson

text: carries the charge of the theory, and hence has interactions of this kind; for example, the

text: W boson

text: in the electroweak theory. In the electroweak theory, the W also carries electric charge, and hence interacts with a photon.

text: In flash memory, each memory cell resembles a standard MOSFET, except that the transistor has two gates instead of one. On top is the control gate (CG), as in other MOS transistors, but below this there is a floating gate (FG) insulated all around by an oxide layer. The FG is interposed between the CG and the MOSFET channel. Because the FG is electrically isolated by its insulating layer, electrons placed on it are trapped until they are removed by another application of electric field (e.g. Applied voltage or UV as in EPROM). Counter-intuitively, placing electrons on the FG sets the transistor to the logical "0" state. Once the FG is charged, the electrons in it screen (partially cancel) the electric field from the CG, thus, increasing the threshold voltage (V) of the cell. This means that now a higher voltage(V) must be applied to the CG to make the channel conductive. In order to read a value from the transistor, an intermediate voltage between the threshold voltages (V & V) is applied to the CG. If the channel conducts at this intermediate voltage, the FG must be uncharged (if it were charged, we would not get conduction because the intermediate voltage is less than V), and hence, a logical "1" is stored in the gate. If the channel does not conduct at the intermediate voltage, it indicates that the FG is charged, and hence, a logical "0" is stored in the gate. The presence of a logical "0" or "1" is sensed by determining whether there is current flowing through the transistor when the intermediate voltage is asserted on the CG. In a multi-level cell device, which stores more than one bit per cell, the amount of current flow is sensed (rather than simply its presence or absence), in order to determine more precisely the level of charge on the FG.

text: In flash memory, each memory cell resembles a standard

text: MOSFET

text: , except that the transistor has two gates instead of one. On top is the control gate (CG), as in other MOS transistors, but below this there is a floating gate (FG) insulated all around by an oxide layer. The FG is interposed between the CG and the MOSFET channel. Because the FG is electrically isolated by its insulating layer, electrons placed on it are trapped until they are removed by another application of electric field (e.g. Applied voltage or UV as in EPROM). Counter-intuitively, placing electrons on the FG sets the transistor to the logical "0" state. Once the FG is charged, the electrons in it

text: screen

text: (partially cancel) the

text: electric field

text: from the CG, thus, increasing the

text: threshold voltage

text: (V) of the cell. This means that now a higher voltage(V) must be applied to the CG to make the channel conductive. In order to read a value from the transistor, an intermediate voltage between the threshold voltages (V & V) is applied to the CG. If the channel conducts at this intermediate voltage, the FG must be uncharged (if it were charged, we would not get conduction because the intermediate voltage is less than V), and hence, a logical "1" is stored in the gate. If the channel does not conduct at the intermediate voltage, it indicates that the FG is charged, and hence, a logical "0" is stored in the gate. The presence of a logical "0" or "1" is sensed by determining whether there is current flowing through the transistor when the intermediate voltage is asserted on the CG. In a multi-level cell device, which stores more than one

text: bit

text: per cell, the amount of current flow is sensed (rather than simply its presence or absence), in order to determine more precisely the level of charge on the FG.

text: The electroscope can also be charged without touching it to a charged object, by electrostatic induction.  If a charged object is brought near the electroscope terminal, the leaves also diverge, because the electric field of the object causes the charges in the electroscope rod to separate.  Charges of the opposite polarity to the charged object are attracted to the terminal, while charges with the same polarity are repelled to the leaves, causing them to spread.  If the electroscope terminal is grounded while the charged object is nearby, by touching it momentarily with a finger, the same polarity charges in the leaves drain away to ground, leaving the electroscope with a net charge of opposite polarity to the object.  The leaves close because the charge is all concentrated at the terminal end.  When the charged object is moved away, the charge at the terminal spreads into the leaves, causing them to spread apart again.

text: The electroscope can also be charged without touching it to a charged object, by

text: electrostatic induction

text: .  If a charged object is brought near the electroscope terminal, the leaves also diverge, because the

text: electric field

text: of the object causes the charges in the electroscope rod to separate.  Charges of the opposite polarity to the charged object are attracted to the terminal, while charges with the same polarity are repelled to the leaves, causing them to spread.  If the electroscope terminal is grounded while the charged object is nearby, by touching it momentarily with a finger, the same polarity charges in the leaves drain away to ground, leaving the electroscope with a net charge of opposite polarity to the object.  The leaves close because the charge is all concentrated at the terminal end.  When the charged object is moved away, the charge at the terminal spreads into the leaves, causing them to spread apart again.

text: Since plasmas are very good electrical conductors, electric potentials play an important role.The potential as it exists on average in the space between charged particles, independent of the question of how it can be measured, is called the "plasma potential", or the "space potential". If an electrode is inserted into a plasma, its potential will generally lie considerably below the plasma potential due to what is termed a Debye sheath. The good electrical conductivity of plasmas makes their electric fields very small. This results in the important concept of "quasineutrality", which says the density of negative charges is approximately equal to the density of positive charges over large volumes of the plasma (

text: Since plasmas are very good

text: electrical conductor

text: s, electric potentials play an important role.The potential as it exists on average in the space between charged particles, independent of the question of how it can be measured, is called the "plasma potential", or the "space potential". If an electrode is inserted into a plasma, its potential will generally lie considerably below the plasma potential due to what is termed a

text: Debye sheath

text: . The good electrical conductivity of plasmas makes their electric fields very small. This results in the important concept of "quasineutrality", which says the density of negative charges is approximately equal to the density of positive charges over large volumes of the plasma (

text: A simple Van de Graaff generator consists of a belt of rubber (or a similar flexible dielectric material) running over two rollers of differing material, one of which is surrounded by a hollow metal sphere. Two electrodes, (2) and (7), in the form of comb-shaped rows of sharp metal points, are positioned near the bottom of the lower roller and inside the sphere, over the upper roller. Comb (2) is connected to the sphere, and comb (7) to ground.  The method of charging is based on the triboelectric effect, wherein simple contact of dissimilar materials causes the transfer of some electrons from one material to the other.  For example (see the diagram), the rubber of the belt will become negatively charged while the acrylic glass of the upper roller will become positively charged.  The belt carries away negative charge on its inner surface while the upper roller accumulates positive charge.  Next, the strong electric field surrounding the positive upper roller (3) induces a very high electric field near the points of the nearby comb (2).  At the points, the field becomes high enough to ionize air molecules, and the electrons are attracted to the outside of the belt while positive ions go to the comb.  At the comb (2) they are neutralized  by electrons that were on the comb, thus leaving the comb and the attached outer shell (1) with fewer net electrons. By the principle illustrated in the Faraday ice pail experiment, i.e. by Gauss's law, the excess positive charge is accumulated on the outer surface of the outer shell (1), leaving no field inside the shell. Electrostatic induction by this method continues, building up very large amounts of charge on the shell.

text: A simple Van de Graaff generator consists of a belt of rubber (or a similar flexible

text: dielectric

text: material) running over two rollers of differing material, one of which is surrounded by a hollow metal sphere. Two

text: electrode

text: s, (2) and (7), in the form of comb-shaped rows of sharp metal points, are positioned near the bottom of the lower roller and inside the sphere, over the upper roller. Comb (2) is connected to the sphere, and comb (7) to ground.  The method of charging is based on the

text: triboelectric effect

text: , wherein simple contact of dissimilar materials causes the transfer of some electrons from one material to the other.  For example (see the diagram), the rubber of the belt will become negatively charged while the acrylic glass of the upper roller will become positively charged.  The belt carries away negative charge on its inner surface while the upper roller accumulates positive charge.  Next, the strong electric field surrounding the positive upper roller (3) induces a very high electric field near the points of the nearby comb (2).  At the points, the field becomes high enough to ionize air molecules, and the electrons are attracted to the outside of the belt while positive ions go to the comb.  At the comb (2) they are neutralized  by electrons that were on the comb, thus leaving the comb and the attached outer shell (1) with fewer net electrons. By the principle illustrated in the

text: Faraday ice pail experiment

text: , i.e. by

text: Gauss's law

text: , the excess positive charge is accumulated on the outer surface of the outer shell (1), leaving no field inside the shell. Electrostatic induction by this method continues, building up very large amounts of charge on the shell.

text: A charge-coupled device (CCD) is a device for the movement of electrical charge, usually from within the device  to an area where the charge can be manipulated, for example conversion into a digital value. This is achieved by "shifting" the signals between stages within the device one at a time. CCDs move charge between capacitive bins in the device, with the shift allowing for the transfer of charge between bins.

text: AeroVironment offers a 240V home-charging station for  electric vehicles.It is compatible with the SAE J1772 standard for level 2 charging.Nissan selected AeroVironment to supply this home charging station and installation services for the Nissan Leaf electric car.AeroVironment also sells level 3 high-voltage DC fast-charge stations compatible with the CHAdeMO standard that can charge a Think electric car to 80% in 15 minutes.

text: AeroVironment offers a 240V

text: home-charging station

text: for  electric vehicles.It is compatible with the

text: SAE J1772

text: standard for

text: level 2 charging

text: .Nissan selected AeroVironment to supply this home charging station and installation services for the

text: Nissan Leaf

text: electric car.AeroVironment also sells

text: level 3

text: high-voltage DC fast-charge stations compatible with the

text: CHAdeMO

text: standard that can charge a

text: Think

text: electric car to 80% in 15 minutes.

text: The conservation of electric charge, by contrast, can be derived by considering Ψ linear in the fields φ rather than in the derivatives. In quantum mechanics, the probability amplitude ψ(x) of finding a particle at a point x is a complex field φ, because it ascribes a complex number to every point in space and time. The probability amplitude itself is physically unmeasurable; only the probability p = |ψ| can be inferred  from a set of  measurements. Therefore, the system is invariant under transformations of the ψ field and its complex conjugate field ψ that leave |ψ| unchanged, such as

text: The conservation of

text: electric charge

text: , by contrast, can be derived by considering Ψ linear in the fields φ rather than in the derivatives. In

text: quantum mechanics

text: , the

text: probability amplitude

text: ψ(x) of finding a particle at a point x is a complex field φ, because it ascribes a

text: complex number

text: to every point in space and time. The probability amplitude itself is physically unmeasurable; only the probability p = |ψ| can be inferred  from a set of  measurements. Therefore, the system is invariant under transformations of the ψ field and its

text: complex conjugate

text: field ψ that leave |ψ| unchanged, such as

text: The second term on the right hand side comes from the change in polarization of the individual molecules of the dielectric material. Polarization results when, under the influence of an applied electric field, the charges in molecules have moved from a position of exact cancellation. The positive and negative charges in molecules separate, causing an increase in the state of polarization P.  A changing state of polarization corresponds to charge movement and so is equivalent to a current.

text: The second term on the right hand side comes from the change in

text: polarization

text: of the individual molecules of the dielectric material. Polarization results when, under the influence of an applied

text: electric field

text: , the charges in molecules have moved from a position of exact cancellation. The positive and negative charges in molecules separate, causing an increase in the state of polarization P.  A changing state of polarization corresponds to charge movement and so is equivalent to a current.

text: The efficiency of the energy transfer from the ligand to the ion is determined ligand-metal bond. The energy transfer is more efficient when bonded covalently than through ionic bonding. Substituents in the ligand which are of electron-donating such as hydroxy, methoxy and methyl groups increase the fluorescence. The opposite effect is seen when an electron-withdrawing group (such as nitro) is attached.  Furthermore, the fluorescence intensity is increased by fluorine substitution to the ligand. The energy transfer to the metal ion increases as the electronegativity of the fluorinated group makes the europium-oxygen bond of a more covalent nature. Increased conjugation by aromatic substituents by replacing phenyl by naphtyl groups is shown to enhance fluorescence.

text: The efficiency of the

text: energy transfer

text: from the ligand to the ion is determined ligand-metal bond. The energy transfer is more efficient when bonded

text: covalent

text: ly than through ionic bonding. Substituents in the ligand which are of electron-donating such as

text: hydroxy

text: methoxy

text: and

text: methyl

text: groups increase the fluorescence. The opposite effect is seen when an electron-withdrawing group (such as nitro) is attached.  Furthermore, the fluorescence intensity is increased by fluorine substitution to the ligand. The energy transfer to the metal ion increases as the

text: electronegativity

text: of the fluorinated group makes the europium-oxygen bond of a more covalent nature. Increased

text: conjugation

text: by aromatic substituents by replacing phenyl by

text: naphtyl

text: groups is shown to enhance fluorescence.

text: Manufacturers of personal electronic devices might not include a USB standard connector on their product for technical or marketing reasons. Some manufacturers provide proprietary cables that permit their devices to physically connect to a USB standard port. Full functionality of proprietary ports and cables with USB standard ports is not assured; for example, some devices only use the USB connection for battery charging and do not implement any data transfer functions.

text: However, it is often difficult to determine the exact source of ignition when investigating after an explosion. When a source cannot be found, ignition will often be attributed to static electricity. Static charges can be generated by external sources, or can be internally generated by friction at the surfaces of particles themselves as they collide or move past one another.

text: However, it is often difficult to determine the exact source of ignition when investigating after an explosion. When a source cannot be found, ignition will often be attributed to

text: static electricity

text: . Static charges can be generated by external sources, or can be internally generated by friction at the surfaces of particles themselves as they collide or move past one another.

text: The other source of bound current is bound charge. When an electric field is applied, the positive and negative bound charges can separate over atomic distances in polarizable materials, and when the bound charges move, the polarization changes, creating another contribution to the "bound current", the polarization current .

text: The other source of bound current is

text: bound charge

text: . When an electric field is applied, the positive and negative bound charges can separate over atomic distances in

text: polarizable materials

text: , and when the bound charges move, the polarization changes, creating another contribution to the "bound current", the polarization current .

text: Continuity equations are a stronger, local form of conservation laws. For example, a weak version of the law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed—i.e., the total amount of energy is fixed.  This statement does not immediately rule out the possibility that energy could disappear from a field in Canada while simultaneously appearing in a room in Indonesia. A stronger statement is that energy is locally conserved: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, nor can it "teleport" from one place to another—it can only move by a continuous flow. A continuity equation is the mathematical way to express this kind of statement.  For example, the continuity equation for electric charge states that the amount of electric charge at any point can only change by the amount of electric current flowing into or out of that point.

text: Continuity equations are a stronger, local form of

text: conservation law

text: s. For example, a weak version of the law of

text: conservation of energy

text: states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed—i.e., the total amount of energy is fixed.  This statement does not immediately rule out the possibility that energy could disappear from a field in Canada while simultaneously appearing in a room in Indonesia. A stronger statement is that energy is locally conserved: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, nor can it "teleport" from one place to another—it can only move by a continuous flow. A continuity equation is the mathematical way to express this kind of statement.  For example, the continuity equation for

text: electric charge

text: states that the amount of electric charge at any point can only change by the amount of

text: electric current

text: flowing into or out of that point.

text: The charge transfer coefficient signifies the fraction of the interfacial potential at an electrode-electrolyte interface that helps in lowering the free energy barrier for the electrochemical reaction. The electroactive ion present in the interfacial region experiences the interfacial potential and electrostatic work is done on the ion by a part of the interfacial electric field. It is charge transfer coefficient that signifies this part that is utilized in activating the ion to the top of the free energy barrier.

text: The charge transfer coefficient signifies the fraction of the interfacial potential at an

text: electrode

text: electrolyte

text: interface that helps in lowering the free

text: energy barrier

text: for the electrochemical reaction. The electroactive

text: ion

text: present in the interfacial region experiences the interfacial potential and electrostatic work is done on the ion by a part of the interfacial electric field. It is charge transfer coefficient that signifies this part that is utilized in activating the ion to the top of the free energy barrier.

text: The 'fine day' net positive charge sets up an electric field between the negative Earth and the net positive charge in the air, and this electric field stores electrical energy. The positive charge acts by induction on the earth and electromagnetic devices.

text: The 'fine day' net positive charge sets up an electric field between the negative Earth and the net positive charge in the air, and this electric field stores electrical energy. The positive charge acts by

text: induction

text: on the earth and electromagnetic devices.

text: Especially due to the presence of the ground, there are some differences in propagation (and also in reflections responsible for TV ghosting) between horizontal and vertical polarizations. AM and FM broadcast radio usually use vertical polarization, while television uses horizontal polarization. At low frequencies especially, horizontal polarization is avoided. That is because the phase of a horizontally polarized wave is reversed upon reflection by the ground. A distant station in the horizontal direction will receive both the direct and reflected wave, which thus tend to cancel each other. This problem is avoided with vertical polarization. Polarization is also important in the transmission of radar pulses and reception of radar reflections by the same or a different antenna. For instance, back scattering of radar pulses by rain drops can be avoided by using circular polarization. Just as specular reflection of circularly polarized light reverses the handedness of the polarization, as discussed above, the same principle applies to scattering by objects much smaller than a wavelength such as rain drops. On the other hand, reflection of that wave by an irregular metal object (such as an airplane) will typically introduce a change in polarization and (partial) reception of the return wave by the same antenna.

text: Especially due to the presence of the

text: ground

text: , there are some differences in propagation (and also in reflections responsible for TV

text: ghosting

text: ) between horizontal and vertical polarizations. AM and FM broadcast radio usually use vertical polarization, while television uses horizontal polarization. At low frequencies especially, horizontal polarization is avoided. That is because the phase of a horizontally polarized wave is reversed upon reflection by the ground. A distant station in the horizontal direction will receive both the direct and reflected wave, which thus tend to cancel each other. This problem is avoided with vertical polarization. Polarization is also important in the transmission of

text: radar

text: pulses and reception of radar reflections by the same or a different antenna. For instance, back scattering of radar pulses by rain drops can be avoided by using circular polarization. Just as specular reflection of circularly polarized light reverses the handedness of the polarization, as discussed above, the same principle applies to scattering by objects much smaller than a wavelength such as rain drops. On the other hand, reflection of that wave by an irregular metal object (such as an airplane) will typically introduce a change in polarization and (partial) reception of the return wave by the same antenna.

text: The electric charge that arises in the simplest textbook situations would be classified as "free charge"—for example, the charge which is transferred in static electricity, or the charge on a capacitor plate. In contrast, "bound charge" arises only in the context of dielectric (polarizable) materials. (All materials are polarizable to some extent.) When such materials are placed in an external electric field, the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms, but shift a microscopic distance in response to the field, so that they're more on one side of the atom than the other. All these microscopic displacements add up to give a macroscopic net charge distribution, and this constitutes the "bound charge".

text: The electric charge that arises in the simplest textbook situations would be classified as "free charge"—for example, the charge which is transferred in

text: static electricity

text: , or the charge on a

text: capacitor

text: plate. In contrast, "bound charge" arises only in the context of

text: dielectric

text: (polarizable) materials. (All materials are polarizable to some extent.) When such materials are placed in an external electric field, the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms, but shift a microscopic distance in response to the field, so that they're more on one side of the atom than the other. All these microscopic displacements add up to give a macroscopic net charge distribution, and this constitutes the "bound charge".

text: This device has been proposed as an alternative to inductive power transfer for noncontact charging of electric vehicles.  A rotating armature embedded in a garage floor or curb would turn a receiver armature in the underside of the vehicle to charge its batteries.  It is claimed that this technique can transfer power over distances of 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches) with high efficiency, over 90%.  Also, the low frequency stray magnetic fields produced by the rotating magnets produce less electromagnetic interference to nearby electronic devices than the high frequency magnetic fields produced by inductive coupling systems.  A prototype system charging electric vehicles has been in operation at University of British Columbia since 2012.  Other researchers, however, claim that the two energy conversions (electrical to mechanical to electrical again) make the system less efficient than electrical systems like inductive coupling.

text: This device has been proposed as an alternative to inductive power transfer for noncontact charging of

text: electric vehicle

text: s.  A rotating armature embedded in a garage floor or curb would turn a receiver armature in the underside of the vehicle to charge its batteries.  It is claimed that this technique can transfer power over distances of 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches) with high efficiency, over 90%.  Also, the low frequency stray magnetic fields produced by the rotating magnets produce less

text: electromagnetic interference

text: to nearby electronic devices than the high frequency magnetic fields produced by inductive coupling systems.  A prototype system charging electric vehicles has been in operation at

text: University of British Columbia

text: since 2012.  Other researchers, however, claim that the two energy conversions (electrical to mechanical to electrical again) make the system less efficient than electrical systems like inductive coupling.

text: Forward resistance comprises the types of drag that impede a sailboat's speed through water (or an ice boat's speed over the surface) include components of parasitic drag, consisting primarily of form drag, which arises because of the shape of the hull. and skin friction, which arises from the friction of the water (for boats) or air (for ice boats and land sailing craft) against the "skin" of the hull that is moving through it. Displacement vessels are also subject to wave resistance from the energy that goes into displacing water into waves and that is limited by hull speed, which is a function of waterline length, Wheeled vehicles' forward speed is subject to rolling friction and ice boats are subject to kinetic or sliding friction. Parasitic drag in water or air increases with the square of speed (V or V, respectively); rolling friction increases linearly with velocity; whereas kinetic friction is normally a constant, but on ice may become reduced with speed as it transitions to lubricated friction with melting.

text: Forward resistance comprises the types of drag that impede a sailboat's speed through water (or an ice boat's speed over the surface) include components of

text: parasitic drag

text: , consisting primarily of

text: form drag

text: , which arises because of the shape of the hull. and

text: skin friction

text: , which arises from the friction of the water (for boats) or air (for ice boats and land sailing craft) against the "skin" of the hull that is moving through it. Displacement vessels are also subject to

text: wave resistance

text: from the energy that goes into displacing water into waves and that is limited by

text: hull speed

text: , which is a function of waterline length, Wheeled vehicles' forward speed is subject to

text: rolling friction

text: and ice boats are subject to

text: kinetic or sliding friction

text: . Parasitic drag in water or air increases with the square of speed (V or V, respectively); rolling friction increases linearly with velocity; whereas kinetic friction is normally a constant, but on ice may become reduced with speed as it transitions to

text: lubricated friction

text: with melting.

text: The term is also used to describe other electronic funds transfer methods and, incorrectly, low cost everyday payment methods such as BACS (Bankers' Automated Clearing Services) payments, Faster Payments Service and SEPA credit transfers. Although the United Kingdom is part of SEPA with the consequent low costs of intra-SEPA payments, most UK banks charge for SEPA credit transfers as if they were telegraphic transfers, unlike banks in other non-Eurozone SEPA countries such as Switzerland and Sweden where SEPA credit transfers are charged at similar low fees to domestic payments.

text: The term is also used to describe other

text: electronic funds transfer

text: methods and, incorrectly, low cost everyday payment methods such as

text: BACS

text: (Bankers' Automated Clearing Services) payments,

text: Faster Payments Service

text: and

text: SEPA credit transfer

text: s. Although the United Kingdom is part of

text: SEPA

text: with the consequent low costs of intra-SEPA payments, most UK banks charge for

text: SEPA credit transfer

text: s as if they were telegraphic transfers, unlike banks in other non-Eurozone SEPA countries such as Switzerland and Sweden where SEPA credit transfers are charged at similar low fees to domestic payments.

text: Inductive and conductive charging are two types of wireless charging. Again, this is not to be confused with "wireless power transfer".

text: Inductive and conductive charging are two types of wireless charging. Again, this is not to be confused with "

text: wireless power transfer

text: is the electric monopole moment oscillating at frequency ω. Conservation of charge requires q=0 since

text: is the electric monopole moment oscillating at frequency ω.

text: Conservation of charge

text: requires q=0 since

text: In quantum field theory, the analog to Noether's theorem, the Ward–Takahashi identity, yields further conservation laws, such as the conservation of electric charge from the invariance with respect to a change in the phase factor of the complex field of the charged particle and the associated gauge of the electric potential and vector potential.

text: In

text: quantum field theory

text: , the analog to Noether's theorem, the

text: Ward–Takahashi identity

text: , yields further conservation laws, such as the conservation of

text: electric charge

text: from the invariance with respect to a change in the

text: phase factor

text: of the

text: complex

text: field of the charged particle and the associated

text: gauge

text: of the

text: electric potential

text: and

text: vector potential

text: A standby generator is a back-up electrical system that operates automatically. Within seconds of a utility outage an automatic transfer switch senses the power loss, commands the generator to start and then transfers the electrical load to the generator. The standby generator begins supplying power to the circuits. After utility power returns, the automatic transfer switch transfers the electrical load back to the utility and signals the standby generator to shut off.  It then returns to standby mode where it awaits the next outage. To ensure a proper response to an outage, a standby generator runs weekly self-tests. Most units run on diesel, natural gas or liquid propane gas.

text: A standby generator is a back-up electrical system that operates automatically. Within seconds of a utility

text: outage

text: an automatic

text: transfer switch

text: senses the power loss, commands the generator to start and then transfers the

text: electrical load

text: to the

text: generator

text: . The standby generator begins supplying power to the

text: circuits

text: . After utility power returns, the automatic transfer switch transfers the electrical load back to the utility and signals the standby generator to shut off.  It then returns to standby mode where it awaits the next outage. To ensure a proper response to an outage, a standby generator runs weekly self-tests. Most units run on

text: diesel

text: natural gas

text: or

text: liquid propane gas

text: Charge transfer bands (CT) in electronic spectra involve promotion of an electron from an orbital that is predominantly metal in character to an orbital that is predominantly ligand in character (MLCT) or the reverse (LMCT). The energies of such bands are characteristically sensitive to solvent polarities.  In fact, CT character is often identified with solvatochromism - change in transition frequency with change in solvent dielectric constant.  LMCT bands are observed in the visible region of a spectrum for many high oxidation state metal complexes.  One example is MnO  MLCT bands are observed when the metal is in a low oxidation state and the ligands have low-lying acceptor orbitals e.g.

text: Charge transfer bands (CT) in

text: electronic spectra

text: involve promotion of an electron from an orbital that is predominantly metal in character to an orbital that is predominantly ligand in character (MLCT) or the reverse (LMCT). The energies of such bands are characteristically sensitive to solvent polarities.  In fact, CT character is often identified with solvatochromism - change in transition frequency with change in solvent

text: dielectric constant

text: .  LMCT bands are observed in the visible region of a spectrum for many high

text: oxidation state

text: metal complexes.  One example is MnO  MLCT bands are observed when the metal is in a low oxidation state and the ligands have low-lying acceptor orbitals e.g.

text: The charge-transfer amplifier (CTA) is an electronic amplifier circuit. Also known as transconveyance amplifiers, CTAs amplify electronic signals by dynamically conveying charge between capacitive nodes in proportion to the size of a differential input voltage. By appropriately selecting the relative node capacitances, voltage amplification occurs by the charge-voltage relationship of capacitors. CTAs are clocked, or sampling, amplifiers. They consume zero static power and can be designed to consume (theoretically) arbitrarily low dynamic power, proportional to the size of input signals being sampled. CMOS technology is most commonly used for implementation. CTAs were introduced in memory circuits in the 1970s, and more recently have been applied in multi-bit analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). They are also used in dynamic voltage comparator circuits.

text: The charge-transfer amplifier (CTA) is an

text: electronic amplifier

text: circuit. Also known as transconveyance amplifiers, CTAs amplify electronic signals by dynamically conveying charge between capacitive nodes in proportion to the size of a differential input voltage. By appropriately selecting the relative node capacitances, voltage amplification occurs by the charge-voltage relationship of capacitors. CTAs are clocked, or sampling, amplifiers. They consume zero

text: static power

text: and can be designed to consume (theoretically) arbitrarily low

text: dynamic power

text: , proportional to the size of input signals being sampled.

text: CMOS

text: technology is most commonly used for implementation. CTAs were introduced in

text: memory circuits

text: in the 1970s, and more recently have been applied in multi-bit

text: analog-to-digital converter

text: s (ADCs). They are also used in dynamic

text: voltage comparator

text: circuits.

text: Electron transfer is one of the simplest forms of a chemical reaction. It consists of one outer-sphere electron transfer between substances of the same atomic structure likewise to Marcus’s studies between bivalent and trivalent iron ions. Electron transfer may be one of the most basic forms of chemical reaction but without it life cannot exist. Electron transfer is used in all respiratory functions as well as photosynthesis. In the process of oxidizing food molecules, 2 hydrogen ions, 2 electrons, and an oxygen molecule react to make an exothermic reaction as well as HO (water). Due to fact that electron transfer is such a broad, common, as well as essential reaction within nature, Marcus's theory has become vital within the field of chemistry.

text: Resonance occurs because energy is stored in two different ways: in an electric field as the capacitor is charged and in a magnetic field as current flows through the inductor. Energy can be transferred from one to the other within the circuit and this can be oscillatory. A mechanical analogy is a weight suspended on a spring which will oscillate up and down when released. This is no passing metaphor; a weight on a spring is described by exactly the same second order differential equation as an RLC circuit and for all the properties of the one system there will be found an analogous property of the other. The mechanical property answering to the resistor in the circuit is friction in the spring–weight system. Friction will slowly bring any oscillation to a halt if there is no external force driving it. Likewise, the resistance in an RLC circuit will "damp" the oscillation, diminishing it with time if there is no driving AC power source in the circuit.

text: Resonance

text: occurs because energy is stored in two different ways: in an electric field as the capacitor is charged and in a magnetic field as current flows through the inductor. Energy can be transferred from one to the other within the circuit and this can be oscillatory. A mechanical analogy is a weight suspended on a spring which will oscillate up and down when released. This is no passing metaphor; a weight on a spring is described by exactly the same second order differential equation as an RLC circuit and for all the properties of the one system there will be found an analogous property of the other. The mechanical property answering to the resistor in the circuit is friction in the spring–weight system. Friction will slowly bring any oscillation to a halt if there is no external force driving it. Likewise, the resistance in an RLC circuit will "damp" the oscillation, diminishing it with time if there is no driving AC power source in the circuit.

text: The process has a wide range of applications from industrial tooling to the improvement of musical signal transmission. Some of the benefits of cryogenic treatment include longer part life, less failure due to cracking, improved thermal properties, better electrical properties including less electrical resistance, reduced coefficient of friction, less creep and walk, improved flatness, and easier machining.

text: is electrical charge. This is known as the Einstein relation. Substituting in the frictional coefficient of a perfect sphere from Stokes’ law yields

text: is

text: electrical charge

text: . This is known as the

text: Einstein relation

text: . Substituting in the frictional coefficient of a perfect sphere from Stokes’ law yields

text: A Leyden jar, or Leiden jar, is a device that "stores" static electricity between two electrodes on the inside and outside of a glass jar. It was the original form of a capacitor (originally known as a "condenser"). It was invented independently by German cleric Ewald Georg von Kleist on 11 October 1745 and by Dutch scientist Pieter van Musschenbroek of Leiden (Leyden) in 1745–1746. The invention was named for the city. The Leyden jar was used to conduct many early experiments in electricity, and its discovery was of fundamental importance in the study of electricity. Previously, researchers had to resort to insulated conductors of large dimensions to store a charge. The Leyden jar provided a much more compact alternative. Like many early electrical devices, there was no particular use for the Leyden jar at first, other than to allow scientists to do a greater variety of electrical experiments. Benjamin Franklin, for example, used a Leyden jar to store electricity from lightning in his famous kite experiment in 1752. By doing so he proved that lightning was really electricity.

text: A

text: Leyden jar

text: , or

text: Leiden jar

text: , is a device that "stores" static

text: electricity

text: between two

text: electrode

text: s on the inside and outside of a glass jar. It was the original form of a

text: capacitor

text: (originally known as a "condenser"). It was invented independently by German cleric

text: Ewald Georg von Kleist

text: on 11 October 1745 and by Dutch scientist

text: Pieter van Musschenbroek

text: of

text: Leiden

text: Leyden

text: ) in 1745–1746. The invention was named for the city. The Leyden jar was used to conduct many early

text: experiment

text: s in

text: electricity

text: , and its discovery was of fundamental importance in the study of electricity. Previously, researchers had to resort to insulated conductors of large dimensions to store a charge. The Leyden jar provided a much more compact alternative. Like many early electrical devices, there was no particular use for the Leyden jar at first, other than to allow scientists to do a greater variety of electrical experiments.

