text: Today, the American Global Positioning System (GPS) enables accurate navigation worldwide using over thirty satellites and message timing so exact as to involve general relativity. Ongoing oceanographic research includes marine lifeforms, conservation, the marine environment, the chemistry of the ocean, the studying and modelling of climate dynamics, the air-sea boundary, weather patterns, ocean resources, renewable energy, waves and currents, and the design and development of new tools and technologies for investigating the deep. Researchers make use of satellite-based remote sensing for surface waters, with research ships, moored observatories and autonomous underwater vehicles to study and monitor all parts of the sea.

text: Today, the

entity_name: United States

text: American

entity_name: Global Positioning System

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) enables accurate navigation worldwide using over thirty satellites and message timing so exact as to involve

entity_name: General relativity

text: general relativity

text: . Ongoing oceanographic research includes marine lifeforms, conservation, the marine environment, the chemistry of the ocean, the studying and

entity_name: Climate model

text: modelling of climate dynamics

text: , the air-sea boundary, weather patterns, ocean resources, renewable energy, waves and currents, and the design and development of new tools and technologies for investigating the deep. Researchers make use of satellite-based

entity_name: Remote sensing

text: remote sensing

text: for surface waters, with research ships, moored observatories and autonomous underwater vehicles to study and monitor all parts of the sea.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Other special DOA activity occurred when a satellite neared decay.  When the orbital period fell below 90 minutes, the DSSO notified the DOA and a special analyst was normally assigned to monitor the decay.  In the unusual case of the decay of a Discoverer recovery vehicle that had not come down where programmed, the DOA had access to a special computer program, GRNTRK, which provided a sub-satellite trace for one revolution, to assist in specifying the track.

text: USA-175, also known as GPS IIR-10 and GPS SVN-47, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the tenth Block IIR GPS satellite to be launched, out of thirteen