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: , for example, used a Leyden jar to store

text: electricity

text: from

text: lightning

text: in his famous

text: kite experiment

text: in 1752. By doing so he proved that

text: lightning

text: was really

text: electricity

text: In high-resistance dust layers, the dust is not sufficiently conductive, so electrical charges have difficulty moving through the dust layer. Consequently, electrical charges accumulate on and beneath the dust layer surface, creating a strong electric field.

text: Though sufficient for many purposes, these general descriptions are not precisely correct. Although oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation state — the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. The oxidation state of an atom is the fictitious charge that an atom would have if all bonds between atoms of different elements were 100% ionic. Thus, oxidation is best defined as an increase in oxidation state, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation state. In practice, the transfer of electrons will always cause a change in oxidation state, but there are many reactions that are classed as "redox" even though no electron transfer occurs (such as those involving covalent bonds).

text: Though sufficient for many purposes, these general descriptions are not precisely correct. Although oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in

text: oxidation state

text: — the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. The oxidation state of an atom is the fictitious charge that an atom would have if all bonds between atoms of different elements were 100% ionic. Thus, oxidation is best defined as an increase in oxidation state, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation state. In practice, the transfer of electrons will always cause a change in oxidation state, but there are many reactions that are classed as "redox" even though no electron transfer occurs (such as those involving

text: covalent

text: bonds).

text: The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron—the electron binding energy—is far less than the binding energy of nucleons. For example, it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a ground-state electron from a hydrogen atom, compared to 2.23 million eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus. Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions. Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism, atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals.

text: The amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron—the

text: electron binding energy

text: —is far less than the

text: binding energy of nucleons

text: . For example, it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a

text: ground-state

text: electron from a hydrogen atom, compared to 2.23 million eV for splitting a

text: deuterium

text: nucleus. Atoms are

text: electrically

text: neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called

text: ion

text: s. Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism, atoms are able to

text: bond

text: into

text: molecule

text: s and other types of

text: chemical compound

text: s like

text: ionic

text: and

text: covalent

text: network

text: crystals

text: Metals (e.g., copper, platinum, gold, etc.) are usually good conductors of thermal energy. This is due to the way that metals bond chemically: metallic bonds (as opposed to covalent or ionic bonds) have free-moving electrons that transfer thermal energy rapidly through the metal. The electron fluid of a conductive metallic solid conducts most of the heat flux through the solid. Phonon flux is still present, but carries less of the energy. Electrons also conduct electric current through conductive solids, and the thermal and electrical conductivities of most metals have about the same ratio. A good electrical conductor, such as copper, also conducts heat well. Thermoelectricity is caused by the interaction of heat flux and electric current. Heat conduction within a solid is directly analogous to diffusion of particles within a fluid, in the situation where there are no fluid currents.

text: Metals (e.g., copper, platinum, gold, etc.) are usually good

text: conductors

text: of thermal energy. This is due to the way that metals bond chemically:

text: metallic bond

text: s (as opposed to

text: covalent

text: or

text: ionic bonds

text: ) have free-moving electrons that transfer thermal energy rapidly through the metal. The electron fluid of a

text: conductive

text: metallic solid conducts most of the heat flux through the solid. Phonon flux is still present, but carries less of the energy. Electrons also conduct

text: electric current

text: through conductive solids, and the

text: thermal

text: and

text: electrical conductivities

text: of most metals have about the same ratio. A good electrical conductor, such as

text: copper

text: , also conducts heat well.

text: Thermoelectricity

text: is caused by the interaction of heat flux and electric current. Heat conduction within a solid is directly analogous to

text: diffusion

text: of particles within a fluid, in the situation where there are no fluid currents.

text: The working principle for the first case is explained by the primary pyroelectric effect, which describes the charge produced in a strain-free case. The primary pyroelectric effect dominates the pyroelectric response in PZT, BTO, and some other ferroelectric materials. The mechanism is based on the thermally induced random wobbling of the electric dipole around its equilibrium axis, the magnitude of which increases with increasing temperature. Due to thermal fluctuations under room temperature, the electric dipoles will randomly oscillate within a degree from their respective aligning axes. Under a fixed temperature, the total average strength of the spontaneous polarization form the electric dipoles is constant, resulting in no output of the pyroelectric nanogenerator. If we apply a change in temperature in the nanogenerator from room temperature to a higher temperature, the increase in temperature will result in that the electric dipoles oscillate within a larger degree of spread around their respective aligning axes. The total average spontaneous polarization is decreased due to the spread of the oscillation angles. The quantity of induced charges in the electrodes are thus reduced, resulting in a flow of electrons. If the nanogenerator is cooled instead of heated, the spontaneous polarization will be enhanced since the electric dipoles oscillate within a smaller degree of spread angles due to the lower thermal activity. The total magnitude of the polarization is increased and the amount of induced charges in the electrodes are increased. The electrons will then flow in an opposite direction.

text: The National Automated Clearing House Association (NACHA), through the Automated Clearing House (ACH) “moves almost $39 trillion and 22 billion electronic financial transactions each year. These electronic transfers of money through the ACH Network represent a claim to physical legal tender.  Alternatively, “unlike electronic money, a VC, particularly in its decentralised variant, does not represent a claim on the issuer.”  Electronic payment networks, such as the ACH, have decreased the costs and time required to transfer value and increased reliability and transparency. However, traditional electronic payment networks, even with transnational networks and satellite communications, differ from a virtual currency.  For example, the Bitcoin exchange Coinbase charges only 1% on all Bitcoin exchanges to legal tender.  Compare this to “2%-4% for traditional online payment systems, like PayPal and credit card companies, or a global average of 7.49% for remittance sent through major remittance corridors.  The lower costs of transferring value is a great incentive to both users and merchants. Faster transaction speed is also an advantage of using VC.  VC may also help to reduce identity theft because of the cryptographic nature of some of the currencies.

text: The

text: National Automated Clearing House Association

text: (NACHA), through the

text: Automated Clearing House

text: (ACH) “moves almost $39 trillion and 22 billion electronic financial transactions each year. These electronic transfers of money through the ACH Network represent a claim to physical legal tender.  Alternatively, “unlike electronic money, a VC, particularly in its decentralised variant, does not represent a claim on the issuer.”  Electronic payment networks, such as the ACH, have decreased the costs and time required to transfer value and increased reliability and transparency. However, traditional electronic payment networks, even with transnational networks and satellite communications, differ from a virtual currency.  For example, the

text: Bitcoin

text: exchange

text: Coinbase

text: charges only 1% on all Bitcoin exchanges to legal tender.  Compare this to “2%-4% for traditional online payment systems, like PayPal and credit card companies, or a global average of 7.49% for remittance sent through major remittance corridors.  The lower costs of transferring value is a great incentive to both users and merchants. Faster transaction speed is also an advantage of using VC.  VC may also help to reduce identity theft because of the cryptographic nature of some of the currencies.

text: The central bell's chain is put in contact with the inner surface of a Leyden jar, while the outside surface of the jar is put in contact with the metal stand. Thus, the central bell takes its charge from the inner surface of the jar, while the outer surface charges the two bells on the conductive chains. This causes the bells to have a difference in electrical potential equal to that between the inner and outer surfaces of the jar. The hanging metal clappers will be attracted to one bell, will touch it, pick up its charge, and be repelled; they will then swing across to the other bell, and do the same there. Each time the clappers touch a bell, charge is transferred between the inner and outer surfaces of the Leyden jar. When the jar is completely discharged, the bells will stop ringing.

text: There is also a range of devices referred to as integrating ammeters. In these ammeters the current is summed over time, giving as a result the product of current and time; which is proportional to the electrical charge transferred with that current. These can be used for metering energy (the charge needs to be multiplied by the voltage to give energy) or for estimating the charge of a battery or capacitor.

text: There is also a range of devices referred to as integrating ammeters. In these ammeters the current is summed over time, giving as a result the product of current and time; which is proportional to the electrical charge transferred with that current. These can be used for metering energy (the charge needs to be multiplied by the voltage to give energy) or for estimating the charge of a

text: battery

text: or

text: capacitor

text: From 1989 to 2013, the Rhino Charge has raised over KES 814 million. In order to ensure that the funds raised by the competitors go to conservation, the Rhino Charge itself is organized mostly based on in-kind support provided by many volunteers, event sponsors and raffle donors. Since 1989, the funds raised have been used for the construction of the Aberdare Electric Fence and supporting conservation activities within the Aberdare ecosystem. With Rhino Ark formally committed to supporting conservation in Mt. Kenya and Mau Eburu ecosystems, funds raised are now used for fencing these two mountain ecosystems, in addition to maintaining the Aberdare Electric Fence and engaging fence-adjacent communities in conservation.

text: His orchestrations of Debussy's Petite Suite and Printemps are considered standards, as is his crisp, authoritative conducting of the first nearly complete 1930 early electrical HMV recording of Gounod's Faust in French featuring the great tenor César Vezzani in the title role and the renowned bass Marcel Journet, who as a Metropolitan star had sung and recorded Méphistophelès' key arias and ensembles with Caruso on Victor acoustical records earlier in the century.  These recordings have all been transferred.

text: His orchestrations of

text: Debussy's Petite Suite

text: and Printemps are considered standards, as is his crisp, authoritative conducting of the first nearly complete 1930 early electrical HMV recording of Gounod's

text: Faust

text: in French featuring the great tenor

text: César Vezzani

text: in the title role and the renowned bass

text: Marcel Journet

text: , who as a Metropolitan star had sung and recorded Méphistophelès' key arias and ensembles with Caruso on Victor acoustical records earlier in the century.  These recordings have all been transferred.

text: The electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interaction. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields. The interaction between a moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the four fundamental forces (See also: magnetic field).

text: The electric charge is a fundamental

text: conserved property

text: of some

text: subatomic particle

text: s, which determines their

text: electromagnetic interaction

text: . Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces,

text: electromagnetic field

text: s. The interaction between a moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the

text: electromagnetic force

text: , which is one of the four

text: fundamental forces

text: (See also:

text: magnetic field

text: (latin: susceptibilis “receptive”) is a dimensionless proportionality constant that indicates the degree of polarization of a dielectric material in response to an applied electric field. The greater the electric susceptibility, the greater the ability of a material to polarize in response to the field, and thereby reduce the total electric field inside the material (and store energy). It is in this way that the electric susceptibility influences the electric permittivity of the material and thus influences many other phenomena in that medium, from the capacitance of capacitors to the speed of light.

text: latin

text: : susceptibilis “receptive”) is a dimensionless proportionality constant that indicates the degree of

text: polarization

text: of a

text: dielectric

text: material in response to an applied

text: electric field

text: . The greater the electric susceptibility, the greater the ability of a material to polarize in response to the field, and thereby reduce the total electric field inside the material (and store energy). It is in this way that the electric susceptibility influences the electric

text: permittivity

text: of the material and thus influences many other phenomena in that medium, from the capacitance of

text: capacitors

text: to the

text: speed of light

text: Wudl et al. first demonstrated that the salt  was a semiconductor.  Subsequently, Ferraris et al. showed that the charge-transfer salt [TTF]TCNQ is a narrow band gap semi-conductor.  X-ray diffraction studies of [TTF][TCNQ] revealed stacks of partially oxidized TTF molecules adjacent to anionic stacks of TCNQ molecules.  This “segregated stack” motif was unexpected and is responsible for the distinctive electrical properties, i.e. high and anisotropic electrical conductivity.  Since these early discoveries, numerous analogues of TTF have been prepared.  Well studied analogues include tetramethyltetrathiafulvalene (MeTTF), tetramethylselenafulvalenes (TMTSFs), and bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene  (BEDT-TTF, CAS [66946-48-3]). Several tetramethyltetrathiafulvalene salts (called Fabre salts) are of some relevance as organic superconductors.

text: Wudl et al. first demonstrated that the salt  was a semiconductor.  Subsequently, Ferraris et al. showed that the charge-transfer salt [TTF]

text: TCNQ

text: is a narrow

text: band gap

text: semi-conductor.

text: X-ray diffraction

text: studies of [TTF][TCNQ] revealed stacks of partially oxidized TTF molecules adjacent to anionic stacks of TCNQ molecules.  This “segregated stack” motif was unexpected and is responsible for the distinctive electrical properties, i.e. high and

text: anisotropic

text: electrical conductivity

text: .  Since these early discoveries, numerous analogues of TTF have been prepared.  Well studied analogues include tetramethyltetrathiafulvalene (MeTTF), tetramethylselenafulvalenes (TMTSFs), and bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene  (BEDT-TTF, CAS [66946-48-3]). Several tetramethyltetrathiafulvalene salts (called Fabre salts) are of some relevance as

text: organic superconductor

text: s.

text: In a semiconductor it is sometimes useful to think of the current as due to the flow of positive "holes" (the mobile positive charge carriers that are places where the semiconductor crystal is missing a valence electron). This is the case in a p-type semiconductor. A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a conductor and an insulator.  This means a conductivity roughly in the range of 10  to 10 siemens per centimeter (S⋅cm).

text: In a

text: semiconductor

text: it is sometimes useful to think of the current as due to the flow of positive "

text: holes

text: " (the mobile positive charge carriers that are places where the semiconductor crystal is missing a valence electron). This is the case in a p-type semiconductor. A semiconductor has

text: electrical conductivity

text: intermediate in magnitude between that of a

text: conductor

text: and an

text: insulator

text: .  This means a conductivity roughly in the range of 10  to 10

text: siemens

text: per centimeter (S⋅cm).

text: Some materials conduct heat in a way that is isotropic, that is independent of spatial orientation around the heat source.  Heat conduction is more commonly anisotropic, which implies that detailed geometric modeling of typically diverse materials being thermally managed is required. The materials used to transfer and reject heat from the heat source in electronics are often anisotropic.

text: Some materials

text: conduct heat

text: in a way that is isotropic, that is independent of spatial orientation around the heat source.  Heat conduction is more commonly anisotropic, which implies that detailed geometric modeling of typically diverse materials being thermally managed is required. The materials used to transfer and reject heat from the heat source in

text: electronics

text: are often anisotropic.

text: Friction is a Ska/Punk from Lewistown, Pennsylvania, which eventually morphed into New York City-based Caesar Pink and The Imperial Orgy.  Although Friction enjoyed a large and dedicated following in Pennsylvania with several radio friendly songs, they disbanded while on the verge of signing with a major label, but not before their music was played to a world-wide audience on Radio Moscow in 1987.  Friction re-unites periodically with mostly original members.

text: Friction

text: is a Ska/Punk from

text: Lewistown

text: , Pennsylvania, which eventually morphed into New York City-based Caesar Pink and

text: The Imperial Orgy

text: .  Although Friction enjoyed a large and dedicated following in Pennsylvania with several radio friendly songs, they disbanded while on the verge of signing with a major label, but not before their music was played to a world-wide audience on

text: Radio Moscow

text: in 1987.  Friction re-unites periodically with mostly original members.

text: Polar Power Inc. also has developed Mobile Rapid Battery Charging Generators (8340P-40422) for Electric Car Applications; multiple variations of the CHAdeMo Protocol can be stored in the Polar Charger at the same time and automatically implemented when the charge is plugged into that vehicle model. These DC Rapid Chargers are set up to communicate with CHAdeMo and can be programmed to operate with other battery / automotive systems.

text: Matching sockets for the G9.5 base include Sylvania TP22, TP220, Buhl Electric QEW-2, QEW-21, QEW-22, Bender + Wirth 968, Ushio: C-3, C-3(A).    The calibration lamps are generally modified to use a larger bi-post base that fits into special kinematic mount sockets for precise optical alignment.  Although the socket for calibration lamps is not polarized, polarity must be observed because the calibration lamps are normally run on DC and the lamp filament will recrystallize according to the applied DC polarity.

text: Matching sockets for the

text: base include

text: Sylvania

text: TP22, TP220,

text: Buhl Electric

text: QEW-2, QEW-21, QEW-22, Bender + Wirth 968, Ushio: C-3, C-3(A).    The calibration lamps are generally modified to use a larger bi-post base that fits into special

text: kinematic mount

text: sockets for precise optical alignment.  Although the socket for calibration lamps is not polarized, polarity must be observed because the calibration lamps are normally run on DC and the lamp

text: filament

text: will recrystallize according to the applied DC polarity.

text: Political polarization refers to cases in which an individual's stance on a given issue, policy, or person is more likely to be strictly defined by their identification with a particular political party (e.g., Democrat or Republican) or ideology (e.g., liberal or conservative). According to DiMaggio et al. (1996), "Polarization is both a state and a process. Polarization as a state refers to the extent to which opinions on an issue are opposed in relation to some theoretical maximum. Polarization as a process refers to the increase in such opposition over time." Some political scientists argue that polarization requires divergence on a broad range of issues based on a consistent set of beliefs. Others argue polarization occurs when there are stark partisan or ideological divides, even if opinion is polarized only on a few issues.

text: Political polarization refers to cases in which an individual's stance on a given issue, policy, or person is more likely to be strictly defined by their identification with a particular political party (e.g.,

text: Democrat

text: or

text: Republican

text: ) or

text: ideology

text: (e.g.,

text: liberal

text: or

text: conservative

text: ). According to DiMaggio et al. (1996), "Polarization is both a state and a process. Polarization as a state refers to the extent to which opinions on an issue are opposed in relation to some theoretical maximum. Polarization as a process refers to the increase in such opposition over time." Some political scientists argue that polarization requires divergence on a broad range of issues based on a consistent set of beliefs. Others argue polarization occurs when there are stark partisan or ideological divides, even if opinion is polarized only on a few issues.

text: Electrical conductivity is a measure of how well a material transports an electric charge. This is an essential property in electrical wiring systems. Copper has the highest electrical conductivity rating of all non-precious metals: the electrical resistivity of copper = 16.78 nΩ•m at 20 °C. Specially-pure Oxygen-Free Electronic (OFE) copper is about 1% more conductive (i.e., achieves a minimum of 101% IACS).

text: Electrical conductivity

text: is a measure of how well a material transports an

text: electric charge

text: . This is an essential property in electrical wiring systems. Copper has the highest electrical conductivity rating of all non-

text: precious metal

text: s: the electrical resistivity of copper = 16.78 nΩ•m at 20 °C. Specially-pure

text: Oxygen-Free Electronic (OFE) copper

text: is about 1% more conductive (i.e., achieves a minimum of 101% IACS).

text: Earphone –Earpiece –Earth's magnetic field –EDIF –EEPROM –Effective antenna gain contour –Effective boresight area –Effective data transfer rate –Effective Earth radius –Effective height –Effective input noise temperature –Effective isotropically radiated power –Effective monopole radiated power –Effective radiated power –Effective transmission rate –Efficiency factor –E-layer –Electric charge –Electric current –Electric field –Electric motor –Electric power transmission –Electric power –Electrical conduction –Electrical conductivity –Electrical connector –Electrical current –Electrical efficiency –Element –Electrical engineering –Electrical generator –Impedance –Insulation –Electrical length –Load –Electrical network –Circuit –Electrical resistance –Electrical room –Electrical signal –Electricity distribution –Electricity –Electrochemical cell –Electrochemistry –Electrode –Electrodynamics –Electrolytic capacitor –Electromagnetic environment –Electromagnetic induction –Electromagnetic interference control –Electromagnetic pulse –Electromagnetic radiation and health –Electromagnetic radiation –Electromagnetic spectrum –Electromagnetic survivability –Electromagnetism –Electrometer –Electron hole –Electron –Electronic amplifier –Electronic color code –Color code –Electronic data processing –Electronic deception –Electronic design automation –Electronic filter –Filter –Electronic imager –Electronic mixer –Electronic musical instrument –Electronic oscillator –Electronic power supply –Electronic switching system –Electronic tagging –Electronic test equipment –Electronic warfare support measures –Electronics –Electro-optic effect –Electro-optic modulator –Electro-optics –Electrostatic discharge –Electrostatics –Emergency Locator Transmitter –Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon –Emitter coupled logic –End distortion –Endurability –Enhanced service –Entropy encoding –Equilibrium length –Equivalent impedance transforms -Equivalent noise resistance –Equivalent pulse code modulation noise –Error burst –Error ratio –Error-correcting code –E-skip –Examples of electrical phenomena –Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) –Eye pattern

text: Earphone

text: Earpiece

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: EDIF

text: EEPROM

text: Effective antenna gain contour

text: Effective boresight area

text: Effective data transfer rate

text: Effective Earth radius

text: Effective height

text: Effective input noise temperature

text: Effective isotropically radiated power

text: Effective monopole radiated power

text: Effective radiated power

text: Effective transmission rate

text: Efficiency factor

text: E-layer

text: Electric charge

text: Electric current

text: Electric field

text: Electric motor

text: Electric power transmission

text: Electric power

text: Electrical conduction

text: Electrical conductivity

text: Electrical connector

text: Electrical current

text: Electrical efficiency

text: Element

text: Electrical engineering

text: Electrical generator

text: Impedance

text: Insulation

text: Electrical length

text: Load

text: Electrical network

text: Circuit

text: Electrical resistance

text: Electrical room

text: Electrical signal

text: Electricity distribution

text: Electricity

text: Electrochemical cell

text: Electrochemistry

text: Electrode

text: Electrodynamics

text: Electrolytic capacitor

text: Electromagnetic environment

text: Electromagnetic induction

text: Electromagnetic interference control

text: Electromagnetic pulse

text: Electromagnetic radiation and health

text: Electromagnetic radiation

text: Electromagnetic spectrum

text: Electromagnetic survivability

text: Electromagnetism

text: Electrometer

text: Electron hole

text: Electron

text: Electronic amplifier

text: Electronic color code

text: Color code

text: Electronic data processing

text: Electronic deception

text: Electronic design automation

text: Electronic filter

text: Filter

text: Electronic imager

text: Electronic mixer

text: Electronic musical instrument

text: Electronic oscillator

text: Electronic power supply

text: Electronic switching system

text: Electronic tagging

text: Electronic test equipment

text: Electronic warfare support measures

text: Electronics

text: Electro-optic effect

text: Electro-optic modulator

text: Electro-optics

text: Electrostatic discharge

text: Electrostatics

entity_name: Emergency position-indicating radiobeacon station

text: Emergency Locator Transmitter

text: Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon

text: Emitter coupled logic

text: End distortion

text: Endurability

text: Enhanced service

text: Entropy encoding

text: Equilibrium length

text: Equivalent impedance transforms

text: Equivalent noise resistance

text: Equivalent pulse code modulation noise

text: Error burst

text: Error ratio

text: Error-correcting code

text: E-skip

text: Examples of electrical phenomena

text: Extremely Low Frequency

text: (ELF) –

text: Eye pattern

text: The service allowed UK retail banks to electronically request the transfer of direct debit and standing order payments arrangements, on behalf of new customers, wishing to transfer payment arrangements from a previous bank accounts. The scheme was also known as the Inter Bank Transfer of Direct Debit Instructions  service and is governed by BACS (also known as Voca), the UK's automated payments clearing scheme.

text: The service allowed UK retail banks to electronically request the transfer of

text: direct debit

text: and

text: standing order

text: payments arrangements, on behalf of new customers, wishing to transfer payment arrangements from a previous bank accounts. The scheme was also known as the Inter Bank Transfer of Direct Debit Instructions  service and is governed by

text: BACS

text: (also known as

text: Voca

text: ), the UK's automated payments clearing scheme.

text: On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring particles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another. Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects in thermal contact. Fluids—especially gases—are less conductive. Thermal contact conductance is the study of heat conduction between solid bodies in contact.The process of heat transfer from one place to another place without the movement of particles is called conductionExample:Heat transfer through Metal rods.Steady state conduction (see Fourier's law) is a form of conduction that happens when the temperature difference driving the conduction is constant, so that after an equilibration time, the spatial distribution of temperatures in the conducting object does not change any further. In steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount of heat coming out.

text: On a microscopic scale, heat conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring particles. In other words, heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another, or as electrons move from one atom to another. Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects in

text: thermal contact

text: . Fluids—especially gases—are less conductive.

text: Thermal contact conductance

text: is the study of heat conduction between solid bodies in contact.The process of heat transfer from one place to another place without the movement of particles is called conductionExample:Heat transfer through Metal rods.Steady state conduction (see

text: Fourier's law

text: ) is a form of conduction that happens when the temperature difference driving the conduction is constant, so that after an equilibration time, the spatial distribution of temperatures in the conducting object does not change any further. In steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount of heat coming out.

text: The validity of the method of image charges rests upon a corollary of the uniqueness theorem, which states that the electric potential in a volume V is uniquely determined if both the charge density throughout the region and the value of V on all boundaries are specified.  Alternatively, application of this corollary to the differential form of Gauss' Law shows that in a volume V surrounded by conductors and containing a specified charge density ρ, the electric field is uniquely determined if the total charge on each conductor is given.  Possessing knowledge of either the electric potential or the electric field and the corresponding boundary conditions we can swap the charge distribution we are considering for one with a configuration that is easier to analyze, so long as it satisfies Poisson's equation in the region of interest and assumes the correct values at the boundaries.

text: The validity of the method of image charges rests upon a corollary of the

entity_name: Uniqueness theorem for Poisson's equation

text: uniqueness theorem

text: , which states that the electric potential in a volume V is uniquely determined if both the charge density throughout the region and the value of V on all boundaries are specified.  Alternatively, application of this corollary to the differential form of Gauss' Law shows that in a volume V surrounded by conductors and containing a specified charge density ρ, the electric field is uniquely determined if the total charge on each conductor is given.  Possessing knowledge of either the electric potential or the electric field and the corresponding boundary conditions we can swap the charge distribution we are considering for one with a configuration that is easier to analyze, so long as it satisfies Poisson's equation in the region of interest and assumes the correct values at the boundaries.

text: One class of materials of interest in organic electronics are electrical conductive, i.e. substances that can transmit electrical charges with low resistivity. Traditionally, conductive materials are inorganic. Classical (and still technologically dominant) conductive materials are metals such as copper and aluminum as well as many alloys.

text: One class of materials of interest in organic electronics are electrical

text: conductive

text: , i.e. substances that can transmit electrical

text: charges

text: with low resistivity. Traditionally, conductive materials are

text: inorganic

text: . Classical (and still technologically dominant) conductive materials are

text: metals

text: such as

text: copper

text: and

text: aluminum

text: as well as many

text: alloy

text: s.

text: This section discusses the interaction of transverse electric (TE)and transverse magnetic (TM) polarized light with the DBR structure, over severalwavelengths and incidence angles. This reflectivity of the DBR structure (described below)was calculated using the transfer-matrix method (TMM), wherethe TE mode alone is highly reflected by this stack, while the TM modes are passed through. This also shows the DBR acting as a polarizer.

text: This section discusses the interaction of

text: transverse electric

text: (TE)and

text: transverse magnetic

text: (TM) polarized light with the DBR structure, over severalwavelengths and incidence angles. This reflectivity of the DBR structure (described below)was calculated using the

text: transfer-matrix method

text: (TMM), wherethe TE mode alone is highly reflected by this stack, while the TM modes are passed through. This also shows the DBR acting as a

text: polarizer

text: The Galaxy Express 2's li-ion 2,100 mAh battery is said to have a 581-hour standby time or 11 hours of talk time on 3G, compared to 586 hours in standby and 19 hours of talk time on 2G. Built into the battery is near field communication connectivity, which allows users to share map directions and YouTube videos quickly using Wi-Fi Direct (through Android Beam), and perform non-touch payments at shops that employ specially equipped NFC cash registers. To help minimize battery consumption, Samsung has introduced "Smart Stay", an ability to track a user's eyes and turn off whenever the person is not looking at it. The battery can be wirelessly charged using a special charging pad (sold separately) that utilizes magnetic resonance to produce a magnetic field through which electricity could be transferred.

text: The Galaxy Express 2's

text: li-ion

text: 2,100 mAh battery is said to have a 581-hour

text: standby time

text: or 11 hours of talk time on 3G, compared to 586 hours in standby and 19 hours of talk time on 2G. Built into the battery is

text: near field communication

text: connectivity, which allows users to share map directions and YouTube videos quickly using

text: Wi-Fi Direct

text: (through Android Beam), and perform

text: non-touch payments

text: at shops that employ specially equipped NFC

text: cash register

text: s. To help minimize battery consumption, Samsung has introduced "Smart Stay", an ability to track a user's eyes and turn off whenever the person is not looking at it. The battery can be

text: wirelessly charged

text: using a special charging pad (sold separately) that utilizes magnetic resonance to produce a

text: magnetic field

text: through which electricity could be transferred.

text: Ions in crystal lattices of purely ionic compounds are spherical; however, if the positive ion is small and/or highly charged, it will distort the electron cloud of the negative ion, an effect summarised in Fajans' rules.  This polarization of the negative ion leads to a build-up of extra charge density between the two nuclei, i.e., to partial covalency. Larger negative ions are more easily polarized, but the effect is usually important only when positive ions with charges of 3+ (e.g., Al) are involved. However, 2+ ions (Be) or even 1+ (Li) show some polarizing power because their sizes are so small (e.g., LiI is ionic but has some covalent bonding present).  Note that this is not the ionic polarization effect that refers to displacement of ions in the lattice due to the application of an electric field.

text: Ion

text: s in

text: crystal lattice

text: s of purely ionic compounds are

text: spherical

text: ; however, if the positive ion is small and/or highly charged, it will distort the electron cloud of the negative ion, an effect summarised in

text: Fajans' rules

text: .  This

text: polarization

text: of the negative ion leads to a build-up of extra charge density between the two

text: nuclei

text: , i.e., to partial covalency. Larger negative ions are more easily polarized, but the effect is usually important only when positive ions with

text: charges

text: of 3+ (e.g., Al) are involved. However, 2+ ions (Be) or even 1+ (Li) show some polarizing power because their sizes are so small (e.g., LiI is ionic but has some covalent bonding present).  Note that this is not the

text: ionic polarization

text: effect that refers to displacement of ions in the lattice due to the application of an electric field.

text: Electric charge is different, because it is conserved, i.e. it can be neither created nor destroyed. It can, however, diffuse. The "chemical potential of electric charge" controls this diffusion: Electric charge, like anything else, will tend to diffuse from areas of higher chemical potential to areas of lower chemical potential. Other conserved quantities like baryon number are the same. In fact, each conserved quantity is associated with a chemical potential and a corresponding tendency to diffuse to equalize it out.

text: Electric charge is different, because it is conserved, i.e. it can be neither created nor destroyed. It can, however, diffuse. The "chemical potential of electric charge" controls this diffusion: Electric charge, like anything else, will tend to diffuse from areas of higher chemical potential to areas of lower chemical potential. Other conserved quantities like

text: baryon number

text: are the same. In fact, each conserved quantity is associated with a chemical potential and a corresponding tendency to diffuse to equalize it out.

text: Typical reducing agents undergo permanent chemical alteration through covalent or ionic reaction chemistry. This results in the complete and irreversible transfer of one or more electrons. In many chemical circumstances, however, the transfer of electronic charge to an electron acceptor may be only fractional, meaning an electron is not completely transferred, but results in an electron resonance between the donor and acceptor. This leads to the formation of charge transfer complexes in which the components largely retain their chemical identities.

text: Typical reducing agents undergo permanent chemical alteration through covalent or ionic reaction chemistry. This results in the complete and irreversible transfer of one or more electrons. In many chemical circumstances, however, the transfer of electronic charge to an

text: electron acceptor

text: charge transfer complex

text: Tax authorities generally examine prices actually charged between related parties to determine whether adjustments are appropriate. Such examination is by comparison (testing) of such prices to comparable prices charged among unrelated parties.  Such testing may occur only on examination of tax returns by the tax authority, or taxpayers may be required to conduct such testing themselves in advance of filing tax returns.  Such testing requires a determination of how the testing must be conducted, referred to as a transfer pricing method.

text: The charges on the specialpair  and the BPh could undergo charge recombination in this state. This would waste the high-energy electron and convert the absorbed light energy into heat. Several factors of the reaction center structure serve to prevent this. First, the transfer of an electron from BPh to P960 is relatively slow compared to two other redox reactions in the reaction center. The faster reactions involve the transfer of an electron from BPh (BPh is oxidised to BPh) to the electron acceptor quinone (Q), and the transfer of an electron to P960 (P960 is reduced to P960) from a heme in the cytochrome subunit above the reaction center.

text: The charges on the specialpair  and the BPh could undergo charge recombination in this state. This would waste the high-energy electron and convert the absorbed light energy into

text: heat

text: . Several factors of the reaction center structure serve to prevent this. First, the transfer of an electron from BPh to P960 is relatively slow compared to two other

text: redox reaction

text: s in the reaction center. The faster reactions involve the transfer of an electron from BPh (BPh is oxidised to BPh) to the electron acceptor quinone (Q), and the transfer of an electron to P960 (P960 is reduced to P960) from a heme in the cytochrome subunit above the reaction center.

text: The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that:

text: The principle of conservation of

text: electric charge

text: implies that:

text: The name BITNETS was inspired by:B - the first letter of the last name of founder and principal Gary Bajaj, IT - an existing acronym for Information Technology, used to make a pronouncable word and NETS - Network for Electronic Transfers (Singapore). The word "net" as in "net result" spelled efficiency - if Bank A owed Bank B $10, and Bank B owed Bank C $10, the end of day settlement would be $10 transferred electronically from Bank A to Bank C.

text: For the Inverse Spin Hall Effect a space-dependent spin-polarization causes a spin-polarized current which induces an electric current which leads to an accumulation of electrical charges of opposite signs on opposing lateral boundaries. This can be measured as a charge imbalance at the edges of the sample. It was first observed in 1984. More recently, the existence of both direct and inverse effects was demonstrated not only in semiconductors, but also in metals.

text: For the Inverse Spin Hall Effect a space-dependent

text: spin-polarization

text: causes a spin-polarized current which induces an

text: electric current

text: which leads to an accumulation of electrical charges of opposite signs on opposing lateral boundaries. This can be measured as a charge imbalance at the edges of the sample. It was first observed in 1984. More recently, the existence of both direct and inverse effects was demonstrated not only in

text: semiconductor

text: s, but also in

text: metal

text: s.

text: In high-volume copiers, the drum is presented with a slowly turbulent mixture of toner particles and larger, iron, reusable carrier particles. Toner is a powder; its early form was carbon powder, then melt-mixed with a polymer. The carrier particles have a coating which, during agitation, generates a triboelectric charge (a form of static electricity), which attracts a coating of toner particles. In addition, the mix is manipulated with a magnetic roller to present to the surface of the drum or belt a brush of toner. By contact with the carrier each neutral toner particle has an electric charge of polarity opposite to the charge of the latent image on the drum. The charge attracts toner to form a visible image on the drum. To control the amount of toner transferred, a bias voltage is applied to the developer roller to counteract the attraction between toner and latent image.

text: In high-volume copiers, the drum is presented with a slowly turbulent mixture of toner particles and larger, iron, reusable carrier particles. Toner is a powder; its early form was carbon powder, then melt-mixed with a polymer. The carrier particles have a coating which, during agitation, generates a

text: triboelectric

text: charge (a form of static electricity), which attracts a coating of toner particles. In addition, the mix is manipulated with a magnetic roller to present to the surface of the drum or belt a brush of toner. By contact with the carrier each neutral toner particle has an electric charge of polarity opposite to the charge of the latent image on the drum. The charge attracts toner to form a visible image on the drum. To control the amount of toner transferred, a bias voltage is applied to the developer roller to counteract the attraction between toner and latent image.

text: When a crystal of a binary oxide is cleaved to generate two new surfaces, each solid’s charge remains neutral. However, the structure of the two newly created surfaces may or may not be the same. If the structures are identical, the surface will be dipoleless and is considered a nonpolar surface. If the structures are different, the surface will have a strong dipole and is considered a polar surface. Examples of nonpolar surfaces include the rocksalt (100) surface, the rutile (100), (110) and (001) surfaces and the pervoskite (100) surface. An example of a polar surface is the rocksalt (111) surface. In general, a polar surface is less stable than a nonpolar surface because a dipole moment increases the surface Gibbs energy. Also, oxygen polar surfaces are more stable than metal polar surfaces because oxygen ions are more polarizable, which lowers the surface energy.

text: When a crystal of a binary oxide is cleaved to generate two new surfaces, each solid’s charge remains neutral. However, the structure of the two newly created surfaces may or may not be the same. If the structures are identical, the surface will be

text: dipoleless

text: and is considered a nonpolar surface. If the structures are different, the surface will have a strong

text: dipole

text: and is considered a polar surface. Examples of nonpolar surfaces include the rocksalt (100) surface, the rutile (100), (110) and (001) surfaces and the pervoskite (100) surface. An example of a polar surface is the rocksalt (111) surface. In general, a polar surface is less stable than a nonpolar surface because a dipole moment increases the surface Gibbs energy. Also, oxygen polar surfaces are more stable than metal polar surfaces because oxygen ions are more

text: polarizable

text: , which lowers the surface energy.

text: Chemical energy is the energy due to excretion of atoms in molecules and various other kinds of aggregates of matter. It may be defined as a work done by electric forces during re-arrangement of mutual positions of electric charges, electrons and protons, in the process of aggregation. So, basically it is electrostatic potential energy of electric charges. If the chemical energy of a system decreases during a chemical reaction, the difference is transferred to the surroundings in some form (often heat or light); on the other hand if the chemical energy of a system increases as a result of a chemical reaction - the difference then is supplied by the surroundings (usually again in form of heat or light). For example,

text: Chemical energy

text: is the energy due to excretion of atoms in molecules and various other kinds of aggregates of

text: matter

text: . It may be defined as a work done by electric forces during re-arrangement of mutual positions of electric charges, electrons and protons, in the process of aggregation. So, basically it is electrostatic potential energy of electric charges. If the chemical energy of a system decreases during a chemical reaction, the difference is transferred to the surroundings in some form (often

text: heat

text: or

text: light

text: ); on the other hand if the chemical energy of a system increases as a result of a

text: chemical reaction

text: - the difference then is supplied by the surroundings (usually again in form of

text: heat

text: or

text: light

text: ). For example,

text: Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor.  The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation of protons across a membrane, producing a proton gradient.  The proton gradient is used to produce useful work.About 30 work units are produced per electron transport.

text: Because the surface of the material is now electrically charged, either negatively or positively, any contact with an uncharged conductive object or with an object having substantially different charge may cause an electrical discharge of the built-up static electricity: a spark.  A person simply walking across a carpet may build up a potential of many thousands of volts, enough to cause a spark one centimeter long or more.  Low humidity in the ambient air increases the voltage at which electrical discharge occurs by increasing the ability of the insulating material to hold charge by decreasing the conductivity of the air, making it difficult for the charge build-up to dissipate gradually.  Simply removing a nylon shirt or corset can also create sparks. Car travel can lead to a build-up of charge on the driver and passengers due to friction between the driver's clothes and the leather or plastic furnishings inside the vehicle. This charge can then be relaxed as a spark to the metal car body, fuel dispensers, or nearby door handles, etc.When the vehicle's body itself builds up a static charge (acting as a Faraday cage) it can relax through the carbon in the tires.  If it remains charged when parked, sparks may jump from the door frame to occupants as they make contact with the ground.

text: Because the surface of the material is now electrically charged, either negatively or positively, any contact with an uncharged conductive object or with an object having substantially different charge may cause an electrical discharge of the built-up

text: static electricity

text: : a

text: spark

text: .  A person simply walking across a carpet may build up a potential of many thousands of volts, enough to cause a spark one centimeter long or more.  Low humidity in the ambient air increases the voltage at which electrical discharge occurs by increasing the ability of the insulating material to hold charge by decreasing the conductivity of the air, making it difficult for the charge build-up to dissipate gradually.  Simply removing a nylon shirt or corset can also create sparks. Car travel can lead to a build-up of charge on the driver and passengers due to friction between the driver's clothes and the leather or plastic furnishings inside the vehicle. This charge can then be relaxed as a spark to the metal car body, fuel dispensers, or nearby door handles, etc.When the vehicle's body itself builds up a static charge (acting as a

text: Faraday cage

text: ) it can relax through the carbon in the tires.  If it remains charged when parked, sparks may jump from the door frame to occupants as they make contact with the ground.

text: Spring type - When no electricity is applied to the brake, a spring pushes against a pressure plate, squeezing the friction disk between the inner pressure plate and the outer cover plate. This frictional clamping force is transferred to the hub, which is mounted to a shaft.

text: In the electrophoretic process, electrically charged particles dispersed in a special liquid are transported through an electric field into the preform, which has the opposite electrical charge polarity. This process is under development, and is not yet used industrially. Some remaining porosity must be expected here, too.

text: In the

text: electrophoretic

text: process, electrically charged particles dispersed in a special liquid are transported through an

text: electric field

text: into the preform, which has the opposite electrical charge polarity. This process is under development, and is not yet used industrially. Some remaining porosity must be expected here, too.

text: Polarization is important in radio communications because, for instance, if one attempts to use a horizontally polarized antenna to receive a vertically polarized transmission, the signal strength will be substantially reduced (or under very controlled conditions, reduced to nothing). This principle is used in satellite television in order to double the channel capacity over a fixed frequency band. The same frequency channel can be used for two signals broadcast in opposite polarizations. By adjusting the receiving antenna for one or the other polarization, either signal can be selected without interference from the other.

text: Polarization is important in radio communications because, for instance, if one attempts to use a horizontally polarized antenna to receive a vertically polarized transmission, the signal strength will be substantially reduced (or under very controlled conditions, reduced to nothing). This principle is used in

text: satellite television

text: in order to double the channel capacity over a fixed frequency band. The same frequency channel can be used for two signals broadcast in opposite polarizations. By adjusting the receiving antenna for one or the other polarization, either signal can be selected without interference from the other.

text: The S III's Li-ion 2,100 mAh battery is said to have a 790-hour standby time or 11 hours of talk time on 3G, compared to 900 hours in standby and 21 hours of talk time on 2G. Built into the battery is near field communication (NFC) connectivity, which allows users to share map directions and YouTube videos quickly using Wi-Fi Direct (through Android Beam), and perform non-touch payments at shops that employ specially equipped NFC cash registers. The battery can be wirelessly charged using a special charging pad (sold separately) that utilizes magnetic resonance to produce a magnetic field through which electricity could be transferred.

text: The S III's

text: Li-ion

text: mAh

text: battery is said to have a 790-hour

text: standby time

text: or 11 hours of talk time on 3G, compared to 900 hours in standby and 21 hours of talk time on 2G. Built into the battery is

text: near field communication

text: (NFC) connectivity, which allows users to share map directions and

text: YouTube

text: videos quickly using

text: Wi-Fi Direct

text: (through Android Beam), and perform

text: non-touch payments

text: cash register

text: s. The battery can be

text: wirelessly charged

text: magnetic field

text: Of course, in this classical model the transfer of any arbitrary amount of charge Δe is possible. So the energy of the non-equilibrium state, and consequently of the polarization energy of the solvent,  can be probed as a function of Δe.  Thus Marcus has lumped together, in a very elegant way, the coordinates of all solvent molecules into a single coordinate of solvent polarization Δp which is determined by the amount of transferred charge Δe. So he reached a simplification of the energy representation to only two dimensions: G = f(Δe). The result for two conducting spheres in a solvent is the formula of Marcus

text: The root reinforced earth root model is the result of the root elongation across a potential slip plane which produces a tensile root force which is transferred to the soil by cohesive and frictional contacts between the root and the soil.

text: Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the emission or absorption of photons with an energy that matches the difference in potential. Other methods of orbital transfer include collisions with particles, such as electrons, and the Auger effect. To escape the atom, the energy of the electron must be increased above its binding energy to the atom. This occurs, for example, with the photoelectric effect, where an incident photon exceeding the atom's ionization energy is absorbed by the electron.

text: Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the emission or absorption of photons with an energy that matches the difference in potential. Other methods of orbital transfer include collisions with particles, such as electrons, and the

text: Auger effect

text: . To escape the atom, the energy of the electron must be increased above its

text: binding energy

text: to the atom. This occurs, for example, with the

text: photoelectric effect

text: , where an incident photon exceeding the atom's

text: ionization energy

text: is absorbed by the electron.

text: Friction is a surface force that opposes relative motion. The frictional force is directly related to the normal force that acts to keep two solid objects separated at the point of contact. There are two broad classifications of frictional forces: static friction and kinetic friction.

text: Friction is a surface force that opposes relative motion. The frictional force is directly related to the normal force that acts to keep two solid objects separated at the point of contact. There are two broad classifications of frictional forces:

text: static friction

text: and

text: kinetic friction

text: However, the vector potential cannot be defined globally precisely because the divergence of the magnetic field is proportional to the Dirac delta function at the origin. We must define one set of functions for the vector potential on the "northern hemisphere" (the half-space  above the particle), and another set of functions for the "southern hemisphere". These two vector potentials are matched at the "equator" (the plane  0}} through the particle), and they differ by a gauge transformation. The wave function of an electrically-charged particle (a "probe charge") that orbits the "equator" generally changes by a phase, much like in the Aharonov–Bohm effect. This phase is proportional to the electric charge  of the probe, as well as to the magnetic charge  of the source. Dirac was originally considering an electron whose wave function is described by the Dirac equation.

text: However, the vector potential cannot be defined globally precisely because the divergence of the magnetic field is proportional to the

text: Dirac delta function

text: at the origin. We must define one set of functions for the vector potential on the "northern hemisphere" (the half-space  above the particle), and another set of functions for the "southern hemisphere". These two vector potentials are matched at the "equator" (the plane  0}} through the particle), and they differ by a

text: gauge transformation

text: . The

text: wave function

text: of an electrically-charged particle (a "probe charge") that orbits the "equator" generally changes by a phase, much like in the

text: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: . This phase is proportional to the electric charge  of the probe, as well as to the magnetic charge  of the source. Dirac was originally considering an

text: electron

text: whose wave function is described by the

text: Dirac equation

text: As an example, consider a charged spherical shell S of negligible thickness, with a uniformly distributed charge Q and radius R.  We can use Gauss's law to find the magnitude of the resultant electric field E at a distance r from the center of the charged shell. It is immediately apparent that for a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r < R the enclosed charge is zero: hence the net flux is zero and the magnitude of the electric field on the Gaussian surface is also 0 (by letting Q = 0 in Gauss's law, where Q is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface).

text: In a theory where the vacuum is invariant under a symmetry, the conserved charge leads to superselection sectors in the case that the charge is conserved. Electric charge is conserved in our universe, so it seems at first like a trivial example. But when a superconductor fills space, or equivalently in a Higgs phase, electric charge is still globally conserved but no longer defines the superselection sectors. The sloshing of the superconductor can bring charges into any volume at very little cost. In this case, the superselection sectors of the vacuum are labeled by the direction of the Higgs field. Since different Higgs directions are related by an exact symmetry, they are all exactly equivalent. This suggests a deep relationship between symmetry breaking directions and conserved charges.

text: In thermodynamics, non-mechanical work is to be contrasted with mechanical work that is done by forces in immediate contact between the system and its surroundings. If the putative 'work' of a process cannot be defined as either long-range work or else as contact work, then sometimes it cannot be described by the thermodynamic formalism as work at all. Nevertheless, the thermodynamic formalism allows that energy can be transferred between an open system and its surroundings by processes for which work is not defined. An example is when the wall between the system and its surrounds is not considered as idealized and vanishingly thin, so that processes can occur within the wall, such as friction affecting the transfer of matter across the wall; in this case, the forces of transfer are neither strictly long-range nor strictly due to contact between the system and its surrounds; the transfer of energy can then be considered as by convection, and assessed in sum just as transfer of internal energy. This is conceptually different from transfer of energy as heat through a thick fluid-filled wall in the presence of a gravitational field, between a closed system and its surroundings; in this case there may convective circulation within the wall but the process may still be considered as transfer of energy as heat between the system and its surroundings; if the whole wall is moved by the application of force from the surroundings, without change of volume of the wall, so as to change the volume of the system, then it is also at the same time transferring energy as work. A chemical reaction within a system can lead to electrical long-range forces and to electric current flow, which transfer energy as work between system and surroundings, though the system's chemical reactions themselves (except for the special limiting case in which in they are driven through devices in the surroundings so as to occur along a line of thermodynamic equilibrium) are always irreversible and do not directly interact with the surroundings of the system.

text: Electroscopes detect electric charge by the motion of a test object due to the Coulomb electrostatic force. Since the electric potential or voltage of an object with respect to ground equals its charge divided by its capacitance to ground, an electroscope can be regarded as a crude voltmeter. However, the accumulation of enough charge to detect with an electroscope requires hundreds or thousands of volts, so electroscopes are only used with high-voltage sources such as static electricity and electrostatic machines.  Electroscopes generally give only a rough, qualitative indication of the magnitude of the charge. An instrument that measures charge quantitatively is called an electrometer.

text: Electroscopes detect electric charge by the motion of a test object due to the

text: Coulomb electrostatic force

text: . Since the

text: electric potential

text: or

text: voltage

text: of an object with respect to ground equals its charge divided by its

text: capacitance

text: to ground, an electroscope can be regarded as a crude

text: voltmeter

text: . However, the accumulation of enough charge to detect with an electroscope requires hundreds or thousands of

text: volt

text: s, so electroscopes are only used with high-voltage sources such as

text: static electricity

text: and

text: electrostatic machine

text: s.  Electroscopes generally give only a rough, qualitative indication of the magnitude of the charge. An instrument that measures charge

text: quantitatively

text: is called an

text: electrometer

text: In the world of politics, polarization (or polarisation) can refer to the divergence of political attitudes to ideological extremes. Polarization can refer to such divergence like public opinion or even to such divergence within certain groups. Almost all discussions of polarization in political science consider polarization in the context of political parties and democratic systems of government. When polarization occurs in a two-party system, like the United States, moderate voices often lose power and influence.

text: In the world of

text: politics

text: , polarization (or polarisation) can refer to the divergence of political attitudes to ideological extremes. Polarization can refer to such divergence like public opinion or even to such divergence within certain groups. Almost all discussions of polarization in

text: political science

text: consider polarization in the context of

text: political parties

text: and democratic systems of government. When polarization occurs in a

text: two-party system

text: , like the

text: United States

text: , moderate voices often lose power and influence.

text: Examples of transport processes include heat conduction (energy transfer), fluid flow (momentum transfer), molecular diffusion (mass transfer), radiation and electric charge transfer in semiconductors.

text: Examples of transport processes include

text: heat conduction

text: (energy transfer),

text: fluid flow

text: (momentum transfer),

text: molecular diffusion

text: (mass transfer),

text: radiation

text: and

text: electric charge

text: transfer in semiconductors.

text: As B rotates 90° clockwise (left to right), the charges that have been induced on it line up with the brushes next to disc A [X, X1]. The charges on B induce the opposite polarization of the A-brushes' shaft, and the shaft's polarization is transferred to its disc. Disc B keeps rotating and its charges are accumulated by the nearest charge-collection combs.

text: Bond entered active Navy service in 1953. Soon after he qualified as a Diving and Submarine Medical Officer and served as Squadron Medical Officer from 1954 to 1958. Later that year, Bond transferred to the Naval Medical Research Laboratory in Groton, Connecticut where he served as the Officer-in-Charge until 1964. It was during this time that Bond conducted his earliest experiments into saturation diving techniques.

text: Bond entered active Navy service in 1953. Soon after he qualified as a Diving and

text: Submarine

text: Medical Officer and served as Squadron Medical Officer from 1954 to 1958. Later that year, Bond transferred to the

entity_name: Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory

text: Naval Medical Research Laboratory

text: in

text: Groton, Connecticut

text: where he served as the Officer-in-Charge until 1964. It was during this time that Bond conducted his earliest experiments into

text: saturation diving

text: techniques.

text: In heterogeneous electron transfer, an electron moves between a chemical species and a solid-state electrode.  Theories addressing heterogeneous electron transfer have applications in electrochemistry and the design of solar cells.

text: In heterogeneous electron transfer, an electron moves between a chemical species and a solid-state

text: electrode

text: .  Theories addressing heterogeneous electron transfer have applications in

text: electrochemistry

text: and the design of

text: solar cell

text: s.

text: The transfer of electrons from a high-energy molecule (the donor) to a lower-energy molecule (the acceptor) can be spatially separated into a series of intermediate redox reactions.  This is an electron transport chain.

text: The transfer of electrons from a high-energy molecule (the donor) to a lower-energy molecule (the acceptor) can be spatially separated into a series of intermediate redox reactions.  This is an

text: electron transport chain

text: An electrical principle that Franklin proved in 1747 with his electrostatic machine was that of conservation of charge. He was the first to use the terms "positive" and "negative" ("plus" and "minus") as applied to electricity. Franklin wrote detailed letters and documents on his findings from experimenting with the electrostatic machine and Leyden jars. He concluded that lightning was just giant sparks of these electric charges. He referred to this static electricity as "electric fire" and sometimes as "electric matter."  The term of "electric fluid" was also used, based off the concept that a jar could be filled and refilled when it became empty. Franklin had made a list in 1749 of several ways in which lightning was similar to electricity. That developed a theory for the "electical fire" as a type of motion or current flow rather than a type of explosion. There were new electric terms derived from his name in the middle of the eighteenth century. For example, "Franklin current" is static electricity. "Franklinization" is electrotherapy where Franklin applied strong static charges from powerful Leyden jars, which were charged from his electrostatic machine, to treat patients with various illnesses.

text: An electrical principle that Franklin proved in 1747 with his electrostatic machine was that of

text: conservation of charge

text: . He was the first to use the terms "positive" and "negative" ("plus" and "minus") as applied to electricity. Franklin wrote detailed letters and documents on his findings from experimenting with the electrostatic machine and Leyden jars. He concluded that

text: lightning

text: was just giant sparks of these electric charges. He referred to this static electricity as "electric fire" and sometimes as "electric matter."  The term of "electric fluid" was also used, based off the concept that a jar could be filled and refilled when it became empty. Franklin had made a list in 1749 of several ways in which lightning was similar to electricity. That developed a theory for the "electical fire" as a type of motion or current flow rather than a type of explosion. There were new electric terms derived from his name in the middle of the eighteenth century. For example, "Franklin current" is static electricity. "Franklinization" is

text: electrotherapy

text: where Franklin applied strong static charges from powerful Leyden jars, which were charged from his electrostatic machine, to treat patients with various illnesses.

text: The selective membrane process solves many of the challenges for direct delivery of water vapor by changing the way water molecules are converted from liquid to gas phase. A nonporous hydrophilic membrane is used. Only charged species can enter the nano-sized pores of the membrane. Non-polar species and particles are rejected. Because while ions can enter the pores, they cannot leave since they are not volatile. Only volatile polar molecules can enter and exit the membrane pores. The smallest polar molecule is water.

text: Another well-known family of intercalation hosts are the layered metal dichalcogenides such as titanium disulfide.  In characteristic manner, intercalation is analyzed by X-ray diffraction, since the spacing between sheets increases, and by electrical conductivity, since charge transfer alters the number of charge carriers.

text: Another well-known family of intercalation hosts are the layered

text: metal dichalcogenide

text: s such as

text: titanium disulfide

text: .  In characteristic manner, intercalation is analyzed by X-ray diffraction, since the spacing between sheets increases, and by electrical conductivity, since charge transfer alters the number of charge carriers.

text: The shaft power is transferred to the machine driven; the electric input power is what is metered and charged for. Loss in motor efficiency is determined by the difference between the input power and output or shaft power.

text: Transaction charges depend on the amount of money being transferred and whether the payee is a registered user of the service. The actual cost is a fixed amount for a given range of transaction sizes; for example Safaricom charges up to 66 Kshs. for a transaction to an unregistered user for transactions between 101-500 Kshs. (US$1–5) and 27 Kshs. for a transfer to a registered user for the same amount. At the highest transfer bracket of 50,001-70,000 Kshs. the fee for a transfer to a registered user is 110 Kshs. The maximum amount that can be transferred to a non-registered user of the system is 35,000 Kshs, with a fee of 275 Kshs. Cash withdrawal fees are also charged. With a charge of 10 Kshs, for a withdrawal of 50-100 Kshs, up to 330 Kshs for a withdrawal of 50,001-70,000 Kshs.Anja Bengelstorf from the German Academic Exchange Service cites the central bank of Kenya when she states that 1 billion CHF is moved in fiscal year 2014, with a profit of 268 million CHF, that is close to 27% of the moved money.

text: Transaction charges depend on the amount of money being transferred and whether the payee is a registered user of the service. The actual cost is a fixed amount for a given range of transaction sizes; for example Safaricom charges up to 66

text: Kshs.

text: for a transaction to an unregistered user for transactions between 101-500 Kshs. (US$1–5) and 27 Kshs. for a transfer to a registered user for the same amount. At the highest transfer bracket of 50,001-70,000 Kshs. the fee for a transfer to a registered user is 110 Kshs. The maximum amount that can be transferred to a non-registered user of the system is 35,000 Kshs, with a fee of 275 Kshs. Cash withdrawal fees are also charged. With a charge of 10 Kshs, for a withdrawal of 50-100 Kshs, up to 330 Kshs for a withdrawal of 50,001-70,000 Kshs.Anja Bengelstorf from the German Academic Exchange Service cites the central bank of Kenya when she states that 1 billion CHF is moved in fiscal year 2014, with a profit of 268 million CHF, that is close to 27% of the moved money.

text: Friction is an ever plaguing problem regardless of the scale of a device. It becomes all the more prominent when a device is scaled down. In the nano scale it can wreak havoc if not accounted for because the parts of a Nano-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (NEMS) device are sometimes only a few atoms thick. Furthermore, such NEMS devices typically have a very large surface area-to-volume ratio. Surfaces in the nanoscale resemble a mountain range, where each peak corresponds to an atom or a molecule. Friction at the nanoscale is proportional to the number of atoms that interact between two surfaces. Hence, friction between perfectly smooth surfaces in the macroscale is actually similar to large rough objects rubbing against each other.

text: Friction

text: is an ever plaguing problem regardless of the scale of a device. It becomes all the more prominent when a device is scaled down. In the nano scale it can wreak havoc if not accounted for because the parts of a

text: Nano-Electro-Mechanical-Systems

text: (NEMS) device are sometimes only a few atoms thick. Furthermore, such NEMS devices typically have a very large surface area-to-volume ratio. Surfaces in the nanoscale resemble a mountain range, where each peak corresponds to an atom or a molecule. Friction at the nanoscale is proportional to the number of atoms that interact between two surfaces. Hence, friction between perfectly smooth surfaces in the macroscale is actually similar to large rough objects rubbing against each other.

text: Although conduction velocity itself is not directly measured, calculating conduction velocities from NCS measurements is trivial. The distance between the stimulating and receiving electrodes is divided by the impulse latency, resulting in conduction velocity.

text: A triboelectric nanogenerator is an energy harvesting device that converts the external mechanical energy into electricity by a conjunction of triboelectric effect and electrostatic induction. This new type of nanogenerator was firstly demonstrated in Prof. Zhong Lin Wang's group at Georgia Institute of Technology in the year of 2012. As for this power generation unit, in the inner circuit, a potential is created by the triboelectric effect due to the charge transfer between two thin organic/inorganic films that exhibit opposite tribo-polarity; in the outer circuit, electrons are driven to flow between two electrodes attached on the back sides of the films in order to balance the potential. Since the most useful materials for TENG are organic, it is also named organic nanogenerator, which is the first of using organic materials for harvesting mechanical energy.

text: A triboelectric nanogenerator is an

text: energy harvesting

text: device that converts the external mechanical energy into electricity by a conjunction of

text: triboelectric effect

text: and electrostatic induction. This new type of nanogenerator was firstly demonstrated in Prof. Zhong Lin Wang's group at

text: Georgia Institute of Technology

text: in the year of 2012. As for this power generation unit, in the inner circuit, a potential is created by the triboelectric effect due to the charge transfer between two thin organic/inorganic films that exhibit opposite tribo-polarity; in the outer circuit, electrons are driven to flow between two electrodes attached on the back sides of the films in order to balance the potential. Since the most useful materials for TENG are organic, it is also named organic nanogenerator, which is the first of using organic materials for harvesting mechanical energy.

text: Initially the oil drops are allowed to fall between the plates with the electric field turned off. They very quickly reach a terminal velocity because of friction with the air in the chamber.  The field is then turned on and, if it is large enough, some of the drops (the charged ones) will start to rise. (This is because the upwards electric force F is greater for them than the downwards gravitational force F, in the same way bits of paper can be picked by a charged rubber rod). A likely looking drop is selected and kept in the middle of the field of view by alternately switching off the voltage until all the other drops have fallen. The experiment is then continued with this one drop.

text: Initially the oil drops are allowed to fall between the plates with the electric field turned off. They very quickly reach a

text: terminal velocity

text: because of friction with the air in the chamber.  The field is then turned on and, if it is large enough, some of the drops (the charged ones) will start to rise. (This is because the upwards electric force F is greater for them than the downwards gravitational force F, in the same way bits of paper can be picked by a charged rubber rod). A likely looking drop is selected and kept in the middle of the field of view by alternately switching off the voltage until all the other drops have fallen. The experiment is then continued with this one drop.

text: A polarization controller is an optical device which allows one to modify the polarization state of light.

text: A polarization controller is an

text: optical device

text: which allows one to modify the

text: polarization state

text: of

text: light

text: The process repeats, with each charge polarization on A inducing polarization on B, inducing polarization on A, etc. All of these induced positive and negative charges are collected by combs to charge the Leyden jars, electrical charge-storage devices similar to capacitors. The mechanical energy required to separate the opposing charges on the adjacent sectors provides the energy source for the electrical output.

text: Friction is a complicated phenomenon. Macroscopically the friction force F between the interface of two materials can be modelled as proportional to the reaction force R at a point of contact between two interfaces, through a dimensionless coefficient of friction μ which depends on the pair of materials:

text: Friction

text: is a complicated phenomenon. Macroscopically the

text: friction

text: force F between the interface of two materials can be modelled as proportional to the

text: reaction force

text: R at a point of contact between two interfaces, through a dimensionless coefficient of friction μ which depends on the pair of materials:

text: Examples of continuity equations often written in this form include electric charge conservation

text: When different materials are brought together and then separated, an accumulation of electric charge can occur which leaves one material positively charged while the other becomes negatively charged. The mild shock that you receive when touching a grounded object after walking on carpet is an example of excess electrical charge accumulating in your body from frictional charging between your shoes and the carpet. The resulting charge build-up upon your body can generate a strong electrical discharge. Although experimenting with static electricity may be fun, similar sparks create severe hazards in those industries dealing with flammable substances, where a small electrical spark may ignite explosive mixtures with devastating consequences.

text: Semiconductor materials are useful because their behavior can be easily manipulated by the addition of impurities, known as doping. Semiconductor conductivity can be controlled by the introduction of an electric or magnetic field, by exposure to light or heat, or by the mechanical deformation of a doped monocrystalline grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent sensors. Current conduction in a semiconductor occurs via mobile or "free" electrons and holes, collectively known as charge carriers. Doping a semiconductor such as silicon with a small amount of impurity atoms, such as phosphorus or boron, greatly increases the number of free electrons or holes within the semiconductor. When a doped semiconductor contains excess holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains excess free electrons it is known as "n-type", where p (positive for holes) or n (negative for electrons) is the sign of the charge of the majority mobile charge carriers. The semiconductor material used in devices is doped under highly controlled conditions in a fabrication facility, or fab, to control precisely the location and concentration of p- and n-type dopants. The junctions which form where n-type and p-type semiconductors join together are called p–n junctions.

text: Semiconductor materials are useful because their behavior can be easily manipulated by the addition of impurities, known as

text: doping

text: . Semiconductor

text: conductivity

text: can be controlled by the introduction of an electric or magnetic field, by exposure to

text: light

text: or heat, or by the mechanical deformation of a

text: doped

text: monocrystalline

text: grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent sensors. Current conduction in a

text: semiconductor

text: occurs via mobile or "free"

text: electrons

text: and

text: holes

text: , collectively known as

text: charge carrier

text: s. Doping a semiconductor such as

text: silicon

text: with a small amount of impurity atoms, such as

text: phosphorus

text: or

text: boron

text: , greatly increases the number of free electrons or holes within the semiconductor. When a doped semiconductor contains excess holes it is called "

text: p-type

text: ", and when it contains excess free electrons it is known as "

text: n-type

text: ", where p (positive for

text: holes

text: ) or n (negative for

text: electron

text: s) is the sign of the charge of the majority mobile charge carriers. The semiconductor material used in devices is doped under highly controlled conditions in a fabrication facility, or

text: fab

text: , to control precisely the location and concentration of p- and n-type dopants. The junctions which form where n-type and p-type semiconductors join together are called

text: p–n junction

text: s.

text: A normal uncharged piece of matter has equal numbers of positive and negative electric charges in each part of it, located close together, so no part of it has a net electric charge.   The positive charges are the atoms' nuclei which are bound into the structure of matter and are not free to move.  The negative charges are the atoms' electrons.  In electrically conductive objects such as metals, some of the electrons are able to move freely about in the object.

text: A normal uncharged piece of matter has equal numbers of positive and negative

text: electric charge

text: s in each part of it, located close together, so no part of it has a net electric charge.   The positive charges are the

text: atom

text: s'

text: nuclei

text: which are bound into the structure of matter and are not free to move.  The negative charges are the atoms'

text: electron

text: s.  In

text: electrically conductive

text: objects such as metals, some of the electrons are able to move freely about in the object.

text: Under the lantern room sits a water tank which was used to store rainfall for use in the lighthouse's accommodation. The Lighthouse was reached by an iron bridge, and a handrail on the bridge and steps formed part pipe siphoning fuel mainland. Parts of the apparatus still survive. The bridge was replaced in 1963. An electric fog-signal was installed in 1969, replacing the previous system that used explosive signal charges. Stores were transferred from the mainland by cable but now largely arrive by helicopter and a helipad is found to the west of the lighthouse.

text: Quarks carry not only electric charge, but also charges such as color charge and weak isospin. Because of a phenomenon known as color confinement, a hadron cannot have a net color charge; that is, the total color charge of a particle has to be zero ("white"). A quark can have one of three "colors", dubbed "red", "green", and "blue".

text: Quarks carry not only

text: electric charge

text: , but also

text: charges

text: such as

text: color charge

text: and

text: weak isospin

text: . Because of a phenomenon known as

text: color confinement

text: , a

text: hadron

text: cannot have a net

text: color charge

text: ; that is, the total color charge of a particle has to be zero ("white"). A quark can have one of three "colors", dubbed "red", "green", and "blue".

text: Another version of CCD is called a peristaltic CCD. In a peristaltic charge-coupled device, the charge-packet transfer operation is analogous to the peristaltic contraction and dilation of the digestive system. The peristaltic CCD has an additional implant that keeps the charge away from the silicon/silicon dioxide interface and generates a large lateral electric field from one gate to the next. This provides an additional driving force to aid in transfer of the charge packets.

text: Another version of CCD is called a peristaltic CCD. In a peristaltic charge-coupled device, the charge-packet transfer operation is analogous to the peristaltic contraction and dilation of the

text: digestive system

text: . The peristaltic CCD has an additional implant that keeps the charge away from the silicon/

text: silicon dioxide

text: interface and generates a large lateral electric field from one gate to the next. This provides an additional driving force to aid in transfer of the charge packets.

text: Because of the duality transformation, one cannot uniquely decide whether a particle has an electric charge, a magnetic charge, or both, just by observing its behavior and comparing that to Maxwell's equations. For example, it is merely a convention, not a requirement of Maxwell's equations, that electrons have electric charge but not magnetic charge; after a  π/2}} transformation, it would be the other way around. The key empirical fact is that all particles ever observed have the same ratio of magnetic charge to electric charge. Duality transformations can change the ratio to any arbitrary numerical value, but cannot change the fact that all particles have the same ratio. Since this is the case, a duality transformation can be made that sets this ratio to be zero, so that all particles have no magnetic charge. This choice underlies the "conventional" definitions of electricity and magnetism.

text: When solids of two different materials are in contact, thermodynamic equilibrium requires one of the solids assume a higher electrical potential than the other. This is called the contact potential. Dissimilar metals in contact produce what is known also as a contact electromotive force or Galvani potential. The magnitude of this potential difference is often expressed as a difference in Fermi levels in the two solids when they are at charge neutrality, where the Fermi level (a name for the chemical potential of an electron system) describes the energy necessary to remove an electron from the body to some common point (such as ground). If there is an energy advantage in taking an electron from one body to the other, such a transfer will occur. The transfer causes a charge separation, with one body gaining electrons and the other losing electrons. This charge transfer causes a potential difference between the bodies, which partly cancels the potential originating from the contact, and eventually equilibrium is reached. At thermodynamic equilibrium, the Fermi levels are equal (the electron removal energy is identical) and there is now a built-in electrostatic potential between the bodies.The original difference in Fermi levels, before contact, is referred to as the emf.The contact potential cannot drive steady current through a load attached to its terminals because that current would involve a charge transfer. No mechanism exists to continue such transfer and, hence, maintain a current, once equilibrium is attained.

text: When solids of two different materials are in contact,

text: thermodynamic equilibrium

text: requires one of the solids assume a higher electrical potential than the other. This is called the contact potential. Dissimilar metals in contact produce what is known also as a contact electromotive force or

text: Galvani potential

text: . The magnitude of this potential difference is often expressed as a difference in

text: Fermi level

text: s in the two solids when they are at charge neutrality, where the Fermi level (a name for the

text: chemical potential

text: of an electron system) describes the energy necessary to remove an electron from the body to some common point (such as ground). If there is an energy advantage in taking an electron from one body to the other, such a transfer will occur. The transfer causes a charge separation, with one body gaining electrons and the other losing electrons. This charge transfer causes a potential difference between the bodies, which partly cancels the potential originating from the contact, and eventually equilibrium is reached. At thermodynamic equilibrium, the

text: Fermi level

text: s are equal (the electron removal energy is identical) and there is now a built-in electrostatic potential between the bodies.The original difference in Fermi levels, before contact, is referred to as the emf.The contact potential cannot drive steady current through a load attached to its terminals because that current would involve a charge transfer. No mechanism exists to continue such transfer and, hence, maintain a current, once equilibrium is attained.

text: Conduct is likely to mislead or deceive where there is a "real and not remote" chance that it will mislead or deceive, which can be true even where the probability of misleading or deceiving is less than 50%. When the allegedly misleading or deceptive conduct is directed towards the public at large, the relevant reaction is of the ordinary or reasonable members of the class of prospective purchasers. If the conduct is directed at specific individuals, the conduct as a whole is relevant, considering the nature of the parties and transaction.

text: The force on the dipole can be calculated by substituting two terms for the electric field in the equation above, one for each charge. The polarization of a dipole is

text: The force on the dipole can be calculated by substituting two terms for the electric field in the equation above, one for each charge. The

text: polarization

text: of a dipole is

text: When subjected to a high enough voltage, insulators suffer from the phenomenon of electrical breakdown. When the electric field applied across an insulating substance exceeds in any location the threshold breakdown field for that substance,  the insulator suddenly becomes a conductor, causing a large increase in current, an electric arc through the substance.  Electrical breakdown occurs when the electric field in the material is strong enough to accelerate free charge carriers (electrons and ions, which are always present at low concentrations) to a high enough velocity to knock electrons from atoms when they strike them, ionizing the atoms. These freed electrons and ions are in turn accelerated and strike other atoms, creating more charge carriers, in a chain reaction. Rapidly the insulator becomes filled with mobile charge carriers, and its resistance drops to a low level.  In a solid, the breakdown voltage is proportional to the band gap energy. The air in a region around a high-voltage conductor can break down and ionise without a catastrophic increase in current; this is called "corona discharge".  However, if the region of air breakdown extends to another conductor at a different voltage it creates a conductive path between them, and a large current flows through the air, creating an electric arc. Even a vacuum can suffer a sort of breakdown, but in this case the breakdown or vacuum arc involves charges ejected from the surface of metal electrodes rather than produced by the vacuum itself.In case of some insulators, the conduction may take place at a very high temperature as then the energy acquired by the valence electrons is sufficient to take them into conduction band.

text: When subjected to a high enough voltage, insulators suffer from the phenomenon of

text: electrical breakdown

text: . When the electric field applied across an insulating substance exceeds in any location the threshold breakdown field for that substance,  the insulator suddenly becomes a conductor, causing a large increase in current, an

text: electric arc

text: through the substance.  Electrical breakdown occurs when the

text: electric field

text: in the material is strong enough to accelerate free

text: charge carrier

text: s (electrons and ions, which are always present at low concentrations) to a high enough velocity to knock electrons from atoms when they strike them,

text: ion

text: izing the atoms. These freed electrons and ions are in turn accelerated and strike other atoms, creating more charge carriers, in a

text: chain reaction

text: . Rapidly the insulator becomes filled with mobile charge carriers, and its

text: resistance

text: drops to a low level.  In a solid, the breakdown voltage is proportional to the

text: band gap

text: energy. The air in a region around a high-voltage conductor can break down and ionise without a catastrophic increase in current; this is called "

text: corona discharge

text: ".  However, if the region of air breakdown extends to another conductor at a different voltage it creates a conductive path between them, and a large current flows through the air, creating an

text: electric arc

text: . Even a vacuum can suffer a sort of breakdown, but in this case the breakdown or

text: vacuum arc

text: involves charges ejected from the surface of metal electrodes rather than produced by the vacuum itself.In case of some insulators, the conduction may take place at a very high temperature as then the energy acquired by the valence electrons is sufficient to take them into conduction band.

text: In a dielectric the above contribution to displacement current is present too, but a major contribution to the displacement current is related to the polarization of the individual molecules of the dielectric material. Even though charges cannot flow freely in a dielectric, the charges in molecules can move a little under the influence of an electric field. The positive and negative charges in molecules separate under the applied field, causing an increase in the state of polarization, expressed as the polarization density .  A changing state of polarization is equivalent to a current.

text: In a dielectric the above contribution to displacement current is present too, but a major contribution to the displacement current is related to the polarization of the individual molecules of the dielectric material. Even though charges cannot flow freely in a dielectric, the charges in molecules can move a little under the influence of an electric field. The positive and negative charges in molecules separate under the applied field, causing an increase in the state of polarization, expressed as the

text: polarization density

text: .  A changing state of polarization is equivalent to a current.

text: For example, consider a fluid composed of electrons moving in a uniform background of positive charge (one-component plasma). Each electron possesses a negative charge. According to Coulomb's interaction, negative charges repel each other. Consequently, this electron  will repel other electrons creating a small region around itself in which there are fewer electrons. This region can be treated as a positively charged "screening hole". Viewed from a large distance, this screening hole has the effect of an overlaid positive charge which cancels the electric field produced by the electron. Only at short distances, inside the hole region, can the electron's field be detected. For a plasma, this effect can be made explicit by an

text: In continuum mechanics, the most general form of an exact conservation law is given by a continuity equation. For example, conservation of electric charge q is

text: In continuum mechanics, the most general form of an exact conservation law is given by a

text: continuity equation

text: . For example, conservation of electric charge q is

text: Benjamin Franklin pioneered the study of electricity by being the first to describe positive and negative charges, as well as advancing the principle of conservation of charge. Franklin is best known for the apocryphal feat of flying a kite in thunderstorm to prove that lightning is a form of electricity which, in turn, led to the invention of the lightning rod to protect buildings.

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: pioneered the study of electricity by being the first to describe positive and negative charges, as well as advancing the principle of conservation of charge. Franklin is best known for the apocryphal feat of flying a kite in thunderstorm to prove that

text: lightning

text: is a form of

text: electricity

text: which, in turn, led to the invention of the

text: lightning rod

text: to protect buildings.

text: Static electricity and electric current are two separate phenomena. They both involve electric charge, and may occur simultaneously in the same object. Static electricity refers to the electric charge of an object and the related electrostatic discharge when two objects are brought together that are not at equilibrium. An electrostatic discharge creates a change in the charge of each of the two objects. In contrast, electric current is the flow of electric charge through an object, which produces no net loss or gain of electric charge.

text: Static electricity

text: and

text: electric current

text: are two separate phenomena. They both involve electric charge, and may occur simultaneously in the same object. Static electricity refers to the electric charge of an object and the related

text: electrostatic discharge

text: when two objects are brought together that are not at equilibrium. An electrostatic discharge creates a change in the charge of each of the two objects. In contrast, electric current is the flow of electric charge through an object, which produces no net loss or gain of electric charge.

text: In 1785, N. Rouland constructed a silk-belted machine that rubbed two grounded tubes covered with hare fur. Edward Nairne developed an electrostatic generator for medical purposes in 1787 that had the ability to generate either positive or negative electricity, the first of these being collected from the prime conductor carrying the collecting points and the second from another prime conductor carrying the friction pad. The Winter machine possessed higher efficiency than earlier friction machines. In the 1830s, Georg Ohm possessed a machine similar to the Van Marum machine for his research (which is now at the Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany). In 1840, the Woodward machine was developed by improving the Ramsden machine, placing the prime conductor above the disk(s). Also in 1840, the Armstrong hydroelectric machine was developed, using steam as a charge carrier.

text: In 1785, N. Rouland constructed a silk-belted machine that rubbed two grounded tubes covered with hare fur.

text: Edward Nairne

text: developed an electrostatic generator for medical purposes in 1787 that had the ability to generate either positive or negative electricity, the first of these being collected from the prime conductor carrying the collecting points and the second from another prime conductor carrying the friction pad. The Winter machine possessed higher efficiency than earlier friction machines. In the 1830s,

text: Georg Ohm

text: possessed a machine similar to the Van Marum machine for his research (which is now at the

text: Deutsches Museum

text: , Munich, Germany). In 1840, the Woodward machine was developed by improving the Ramsden machine, placing the prime conductor above the disk(s). Also in 1840, the Armstrong hydroelectric machine was developed, using steam as a charge carrier.

text: One of the most popular models for describing friction is the Coulomb friction model. This model defines coefficients of static friction

text: One of the most popular models for describing friction is the

text: Coulomb friction

text: model. This model defines coefficients of

text: static friction

text: Static dischargers, commonly known as static wicks or static discharge wicks, are installed on the trailing edges of aircraft, including (electrically grounded) ailerons, elevators, rudder, wing, horizontal and vertical stabilizer tips. Fitted on almost all civilian aircraft today, they are high electrical resistance (6-200 megaohm) devices with a lower corona voltage than the surrounding aircraft structure. They control the corona discharge into the atmosphere, isolating noise and preventing it from interfering with aircraft communication equipment. They are used on aircraft to allow the continuous satisfactory operation of onboard navigation and radio communication systems during precipitation (p-static) conditions. Precipitation static is an electrical charge on an airplane caused by flying through rain, snow, ice, or dust particles. When the aircraft charge is great enough, it discharges into the surrounding air. The discharge path is through pointed aircraft extremities, such as antennas, wing tips, vertical and horizontal stabilizers, and other protrusions. The discharge creates a broad-band radio frequency noise from DC to 1000 MHz. This RF noise can affect aircraft communication. During adverse charging conditions (air friction), static dischargers limit the potential static buildup on the aircraft and control interference generated by static charge. Static dischargers are not lightning arrestors and do not reduce or increase the likelihood of an aircraft being struck by lightning. Static dischargers are subject to damage as a result of lightning strike to the aircraft, and should be inspected after a lightning strike to ensure proper static discharge operation. Static dischargers will not function if they are not properly bonded to the aircraft. There must be a conductive path from all parts of the airplane to the dischargers, otherwise they will be useless. Access panels, doors, cowls, navigation lights, antenna mounting hardware, control surfaces, etc., can create static noise if they cannot discharge through the static wick.

text: Static dischargers, commonly known as static wicks or static discharge wicks, are installed on the trailing edges of aircraft, including (electrically grounded) ailerons, elevators, rudder, wing, horizontal and vertical stabilizer tips. Fitted on almost all civilian aircraft today, they are high

text: electrical resistance

text: megaohm

text: ) devices with a lower

text: corona voltage

text: than the surrounding aircraft structure. They control the

text: corona discharge

text: into the atmosphere, isolating noise and preventing it from interfering with aircraft communication equipment. They are used on aircraft to allow the continuous satisfactory operation of onboard navigation and radio communication systems during precipitation (p-static) conditions.

text: Precipitation static

text: is an electrical charge on an airplane caused by flying through rain, snow, ice, or dust particles. When the aircraft charge is great enough, it discharges into the surrounding air. The discharge path is through pointed aircraft extremities, such as antennas, wing tips, vertical and horizontal stabilizers, and other protrusions. The discharge creates a broad-band radio frequency

text: noise

text: from

text: DC

text: to 1000 MHz. This RF noise can affect aircraft communication. During adverse charging conditions (

text: air friction

text: ), static dischargers limit the potential static buildup on the aircraft and control interference generated by static charge. Static dischargers are not

text: lightning arrestor

text: s and do not reduce or increase the likelihood of an aircraft being struck by lightning. Static dischargers are subject to damage as a result of lightning strike to the aircraft, and should be inspected after a lightning strike to ensure proper static discharge operation. Static dischargers will not function if they are not properly bonded to the aircraft. There must be a conductive path from all parts of the airplane to the dischargers, otherwise they will be useless. Access panels, doors, cowls, navigation lights, antenna mounting hardware, control surfaces, etc., can create static noise if they cannot discharge through the static wick.

text: The electric susceptibility χ of a dielectric material is a measure of how easily it polarizes in response to an electric field. This, in turn, determines the electric permittivity of the material and thus influences many other phenomena in that medium, from the capacitance of capacitors to the speed of light.

text: The electric susceptibility χ of a dielectric material is a measure of how easily it

text: polarizes

text: in response to an electric field. This, in turn, determines the electric

text: permittivity

text: capacitors

text: to the

text: speed of light

text: A polar metal, metallic ferroeletric, or ferroelectric metal is a metal that contains an electric dipole moment. Its components have an ordered electric dipole. Such metals should be unexpected, because the charge should conduct by way of the free electrons in the metal and neutralize the polarized charge.  However they do exist. One substance family that can produce a polar metal is the nickelate perovskites. One example is lanthanum nickelate, LaNiO. A thin film of LaNiO grown on the (111) crystal face of lanthanum aluminate, (LaAlO) was interpreted to be both conductor and a polar material at room temperature. Also, when grown 3 or 4 unit cells thick (1-2 nm) on the (100) crystal face of LaAlO, the LaNiO can be a polar insulator or polar metal depending on the atomic termination of the surface. Lithium osmate, LiOsO also undergoes a ferrorelectric transition when it is cooled below 140K. The point group changes from Rc to R3c losing its centrosymmetry. At room temperature and below lithium osmate is an electric conductor, in single crystal, polycrystalline or powder forms, and the ferroelectric form only appears below 140K. Above 140K the material behaves like a normal metal.

text: A polar metal, metallic ferroeletric, or ferroelectric metal is a

text: metal

text: that contains an

text: electric dipole moment

text: . Its components have an ordered electric dipole. Such metals should be unexpected, because the charge should conduct by way of the free electrons in the metal and neutralize the polarized charge.  However they do exist. One substance family that can produce a polar metal is the

text: nickelate

text: perovskites

text: . One example is

text: lanthanum nickelate

text: , LaNiO. A thin film of LaNiO grown on the (111) crystal face of

text: lanthanum aluminate

text: , (LaAlO) was interpreted to be both conductor and a polar material at room temperature. Also, when grown 3 or 4 unit cells thick (1-2 nm) on the (100) crystal face of LaAlO, the LaNiO can be a polar insulator or polar metal depending on the atomic termination of the surface.

text: Lithium osmate

text: , LiOsO also undergoes a

text: ferrorelectric transition

text: when it is cooled below 140K. The

text: point group

text: changes from Rc to R3c losing its centrosymmetry. At room temperature and below lithium osmate is an electric conductor, in single crystal, polycrystalline or powder forms, and the ferroelectric form only appears below 140K. Above 140K the material behaves like a normal metal.

text: If the charge is accumulated in a capacitor (of capacitance C), the reference configuration is usually selected not to be infinite separation of charges, but vice versa - charges at an extremely close proximity to each other (so there is zero net charge on each plate of a capacitor). The justification for this choice is purely practical - it is easier to measure both voltage difference and magnitude of charges on a capacitor plates not versus infinite separation of charges but rather versus discharged capacitor where charges return to close proximity to each other (electrons and ions recombine making the plates neutral). In this case the work and thus the electric potential energy becomes

text: If the charge is accumulated in a

text: capacitor

text: (of

text: capacitance

text: C), the reference configuration is usually selected not to be infinite separation of charges, but vice versa - charges at an extremely close proximity to each other (so there is zero net charge on each plate of a capacitor). The justification for this choice is purely practical - it is easier to measure both voltage difference and magnitude of charges on a capacitor plates not versus infinite separation of charges but rather versus discharged capacitor where charges return to close proximity to each other (electrons and ions recombine making the plates neutral). In this case the work and thus the electric potential energy becomes

text: The amount of charge stored per unit voltage in an electrochemical capacitor is primarily a function of the electrode size. The electrostatic storage of energy in the double-layers is linear with respect to the stored charge, and correspond to the concentration of the adsorbed ions. Also, while charge in conventional capacitors is transferred via electrons, capacitance in double-layer capacitors is related to the limited moving speed of ions in the electrolyte and the resistive porous structure of the electrodes. Since no chemical changes take place within the electrode or electrolyte, charging and discharging electric double-layers in principle is unlimited. Real supercapacitors lifetimes are only limited by electrolyte evaporation effects.

text: Molecular electronics operates in the quantum realm of distances less than 100 nanometers. The miniaturization down to single molecules brings the scale down to a regime where quantum mechanics effects are important. In conventional electronic components, electrons can be filled in or drawn out more or less like a continuous flow of electric charge. In contrast, in molecular electronics the transfer of one electron alters the system significantly. For example, when an electron has been transferred from a source electrode to a molecule, the molecule gets charged up, which makes it far harder for the next electron to transfer (see also Coulomb blockade). The significant amount of energy due to charging must be accounted for when making calculations about the electronic properties of the setup, and is highly sensitive to distances to conducting surfaces nearby.

text: Molecular electronics operates in the

text: quantum realm

text: of distances less than 100 nanometers. The miniaturization down to single molecules brings the scale down to a regime where

text: quantum mechanics

text: effects are important. In conventional electronic components,

text: electron

text: s can be filled in or drawn out more or less like a continuous flow of

text: electric charge

text: . In contrast, in molecular electronics the transfer of one electron alters the system significantly. For example, when an electron has been transferred from a source electrode to a molecule, the molecule gets charged up, which makes it far harder for the next electron to transfer (see also

text: Coulomb blockade

text: ). The significant amount of energy due to charging must be accounted for when making calculations about the electronic properties of the setup, and is highly sensitive to distances to conducting surfaces nearby.

text: Inductive charging (also known as wireless charging) uses an electromagnetic field to transfer energy between two objects through electromagnetic induction. This is usually done with a charging station. Energy is sent through an inductive coupling to an electrical device, which can then use that energy to charge batteries or run the device.

text: Inductive charging (also known as wireless charging) uses an

text: electromagnetic field

text: to transfer energy between two objects through

text: electromagnetic induction

text: . This is usually done with a

text: charging station

text: . Energy is sent through an

text: inductive coupling

text: to an electrical device, which can then use that energy to charge batteries or run the device.

text: During his many years at RPI, he served as an award winning faculty member of the Electrical, Computer, and Systems Engineering Department and had several administrative roles. He was a member of Rensselaer's Center for Integrated Electronics (including six years as the director), served as the technical director of the Design and Manufacturing Institute, and was a senior project manager for the Center for Manufacturing Productivity and Technology Transfer. He created and directed the Academy of Electronic Media  at RPI, which specializes in the development and use of engaging interactive electronic media and educational technology. The Academy's developments have won a number of national awards, such as the distinguished 2003 Premier Award for Excellence in Engineering Education Courseware.

text: A catalytically-competent Rieske dioxygenase has three components: an NADH-dependent FAD reductase, a ferredoxin with two [2Fe-2S] Rieske clusters, and an α3β3 oxygenase with each α-subunit containing a mononuclear iron center and a [2Fe-2S] Rieske cluster. Within each α-subunit, the iron-sulfur cluster and mononuclear iron center are separated by a distance of some ~43 Å, much too far for efficient electron transfer to occur. Instead, it is proposed electron transfer is mediated through these two centers in adjacent subunits, that the iron-sulfur cluster of one subunit transfers electrons to the mononuclear iron center of the adjacent subunit which is conveniently separated by ~12 Å. While this distance would appear optimal for efficient electron transfer, replacement of the bridging aspartate residue causes a loss of enzyme function, suggesting that electron transfer instead proceeds through the hydrogen-bonding network held in place by this aspartate residue.

text: A catalytically-competent Rieske dioxygenase has three components: an

text: NADH-dependent FAD reductase

text: , a

text: ferredoxin

text: with two [2Fe-2S] Rieske clusters, and an α3β3 oxygenase with each α-subunit containing a mononuclear iron center and a [2Fe-2S] Rieske cluster. Within each α-subunit, the iron-sulfur cluster and mononuclear iron center are separated by a distance of some ~43 Å, much too far for efficient

text: electron transfer

text: to occur. Instead, it is proposed electron transfer is mediated through these two centers in adjacent subunits, that the iron-sulfur cluster of one subunit transfers electrons to the mononuclear iron center of the adjacent subunit which is conveniently separated by ~12 Å. While this distance would appear optimal for efficient electron transfer, replacement of the bridging aspartate residue causes a loss of enzyme function, suggesting that electron transfer instead proceeds through the hydrogen-bonding network held in place by this aspartate residue.

text: SAE J1772 (IEC Type 1) is a North American standard for electrical connectors for electric vehicles maintained by the SAE International and has the formal title "SAE Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice J1772, SAE Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler". It covers the general physical, electrical, communication protocol, and performance requirements for the electric vehicle conductive charge system and coupler. The intent is to define a common electric vehicle conductive charging system architecture including operational requirements and the functional and dimensional requirements for the vehicle inlet and mating connector.

text: SAE J1772 (

text: IEC

text: Type 1) is a

text: North America

text: n standard for

text: electrical connector

text: s for

text: electric vehicles

text: maintained by the

text: SAE International

text: and has the formal title "SAE Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice J1772, SAE Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler". It covers the general physical, electrical, communication protocol, and performance requirements for the electric vehicle conductive charge system and coupler. The intent is to define a common electric vehicle conductive charging system architecture including operational requirements and the functional and dimensional requirements for the vehicle inlet and mating connector.

text: Charge is the measure of the electric current flowing through an object. A charge can be positive or negative — objects with a positive charge repel other positively charged objects, thereby causing them to push away from each other, while a positively charged object would attract to a negatively charged object, thereby causing the two to draw together. Electrostatic charges are the charges associated with static electricity. Generally, electrostatic charges can build up by friction and can be observed when a balloon attracts a person's hair after the balloon is rubbed against the person's head.

text: When analysing electric/electronic circuits, we may ask two types of questions: What is the value of certain circuit variable (voltage, current, resistance, gain, etc.) or what is the relationship between some circuit variables or between a circuit variable and circuit components and frequency (or time). Such relationship may take the form of a graph, where numerical values of a circuit variable are plotted versus frequency or component value (the most common example would be a plot of the magnitude of a transfer function vs. frequency).

text: When analysing electric/electronic circuits, we may ask two types of questions: What is the value of certain circuit variable (

text: voltage

text: current

text: resistance

text: gain

text: , etc.) or what is the relationship between some circuit variables or between a circuit variable and circuit components and frequency (or time). Such relationship may take the form of a graph, where numerical values of a circuit variable are plotted versus frequency or component value (the most common example would be a plot of the magnitude of a transfer function vs. frequency).

text: Metal–insulator transitions are transitions from a metal (material with good electrical conductivity of electric charges) to an insulator (material where conductivity of charges is quickly suppressed). These transitions can be achieved by tuning various ambient parameters such as pressure or, in case of a semiconductor, doping.

text: Metal–insulator transitions are transitions from a

text: metal

text: (material with good

text: electrical conductivity

text: of

text: electric charges

text: ) to an

text: insulator

text: (material where conductivity of charges is quickly suppressed). These transitions can be achieved by tuning various ambient parameters such as

text: pressure

text: or, in case of a

text: semiconductor

text: doping

text: However, any movement of a positive charge into a region of higher voltage requires external work to be done against the field of the electric force, work equal to  that electric field would do in moving that positive charge the same distance in the opposite direction. Similarly, it requires positive external work to transfer a negatively charged particle from a region of higher voltage to a region of lower voltage.

text: However, any movement of a positive charge into a region of higher voltage requires external work to be done against the

text: field

text: of the electric force, work equal to  that electric field would do in moving that positive charge the same distance in the opposite direction. Similarly, it requires positive external work to transfer a negatively charged particle from a region of higher voltage to a region of lower voltage.

text: When electron spin polarization deviates from its thermal equilibrium value, polarization transfers between electrons and nuclei can occur spontaneously through electron-nuclear cross relaxation and/or spin-state mixing among electrons and nuclei. For example, the polarization transfer is spontaneous after a homolysis chemical reaction. On the other hand, when the electron spin system is in a thermal equilibrium, the polarization transfer requires continuous microwave irradiation at a frequency close to the corresponding electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) frequency. In particular, mechanisms for the microwave-driven DNP processes are categorized into the Overhauser effect (OE), the solid-effect (SE), the cross-effect (CE) and thermal-mixing (TM).

text: When electron spin polarization deviates from its thermal equilibrium value, polarization transfers between electrons and nuclei can occur spontaneously through electron-nuclear cross relaxation and/or spin-state mixing among electrons and nuclei. For example, the polarization transfer is spontaneous after a

text: homolysis

text: chemical reaction. On the other hand, when the electron spin system is in a thermal equilibrium, the polarization transfer requires continuous microwave irradiation at a frequency close to the corresponding

text: electron paramagnetic resonance

text: (EPR) frequency. In particular, mechanisms for the microwave-driven DNP processes are categorized into the Overhauser effect (OE), the solid-effect (SE), the cross-effect (CE) and thermal-mixing (TM).

text: But if an electrical contact is now briefly made between the electroscope terminal and ground, for example by touching the terminal with a finger,  this causes charge to flow from ground to the terminal, attracted by the charge on the object close to the terminal.  This charge neutralizes the charge in the gold leaves, so the leaves come together again.  The electroscope now contains a net charge opposite in polarity to that of the charged object.  When the electrical contact to earth is broken, e.g. by lifting the finger, the extra charge that has just flowed into the electroscope cannot escape, and the instrument retains a net charge.  The charge is held in the top of the electroscope terminal by the attraction of the inducing charge.  But when the inducing charge is moved away, the charge is released and spreads throughout the electroscope terminal to the leaves, so the gold leaves move apart again.

text: But if an electrical contact is now briefly made between the electroscope terminal and

text: ground

text: , for example by touching the terminal with a finger,  this causes charge to flow from ground to the terminal, attracted by the charge on the object close to the terminal.  This charge neutralizes the charge in the gold leaves, so the leaves come together again.  The electroscope now contains a net charge opposite in polarity to that of the charged object.  When the electrical contact to earth is broken, e.g. by lifting the finger, the extra charge that has just flowed into the electroscope cannot escape, and the instrument retains a net charge.  The charge is held in the top of the electroscope terminal by the attraction of the inducing charge.  But when the inducing charge is moved away, the charge is released and spreads throughout the electroscope terminal to the leaves, so the gold leaves move apart again.

text: In the presence of water, a diffuse, partially conductive 3D plume-like structure, called a water tree, may form within the polyethylene dielectric used in buried or water-immersed high voltage cables. The plume is known to consist of a dense network of extremely small water-filled channels which are defined by the native crystalline structure of the polymer. Individual channels are extremely difficult to see using optical magnification, so their study usually requires using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Water trees begin as a microscopic region near a defect. They then grow under the continued presence of a high electrical field and water. Water trees may eventually grow to the point where they bridge the outer ground layer to the center high voltage conductor, at which point the stress redistributes across the insulation. Water trees are not generally a reliability concern unless they are able to initiate an electrical tree.  Another type of tree-like structure can form with or without the presence of water is called an electrical tree. It also forms within a polyethylene dielectric (as well as many other solid dielectrics). Electrical trees also originate where bulk or surface stress enhancements initiate dielectric breakdown in a small region of the insulation. This permanently damages the insulating material in that region. Further tree growth then occurs through as additional small electrical breakdown events (called partial discharges). Electrical tree growth may be accelerated by rapid voltage changes, such as utility switching operations. Also, cables injected with high voltage DC may also develop electrical trees over time as electrical charges migrate into the dielectric nearest the HV conductor. The region of injected charge (called a space charge) amplifies the electrical field in the dielectric, stimulating further stress enhancement and the initiation of electrical trees as the site of pre-existing stress enhancements. Since the electrical tree itself is typically partially conducting, its presence also increases the electrical stress in the region between the tree and the opposite conductor. Unlike water trees, the individual channels of electrical trees are larger and more easily seen.Treeing has been a long-term failure mechanism for buried polymer-insulated high voltage power cables, first reported in 1969. In a similar fashion, 2D trees can occur along the surface of a highly stressed dielectric, or across a dielectric surface that has been contaminated by dust or mineral salts. Over time, these partially conductive trails can grow until they cause complete failure of the dielectric. Electrical tracking, sometimes called dry banding, is a typical failure mechanism for electrical power insulators that are subjected to salt spray contamination along coastlines. The branching 2D and 3D patterns are sometimes called Lichtenberg figures.

text: In the presence of water, a diffuse, partially conductive 3D plume-like structure, called a water tree, may form within the polyethylene dielectric used in buried or water-immersed high voltage cables. The plume is known to consist of a dense network of extremely small water-filled channels which are defined by the native crystalline structure of the polymer. Individual channels are extremely difficult to see using optical magnification, so their study usually requires using a

text: scanning electron microscope

text: (SEM). Water trees begin as a microscopic region near a defect. They then grow under the continued presence of a high electrical field and water. Water trees may eventually grow to the point where they bridge the outer ground layer to the center high voltage conductor, at which point the stress redistributes across the insulation. Water trees are not generally a reliability concern unless they are able to initiate an electrical tree.  Another type of tree-like structure can form with or without the presence of water is called an electrical tree. It also forms within a polyethylene dielectric (as well as many other solid dielectrics). Electrical trees also originate where bulk or surface stress enhancements initiate dielectric breakdown in a small region of the insulation. This permanently damages the insulating material in that region. Further tree growth then occurs through as additional small electrical breakdown events (called

text: partial discharge

text: s). Electrical tree growth may be accelerated by rapid voltage changes, such as utility switching operations. Also, cables injected with high voltage DC may also develop electrical trees over time as electrical charges migrate into the dielectric nearest the HV conductor. The region of injected charge (called a

text: space charge

text: ) amplifies the electrical field in the dielectric, stimulating further stress enhancement and the initiation of electrical trees as the site of pre-existing stress enhancements. Since the electrical tree itself is typically partially conducting, its presence also increases the electrical stress in the region between the tree and the opposite conductor. Unlike water trees, the individual channels of electrical trees are larger and more easily seen.Treeing has been a long-term failure mechanism for buried

text: polymer

text: -insulated high voltage power cables, first reported in 1969. In a similar fashion, 2D trees can occur along the surface of a highly stressed dielectric, or across a dielectric surface that has been contaminated by dust or mineral salts. Over time, these partially conductive trails can grow until they cause complete failure of the dielectric. Electrical tracking, sometimes called dry banding, is a typical failure mechanism for electrical power insulators that are subjected to salt spray contamination along coastlines. The branching 2D and 3D patterns are sometimes called

text: Lichtenberg figure

text: s.

text: In the 19th century, the mass-to-charge ratios of some ions were measured by electrochemical methods. In 1897, the mass-to-charge ratio of the electron was first measured by J. J. Thomson. By doing this, he showed that the electron was in fact a particle with a mass and a charge, and that its mass-to-charge ratio was much smaller than that of the hydrogen ion H. In 1898, Wilhelm Wien separated ions (canal rays) according to their mass-to-charge ratio with an ion optical device with superimposed electric and magnetic fields (Wien filter). In 1901 Walter Kaufman measured the increase of electromagnetic mass of fast electrons (Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments), or relativistic mass increase in modern terms. In 1913, Thomson measured the mass-to-charge ratio of ions with an instrument he called a parabola spectrograph. Today, an instrument that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles is called a mass spectrometer.

text: In the 19th century, the mass-to-charge ratios of some ions were measured by electrochemical methods. In 1897, the mass-to-charge ratio of the

text: electron

text: was first measured by

text: J. J. Thomson

text: . By doing this, he showed that the electron was in fact a particle with a mass and a charge, and that its mass-to-charge ratio was much smaller than that of the hydrogen ion H. In 1898,

text: Wilhelm Wien

text: separated ions (

text: canal ray

text: s) according to their mass-to-charge ratio with an ion optical device with superimposed electric and magnetic fields (

text: Wien filter

text: ). In 1901

text: Walter Kaufman

text: measured the increase of

text: electromagnetic mass

text: of fast electrons (

text: Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments

text: ), or

text: relativistic mass

text: increase in modern terms. In 1913, Thomson measured the mass-to-charge ratio of

text: ion

text: s with an instrument he called a parabola spectrograph. Today, an instrument that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles is called a

text: mass spectrometer

text: In the outer sphere model the donor or acceptor and the tightly bound solvation shells or the complex’ ligands  were considered to form rigid structures which do not change in the course of electron transfer. However, the distances in the inner sphere are dependent on the charge of donor and acceptor, e.g. the central ion-ligand distances are different in complexes carrying different charges  And again the Franck–Condon principle must be obeyed: for the electron to jump to occur, the nuclei have to have a configuration which is an identical one of as well the precursor as the successor complexes, of course highly distorted. In this case the energy requirement is fulfilled automatically.

text: If several conducting charged objects are lowered one after the other into the container and touched to the inside, all the charge on each object will be transferred to the outside of the container, regardless of how much charge is already on the container.  This is the only way electrostatic charges on objects can be added together.  If two conducting charged objects are simply touched together on their outside surfaces, the charge on both will merely be shared between the two objects.

text: The catching trap  slows, traps, cools, and accumulates antiprotons.  To cool antiprotons, the catching trap is first loaded with 3x10 electrons, which cool by synchrotron radiation in the 3 T magnetic field.   Typically, the AD delivers 2x10 antiprotons having kinetic energy 5.3 MeV and a pulse duration of 200 ns to the experiment at 100 s intervals.  The antiprotons are slowed in a thin foil and trapped using a pulsed electric field. The antiprotons lose energy and equilibrate with the cold electrons by Coulomb interaction. The electrons are ejected before mixing the antiprotons with positrons. Each AD shot results in about 3x10 cold antiprotons for interaction experiments. The positron accumulator slows, traps and accumulates positrons emitted from a radioactive source (1.4x10 Bq Na). Accumulation for 300 s yields 1.5x10 positrons, 50% of which are successfully transferred to the mixing trap, where they cool by synchrotron radiation.

text: The catching trap  slows, traps, cools, and accumulates

text: antiprotons

text: .  To cool antiprotons, the catching trap is first loaded with 3x10 electrons, which cool by synchrotron radiation in the 3 T magnetic field.   Typically, the AD delivers 2x10 antiprotons having kinetic energy 5.3 MeV and a pulse duration of 200 ns to the experiment at 100 s intervals.  The antiprotons are slowed in a thin foil and trapped using a pulsed

text: electric field

text: . The antiprotons lose energy and equilibrate with the cold electrons by

text: Coulomb interaction

text: . The electrons are ejected before mixing the antiprotons with positrons. Each AD shot results in about 3x10 cold antiprotons for interaction experiments. The positron accumulator slows, traps and accumulates positrons emitted from a radioactive source (1.4x10 Bq Na). Accumulation for 300 s yields 1.5x10 positrons, 50% of which are successfully transferred to the mixing trap, where they cool by synchrotron radiation.

text: Many explosives are considered to be highly sensitive to mechanical stimuli such as impact, friction, stab, heat, static electricity, flame, etc. Since explosive compounds are subject to friction practically every time they are handled, it is of particular interest to be aware of the sensitivity to friction. The sensitivity of tetrazene was determined using a FSKM-PEx friction sensitivity tester. The probability of ignition of tetrazene is 100 percent likely at 27N of frictional force.

text: Many explosives are considered to be highly sensitive to mechanical stimuli such as

text: impact

text: friction

text: , stab,

text: heat

text: static electricity

text: , flame, etc. Since explosive compounds are subject to friction practically every time they are handled, it is of particular interest to be aware of the sensitivity to friction. The sensitivity of tetrazene was determined using a FSKM-PEx friction sensitivity tester. The probability of ignition of tetrazene is 100 percent likely at 27N of frictional force.

text: The most conserved region in all these proteins is centred on a serine residue which has been shown to participate, with an histidine and an aspartic acid residue, in a charge relay system. Such a region is also present in lipases of prokaryotic origin and in lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase () (LCAT), which catalyzes fatty acid transfer between phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol.

text: During World War II, Jack served in a unit charged with conducting patrols behind enemy lines. He was awarded a Silver Star, three Bronze Stars, three Purple Hearts and the Combat Infantryman Badge. He was later transferred to Military Intelligence and discharged as a First Lieutenant.

text: During World War II, Jack served in a unit charged with conducting patrols behind enemy lines. He was awarded a

text: Silver Star

text: , three

text: Bronze Star

text: s, three

text: Purple Heart

text: s and the

text: Combat Infantryman Badge

text: . He was later transferred to

text: Military Intelligence

text: and discharged as a

text: First Lieutenant

text: Objects may possess a property known as electric charge and an electric field exerts a force on charged objects. If the charged object has a positive charge the force will be in the direction of the electric field vector at that point while if the charge is negative the force will be in the opposite direction. The magnitude of the force is given by the quantity of the charge multiplied by the magnitude of the electric field vector.

text: Objects may possess a property known as

text: electric charge

text: and an

text: electric field

text: exerts a force on charged objects. If the charged object has a positive charge the force will be in the direction of the

text: electric field vector

text: at that point while if the charge is negative the force will be in the opposite direction. The magnitude of the force is given by the quantity of the charge multiplied by the magnitude of the electric field vector.

text: Magne Charge inductive charging was employed by several types of electric vehicles around 1998, but was discontinued after the California Air Resources Board selected the SAE J1772-2001, or "Avcon", conductive charging interface for electric vehicles in California in June 2001.

text: Magne Charge

text: inductive charging was employed by several types of

text: electric vehicle

text: s around 1998, but was discontinued after the

text: California Air Resources Board

text: selected the

text: SAE J1772

text: -2001, or "

text: Avcon

text: conductive

text: charging interface for electric vehicles in California in June 2001.

text: The Oare Gunpowder Works, scene of the 1916 explosion, is now a country park and nature reserve open to the public free of charge. The Oare Marshes are an important reserve for birds. There is an information centre near the site of the former Harty ferry over the Swale to the Isle of Sheppey. Remains of the process houses and other mill leats have been conserved, and various trails are signposted. An early 20th century electric-powered gunpowder mill which was transferred to Ardeer in 1934 has been repatriated to the country park and is on display. The 18th-century works bell has also been repatriated and is on display at Faversham's Fleur de Lis Heritage Centre. Stonebridge Pond, on the site of the original Chart Mills, was donated to Swale Borough Council in the early 1980s. It is now a haven for wading birds.

text: The Oare Gunpowder Works, scene of the 1916 explosion, is now a country park and nature reserve open to the public free of charge. The

text: Oare Marshes

text: are an important reserve for birds. There is an information centre near the site of the former

text: Harty

text: ferry over the Swale to the

text: Isle of Sheppey

text: . Remains of the process houses and other mill

text: leat

text: s have been conserved, and various trails are signposted. An early 20th century electric-powered gunpowder mill which was transferred to Ardeer in 1934 has been repatriated to the country park and is on display. The 18th-century works bell has also been repatriated and is on display at Faversham's Fleur de Lis Heritage Centre. Stonebridge Pond, on the site of the original Chart Mills, was donated to Swale Borough Council in the early 1980s. It is now a haven for

text: wading bird

text: s.

text: Applying a voltage to an electrochemical capacitor causes both electrodes in the capacitor to generate electrical double-layers. These double-layers consist of two layers of charges: one electronic layer is in the surface lattice structure of the electrode, and the other, with opposite polarity, emerges from dissolved and solvated ions in the electrolyte. The two layers are separated by a monolayer of solvent molecules, e. g. for water as solvent by water molecules, called inner Helmholtz plane (IHP). Solvent molecules adhere by physical adsorption on the surface of the electrode and separate the oppositely polarized ions from each other, and can be idealised as a molecular dielectric. In the process, there is no transfer of charge between electrode and electrolyte, so the forces that cause the adhesion are not chemical bonds but physical forces (e.g. electrostatic forces). The adsorbed molecules are polarized but, due to the lack of transfer of charge between electrolyte and electrode, suffered no chemical changes.

text: Applying a voltage to an electrochemical capacitor causes both electrodes in the capacitor to generate

text: electrical double-layers

text: . These double-layers consist of two layers of charges: one electronic layer is in the surface lattice structure of the electrode, and the other, with opposite polarity, emerges from

text: dissolved

text: and

text: solvated

text: ions in the electrolyte. The two layers are separated by a monolayer of solvent

text: molecule

text: s, e. g. for

text: water

text: as

text: solvent

text: by water molecules, called inner Helmholtz plane (IHP). Solvent molecules adhere by

text: physical adsorption

text: on the surface of the electrode and separate the oppositely polarized ions from each other, and can be idealised as a molecular dielectric. In the process, there is no transfer of charge between electrode and electrolyte, so the forces that cause the adhesion are not chemical bonds but physical forces (e.g. electrostatic forces). The adsorbed molecules are polarized but, due to the lack of transfer of charge between electrolyte and electrode, suffered no chemical changes.

text: The pomeron carries no charges. The absence of electric charge implies that pomeron exchange does not lead to the usual shower of Cherenkov radiation, while the absence of color charge implies that such events do not radiate pions.

text: The pomeron carries no charges. The absence of electric charge implies that pomeron exchange does not lead to the usual shower of

text: Cherenkov radiation

text: , while the absence of

text: color charge

text: implies that such events do not radiate

text: pion

text: s.

text: Ferroelectric polymers are a group of crystalline polar polymers that are also ferroelectric, meaning that they maintain a permanent electric polarization that can be reversed, or switched, in an external electric field. Ferroelectric polymers, such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), are used in acoustic transducers and electromechanical actuators because of their inherent piezoelectric response, and as heat sensors because of their inherent pyroelectric response.

text: Ferroelectric polymers

text: are a group of crystalline polar polymers that are also

text: ferroelectric

text: , meaning that they maintain a permanent

text: electric polarization

text: that can be reversed, or switched, in an external

text: electric field

text: . Ferroelectric polymers, such as

text: polyvinylidene fluoride

text: (PVDF), are used in acoustic transducers and electromechanical actuators because of their inherent

text: piezoelectric

text: response, and as heat sensors because of their inherent

text: pyroelectric

text: response.

text: When an external electric field is applied, the distance between charges within each permanent dipole, which is related to chemical bonding, remains constant in orientation polarization; however, the direction of polarization itself rotates. This rotation occurs on a timescale that depends on the torque and surrounding local viscosity of the molecules. Because the rotation is not instantaneous, dipolar polarizations lose the response to electric fields at the highest frequencies. A molecule rotates about 1 radian per picosecond in a fluid, thus this loss occurs at about 10 Hz (in the microwave region). The delay of the response to the change of the electric field causes friction and heat.

text: When an external electric field is applied, the distance between charges within each permanent dipole, which is related to

text: chemical bond

text: ing, remains constant in orientation polarization; however, the direction of polarization itself rotates. This rotation occurs on a timescale that depends on the

text: torque

text: and surrounding local

text: viscosity

text: of the molecules. Because the rotation is not instantaneous, dipolar polarizations lose the response to electric fields at the highest frequencies. A molecule rotates about 1 radian per picosecond in a fluid, thus this loss occurs at about 10 Hz (in the microwave region). The delay of the response to the change of the electric field causes

text: friction

text: and heat.

text: Laser printing is an electrostatic digital printing process. It produces high-quality text and graphics (and moderate-quality photographs) by repeatedly passing a laser beam back and forth over a negatively charged cylinder called a "drum" to define a differentially charged image. The drum then selectively collects electrically charged powdered ink (toner), and transfers the image to paper, which is then heated in order to permanently fuse the text and/or imagery. As with digital photocopiers, laser printers employ a xerographic printing process. However, laser printing differs from analog photocopiers in that the image is produced by the direct scanning of the medium across the printer's photoreceptor. This enables laser printing to copy images more quickly than most photocopiers.

text: Laser printing is an

text: electrostatic

text: digital printing

text: process. It produces high-quality text and graphics (and moderate-quality photographs) by repeatedly passing a

text: laser beam

text: back and forth over a negatively

text: charged

text: cylinder called a "drum" to define a differentially charged image. The drum then selectively collects electrically charged powdered ink (

text: toner

text: ), and transfers the image to paper, which is then heated in order to permanently fuse the text and/or imagery. As with digital

text: photocopier

text: s, laser

text: printer

text: s employ a

text: xerographic

text: printing process. However, laser printing differs from analog photocopiers in that the image is produced by the direct scanning of the medium across the printer's photoreceptor. This enables laser printing to copy images more quickly than most photocopiers.

text: Classically, electric and magnetic fields are thought of as being produced by smooth motions of charged objects. For example, oscillating charges produce electric and magnetic fields that may be viewed in a 'smooth', continuous, wavelike fashion. In this case, energy is viewed as being transferred continuously through the electromagnetic field between any two locations. For instance, the metal atoms in a radio transmitter appear to transfer energy continuously. This view is useful to a certain extent (radiation of low frequency), but problems are found at high frequencies (see ultraviolet catastrophe).

text: Classically, electric and magnetic fields are thought of as being produced by smooth motions of charged objects. For example, oscillating charges produce electric and magnetic fields that may be viewed in a 'smooth', continuous, wavelike fashion. In this case, energy is viewed as being transferred continuously through the electromagnetic field between any two locations. For instance, the metal atoms in a

text: radio

text: transmitter

text: appear to transfer energy continuously. This view is useful to a certain extent (radiation of low frequency), but problems are found at high frequencies (see

text: ultraviolet catastrophe

text: As stated by Lyklema, "...the reason for the formation of a “relaxed” (“equilibrium”) double layer is the non-electric affinity of charge-determining ions for a surface..." This process leads to the buildup of an electric surface charge, expressed usually in C/m. This surface charge creates an electrostatic field that then affects the ions in the bulk of the liquid. This electrostatic field, in combination with the thermal motion of the ions, creates a counter charge, and thus screens the electric surface charge. The net electric charge in this screening diffuse layer is equal in magnitude to the net surface charge, but has the opposite polarity. As a result, the complete structure is electrically neutral.

text: As stated by Lyklema, "...the reason for the formation of a “relaxed” (“equilibrium”) double layer is the non-electric affinity of charge-determining ions for a surface..." This process leads to the buildup of an

text: electric surface charge

text: , expressed usually in C/m. This surface charge creates an electrostatic field that then affects the ions in the bulk of the liquid. This electrostatic field, in combination with the thermal motion of the ions, creates a counter charge, and thus screens the electric surface charge. The net electric charge in this screening diffuse layer is equal in magnitude to the net surface charge, but has the opposite polarity. As a result, the complete structure is electrically neutral.

text: Carbon and oxygen together have a total of 10 electrons in the valence shell. Following the octet rule for both carbon and oxygen, the two atoms form a triple bond, with six shared electrons in three bonding molecular orbitals, rather than the usual double bond found in organic carbonyl compounds. Since four of the shared electrons come from the oxygen atom and only two from carbon, one bonding orbital is occupied by two electrons from oxygen, forming a dative or dipolar bond. This causes a C ← O polarization of the molecule, with a small negative charge on carbon and a small positive charge on oxygen. The other two bonding orbitals are each occupied by one electron from carbon and one from oxygen, forming (polar) covalent bonds with a reverse C → O polarization, since oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. In the free carbon monoxide, a net negative charge δ- remains at the carbon end and the molecule has a small dipole moment of 0.122 D.

text: Carbon and oxygen together have a total of 10

text: electrons

text: in the

text: valence shell

text: . Following the

text: octet rule

text: for both carbon and oxygen, the two atoms form a

text: triple bond

text: , with six shared electrons in three bonding molecular orbitals, rather than the usual double bond found in organic carbonyl compounds. Since four of the shared electrons come from the oxygen atom and only two from carbon, one bonding orbital is occupied by two electrons from oxygen, forming a dative or

text: dipolar bond

text: . This causes a C ← O

text: polarization

text: of the molecule, with a small negative charge on carbon and a small positive charge on oxygen. The other two bonding orbitals are each occupied by one electron from carbon and one from oxygen, forming (polar) covalent bonds with a reverse C → O polarization, since oxygen is more

text: electronegative

text: than carbon. In the free carbon monoxide, a net negative charge δ- remains at the carbon end and the molecule has a small

text: dipole moment

text: of 0.122

text: D

text: The structure of the mammalian voltage-gated K channel has been used to explain its ability to respond to the voltage across the membrane. Upon opening of the channel, conformational changes in the voltage-sensor domains (VSD) result in the transfer of 12-13 elementary charges across the membrane electric field. This charge transfer is measured as a transient capacitive current that precedes opening of the channel. Several charged residues of the VSD, in particular four arginine residues located regularly at every third position on the S4 segment, are known to move across the transmembrane field and contribute to the gating charge. The position of these arginines, known as gating arginines, are highly conserved in all voltage-gated potassium, sodium, or calcium channels. However, the extent of their movement and their displacement across the transmembrane potential has been subject to extensive debate. Specific domains of the channel subunits have been identified that are responsible for voltage-sensing and converting between the open and closed conformations of the channel. There are at least two closed conformations. In the first, the channel can open if the membrane potential becomes more positive. This type of gating is mediated by a voltage-sensing domain that consists of the S4 alpha helix that contains 6–7 positive charges.  Changes in membrane potential cause this alpha helix to move in the lipid bilayer. This movement in turn results in a conformational change in the adjacent S5–S6 helices that form the channel pore and cause this pore to open or close. In the second, "N-type" inactivation, voltage-gated K channels inactivate after opening, entering a distinctive, closed conformation. In this inactivated conformation, the channel cannot open, even if the transmembrane voltage is favorable. The amino terminal domain of the K channel or an auxiliary protein can mediate "N-type" inactivation. The mechanism of this type of inactivation has been described as a "ball and chain" model, where the N-terminus of the protein forms a ball that is tethered to the rest of the protein through a loop (the chain). The tethered ball blocks the inner porehole, preventing ion movement through the channel.

text: "N-type" inactivation

text: , voltage-gated K channels inactivate after opening, entering a distinctive, closed conformation. In this inactivated conformation, the channel cannot open, even if the transmembrane voltage is favorable. The amino terminal domain of the K channel or an auxiliary protein can mediate "N-type" inactivation. The mechanism of this type of inactivation has been described as a "ball and chain" model, where the

text: N-terminus

text: of the protein forms a ball that is tethered to the rest of the protein through a loop (the chain). The tethered ball blocks the inner porehole, preventing ion movement through the channel.

text: In 2009, Friction announced an extended hiatus.  He embarked on a variety of side projects, including Matt Friction & the Cheap Shots and The Dozen Dimes.

text: This conclusion holds both in classical electrodynamics as well as in quantum electrodynamics. If α is taken as the spherical harmonics, conserved scalar charges (the electric charge) are seen as well as conserved vector charges and conserved tensor charges. This is not a violation of the Coleman–Mandula theorem as there is no mass gap. In particular, for each direction (a fixed θ and φ), the quantity

text: This conclusion holds both in classical electrodynamics as well as in quantum electrodynamics. If α is taken as the

text: spherical harmonics

text: , conserved scalar charges (the electric charge) are seen as well as conserved vector charges and conserved tensor charges. This is not a violation of the

text: Coleman–Mandula theorem

text: as there is no

text: mass gap

text: . In particular, for each direction (a fixed θ and φ), the quantity

text: Various petrol engines were used, an 85 hp Napier engine was the first to be installed, but these were found unsatisfactory, so were replaced in 1904 by Wolseley engines. These flat-four engines produced 92 bhp at their normal rated speed of 400rpm, and well over 100 bhp when run at 480rpm. The cylinders were 8.5 inch diameter with 10 inch stroke. The engine had a 3-foot diameter flywheel, and was coupled directly to a Westinghouse multi-polar dynamo. A small dynamo driven by belt from the flywheel provided charge for the accumulators which enabled electric starting of the engine, lighting for the carriage, and the exciting current for the field coils in the main dynamo, controlled by rheostats at either end of the railcar. The engine speed could likewise be controlled via a throttle from either end of the railcar. The output from the main dynamo was sent to two electric motors, both mounted on the bogie underneath the engine room.

text: Various petrol engines were used, an 85 hp

text: Napier

text: engine was the first to be installed, but these were found unsatisfactory, so were replaced in 1904 by

text: Wolseley

text: engines. These

text: flat-four engine

text: s produced 92 bhp at their normal rated speed of 400rpm, and well over 100 bhp when run at 480rpm. The cylinders were 8.5 inch diameter with 10 inch stroke. The engine had a 3-foot diameter flywheel, and was coupled directly to a

text: Westinghouse

text: multi-polar

text: dynamo

text: . A small dynamo driven by belt from the flywheel provided charge for the

text: accumulators

text: which enabled electric starting of the engine, lighting for the carriage, and the exciting current for the field coils in the main dynamo, controlled by

text: rheostat

text: s at either end of the railcar. The engine speed could likewise be controlled via a throttle from either end of the railcar. The output from the main dynamo was sent to two electric motors, both mounted on the bogie underneath the engine room.

text: In conductive materials the electrons are delocalized, that is, they travel through the solid more or less as free electrons. Conductivity can be understood in a band structure picture as arising from the incomplete filling of energy bands.In an ordinary nonmagnetic conductor the conduction band is identical for both spin-up and spin-down electrons. When a magnetic field is applied, the conduction band splits apart into a spin-up and a spin-down band due to the difference in magnetic potential energy for spin-up and spin-down electrons.Since the Fermi level must be identical for both bands, this means that there will be a small surplus of the type of spin in the band that moved downwards. This effect is a weak form of paramagnetism known as Pauli paramagnetism.

text: In conductive materials the electrons are

text: delocalized

text: , that is, they travel through the solid more or less as

text: free electrons

text: . Conductivity can be understood in a

text: band structure

text: picture as arising from the incomplete filling of energy bands.In an ordinary nonmagnetic conductor the conduction band is identical for both spin-up and spin-down electrons. When a magnetic field is applied, the conduction band splits apart into a spin-up and a spin-down band due to the difference in

text: magnetic potential energy

text: for spin-up and spin-down electrons.Since the

text: Fermi level

text: must be identical for both bands, this means that there will be a small surplus of the type of spin in the band that moved downwards. This effect is a weak form of paramagnetism known as Pauli paramagnetism.

text: A Quinonoid zwitterion is a special type of zwitterion based on quinone related chemical compounds. The benzene derivate 1,3-dihydroxy-4,6-diaminobenzene is easily oxidized by air in water or methanol to the quinonoid. This compound was first prepared in 1883 and the quinonoid structure first proposed in 1956. In 2002 the compound was found to be more stable and to exist as the zwitterion after a proton transfer. Evidence for this structure is based on NMR spectroscopy and x-ray crystallography. The positive charge is delocalized between the amino groups over 4 bonds involving 6 pi electrons. The negative charge is spread likewise between the oxygen atoms.

text: A Quinonoid zwitterion is a special type of

text: zwitterion

text: based on

text: quinone

text: related

text: chemical compound

text: s. The

text: benzene

text: derivate 1,3-dihydroxy-4,6-diaminobenzene is easily

text: oxidized

text: by air in water or

text: methanol

text: to the quinonoid. This compound was first prepared in 1883 and the quinonoid structure first proposed in 1956. In 2002 the compound was found to be more stable and to exist as the zwitterion after a

text: proton

text: transfer. Evidence for this structure is based on

text: NMR spectroscopy

text: and

text: x-ray crystallography

text: . The positive charge is delocalized between the amino groups over 4 bonds involving 6

text: pi electron

text: s. The negative charge is spread likewise between the oxygen atoms.

text: If the electron beam is aimed towards a thick acrylic specimen, the electrons easily penetrate the surface of the acrylic, rapidly decelerating as they collide with molecules inside the plastic, finally coming to rest deep inside the specimen. Since acrylic is an excellent electrical insulator, these electrons become temporarily trapped within the specimen, forming a plane of excess negative charge. Under continued irradiation, the amount of trapped charge builds, until the effective voltage inside the specimen reaches millions of volts. Once the electrical stress exceeds the dielectric strength of the plastic, some portions suddenly become conductive in a process called dielectric breakdown.

text: If the electron beam is aimed towards a thick acrylic specimen, the electrons easily penetrate the surface of the acrylic, rapidly decelerating as they collide with molecules inside the plastic, finally coming to rest deep inside the specimen. Since acrylic is an excellent electrical insulator, these electrons become temporarily trapped within the specimen, forming a plane of excess negative charge. Under continued irradiation, the amount of trapped charge builds, until the effective voltage inside the specimen reaches millions of volts. Once the electrical stress exceeds the

text: dielectric strength

text: of the plastic, some portions suddenly become conductive in a process called

text: dielectric breakdown

text: Charge transfer bands may also arise from transfer of electrons from nonbonding orbitals of the ligand to the e MO.

text: To neutralize the positive charge on the ionization site a single two-electron transfer must be made. Neutralization of the positive charge at the ionization site is performed at the expense of the atom adjacent to the ionization site, transferring the positive charge to this atom as a result of the bond cleavage.

text: In the 1980s Simpson Simpson and A. J. Tuzzolino developed the dust flux monitor instrument which involved a thin sheet of plastic which was polymerized in the presence of a strong electric field perpendicular to the plane of the plastic, and then electrically polarized carrying a positive electric charge on one of its surfaces and a negative charge on the other. The way it operated was such that a dust particle or heavy nucleus penetrating through the sheet first vaporizes in a small area releasing the charges, then the electrical signal indicates the location and size of the hole in the plastic which is then calibrated to give information on its speed and size. These calibrations took place from 1985 until 1989. Simpson's device was used on spacecraft Vega 1 and Vega 2 to Halley's comet in 1986, and earned him the Gagarin Medal for Space Exploration that year for his contribution towards the success of the Vega mission, as his instruments had been the only ones from the United States to encounter the comet.

text: In the 1980s Simpson Simpson and

text: A. J. Tuzzolino

text: developed the

text: dust flux monitor

text: instrument which involved a thin sheet of plastic which was

text: polymerized

text: in the presence of a strong

text: electric field

text: perpendicular to the plane of the plastic, and then electrically polarized carrying a positive

text: electric charge

text: on one of its surfaces and a negative charge on the other. The way it operated was such that a

text: dust particle

text: or

text: heavy nucleus

text: penetrating through the sheet first vaporizes in a small area releasing the charges, then the electrical signal indicates the location and size of the hole in the plastic which is then calibrated to give information on its speed and size. These calibrations took place from 1985 until 1989. Simpson's device was used on spacecraft

text: Vega 1

text: and

text: Vega 2

text: to Halley's comet in 1986, and earned him the Gagarin Medal for Space Exploration that year for his contribution towards the success of the Vega mission, as his instruments had been the only ones from the United States to encounter the comet.

text: The partial filling of the states at the bottom of the conduction band can be understood as adding electrons to that band.The electrons do not stay indefinitely (due to the natural thermal recombination) but they can move around for some time.The actual concentration of electrons is typically very dilute, and so (unlike in metals) it is possible to think of the electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor as a sort of classical ideal gas, where the electrons fly around freely without being subject to the Pauli exclusion principle. In most semiconductors the conduction bands have a parabolic dispersion relation, and so these electrons respond to forces (electric field, magnetic field, etc.) much like they would in a vacuum, though with a different effective mass.Because the electrons behave like an ideal gas, one may also think about conduction in very simplistic terms such as the Drude model, and introduce concepts such as electron mobility.

text: The partial filling of the states at the bottom of the conduction band can be understood as adding electrons to that band.The electrons do not stay indefinitely (due to the natural thermal

text: recombination

text: ) but they can move around for some time.The actual concentration of electrons is typically very dilute, and so (unlike in metals) it is possible to think of the electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor as a sort of classical

text: ideal gas

text: , where the electrons fly around freely without being subject to the

text: Pauli exclusion principle

text: . In most semiconductors the conduction bands have a parabolic

text: dispersion relation

text: , and so these electrons respond to forces (electric field, magnetic field, etc.) much like they would in a vacuum, though with a different

text: effective mass

text: .Because the electrons behave like an ideal gas, one may also think about conduction in very simplistic terms such as the

text: Drude model

text: , and introduce concepts such as

text: electron mobility

text: The bills would state that: (1) the value of such vessels transferred on a grant basis shall not be counted against the aggregate value of excess defense articles transferred to countries in any fiscal year under the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961; (2) transfer costs shall be charged to the recipient; and (3) the country to which a vessel is transferred shall have necessary vessel repair and refurbishment carried out at U.S. shipyards (including U.S. Navy shipyards) to the maximum extent practicable.

text: The bills would state that: (1) the value of such vessels transferred on a grant basis shall not be counted against the aggregate value of excess defense articles transferred to countries in any fiscal year under the

text: Foreign Assistance Act of 1961

text: ; (2) transfer costs shall be charged to the recipient; and (3) the country to which a vessel is transferred shall have necessary vessel repair and refurbishment carried out at U.S. shipyards (including U.S. Navy shipyards) to the maximum extent practicable.

text: Electric potential energy, or electrostatic potential energy, is a potential energy (measured in joules) that results from conservative Coulomb forces and is associated with the configuration of a particular set of point charges within a defined system. An object may have electric potential energy by virtue of two key elements: its own electric charge and its relative position to other electrically charged objects.

text: Electric potential energy, or electrostatic potential energy, is a

text: potential energy

text: (measured in

text: joule

text: s) that results from

text: conservative

text: Coulomb force

text: s and is associated with the configuration of a particular set of point

text: charges

text: within a defined

text: system

text: . An object may have electric potential energy by virtue of two key elements: its own electric charge and its relative position to other electrically charged objects.

text: There are two basic friction processes: normal contact, and lateral sliding. We demonstrated here a TENG that is designed based on the in-plane sliding between the two surfaces in lateral direction. With an intensive triboelectrification facilitated by sliding friction, a periodic change in the contact area between two surfaces leads to a lateral separation of the charge centers, which creates a voltage drop for driving the flow of electrons in the external load. The sliding-induced electricity generation mechanism is schematically depicted in the figure. In the original position, the two polymeric surfaces fully overlap and intimately contact with each other. Because of the large difference in the ability to attract electrons, the triboelectrification will leave one surface with net positive charges and the other with net negative charges with equal density. Since the tribo-charges on the insulators will only distribute in the surface layer and will not be leaked out for an extended period of time, the separation between the positively charged surface and negatively charged surface is negligible at this overlapping position, and thus there will be little electric potential drop across the two electrodes. Once the top plate with the positively charged surface starts to slide outward, the in-plane charge separation is initiated due to the decrease in contact surface area. The separated charges will generate an electric field pointing from the right to the left almost parallel to the plates, inducing a higher potential at the top electrode. This potential difference will drive a current flow from the top electrode to the bottom electrode in order to generate an electric potential drop that cancels the tribo-charge-induced potential. Because the vertical distance between the electrode layer and the tribo-charged polymeric surface is negligible compared to the lateral charge separation distance, the amount of the transferred charges on the electrodes approximately equals to the amount of the separated charges at any sliding displacement. Thus, the current flow will continue with the continuation of the ongoing sliding process that keeps increasing the separated charges, until the top plate fully slides out of the bottom plate and the tribo-charged surfaces are entirely separated. The measured current should be determined by the rate at which the two plates are being slid apart. Subsequently, when the top plate is reverted to slide backwards, the separated charges begins to get in contact again but no annihilation due to the insulator nature of the polymer materials. The redundant transferred charges on the electrodes will flow back through the external load with the increase of the contact area, in order to keep the electrostatic equilibrium. This will contribute to a current flow from the bottom electrode to the top electrode, along with the second half cycle of sliding. Once the two plates reach the overlapping position, the charged surfaces get into fully contact again. There will be no transferred charges left on the electrode, and the device returns to the first state. In this entire cycle, the processes of sliding outwards and inwards are symmetric, so a pair of symmetric alternating current peaks should be expected.

text: Another concern with supercritical CO is that the conductivity of this solvent is poor. As mentioned in the Mechanisms section, dry cleaning utilizes both chemical and mechanical properties to effectively remove stains. Friction occurs when the solvent interacts with the surface of the fabric and this dislocates some dirt. At the same time, the friction also builds up an electrical charge. Fabrics are very poor conductors and so usually, this build-up is discharged through the solvent. This discharge does not occur in liquid carbon dioxide and the build-up of an electrical charge on the surface of the fabric attracts the dirt back on to the surface. This results in a poor efficiency in the washing process overall. To make up for the poor solubility and conductivity of supercritical carbon dioxide, current research is focused on additives. For increased solubility, 2-propanol has showed increased cleaning effects for liquid carbon dioxide as it increases the ability of the solvent to dissolve polar molecules while other antistatic agents are also being researched.

text: One good example of alanine scanning is the examination of the role of charged residues on the surface of proteins. In a systematic study on the roles of conserved charged residues on the surface of epithelial sodium channel (ENaC), alanine scanning was used to reveal the importance of charged residues for the process of transport of the proteins to the cell surface.

text: One good example of alanine scanning is the examination of the role of charged residues on the surface of proteins. In a systematic study on the roles of conserved charged residues on the surface of epithelial sodium channel (

text: ENaC

text: ), alanine scanning was used to reveal the importance of charged residues for the process of transport of the proteins to the cell surface.

text: The electron beam impinging on insulating specimens accumulates negative charge, which creates an electrical potential tending to deflect the electron beam from the scanned point in conventional SEM. This appears as charging artifacts on the image, which are eliminated in the SEM by depositing a conductive layer on the specimen surface prior to examination. Instead this coating, the gas in the ESEM being electrically conductive prevents negative charge accumulation. The good conductivity of the gas is due to the ionization it undergoes by the incident electron beam and the ionizing SE and BSE signals. This principle constitutes yet another fundamental deviation from conventional vacuum electron microscopy, with enormous advantages.

text: Elemental iodine is slightly soluble in water, with one gram dissolving in 3450 ml at 20 °C and 1280 ml at 50 °C; potassium iodide may be added to increase solubility via formation of triiodide ions, among other polyiodides. Nonpolar solvents such as hexane and carbon tetrachloride provide a higher solubility. Polar solutions, such as aqueous solutions, are brown, reflecting the role of these solvents as Lewis bases; on the other hand, nonpolar solutions are violet, the color of iodine vapour. Charge-transfer complexes form when iodine is dissolved in polar solvents, hence changing the colour. Iodine is violet when dissolved in carbon tetrachloride and saturated hydrocarbons but deep brown in alcohols and amines, solvents that form charge-transfer adducts.

text: Elemental iodine is slightly soluble in water, with one gram dissolving in 3450 ml at 20 °C and 1280 ml at 50 °C;

text: potassium iodide

text: may be added to increase solubility via formation of

text: triiodide

text: ions, among other polyiodides. Nonpolar solvents such as

text: hexane

text: and

text: carbon tetrachloride

text: provide a higher solubility. Polar solutions, such as aqueous solutions, are brown, reflecting the role of these solvents as

text: Lewis base

text: s; on the other hand, nonpolar solutions are violet, the color of iodine vapour.

text: Charge-transfer complex

text: es form when iodine is dissolved in polar solvents, hence changing the colour. Iodine is violet when dissolved in carbon tetrachloride and saturated hydrocarbons but deep brown in

text: alcohol

text: s and

text: amine

text: s, solvents that form charge-transfer adducts.

text: A polarizing / polarising filter is often placed in front of the camera lens in photography in order to darken skies, manage reflections, or suppress glare from the surface of lakes or the sea. Since reflections (and sky-light) tend to be at least partially linearly-polarized, a linear polarizer can be used to change the balance of the light in the photograph. The rotational orientation of the filter is adjusted for the preferred artistic effect. For modern cameras, a circular polarizer is typically used; this comprises firstly a linear polarizer which performs the artistic function just described, followed by a quarter-wave plate which further transforms the now-linearly polarized light into circularly-polarised light before entering the camera. This additional step avoids problems with auto-focus and light-metering sensors within some cameras, which otherwise may not function reliably with a simple linear polariser.

text: A polarizing / polarising filter is often placed in front of the camera lens in photography in order to darken skies, manage reflections, or suppress glare from the surface of lakes or the sea. Since reflections (and sky-light) tend to be at least partially linearly-polarized, a linear polarizer can be used to change the balance of the light in the photograph. The rotational orientation of the filter is adjusted for the preferred artistic effect. For modern cameras, a

text: circular polarizer

text: is typically used; this comprises firstly a linear polarizer which performs the artistic function just described, followed by a quarter-wave plate which further transforms the now-linearly polarized light into circularly-polarised light before entering the camera. This additional step avoids problems with auto-focus and light-metering sensors within some cameras, which otherwise may not function reliably with a simple linear polariser.

text: Through the experiments of William Watson and others proving that electricity could be transmitted to a distance, the idea of making practical use of this phenomenon began, around 1753, to engross the minds of inquisitive people. To this end, suggestions as to the employment of electricity in the transmission of intelligence were made. The first of the methods devised for this purpose was probably that of Georges Lesage in 1774. This method consisted of 24 wires, insulated from one another and each having had a pith ball connected to its distant end. Each wire represented a letter of the alphabet. To send a message, a desired wire was charged momentarily with electricity from an electric machine, whereupon the pith ball connected to that wire would fly out. Other methods of telegraphing in which frictional electricity was employed were also tried, some of which are described in the history on the telegraph.

text: Through the experiments of

text: William Watson

text: and others proving that electricity could be transmitted to a distance, the idea of making practical use of this phenomenon began, around 1753, to engross the minds of inquisitive people. To this end, suggestions as to the employment of electricity in the transmission of intelligence were made. The first of the methods devised for this purpose was probably that of

text: Georges Lesage

text: in 1774. This method consisted of 24 wires, insulated from one another and each having had a pith ball connected to its distant end. Each wire represented a letter of the alphabet. To send a message, a desired wire was charged momentarily with electricity from an electric machine, whereupon the pith ball connected to that wire would fly out. Other methods of telegraphing in which frictional electricity was employed were also tried, some of which are described in the

text: history on the telegraph

text: Silver lenticular screens, while no longer employed as the standard for motion picture projection, have come back into use as they are ideally suited for modern polarized 3-D projection. The percentage of light reflected from a non-metallic (dielectric) surface varies strongly with the direction of polarisation and the angle of incidence; this is not the case for an electric conductor such as a metal  (as an illustration of this, sunlight reflected from a horizontal surface such as a reflective road surface or water is attenuated by polarized sunglasses relative to direct light; this is not the case if the light is reflected from a metallic surface). As many 3-D technologies in use today depend upon maintaining the polarisation of the images to be presented to each eye, the reflecting surface needs to be metallic rather than dielectric.

text: Silver lenticular screens, while no longer employed as the standard for motion picture projection, have come back into use as they are ideally suited for modern

text: polarized 3-D projection

text: . The percentage of light reflected from a non-metallic (dielectric) surface varies strongly with the direction of

text: polarisation

text: and the angle of incidence; this is not the case for an electric conductor such as a metal  (as an illustration of this, sunlight reflected from a horizontal surface such as a reflective road surface or water is attenuated by

text: polarized

text: sunglasses

text: relative to direct light; this is not the case if the light is reflected from a metallic surface). As many 3-D technologies in use today depend upon maintaining the polarisation of the images to be presented to each eye, the reflecting surface needs to be metallic rather than dielectric.

text: Opinions among scholars on the implications of polarization on the public are mixed. Some political scientists argue that the growing polarization in government has directly contributed to political polarization in the electorate. Other scholars state that polarized practices in government do not significantly influence the public’s attitudes toward legislators.

text: A static electric charge can be created whenever two surfaces contact and separate, and at least one of the surfaces has a high resistance to electric current (and is therefore an electrical insulator). The effects of static electricity are familiar to most people because people can feel, hear, and even see the spark as the excess charge is neutralized when brought close to a large electrical conductor (for example, a path to ground), or a region with an excess charge of the opposite polarity (positive or negative). The familiar phenomenon of a static shock–more specifically, an electrostatic discharge–is caused by the neutralization of

text: A static electric charge can be created whenever two surfaces contact and separate, and at least one of the surfaces has a high resistance to electric current (and is therefore an

text: electrical insulator

text: ). The effects of static electricity are familiar to most people because people can feel, hear, and even see the spark as the excess charge is neutralized when brought close to a large

text: electrical conductor

text: (for example, a path to ground), or a region with an excess charge of the opposite polarity (positive or negative). The familiar phenomenon of a static shock–more specifically, an

text: electrostatic discharge

text: –is caused by the neutralization of

text: The metal package can be attached to a heat sink, making it suitable for devices dissipating several watts of heat. Thermal compound is used to improve heat transfer between the device case and the heat sink.  Since the device case is one of the electrical connections, an insulator may be required to electrically isolate the component from the heatsink. Insulating washers may be made of mica or other materials with good thermal conductivity.

text: The metal package can be attached to a heat sink, making it suitable for devices dissipating several watts of heat.

text: Thermal compound

text: is used to improve heat transfer between the device case and the heat sink.  Since the device case is one of the electrical connections, an

text: insulator

text: may be required to electrically isolate the component from the heatsink. Insulating washers may be made of

text: mica

text: or other materials with good

text: thermal conductivity

text: Current is the movement of charge.  The continuity equation says that if charge is moving out of a differential volume (i.e. divergence of current density is positive) then the amount of charge within that volume is going to decrease, so the rate of change of charge density is negative.  Therefore, the continuity equation amounts to a conservation of charge.

text: The result found in Procedure 5, that a charged object enclosed in a metal container induces an equal charge on the container, can be proved using Gauss's law.  Assume the container A completely encloses the object C, without an opening (this assumption is explained below),  and that C has a charge of Q coulombs.   The electric field of the charge C will cause the charges in the volume of the metal to separate, creating regions of induced charge on the inside and outside surfaces of the shell.   Now imagine a closed surface S inside the metal of the shell, between the inside and outside surfaces.    Since S is in a conducting region (inside the volume of metal) where the electric field is zero, the electric field everywhere on the surface S is zero.  Therefore, the total electric flux through the surface S must be zero.  Therefore, from Gauss's law the total electric charge inside the surface S must be zero:

text: The result found in Procedure 5, that a charged object enclosed in a metal container induces an equal charge on the container, can be proved using

text: Gauss's law

text: .  Assume the container A completely encloses the object C, without an opening (this assumption is explained below),  and that C has a charge of Q coulombs.   The electric field of the charge C will cause the charges in the volume of the metal to separate, creating regions of induced charge on the inside and outside surfaces of the shell.   Now imagine a closed surface S inside the metal of the shell, between the inside and outside surfaces.    Since S is in a conducting region (inside the volume of metal) where the electric field is zero, the electric field everywhere on the surface S is zero.  Therefore, the total

text: electric flux

text: through the surface S must be zero.  Therefore, from

text: Gauss's law

text: the total electric charge inside the surface S must be zero:

text: When polyacetylene films are exposed to vapors of electron-accepting compounds (p-type dopants), the electrical conductivity of the material increases by orders of magnitude over the undoped material.  p-type dopants include Br, I, Cl, and AsF. These dopants act by abstracting an electron from the polymer chain. The conductivity of these polymers is believed to be a result of the creation of charge-transfer complexes between the polymer and halogen. Charge-transfer occurs from the polymer to the acceptor compound; the polyacetylene chain acts as a cation and the acceptor as an anion. The “hole” on the polymer backbone is weakly associated with the anionic acceptor by Coulomb potential. Polyacetylene doped with (p-type) dopants retain their high conductivity even after exposure to air for several days.

text: When polyacetylene films are exposed to vapors of electron-accepting compounds (

text: p-type

text: dopants

text: ), the

text: electrical conductivity

text: of the material increases by orders of magnitude over the undoped material.

text: p-type

text: dopants

text: include Br, I, Cl, and AsF. These

text: dopants

text: act by abstracting an

text: electron

text: from the polymer chain. The

text: conductivity

text: of these polymers is believed to be a result of the creation of

text: charge-transfer complexes

text: between the polymer and

text: halogen

text: Charge-transfer

text: occurs from the polymer to the acceptor compound; the polyacetylene chain acts as a

text: cation

text: and the acceptor as an

text: anion

text: . The “hole” on the polymer backbone is weakly associated with the anionic acceptor by

text: Coulomb potential

text: . Polyacetylene doped with (

text: p-type

text: dopants

text: retain their high conductivity even after exposure to air for several days.

text: The consequence of an electron transfer is the rearrangement of charges, and this gravely influences the solvent environment. For the dipolar solvent molecules rearrange in the direction of the field of the charges (this is called orientation polarisation), and also the atoms and electrons in the solvent molecules are slightly displaced (atomic and electron polarization, respectively). It is this solvent polarization which determines the free energy of activation and thus the reaction rate.

text: The consequence of an electron transfer is the rearrangement of charges, and this gravely influences the solvent environment. For the dipolar solvent molecules rearrange in the direction of the field of the charges (this is called orientation polarisation), and also the atoms and electrons in the solvent molecules are slightly displaced (atomic and electron polarization, respectively). It is this

text: solvent polarization

text: which determines the free energy of activation and thus the reaction rate.

text: The function of the reaction center of chlorophyll is to absorb light energy and transfer it to other parts of the photosystem. The absorbed energy of the photon is transferred to an electron in a process called charge separation. The removal of the electron from the chlorophyll is an oxidation reaction. The chlorophyll donates the high energy electron to a series of molecular intermediates called an electron transport chain. The charged reaction center of chlorophyll (P680) is then reduced back to its ground state by accepting an electron stripped from water. The electron that reduces P680 ultimately comes from the oxidation of water into O and H through several intermediates. This reaction is how photosynthetic organisms such as plants produce O gas, and is the source for practically all the O in Earth's atmosphere. Photosystem I typically works in series with Photosystem II; thus the P700 of Photosystem I is usually reduced as it accepts the electron, via many intermediates in the thylakoid membrane, by electrons coming, ultimately, from Photosystem II. Electron transfer reactions in the thylakoid membranes are complex, however, and the source of electrons used to reduce P700 can vary.

text: The function of the reaction center of chlorophyll is to absorb light energy and transfer it to other parts of the photosystem. The absorbed energy of the photon is transferred to an electron in a process called charge separation. The removal of the electron from the chlorophyll is an oxidation reaction. The chlorophyll donates the high energy electron to a series of molecular intermediates called an

text: electron transport chain

text: . The charged reaction center of chlorophyll (P680) is then reduced back to its ground state by accepting an electron stripped from water. The electron that reduces P680 ultimately comes from the oxidation of water into O and H through several intermediates. This reaction is how photosynthetic organisms such as plants produce O gas, and is the source for practically all the O in Earth's atmosphere. Photosystem I typically works in series with Photosystem II; thus the P700 of Photosystem I is usually reduced as it accepts the electron, via many intermediates in the thylakoid membrane, by electrons coming, ultimately, from Photosystem II. Electron transfer reactions in the thylakoid membranes are complex, however, and the source of electrons used to reduce P700 can vary.

text: Metallic bonding arises from the electrostatic attractive force between conduction electrons (in the form of an electron cloud of delocalized electrons) and positively charged metal ions. It may be described as the sharing of free electrons among a lattice of positively charged ions (cations). Metallic bonding accounts for many physical properties of metals, such as strength, ductility, thermal and electrical resistivity and conductivity, opacity, and luster.

text: Metallic bonding arises from the electrostatic attractive force between

text: conduction electrons

text: (in the form of an electron cloud of delocalized electrons) and positively charged metal ions. It may be described as the sharing of free electrons among a

text: lattice

text: of positively charged ions (

text: cations

text: ). Metallic bonding accounts for many

text: physical properties

text: of metals, such as

text: strength

text: ductility

text: thermal

text: and

text: electrical resistivity and conductivity

text: opacity

text: , and

text: luster

text: In conduction, the heat flow is within and through the body itself. In contrast, in heat transfer by thermal radiation, the transfer is often between bodies, which may be separated spatially. Also possible is transfer of heat by a combination of conduction and thermal radiation. In convection, internal energy is carried between bodies by a moving material carrier. In solids, conduction is mediated by the combination of vibrations and collisions of molecules, of propagation and collisions of phonons, and of diffusion and collisions of free electrons. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of molecules during their random motion. Photons in this context do not collide with one another, and so heat transport by electromagnetic radiation is conceptually distinct from heat conduction by microscopic diffusion and collisions of material particles and phonons. But the distinction is often not easily observed, unless the material is semi-transparent.

text: In conduction, the heat flow is within and through the body itself. In contrast, in heat transfer by

text: thermal radiation

text: , the transfer is often between bodies, which may be separated spatially. Also possible is transfer of heat by a combination of conduction and thermal radiation. In convection, internal energy is carried between bodies by a moving material carrier. In solids, conduction is mediated by the combination of vibrations and collisions of molecules, of propagation and collisions of

text: phonons

text: , and of diffusion and collisions of

text: free electrons

text: . In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and

text: diffusion

text: of molecules during their random motion.

text: Photons

text: in this context do not collide with one another, and so heat transport by

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: is conceptually distinct from heat conduction by microscopic diffusion and collisions of material particles and phonons. But the distinction is often not easily observed, unless the material is semi-transparent.

text: A comparison of S1 to S2 reactions is to the right.  On the left is an S1 reaction coordinate diagram.  Note the decrease in ΔG for the polar-solvent reaction conditions.  This arises from the fact that polar solvents stabilize the formation of the carbocation intermediate to a greater extent than the non-polar-solvent conditions.  This is apparent in the ΔE, ΔΔG.  On the right is an S2 reaction coordinate diagram.  Note the decreased ΔG for the non-polar-solvent reaction conditions.  Polar solvents stabilize the reactants to a greater extent than the non-polar-solvent conditions by solvating the negative charge on the nucleophile, making it less available to react with the electrophile.

text: The amount of charge in the electrode is matched by the magnitude of counter-charges in the outer Helmholtz plane (OHP). This is the area close to the IHP in which the polarized electrolyte ions are collected. This separation of two layers of polarized ions through the double-layer phenomena store electrical charges as in a conventional capacitor. The double-layer charge forms a static electric field in the molecular IHP layer of the solvent molecules  that corresponds to the strength of the applied voltage.

text: The amount of charge in the electrode is matched by the magnitude of counter-charges in the outer Helmholtz plane (OHP). This is the area close to the IHP in which the polarized electrolyte ions are collected. This separation of two layers of polarized ions through the double-layer phenomena store electrical charges as in a conventional capacitor. The double-layer charge forms a

text: static electric

text: field

text: in the molecular IHP layer of the solvent molecules  that corresponds to the strength of the applied voltage.

text: The word electricity refers generally to the movement of electrons (or other charge carriers) through a conductor in the presence of potential and an electric field.  The speed of this flow has multiple meanings.  In everyday electrical and electronic devices, the signals or energy travel as electromagnetic waves typically on the order of 50%–99% of the speed of light, while the electrons themselves move (drift) much more slowly.

text: The word electricity refers generally to the movement of

text: electrons

text: (or other

text: charge carrier

text: s) through a

text: conductor

text: in the presence of potential and an

text: electric field

text: .  The speed of this flow has multiple meanings.  In everyday electrical and electronic devices, the signals or energy travel as electromagnetic waves typically on the

text: order of 50%–99% of the speed of light

text: , while the electrons themselves

text: move (drift) much more slowly

text: During operation of electrochemical cells, chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy and is expressed mathematically as the product of the cell's emf and the electric charge transferred through the external circuit.

text: During operation of

text: electrochemical cell

text: s,

text: chemical energy

text: is transformed into

text: electrical energy

text: and is expressed mathematically as the product of the cell's emf and the

text: electric charge

text: transferred through the external circuit.

text: Following the formulation of regulations and mechanisms for such transfers, defense industries began transferring technology to civilian industries on a large scale in the mid-1980s. Technology transfers provided defense enterprises with additional, lucrative sources of income and furnished civilian enterprises with a wide range of useful, advanced technology to modernize production. For example, the Ministry of Astronautics disseminated aerospace technology to light industry and to the petroleum, chemical engineering, machine-building, textile, communications, medical, and electronics industries.

text: Following the formulation of regulations and mechanisms for such transfers, defense industries began transferring technology to civilian industries on a large scale in the mid-1980s. Technology transfers provided defense enterprises with additional, lucrative sources of

text: income

text: and furnished civilian enterprises with a wide range of useful, advanced technology to modernize production. For example, the Ministry of Astronautics disseminated

text: aerospace

text: technology to

text: light industry

text: and to the

text: petroleum

text: chemical engineering

text: machine

text: -building,

text: textile

text: communications

text: medical

text: , and

text: electronics

text: industries.

text: After the striking evidence for parity violation provided by Wu et al. in 1957, it was assumed that CP (charge conjugation-parity) is the quantity which is conserved. However, in 1964 Cronin and Fitch reported CP violation in the neutral Kaon system. They observed the long-lived K (CP = −1) undergoing two pion decays (CP = (−1)(−1) = +1), thereby violating CP conservation.

text: In a conductive material, the moving charged particles which constitute the electric current are called charge carriers.  In metals, which make up the wires and other conductors in most electrical circuits, the positively charged atomic nuclei are held in a fixed position, and the negatively charged electrons are free to move, carrying their charge from one place to another. In other materials, notably the semiconductors, the charge carriers can be positive or negative, depending on the dopant used. Positive and negative charge carriers may even be present at the same time, as happens in an electrochemical cell.

text: In a

text: conductive material

text: , the moving charged particles which constitute the electric current are called

text: charge carrier

text: s.  In metals, which make up the wires and other conductors in most

text: electrical circuit

text: s, the positively charged

text: atomic nuclei

text: are held in a fixed position, and the negatively charged

text: electron

text: s are free to move, carrying their charge from one place to another. In other materials, notably the

text: semiconductor

text: s, the charge carriers can be positive or negative, depending on the dopant used. Positive and negative charge carriers may even be present at the same time, as happens in an

text: electrochemical cell

text: When he assumed office in January 2009 President Barack Obama made a number of promises about the future of Guantanamo.He promised the use of torture would cease at the camp.  He promised to institute a new review system.  That new review system was composed of officials from six departments, where the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense.  When it reported back, a year later, the Joint Review Task Force classified some individuals as too dangerous to be transferred from Guantanamo, even though there was no evidence to justify laying charges against them. On April 9, 2013, that document was made public after a Freedom of Information Act request.Al Alawi was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release. Obama promised that those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a Periodic Review Board. Al Alawi was denied approval for transfer on October 26, 2015.

text: When he assumed office in January 2009

text: President

text: Barack Obama

text: made a number of promises about the future of Guantanamo.He promised the use of torture would cease at the camp.  He promised to institute a new review system.  That new review system was composed of officials from six departments, where the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense.  When it reported back, a year later, the

text: Joint Review Task Force

text: Freedom of Information Act

text: request.Al Alawi was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release. Obama promised that those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a

text: Periodic Review Board

text: . Al Alawi was denied approval for transfer on October 26, 2015.

text: Using conductive carbon black or other fillers can exhibit the useful properties of conductive rubber, namely preventing electrical arcing, static sparks, and the overall build-up of charge within rubber that may cause it to behave like a capacitor (electrostatic dissipative).  By dissipating these charges, these materials, which include doped carbon-black and rubber with metal filling additives, reduce the risk of ignition, which can be useful for fuel lines.

text: Using conductive

text: carbon black

text: or other fillers can exhibit the useful properties of

text: conductive rubber

text: , namely preventing electrical arcing, static sparks, and the overall build-up of charge within rubber that may cause it to behave like a capacitor (electrostatic dissipative).  By dissipating these charges, these materials, which include doped carbon-black and rubber with metal filling additives, reduce the risk of ignition, which can be useful for fuel lines.

text: Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a generator with an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are eddy current brakes, and electro-mechanical brakes (which actually are magnetically driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often just called “electromagnetic brakes” as well).

text: Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles, such as some transit buses, do not already have an electric motor but use a secondary "retarder" brake that is effectively a generator with an internal short-circuit. Related types of such a brake are

text: eddy current brake

text: s, and

text: electro-mechanical brake

text: s (which actually are magnetically driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often just called “electromagnetic brakes” as well).

text: Paper is passed between the drum and the transfer corona, which has a polarity that is the opposite of the charge on the toner. The toner image is transferred from the drum to the paper by a combination of pressure and electrostatic attraction. On many color and high-speed machines, it is common to replace the transfer corona with one or more charged bias transfer rollers, which apply greater pressure and produce a higher quality image.

text: Friction between Nagel and Evashevski began to take public effect in January 1970 when Nagel dismissed offensive line coach Gary Grouwinkel for "disloyalty", which Grouwinkel later revealed was his allegiance to Evashevski instead of Nagel. Less than one month later, star quarterback Larry Lawrence and fullback Tom Smith quit the team and transferred to Miami, loudly proclaiming that they would never stay and play for Nagel. About two weeks later, Lawrence's roommate, a non-athlete, submitted to the Iowa Board of Athletics a written statement charging Evashevski with participating in a rebellion aimed at getting Nagel fired and that would allow Evashevski to succeed him as head football coach. Lawrence's roommate stated that Lawrence was recruited to gather player support for Nagel's removal, but that Lawrence's efforts were unproductive.  Evashevski vehemently denied the charges, and Iowa's athletic board took no action.

text: Friction between Nagel and Evashevski began to take public effect in January 1970 when Nagel dismissed offensive line coach Gary Grouwinkel for "disloyalty", which Grouwinkel later revealed was his allegiance to Evashevski instead of Nagel. Less than one month later, star quarterback Larry Lawrence and

text: fullback

text: Tom Smith quit the team and transferred to Miami, loudly proclaiming that they would never stay and play for Nagel. About two weeks later, Lawrence's roommate, a non-athlete, submitted to the Iowa Board of Athletics a written statement charging Evashevski with participating in a rebellion aimed at getting Nagel fired and that would allow Evashevski to succeed him as head football coach. Lawrence's roommate stated that Lawrence was recruited to gather player support for Nagel's removal, but that Lawrence's efforts were unproductive.  Evashevski vehemently denied the charges, and Iowa's athletic board took no action.

text: Electrical cables are used to connect two or more devices, enabling the transfer of electrical signals or power  from one device to the other. Cables are used for a wide range of purposes, and each must be tailored for that purpose. Cables are used extensively in electronic devices for power and signal circuits. Long-distance communication takes place over undersea cables. Power cables are used for bulk transmission of alternating and direct current power, especially using high-voltage cable.  Electrical cables are extensively used in building wiring for lighting, power and control circuits permanently installed in buildings. Since all the circuit conductors required can be installed in a cable at one time, installation labor is saved compared to certain other wiring methods.

text: Electrical cables are used to connect two or more devices, enabling the transfer of electrical signals or power  from one device to the other. Cables are used for a wide range of purposes, and each must be tailored for that purpose. Cables are used extensively in electronic devices for power and signal circuits. Long-distance communication takes place over

text: undersea cable

text: s.

text: Power cable

text: s are used for bulk transmission of alternating and direct current power, especially using

text: high-voltage cable

text: .  Electrical cables are extensively used in

text: building wiring

text: for lighting, power and control circuits permanently installed in buildings. Since all the circuit conductors required can be installed in a cable at one time, installation labor is saved compared to certain other wiring methods.

text: In 1934 Settle transferred to sailing duties, initially as captain of the China-based . In 1944–1945 he commanded the heavy cruiser , earning the Navy Cross for his action in the Battle of Surigao Strait. After World War II Vice Admiral Settle held Navy appointments in the continental United States and overseas, and was charged with tasks ranging from distributing international aid to Greece and Turkey to conducting nuclear tests in the Aleutian islands.

text: In 1934 Settle transferred to sailing duties, initially as captain of the

text: China

text: -based . In 1944–1945 he commanded the

text: heavy cruiser

text: , earning the

text: Navy Cross

text: for his action in the

text: Battle of Surigao Strait

text: . After

text: World War II

text: Vice Admiral

text: Settle held Navy appointments in the continental United States and overseas, and was charged with tasks ranging from distributing

text: international aid

text: to

text: Greece

text: and

text: Turkey

text: to conducting

text: nuclear tests

text: in the

text: Aleutian islands

text: Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers. Thales of Miletus made a series of observations on static electricity around 600 BC, from which he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic, in contrast to minerals such as magnetite, which needed no rubbing. Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity. Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the English scientist William Gilbert made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined the New Latin word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from ἤλεκτρον [elektron], the Greek word for "amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity", which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646.

text: Ancient cultures around the

text: Mediterranean

text: knew that certain objects, such as rods of

text: amber

text: , could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers.

text: Thales of Miletus

text: made a series of observations on

text: static electricity

text: around 600 BC, from which he believed that

text: friction

text: rendered amber

text: magnetic

text: , in contrast to minerals such as

text: magnetite

text: , which needed no rubbing. Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between

text: magnetism

text: and

text: electricity

text: . Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the English scientist

text: William Gilbert

text: made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the

text: lodestone

text: effect from

text: static electricity

text: produced by rubbing amber. He coined the

text: New Latin

text: word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from ἤλεκτρον [elektron], the Greek word for "amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity", which made their first appearance in print in

text: Thomas Browne

text: 's

text: Pseudodoxia Epidemica

text: of 1646.

text: Inductive charging involves mainly through space the use of an induction coil which produces an electromagnetic field via a charging station where energy is transferred to an electronic device which is also equipped with a corresponding induction coil. The electronic device receives the energy from the magnetic field and then reconverts it into usable electric current which charges the device's battery and a second induction coil in the portable device takes power from the electromagnetic field and converts it back into electric current to charge the battery. One critique of this method is the potential for energy loss as the distance created between the device and the charging board means energy transfer is less efficient.

text: Inductive charging

text: involves mainly through space the use of an induction coil which produces an

text: electromagnetic field

text: via a charging station where energy is transferred to an electronic device which is also equipped with a corresponding induction coil. The electronic device receives the energy from the magnetic field and then reconverts it into usable electric current which charges the device's battery and a second induction coil in the portable device takes power from the electromagnetic field and converts it back into

text: electric current

text: to charge the battery. One critique of this method is the potential for energy loss as the distance created between the device and the charging board means energy transfer is less efficient.

text: It is fitted with an auxiliary power unit to eliminate the need to run the main engine to keep the batteries charged while stationary; electrical servos drive the automated elevation, traverse, magazine, shell transfer arm and loader as well as power for electronics and communications.

text: It is fitted with an auxiliary power unit to eliminate the need to run the main

text: engine

text: to keep the batteries charged while stationary; electrical

text: servo

text: s drive the automated elevation, traverse, magazine, shell transfer arm and loader as well as power for electronics and communications.

text: For analysis by mass spectrometry the analytes must be imparted with a charge and transferred to the gas phase. Electron ionization (EI) is the most common ionization technique applies to GC separations as it is amenable to low pressures.  EI also produces fragmentation of the analyte, both providing structural information while increasing the complexity of the data and possibly obscuring the molecular ion. Atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization (APCI) is an atmospheric pressure technique that can be applied to all the above separation techniques.  APCI is a gas phase ionization method slightly more aggressive ionization than ESI which is suitable for less polar compounds. Electrospray ionization (ESI) is the most common ionization technique applied in LC/MS. This soft ionization is most successful for polar molecules with ionizable functional groups.

text: For analysis by mass spectrometry the analytes must be imparted with a charge and transferred to the gas phase.

text: Electron ionization

text: (EI) is the most common ionization technique applies to GC separations as it is amenable to low pressures.  EI also produces fragmentation of the analyte, both providing structural information while increasing the complexity of the data and possibly obscuring the molecular ion.

text: Atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization

text: (APCI) is an atmospheric pressure technique that can be applied to all the above separation techniques.  APCI is a gas phase ionization method slightly more aggressive ionization than ESI which is suitable for less polar compounds.

text: Electrospray ionization

text: (ESI) is the most common ionization technique applied in LC/MS. This soft ionization is most successful for polar molecules with ionizable functional groups.

text: An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely, and therefore make it nearly impossible to conduct an electric current under the influence of an electric field. This contrasts with other materials, semiconductors and conductors, which conduct electric current more easily. The property that distinguishes an insulator is its resistivity; insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors.

text: An electrical insulator is a material whose internal

text: electric charge

text: s do not flow freely, and therefore make it nearly impossible to conduct an

text: electric current

text: under the influence of an

text: electric field

text: . This contrasts with other materials,

text: semiconductor

text: s and

text: conductors

text: , which conduct electric current more easily. The property that distinguishes an insulator is its

text: resistivity

text: ; insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors.

text: Charge number (z) refers to a quantized value of electric charge, with the quantum of electric charge being the elementary charge, so that the charge number equals the electric charge (q) in coulombs divided by the elementary-charge constant (e), or z = q/e.  The charge numbers for ions (and also subatomic particles) are written in superscript, e.g. Na is a sodium ion with charge number positive one (an electric charge of one elementary charge).  Atomic numbers (Z) are a special case of charge numbers, referring to the charge number of an atomic nucleus, as opposed to the net charge of an atom or ion.  All particles of ordinary matter have integer-value charge numbers, with the exception of quarks, which cannot exist in isolation under ordinary circumstances (the strong force keeps them bound into hadrons of integer charge numbers).

text: Charge number (z) refers to a

text: quantized

text: value of

text: electric charge

text: , with the

text: quantum

text: of electric charge being the

text: elementary charge

text: , so that the charge number equals the electric charge (q) in coulombs divided by the elementary-charge constant (e), or z = q/e.  The charge numbers for

text: ions

text: (and also

text: subatomic particles

text: ) are written in superscript, e.g. Na is a sodium ion with charge number positive one (an electric charge of one elementary charge).

text: Atomic numbers

text: (Z) are a special case of charge numbers, referring to the charge number of an

text: atomic nucleus

text: , as opposed to the net charge of an atom or ion.  All particles of

text: ordinary matter

text: have integer-value charge numbers, with the exception of

text: quarks

text: , which cannot exist in isolation under ordinary circumstances (the

text: strong force

text: keeps them bound into

text: hadrons

text: of integer charge numbers).

text: 1752: Benjamin Franklin establishes the link between lightning and electricity by the flying a kite into a thunderstorm and transferring some of the charge into a Leyden jar and showed that its properties were the same as charge produced by an electrical machine. He is credited with utilizing the concepts of positive and negative charge in the explanation of then known electrical phenomenon. He theorized that there was an electrical fluid (which he proposed could be the luminiferous ether, which was used by others before and after him, to explain the wave theory of light) that was part of all material and all intervening space. The charge of any object would be neutral if the concentration of this fluid were the same both inside and outside of the body, positive if the object contained an excess of this fluid, and negative if there were a deficit. In 1749 he had documented the similar properties of lightning and electricity, such as that both an electric spark and a lightning flash produced light and sound, could kill animals, cause fires, melt metal, destroy or reverse the polarity of magnetism, and flowed through conductors and could be concentrated at sharp points. He was later able to apply the property of concentrating at sharp points by his invention of the lightning rod, for which he intentionally did not profit. He also investigated the Leyden jar, proving that the charge was stored on the glass and not in the water, as others had assumed.

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: establishes the link between lightning and electricity by the flying a kite into a thunderstorm and transferring some of the charge into a Leyden jar and showed that its properties were the same as charge produced by an electrical machine. He is credited with utilizing the concepts of positive and negative charge in the explanation of then known electrical phenomenon. He theorized that there was an electrical fluid (which he proposed could be the

text: luminiferous ether

text: , which was used by others before and after him, to explain the

text: wave theory of light

text: ) that was part of all material and all intervening space. The charge of any object would be neutral if the concentration of this fluid were the same both inside and outside of the body, positive if the object contained an excess of this fluid, and negative if there were a deficit. In 1749 he had documented the similar properties of lightning and electricity, such as that both an

text: electric spark

text: and a lightning flash produced

text: light

text: and sound, could kill animals, cause fires, melt metal, destroy or reverse the polarity of magnetism, and flowed through conductors and could be concentrated at sharp points. He was later able to apply the property of concentrating at sharp points by his invention of the lightning rod, for which he intentionally did not profit. He also investigated the Leyden jar, proving that the charge was stored on the glass and not in the water, as others had assumed.

text: Section 3 of Article XIII D also contains an exemption that for purposes of Article XIII D, fees and charges for electrical or gas service are not property-related fees or charges imposed as an incident of property ownership.  This means that electrical or gas service fees and charges imposed by local agencies are not subject to the procedures and requirements applicable to property-related fees or charges.

text: Although conservation of charge requires that the total quantity of charge in the universe is constant, it leaves open the question of what that quantity is.  Most evidence indicates that the net charge in the universe is zero; that is, there are equal quantities of positive and negative charge.

text: This is how charge is transferred to the top terminal of a Van de Graaff generator.  The terminal is a hollow metal shell and functions as a Faraday pail.  Charge is transported inside it on a moving belt, then removed from the belt by a wire attached to the inside of the terminal.  Since the inside of the terminal is at a constant potential, the charge from the belt flows to the outside surface, adding to the charge there, regardless of how much charge is already on the terminal.

text: This is how charge is transferred to the top terminal of a

text: Van de Graaff generator

text: .  The terminal is a hollow metal shell and functions as a Faraday pail.  Charge is transported inside it on a moving belt, then removed from the belt by a wire attached to the inside of the terminal.  Since the inside of the terminal is at a constant potential, the charge from the belt flows to the outside surface, adding to the charge there, regardless of how much charge is already on the terminal.

text: Charge transfer insulators are a class of materials predicted to be conductors following conventional band theory, but which are in fact insulators due to a charge transfer process. Unlike Mott insulators, where the insulating properties arise from electrons hopping between unit cells, the electrons in charge transfer insulators move between atoms within the unit cell.

text: Charge transfer insulators are a class of materials predicted to be conductors following conventional

text: band theory

text: , but which are in fact insulators due to a charge transfer process. Unlike

text: Mott insulators

text: , where the insulating properties arise from electrons hopping between unit cells, the electrons in charge transfer insulators move between atoms within the unit cell.

text: On January 21, 2009, the day he was inaugurated, United States President Barack Obama issued three Executive orders related to the detention of individuals in Guantanamo.That new review system was composed of officials from six departments, where the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense.  When it reported back, a year later, the Joint Review Task Force classified some individuals as too dangerous to be transferred from Guantanamo, even though there was no evidence to justify laying charges against them. On April 9, 2013, that document was made public after a Freedom of Information Act request.Abdul Al Salam Al Hilal was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama said those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a Periodic Review Board.

text: United States President

text: Barack Obama

text: issued three

text: Executive orders

text: Joint Review Task Force

text: Freedom of Information Act

text: request.Abdul Al Salam Al Hilal was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release.Obama said those deemed too innocent to charge, but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a

text: Periodic Review Board

text: Another example of a divergent electron transport chain is the alternative oxidase, which is found in plants, as well as some fungi, protists, and possibly some animals. This enzyme transfers electrons directly from ubiquinol to oxygen.

text: Another example of a divergent electron transport chain is the

text: alternative oxidase

text: , which is found in

text: plant

text: s, as well as some

text: fungi

text: protist

text: s, and possibly some animals. This enzyme transfers electrons directly from ubiquinol to oxygen.

text: On 13 May, on the final day of the season, with QPR requiring at least a draw in their match away at Manchester City or for Bolton Wanderers to not win in order to guarantee Premier League safety, Barton was sent off in the 55th minute for violent misconduct after elbowing Carlos Tevez in the face. Immediately after being shown a red card, he kicked Sergio Agüero in the back of the knee and attempted to head-butt Vincent Kompany. Barton had to be dragged from the pitch by former team-mate Micah Richards as he rowed with Manchester City players and staff and attempted to square-off with striker Mario Balotelli. QPR went on to concede two late goals and lose the match 3–2, but avoided relegation due to Bolton's draw at Stoke City. Barton commented after the game saying that he was trying to "take [one] of their players with me." The FA responded by issuing two charges of violent conduct against him, for the kick and the attempted head-butt, the initial foul already carrying with it a charge of violent conduct. Barton accepted the charge for kicking Agüero but denied the charge for attempting to head-butt Kompany. QPR also began an internal investigation into his behaviour, amid speculation that he would be stripped of the captaincy and fined and possibly shown the door by the club either by being sold, released on a free transfer or having his contract terminated for gross misconduct.

text: On 13 May, on the final day of the season, with QPR requiring at least a draw in their match away at Manchester City or for

text: Bolton Wanderers

text: to not win in order to guarantee Premier League safety, Barton was sent off in the 55th minute for violent misconduct after elbowing

text: Carlos Tevez

text: in the face. Immediately after being shown a red card, he kicked

text: Sergio Agüero

text: in the back of the knee and attempted to head-butt

text: Vincent Kompany

text: . Barton had to be dragged from the pitch by former team-mate

text: Micah Richards

text: as he rowed with Manchester City players and staff and attempted to square-off with striker

text: Mario Balotelli

text: . QPR went on to concede two late goals and lose the match 3–2, but avoided relegation due to Bolton's draw at

text: Stoke City

text: . Barton commented after the game saying that he was trying to "take [one] of their players with me." The FA responded by issuing two charges of violent conduct against him, for the kick and the attempted head-butt, the initial foul already carrying with it a charge of violent conduct. Barton accepted the charge for kicking Agüero but denied the charge for attempting to head-butt Kompany. QPR also began an internal investigation into his behaviour, amid speculation that he would be stripped of the captaincy and fined and possibly shown the door by the club either by being sold, released on a free transfer or having his contract terminated for gross misconduct.

text: Friction is the least methods which you provide of the six methods of producing energy. If a cloth rubs against an object, the object will display an effect called friction electricity. The object becomes charged due to the rubbing process, and now possesses an electrical charge. There are two main types of electrical charge: positive and negative. Each type of charge attracts the opposite type and repels the same type. This can be stated in the following way: Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. Static electricity has several applications. Its main application is in Van de Graaf generators, used to produce high voltages in order to test the dialectric strength of insulating materials. Other uses are in electrostatic painting and sandpaper manufacturing. The course grains acquire a negative charge as they move across the negative plate. As unlike charges attract, the positive plate attracts the course grains and their impact velocity enables them to be embedded into the adhesive.

text: Friction is the least methods which you provide of the six methods of producing energy. If a cloth rubs against an object, the object will display an effect called friction electricity. The object becomes charged due to the rubbing process, and now possesses an

text: electrical charge

text: . There are two main types of electrical charge: positive and negative. Each type of charge attracts the opposite type and repels the same type. This can be stated in the following way: Like charges repel and unlike charges attract.

text: Static electricity

text: has several applications. Its main application is in

text: Van de Graaf generators

text: , used to produce high voltages in order to test the

text: dialectric

text: strength of insulating materials. Other uses are in electrostatic painting and sandpaper manufacturing. The course grains acquire a negative charge as they move across the negative plate. As unlike charges attract, the positive plate attracts the course grains and their impact velocity enables them to be embedded into the adhesive.

text: In electromagnetism, permittivity or absolute permittivity is the measure of  resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in a medium. In other words, permittivity is a measure of how an electric field affects, and is affected by, a dielectric medium. The permittivity of a medium describes how much electric field (more correctly, flux) is 'generated' per unit charge in that medium. More electric flux exists in a medium with a low permittivity (per unit charge) because of polarization effects. Permittivity is directly related to electric susceptibility, which is a measure of how easily a dielectric polarizes in response to an electric field. Thus, permittivity relates to a material's ability to resist an electric field (while, unfortunately, the word stem "permit" suggests the inverse quantity).

text: In

text: electromagnetism

text: , permittivity or absolute permittivity is the measure of  resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in a

text: medium

text: . In other words, permittivity is a measure of how an

text: electric field

text: affects, and is affected by, a

text: dielectric

text: medium. The permittivity of a medium describes how much electric field (more correctly, flux) is 'generated' per unit charge in that medium. More

text: electric flux

text: exists in a medium with a low permittivity (per unit charge) because of polarization effects. Permittivity is directly related to

text: electric susceptibility

text: , which is a measure of how easily a dielectric

text: polarizes

text: in response to an

text: electric field

text: . Thus, permittivity relates to a material's ability to resist an electric field (while, unfortunately, the word stem "permit" suggests the inverse quantity).

text: Friction's music career began in 1998 as lead singer and songwriter of the band Silent Friction.  He later moved on to establish  power pop band The Pink Spiders with Bob Ferrari and Jon Decious.  During a brief hiatus in 2009, Friction formed two new bands, Matt Friction & the Cheap Shots and The Dozen Dimes, both releasing individual material.

text: Friction's music career began in 1998 as lead singer and songwriter of the band Silent Friction.  He later moved on to establish

text: power pop

text: band

text: The Pink Spiders

text: with

text: Bob Ferrari

text: and Jon Decious.  During a brief hiatus in 2009, Friction formed two new bands, Matt Friction & the Cheap Shots and The Dozen Dimes, both releasing individual material.

text: In a study concerning ultracapacitors or supercapacitors, researchers at the Sungkyunkwan University in the Republic of Korea explored the possibility of increasing the capacitance of electrodes through the addition of fluorine atoms to the walls of carbon nanotubes.  As briefly mentioned before, carbon nanotubes are an increasing form of capacitors due to their superb chemical stability, high conductivity, light mass, and their large surface area.  These researchers fluorinated single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) at high temperatures to bind fluorine atoms to the walls.  The attached fluorine atoms changed the non-polar nanotubes to become polar molecules.  This can be attributed to the charge transfer from the fluorine.  This created dipole-dipole layers along the carbon nanotube walls.  Testing of these fluorinated SWCNTs against normal state SWCNTs showed a difference in capacitance.  It was determined that the fluorinated SWCNTs are advantageous in fabricating electrodes for capacitors and improve the wettability with aqueous electrolytes, which promotes the overall performance of supercapacitors.  While this study brought to knowledge a more efficient example of capacitors, little is known about this new supercapacitor, large scale synthesis is lacking and is necessary for any massive production, and preparation conditions are quite tedious in achieving the final product.

text: In a study concerning ultracapacitors or supercapacitors, researchers at the

text: Sungkyunkwan University

text: in the

text: Republic of Korea

text: explored the possibility of increasing the capacitance of electrodes through the addition of

text: fluorine

text: atoms to the walls of carbon nanotubes.  As briefly mentioned before, carbon nanotubes are an increasing form of capacitors due to their superb chemical stability, high conductivity, light mass, and their large surface area.  These researchers fluorinated single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) at high temperatures to bind fluorine atoms to the walls.  The attached fluorine atoms changed the non-polar nanotubes to become polar molecules.  This can be attributed to the charge transfer from the fluorine.  This created dipole-dipole layers along the carbon nanotube walls.  Testing of these fluorinated SWCNTs against normal state SWCNTs showed a difference in capacitance.  It was determined that the fluorinated SWCNTs are advantageous in fabricating electrodes for capacitors and improve the

text: wettability

text: with aqueous electrolytes, which promotes the overall performance of supercapacitors.  While this study brought to knowledge a more efficient example of capacitors, little is known about this new supercapacitor, large scale synthesis is lacking and is necessary for any massive production, and preparation conditions are quite tedious in achieving the final product.

text: Hershner purchased a new Zero S ZF9 electric motorcycle  from Hollywood Electrics on April 26, 2012. It had a range of up to 114 miles in the city and 63 miles with half city/half highway riding.  To increase this, Hershner modified his electric motorcycle to increase charging capacity and extend the driving range.  He initially added an SAE J1772 charging socket, and three onboard 1 kW battery chargers to raise the total onboard charging to 4 kW. Using the public charging electric vehicle network, he tested the modifications first on a 500-mile trip to Miami, FL, and then a 1200-mile trip to the Bonnaroo Music Festival in Manchester, TN, which he said was the longest distance ridden on an electric motorcycle at that time.

text: Hershner purchased a new Zero S ZF9 electric motorcycle  from Hollywood Electrics on April 26, 2012. It had a range of up to 114 miles in the city and 63 miles with half city/half highway riding.  To increase this, Hershner modified his electric motorcycle to increase charging capacity and extend the driving range.  He initially added an

text: SAE J1772

text: charging socket, and three onboard 1 kW

text: battery charger

text: s to raise the total onboard charging to 4 kW. Using the public charging

text: electric vehicle network

text: , he tested the modifications first on a 500-mile trip to Miami, FL, and then a 1200-mile trip to the

text: Bonnaroo Music Festival

text: in Manchester, TN, which he said was the longest distance ridden on an electric motorcycle at that time.

text: 1745: Pieter van Musschenbroek of Leiden (Leyden) independently discovers the Leyden (Leiden) jar, a primitive capacitor or "condenser" (term coined by Volta in 1782, derived from the Italian condensatore), with which the transient electrical energy generated by current friction machines could now be stored. He and his student Andreas Cunaeus used a glass jar filled with water into which a brass rod had been placed. He charged the jar by touching a wire leading from the electrical machine with one hand while holding the outside of the jar with the other. The energy could be discharged by completing an external circuit between the brass rod and another conductor, originally his hand, placed in contact with the outside of the jar. He also found that if the jar were placed on a piece of metal on a table, a shock would be received by touching this piece of metal with one hand and touching the wire connected to the electrical machine with the other.

text: Pieter van Musschenbroek

text: of Leiden (Leyden) independently discovers the

text: Leyden (Leiden) jar

text: , a primitive

text: capacitor

text: or "condenser" (term coined by Volta in 1782, derived from the Italian condensatore), with which the transient electrical energy generated by current friction machines could now be stored. He and his student Andreas Cunaeus used a glass jar filled with water into which a brass rod had been placed. He charged the jar by touching a wire leading from the electrical machine with one hand while holding the outside of the jar with the other. The energy could be discharged by completing an external circuit between the brass rod and another conductor, originally his hand, placed in contact with the outside of the jar. He also found that if the jar were placed on a piece of metal on a table, a shock would be received by touching this piece of metal with one hand and touching the wire connected to the electrical machine with the other.

text: Polarizing filters reduce the light passed through to the film or sensor by about one to three stops (2–8×) depending on how much of the light is polarized at the filter angle selected. Auto-exposure cameras will adjust for this by widening the aperture, lengthening the shutter, and/or increasing the ASA/ISO speed of the camera.  Polarizing filters can be used deliberately to reduce available light and allow use of wider apertures to shorten depth of field for certain focus effects.

text: Polarizing filters reduce the light passed through to the film or sensor by about one to three stops (2–8×) depending on how much of the light is polarized at the filter angle selected. Auto-exposure cameras will adjust for this by widening the aperture, lengthening the shutter, and/or increasing the ASA/ISO speed of the camera.  Polarizing filters can be used deliberately to reduce available light and allow use of wider apertures to shorten

text: depth of field

text: for certain focus effects.

text: Burrs in drilled holes cause fastener and material problems. Burrs cause more stress to be concentrated at the edges of holes, decreasing resistance to fracture and shortening fatigue life. They interfere with the seating of fasteners, causing damage to fastener or the assembly itself. Cracks caused by stress and strain can result in material failure. Burrs in holes also increase the risk of corrosion, which may be due to variations in the thickness of coatings on a rougher surface. Sharp corners tend to concentrate electrical charge, increasing the risk of static discharge. Burrs in moving parts increase unwanted friction and heat. Rough surfaces also result in problems with lubrication, as wear is increased at the interfaces of parts. This makes it necessary to replace them more frequently. Electrical charge buildup can cause corrosion.

text: How it works  – Multiple disk clutches operate via an electrical actuation but transmit torque mechanically. When current is applied through the clutch coil, the coil becomes an electromagnet and produces magnetic lines of flux. These lines of flux are transferred through the small air gap between the field and the rotor. The rotor portion of the clutch becomes magnetized and sets up a magnetic loop, which attracts both the armature and friction disks. The attraction of the armature compresses (squeezes) the friction disks, transferring the torque from the in inner driver to the out disks. The output disks are connected to a gear, coupling, or pulley via drive cup. The clutch slips until the input and output RPMs are matched. This happens relatively quickly typically (0.2 - 2 sec).

text: One description of the charge transfer process in the matrix is, ‘‘highly vectoral electron transport along biopolymer pathways’’. Other mechanisms involve clouds of negative charge created around the proteoglycans in the matrix. There are also soluble and mobile charge transfer complexes in cells and tissues (e.g. Slifkin, 1971; Gutman, 1978; Mattay, 1994).

text: This is known as charge transfer, and results in charge transfer insulators. Note that this is quite different from the Mott–Hubbard insulator model because there is no electron transfer between unit cells, only within a unit cell.

text: This is known as charge transfer, and results in

text: charge transfer insulators

text: . Note that this is quite different from the Mott–Hubbard insulator model because there is no electron transfer between unit cells, only within a unit cell.

text: Renaming 3/3 to form Friction, they recruited guitarist Tsunematsu Masatoshi, who had studied art at the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts & Music. They released a live album and single in 1979, and their first studio album, Atsureki (軋轢, meaning 'friction' in Japanese) in 1980, produced by Ryuichi Sakamoto. Tsunematsu left the band in December 1980 to become an artist, and from then on Friction has had numerous guest instrumentalists for lives and studio releases, all revolving around frontman Reck. The live video titled Dumb Numb was directed by Sogo Ishii. In 1999, Friction went on hiatus when Reck started producing for other musicians, but restarted in 2006.

text: Renaming 3/3 to form Friction, they recruited guitarist

text: Tsunematsu Masatoshi

text: , who had studied art at the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts & Music. They released a live album and single in 1979, and their first studio album, Atsureki (軋轢, meaning 'friction' in Japanese) in

text: , produced by

text: Ryuichi Sakamoto

text: . Tsunematsu left the band in December 1980 to become an artist, and from then on Friction has had numerous guest instrumentalists for lives and studio releases, all revolving around frontman Reck. The live video titled Dumb Numb was directed by

text: Sogo Ishii

text: . In 1999, Friction went on hiatus when Reck started producing for other musicians, but restarted in 2006.

text: 1992 models were similar to 1991s - the only way to tell the difference is the rear back glass (the rear glass does not have any trim to which two black buttons serve as the back glass strut mounting points) and front grille (chrome shell with argent silver inserts). The interior was a carryover from 1991 with the exception of the center console and steering wheel (X-bar style similar to the one used in the GMT400 trucks). Also, the "S-15" name was dropped from the Jimmy. The S10 Blazer also introduced an upscale Tahoe trim package, the Tahoe LT, which was rebadged as the LT in 1995 whilst the Tahoe package was renamed as the LS. The Tahoe LT had its own exterior décor with faded lower body lines on the lower rockers along with Tahoe LT badges - this also included an overhead console and keyless remote door locks). 1992 was the first model year where the S10 Blazer and Jimmy offered an NP233 electronic transfer case for as a drive train option. This deleted the Manual gear range selector with a 3 position switch located to the left of the gauge cluster in the same location that the rear defrost button would be located on non-electronic transfer-case and 2WD model Blazers and Jimmies (when optioned with the electronic transfer case the defrost button assembly is positioned below the headlight switch). The electronic transfer-case added luxury however there was no neutral position with the electronic transfer case, so the owner's manual stated that the drive shaft had to be removed when the vehicle was being towed. The fuel lines, which were routed on the driver side frame rail to the TBI fuel injectors, were redesigned where the fuel inlets entered the rear of the engine (same as the GMT400). This was phased in because of the L35 option which used a similar fuel line setup. The serpentine accessory drive for the 4.3L motor was modified where the air pump was eliminated and further lightened.

text: 1992 models were similar to 1991s - the only way to tell the difference is the rear back glass (the rear glass does not have any trim to which two black buttons serve as the back glass strut mounting points) and front grille (chrome shell with argent silver inserts). The interior was a carryover from 1991 with the exception of the center console and steering wheel (X-bar style similar to the one used in the

text: Conduction materials include metals, electrolytes, superconductors, semiconductors, plasmas and some nonmetallic conductors such as graphite and Conductive polymers.

text: Conduction materials include

text: metal

text: s,

text: electrolyte

text: s,

text: superconductor

text: s,

text: semiconductor

text: s,

text: plasma

text: s and some nonmetallic conductors such as

text: graphite

text: and

text: Conductive polymer

text: s.

text: is a c-number and a conserved quantity. Using the result that states with different charges exist in different superselection sectors, the conclusion that states with the same electric charge but different values for the directional charges lie in different superselection sectors.

text: is a

text: c-number

text: and a conserved quantity. Using the result that states with different charges exist in different

text: superselection sector

text: s, the conclusion that states with the same electric charge but different values for the directional charges lie in different superselection sectors.

text: An electrostatic generator, or electrostatic machine, is an electromechanical generator that produces static electricity, or electricity at high voltage and low continuous current. The knowledge of static electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for millennia it remained merely an interesting and mystifying phenomenon, without a theory to explain its behavior and often confused with magnetism. By the end of the 17th Century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the studies about the new science of electricity. Electrostatic generators operate by using manual (or other) power to transform mechanical work into electric energy. Electrostatic generators develop electrostatic charges of opposite signs rendered to two conductors, using only electric forces, and work by using moving plates, drums, or belts to carry electric charge to a high potential electrode.  The charge is generated by one of two methods: either the triboelectric effect (friction) or electrostatic induction.

text: An electrostatic generator, or electrostatic machine, is an

text: electromechanical generator

text: that produces

text: static electricity

text: , or electricity at

text: high voltage

text: and low

text: continuous current

text: . The knowledge of static electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for millennia it remained merely an interesting and mystifying

text: phenomenon

text: , without a theory to explain its behavior and often confused with magnetism. By the end of the 17th Century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the studies about the new science of

text: electricity

text: . Electrostatic generators operate by using manual (or other) power to transform

text: mechanical work

text: into

text: electric energy

text: . Electrostatic generators develop

text: electrostatic

text: charge

text: s of opposite signs rendered to two conductors, using only electric forces, and work by using moving plates, drums, or belts to carry electric charge to a high

text: potential

text: electrode

text: .  The charge is generated by one of two methods: either the

text: triboelectric effect

text: (friction) or

text: electrostatic induction

text: Just like "conventional" or "macro scale" heat exchangers, micro heat exchangers have one, two or even three fluidic flows. In the case of one fluidic flow, heat can be transferred to the fluid (each of the fluids can be a gas, a liquid, or a multiphase flow) from electrically powered heater cartridges, or removed from the fluid by electrically powered elements like Peltier chillers. In the case of two fluidic flows, micro heat exchangers are usually classified by the orientation of the fluidic flows to another as "cross flow" or "counter flow" devices. If a chemical reaction is conducted inside a micro heat exchanger, the latter is also called a microreactor.

text: Just like "conventional" or "macro scale"

text: heat exchanger

text: s, micro heat exchangers have one, two or even three fluidic flows. In the case of one fluidic flow,

text: heat

text: can be transferred to the fluid (each of the fluids can be a

text: gas

text: , a

text: liquid

text: , or a

text: multiphase flow

text: ) from electrically powered heater cartridges, or removed from the fluid by electrically powered elements like

text: Peltier

text: chillers. In the case of two fluidic flows, micro heat exchangers are usually classified by the orientation of the fluidic flows to another as "cross flow" or "

text: counter flow

text: " devices. If a chemical reaction is conducted inside a micro heat exchanger, the latter is also called a

text: microreactor

text: (electric charge), is conserved.

text: (electric charge), is conserved.

text: In 1663, German physicist Otto von Guericke created the first electrostatic generator, which produced static electricity by applying friction. The generator was made of a large sulfur ball inside a glass globe, mounted on a shaft. The ball was rotated by means of a crank and a static electric spark was produced when a pad was rubbed against the ball as it rotated. The globe could be removed and used as an electrical source for experiments with electricity.  Von Guericke used his generator to show that like charges repelled each other.

text: In 1663, German

text: physicist

text: Otto von Guericke

text: created the first electrostatic generator, which produced static electricity by applying friction. The generator was made of a large

text: sulfur

text: ball inside a glass globe, mounted on a shaft. The ball was rotated by means of a crank and a

text: static electric

text: spark

text: was produced when a pad was rubbed against the ball as it rotated. The globe could be removed and used as an electrical source for experiments with electricity.  Von Guericke used his generator to show that like charges repelled each other.

text: A pseudocapacitor has a chemical reaction at the electrode, unlike EDLCs where the electrical charge storage is stored electrostatically with no interaction between the electrode and the ions. Pseudocapacitance is accompanied by an electron charge-transfer between electrolyte and electrode coming from a de-solvated and adsorbed ion. One electron per charge unit is involved. The adsorbed ion has no chemical reaction with the atoms of the electrode (no chemical bonds arise) since only a charge-transfer take place. An example is a redox reaction where the ion is O2+ and during charging, one electrode hosts a reduction reaction and the other an oxidation reaction. Under discharge the reactions are reversed.

text: A pseudocapacitor has a chemical reaction at the electrode, unlike EDLCs where the electrical charge storage is stored electrostatically with no interaction between the electrode and the ions. Pseudocapacitance is accompanied by an

text: electron

text: charge-transfer

text: between

text: electrolyte

text: and electrode coming from a

text: de-solvated

text: and

text: adsorbed

text: ion

text: chemical reaction

text: with the

text: atom

text: s of the electrode (no

text: chemical bond

text: s arise) since only a charge-transfer take place. An example is a redox reaction where the ion is O2+ and during charging, one electrode hosts a reduction reaction and the other an oxidation reaction. Under discharge the reactions are reversed.

text: For condensed matter and solids the shape of absorption bands are often determined by transitions between states in their continuous density of states distributions. For crystals the electronic band structure determines the density of states. In fluids, glasses and amorphous solids there is no long range correlation and the dispersion relations are isotropic. This makes density of states calculations of absorption band shapes easier. For charge-transfer complexes and conjugated systems the band width is determined by a variety of factors.

text: For

text: condensed matter

text: and

text: solid

text: s the shape of absorption bands are often determined by transitions between states in their continuous

text: density of states

text: distributions. For

text: crystals

text: the

text: electronic band structure

text: determines the density of states. In

text: fluid

text: s,

text: glass

text: es and

text: amorphous solid

text: s there is no long range

text: correlation

text: and the

text: dispersion relation

text: s are isotropic. This makes density of states calculations of absorption band shapes easier. For

text: charge-transfer complex

text: es and

text: conjugated system

text: s the band width is determined by a variety of factors.

text: A match is a tool for starting a fire. Typically,   modern matches are made of small wooden sticks or stiff paper. One end is coated with a material that can be ignited by frictional heat generated by striking the match against a suitable surface. Wooden matches are packaged in matchboxes, and paper matches are partially cut into rows and stapled into matchbooks. The coated end of a match, known as the match "head", consists of a bead of active ingredients and  binder; often coloured for easier inspection. There are two main types of matches: safety matches, which can be struck only against a specially prepared surface, and strike-anywhere matches, for which any suitably frictional surface can be used. Some match-like compositions, known as electric matches, are ignited electrically and do not make use of heat from friction.

text: A match is a tool for starting a fire. Typically,   modern matches are made of small wooden sticks or stiff

text: paper

text: . One end is coated with a material that can be ignited by

text: friction

text: al heat generated by striking the match against a suitable surface. Wooden matches are packaged in

text: matchbox

text: es, and paper matches are partially cut into rows and stapled into

text: matchbook

text: s. The coated end of a match, known as the match "head", consists of a bead of active ingredients and

text: binder

text: ; often coloured for easier inspection. There are two main types of matches: safety matches, which can be struck only against a specially prepared surface, and strike-anywhere matches, for which any suitably frictional surface can be used. Some match-like compositions, known as

text: electric match

text: es, are ignited electrically and do not make use of heat from friction.

text: A specialized application of electrolysis involves the growth of conductive crystals on one of the electrodes from oxidized or reduced species that are generated in situ.  The technique has been used to obtain single crystals of low-dimensional electrical conductors, such as charge-transfer salts.

text: A specialized application of electrolysis involves the growth of conductive crystals on one of the electrodes from oxidized or reduced species that are generated in situ.  The technique has been used to obtain single crystals of low-dimensional electrical conductors, such as

text: charge-transfer salt

text: s.

text: Unlike other continuum solvation models, COSMO derives the polarization charges of the continuum, caused by the polarity of the solute, from a scaled-conductor approximation. If the solvent were an ideal conductor the electric potential on the cavity surface must disappear. If the distribution of the electric charge in the molecule is known, e.g. from quantum chemistry, then it is possible to calculate the charge q* on the surface segments. For solvents with finite dielectric constant this charge q is lower by approximately a factor ƒ(ε):

text: Unlike other continuum solvation models, COSMO derives the polarization charges of the continuum, caused by the polarity of the solute, from a scaled-conductor approximation. If the solvent were an ideal conductor the

text: electric potential

text: on the cavity surface must disappear. If the distribution of the

text: electric charge

text: in the molecule is known, e.g. from quantum chemistry, then it is possible to calculate the charge q* on the surface segments. For solvents with finite dielectric constant this charge q is lower by approximately a factor ƒ(ε):

text: A ferroelectric material has a nonlinear relationship between the applied electric field and the apparent stored charge. Specifically, the ferroelectric characteristic has the form of a hysteresis loop, which is very similar in shape to the hysteresis loop of ferromagnetic materials. The dielectric constant of a ferroelectric is typically much higher than that of a linear dielectric because of the effects of semi-permanent electric dipoles formed in the crystal structure of the ferroelectric material. When an external electric field is applied across a dielectric, the dipoles tend to align themselves with the field direction, produced by small shifts in the positions of atoms and shifts in the distributions of electronic charge in the crystal structure. After the charge is removed, the dipoles retain their polarization state. Binary "0"s and "1"s are stored as one of two possible electric polarizations in each data storage cell. For example, in the figure a "1" is encoded using the negative remnant polarization "-Pr", and a "0" is encoded using the positive remnant polarization "+Pr".

text: A ferroelectric material has a nonlinear relationship between the applied electric field and the apparent stored charge. Specifically, the ferroelectric characteristic has the form of a

text: hysteresis

text: loop, which is very similar in shape to the hysteresis loop of

text: ferromagnetic

text: materials. The

text: dielectric constant

text: of a ferroelectric is typically much higher than that of a linear dielectric because of the effects of semi-permanent

text: electric dipoles

text: formed in the

text: crystal structure

text: of the ferroelectric material. When an external electric field is applied across a dielectric, the dipoles tend to align themselves with the field direction, produced by small shifts in the positions of atoms and shifts in the distributions of electronic charge in the crystal structure. After the charge is removed, the dipoles retain their polarization state. Binary "0"s and "1"s are stored as one of two possible electric polarizations in each data storage cell. For example, in the figure a "1" is encoded using the negative remnant polarization "-Pr", and a "0" is encoded using the positive remnant polarization "+Pr".

text: Some of the items from the expedition, including the balloon-silk boat and the tent, are on display at the Andréeexpeditionen Polar Centre at Grenna Museum, Sweden. The expedition is also featured in the Spitsbergen Airship Museum in Longyearbyen, Svalbard.

text: Some of the items from the expedition, including the balloon-silk boat and the tent, are on display at the Andréeexpeditionen Polar Centre at Grenna Museum, Sweden. The expedition is also featured in the

text: Spitsbergen Airship Museum

text: in

text: Longyearbyen

text: , Svalbard.

text: Beyond element 121, the superactinide series is expected to begin, when the 8s electrons and the filling 8p, 7d, 6f, and 5g subshells determine the chemistry of these elements. Complete and accurate CCSD calculations are not available for elements beyond 122 because of the extreme complexity of the situation: the 5g, 6f, and 7d orbitals should have about the same energy level, and in the region of element 160 the 9s, 8p, and 9p orbitals should also be about equal in energy. This will cause the electron shells to mix so that the block concept no longer applies very well, and will also result in novel chemical properties that will make positioning these elements in a periodic table very difficult. For example, element 164 is expected to mix characteristics of the elements of group 10, 12, and 18.

text: Beyond element 121, the

text: superactinide

text: series is expected to begin, when the 8s electrons and the filling 8p, 7d, 6f, and 5g subshells determine the chemistry of these elements. Complete and accurate CCSD calculations are not available for elements beyond 122 because of the extreme complexity of the situation: the 5g, 6f, and 7d orbitals should have about the same energy level, and in the region of element 160 the 9s, 8p, and 9p orbitals should also be about equal in energy. This will cause the electron shells to mix so that the

text: block

text: concept no longer applies very well, and will also result in novel chemical properties that will make positioning these elements in a periodic table very difficult. For example, element 164 is expected to mix characteristics of the elements of

text: group 10

text: , and

text: Flora and Fauna during each month of the year:

text: The cycle stealing mode is used in systems in which the CPU should not be disabled for the length of time needed for burst transfer modes. In the cycle stealing mode, the DMA controller obtains access to the system bus the same way as in burst mode, using BR (Bus Request) and BG (Bus Grant) signals, which are the two signals controlling the interface between the CPU and the DMA controller. However, in cycle stealing mode, after one byte of data transfer, the control of the system bus is deasserted to the CPU via BG. It is then continually requested again via BR, transferring one byte of data per request, until the entire block of data has been transferred. By continually obtaining and releasing the control of the system bus, the DMA controller essentially interleaves instruction and data transfers. The CPU processes an instruction, then the DMA controller transfers one data value, and so on. On the one hand, the data block is not transferred as quickly in cycle stealing mode as in burst mode, but on the other hand the CPU is not idled for as long as in burst mode. Cycle stealing mode is useful for controllers that monitor data in real time.

text: The hexagonal structure has a point group 6 mm (Hermann-Mauguin notation) or C (Schoenflies notation), and the space group is P6mc or C. The lattice constants are a = 3.25 Å and c = 5.2 Å; their ratio c/a ~ 1.60 is close to the ideal value for hexagonal cell c/a = 1.633. As in most group II-VI materials, the bonding in ZnO is largely ionic (Zn–O) with the corresponding radii of 0.074 nm for Zn and 0.140 nm for O. This property accounts for the preferential formation of wurtzite rather than zinc blende structure, as well as the strong piezoelectricity of ZnO. Because of the polar Zn-O bonds, zinc and oxygen planes are electrically charged. To maintain electrical neutrality, those planes reconstruct at atomic level in most relative materials, but not in ZnO – its surfaces are atomically flat, stable and exhibit no reconstruction. This anomaly of ZnO is not fully explained.

text: The hexagonal structure has a point group 6 mm (

text: Hermann-Mauguin notation

text: ) or C (

text: Schoenflies notation

text: ), and the

text: space group

text: is P6mc or C. The lattice constants are a = 3.25 Å and c = 5.2 Å; their ratio c/a ~ 1.60 is close to the ideal value for hexagonal cell c/a = 1.633. As in most

text: group II-VI

text: materials, the bonding in ZnO is largely

text: ionic

text: (Zn–O) with the corresponding radii of 0.074 nm for Zn and 0.140 nm for O. This property accounts for the preferential formation of wurtzite rather than zinc blende structure, as well as the strong

text: piezoelectricity

text: of ZnO. Because of the polar Zn-O bonds, zinc and oxygen planes are electrically charged. To maintain electrical neutrality, those planes reconstruct at atomic level in most relative materials, but not in ZnO – its surfaces are atomically flat, stable and exhibit no reconstruction. This anomaly of ZnO is not fully explained.

text: They were; Darren Hoy (aged 27 and from Fitton Hill district of the town), his sister Sharon Hoy (aged 38 and from the Raper Street neighbourhood), their cousin Matthew Berry (aged 25 and from the Limedale district of the town), James Clift (aged 24 and from Chadderton), Mark Priest (aged 32 and from Glossop in Derbyshire), Alan Daley (aged 38 and from Failsworth), David Bourne (aged 35 and from Limeside), Steven Rhodes (aged 30 and from the Medway Road neighbourhood), Paul Brockway (aged 39 and from Blackley) and 22-year-old Failsworth man Stephen Walsh. A 16-year-old boy and a 17-year-old girl were also convicted of involvement in the riot but avoided prison sentences and instead received a supervision order and conditional discharge respectively.

text: They were; Darren Hoy (aged 27 and from Fitton Hill district of the town), his sister Sharon Hoy (aged 38 and from the Raper Street neighbourhood), their cousin Matthew Berry (aged 25 and from the Limedale district of the town), James Clift (aged 24 and from

text: Chadderton

text: ), Mark Priest (aged 32 and from

text: Glossop

text: in

text: Derbyshire

text: ), Alan Daley (aged 38 and from

text: Failsworth

text: ), David Bourne (aged 35 and from

text: Limeside

text: ), Steven Rhodes (aged 30 and from the Medway Road neighbourhood), Paul Brockway (aged 39 and from

text: Blackley

text: ) and 22-year-old Failsworth man Stephen Walsh. A 16-year-old boy and a 17-year-old girl were also convicted of involvement in the riot but avoided prison sentences and instead received a supervision order and conditional discharge respectively.

text: Electrical insulation is the absence of electrical conduction. Electronic band theory (a branch of physics) says that a charge flows if states are available into which electrons can be excited. This allows electrons to gain energy and thereby move through a conductor such as a metal. If no such states are available, the material is an insulator.

text: Electrical insulation is the absence of

text: electrical conduction

text: . Electronic

text: band theory

text: (a branch of physics) says that a charge flows if states are available into which electrons can be excited. This allows electrons to gain energy and thereby move through a conductor such as a

text: metal

text: . If no such states are available, the material is an insulator.

text: Somewhat important to note, it was not until many years after the discovery of the voltaic pile that the sameness of annual and frictional electricity with voltaic electricity was clearly recognized and demonstrated. Thus as late as January 1833 we find Faraday writing in a paper on the electricity of the electric ray. "After an examination of the experiments of Walsh, Ingenhousz, Henry Cavendish, Sir H. Davy, and Dr. Davy, no doubt remains on my mind as to the identity of the electricity of the torpedo with common (frictional) and voltaic electricity; and I presume that so little will remain on the mind of others as to justify my refraining from entering at length into the philosophical proof of that identity. The doubts raised by Sir Humphry Davy have been removed by his brother, Dr. Davy; the results of the latter being the reverse of those of the former. ... The general conclusion which must, I think, be drawn from this collection of facts (a table showing the similarity, of properties of the diversely named electricities) is, that electricity, whatever may be its source, is identical in its nature."

text: Somewhat important to note, it was not until many years after the discovery of the voltaic pile that the sameness of annual and frictional electricity with voltaic electricity was clearly recognized and demonstrated. Thus as late as January 1833 we find Faraday writing in a paper on the electricity of the

text: electric ray

text: . "After an examination of the experiments of Walsh,

text: Ingenhousz

text: Henry Cavendish

text: , Sir

text: H. Davy

text: , and Dr. Davy, no doubt remains on my mind as to the identity of the electricity of the

text: torpedo

text: with common (frictional) and voltaic electricity; and I presume that so little will remain on the mind of others as to justify my refraining from entering at length into the philosophical proof of that identity. The doubts raised by Sir

text: Humphry Davy

text: have been removed by his brother, Dr. Davy; the results of the latter being the reverse of those of the former. ... The general conclusion which must, I think, be drawn from this collection of facts (a table showing the similarity, of properties of the diversely named electricities) is, that electricity, whatever may be its source, is identical in its nature."

text: Mbaka Oromo Primary School is known for the success of its school choir at the national level competitions in Kenya where they have won several times.  Previously, the school's choir was supported by a Rochester teacher, Mr. James Nowak, and monetary donations that he secured to send the choir to the national competition each year.  Tragially, Nowak was killed in a car accident in Kenya in January 2011.

text: There are several techniques for conducting the in-mould labelling process. Vacuum and compressed air can be used to handle the labels, also static electricity can be used. Electrostatic charging electrodes charge a label while it is being transferred to the moulding machine, so that when the label is placed on the tool and released by the labelling robot, it will wrap itself onto the tool. Most robot systems for placement of labels are not required for specific moulding machines and can be used with up to date presses with fast clamping systems.

text: There are several techniques for conducting the in-mould labelling process.

text: Vacuum

text: and

text: compressed air

text: can be used to handle the labels, also

text: static electricity

text: can be used. Electrostatic charging electrodes charge a label while it is being transferred to the moulding machine, so that when the label is placed on the tool and released by the labelling robot, it will wrap itself onto the tool. Most robot systems for placement of labels are not required for specific moulding machines and can be used with up to date presses with fast clamping systems.

text: Shotton Lagoons and Reedbeds is a Site of Special Scientific Interest in the preserved county of Clwyd, north Wales.

text: Shotton Lagoons and Reedbeds is a

text: Site of Special Scientific Interest

text: in the preserved county of

text: Clwyd

text: , north

text: Wales

text: Hoverbikes (Bikes)

text: Hoverbikes (Bikes)

text: Muslim Regime : - In Turk-Afghan period (1206-1526 A.D.), Jharkhand the forest country was under subordination of ruler of that time. So, Ramgarh was present in that region too. The Ramgarh regime was established in 1368. The founder King of Ramgarh regime was King Bagdeo Singh. At that time the capital of Ramgarh was in Sira. The headquarters of capital was transferred in urda, Badam, Ramgarh and Padma one by one. In 1670 the headquarters of Ramgarh regime was transferred in Ramgarh. Ramgarh Regime also known as Padma Raja or Regime.  In around 1740,  Ramgarh was "Jungle District of Ramgarh".

text: Muslim Regime : - In Turk-Afghan period (1206-1526 A.D.), Jharkhand the forest country was under subordination of ruler of that time. So, Ramgarh was present in that region too. The Ramgarh regime was established in 1368. The founder King of Ramgarh regime was King Bagdeo Singh. At that time the capital of Ramgarh was in Sira. The headquarters of capital was transferred in urda, Badam, Ramgarh and

text: Padma

text: one by one. In 1670 the headquarters of Ramgarh regime was transferred in Ramgarh. Ramgarh Regime also known as Padma Raja or Regime.  In around 1740,  Ramgarh was "Jungle District of Ramgarh".

text: Relatively straightforward adaptations of the legends, reconstructed history, or modern Arthurian material.

text: Summer Scent () is a 2003 South Korean television series starring Song Seung-heon, Son Ye-jin, Ryu Jin, and Han Ji-hye. It aired on KBS2 from July 7 to September 9, 2003 on Mondays and Tuesdays at 21:55 for 20 episodes.

text: Summer Scent () is a 2003 South Korean television series starring

text: Song Seung-heon

text: Son Ye-jin

text: Ryu Jin

text: , and

text: Han Ji-hye

text: . It aired on

text: from July 7 to September 9, 2003 on Mondays and Tuesdays at 21:55 for 20 episodes.

text: This belief lasted until Murray Gell-Mann proposed the quark model in 1964 (containing originally only the u, d, and s quarks). The success of the isospin model is now understood to be the result of the similar masses of the u and d quarks. Since the u and d quarks have similar masses, particles made of the same number then also have similar masses. The exact specific u and d quark composition determines the charge, as u quarks carry charge + while d quarks carry charge −. For example, the four Deltas all have different charges ( (uuu),  (uud),  (udd),  (ddd)), but have similar masses (~1,232 MeV/c) as they are each made of a combination of three u and d quarks. Under the isospin model, they were considered to be a single particle in different charged states.

text: This belief lasted until

text: Murray Gell-Mann

text: proposed the

text: quark model

text: in 1964 (containing originally only the u, d, and s quarks). The success of the isospin model is now understood to be the result of the similar masses of the u and d quarks. Since the u and d quarks have similar masses, particles made of the same number then also have similar masses. The exact specific u and d quark composition determines the charge, as u quarks carry charge + while d quarks carry charge −. For example, the four

text: Deltas

text: all have different charges ( (uuu),  (uud),  (udd),  (ddd)), but have similar masses (~1,232 MeV/c) as they are each made of a combination of three u and d quarks. Under the isospin model, they were considered to be a single particle in different charged states.

text: Friction, the force opposing to the relative motion, is usually idealized by means of some empirical laws such as Amonton’s First and Second laws and Coulomb’s law. At the nanoscale, however, such laws may lose their validity. For instance, Amonton’s second law states that friction coefficient is independent from the area of contact. Surfaces, in general, have asperities, that reduce the real area of contact and therefore, minimizing such area can minimize friction.

text: Friction, the force opposing to the relative motion, is usually idealized by means of some empirical laws such as

text: Amonton

text: ’s First and Second laws and

text: Coulomb’s law

text: . At the nanoscale, however, such laws may lose their validity. For instance, Amonton’s second law states that friction coefficient is independent from the area of contact. Surfaces, in general, have asperities, that reduce the real area of contact and therefore, minimizing such area can minimize friction.

text: At the beginning of 2012 Rigas Laiks launched a Russian edition: Rīgas Laiks. Русское издание. Published quarterly it shares the best content with Rigas Laiks monthly edititons.

text: At the beginning of 2012 Rigas Laiks launched a Russian edition:

text: Rīgas Laiks. Русское издание

text: . Published quarterly it shares the best content with Rigas Laiks monthly edititons.

text: is the voltage induced at the open-circuited feedpoint of antenna j due to

text: Sparks has guest-conducted the National Youth Choir of Canada and was the first American in more than two decades to conduct the Swedish Radio Choir in 2002, 2007 and 2008.

text: Sparks has guest-conducted the National Youth Choir of Canada and was the first American in more than two decades to conduct the

text: Swedish Radio Choir

text: in 2002, 2007 and 2008.

text: In late 1974, anticipating a changing law at the turn of the year, the trunklid and front bumper were modified to fit larger-size license plates.

text: Iodotyrosine deiodinase catalyzes mono- and diiodotyrosine deiodination. The reaction is NADPH-dependent.  Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) is a cofactor. Although flavin is commonly utilized in various catalytic reactions, its use in this reductive dehalogenation is unique and not yet fully understood. It is also still unclear if the enzyme mechanism utilizes a two electron transfer reaction or a series of one electron transfers. Although further research must be done to determine details of this mechanism, recent evidence seems to suggest that iodotyrosine deiodinase acts through one electron transfer reactions.

text: Iodotyrosine deiodinase catalyzes mono- and diiodotyrosine deiodination. The reaction is

text: NADPH

text: -dependent.

text: Flavin mononucleotide

text: (FMN) is a cofactor. Although flavin is commonly utilized in various catalytic reactions, its use in this reductive dehalogenation is unique and not yet fully understood. It is also still unclear if the enzyme mechanism utilizes a two electron transfer reaction or a series of one electron transfers. Although further research must be done to determine details of this mechanism, recent evidence seems to suggest that iodotyrosine deiodinase acts through one electron transfer reactions.

text: In 1869, he received his medical doctorate in Vienna, and subsequently worked as an assistant to pathological anatomist Josef Engel (1816–1899). In 1885, he was appointed an associate professor of pathological histology and bacteriology, and from 1893 to 1916, he was director of the pathological-anatomical institute at the University of Vienna. In 1912, he became university rector.

text: In 1869, he received his medical doctorate in

text: Vienna

text: , and subsequently worked as an assistant to pathological anatomist

text: Josef Engel

text: (1816–1899). In 1885, he was appointed an associate professor of pathological

text: histology

text: and bacteriology, and from 1893 to 1916, he was director of the pathological-anatomical institute at the

text: University of Vienna

text: . In 1912, he became university

text: rector

text: We have now a relationship between

text: We have now a relationship between

text: Peperomia caperata (emerald ripple peperomia) is a species of flowering plant in the Piperaceae family, native to Brazil. It is a mound-forming evergreen perennial growing to  tall and wide, with corrugated heart-shaped leaves, and narrow spikes of white flowers  long, in summer.

text: Peperomia caperata (emerald ripple peperomia) is a

text: species

text: of

text: flowering plant

text: in the Piperaceae

text: family

text: native

text: to Brazil. It is a mound-forming

text: evergreen

text: perennial

text: growing to  tall and wide, with corrugated heart-shaped leaves, and narrow spikes of white flowers  long, in summer.

text: The names were mostly dropped with the end of the Ministry in 1959. Its functions were transferred to the War Office, the Air Ministry that handled military aviation, and the newly created Ministry of Aviation in charge of civil aviation. After the reorganization, projects were mostly named with randomly selected codes comprising two letters and three digits, e.g. BL755, WE.177. However, rainbow codes continue to be used with some modern systems; current examples include the Blue Vixen radar and the Orange Reaper Electronic Support Measures system.

text: The names were mostly dropped with the end of the Ministry in 1959. Its functions were transferred to the

text: War Office

text: , the

text: Air Ministry

text: that handled military aviation, and the newly created

text: Ministry of Aviation

text: in charge of civil aviation. After the reorganization, projects were mostly named with randomly selected codes comprising two letters and three digits, e.g.

text: . However, rainbow codes continue to be used with some modern systems; current examples include the

text: Blue Vixen

text: radar and the Orange Reaper

text: Electronic Support Measures

text: system.

text: are the electric charge and the mass of the electron,

text: are the

text: electric charge

text: and the

text: mass

text: of the electron,

text: is the electron charge,

text: is the

text: electron charge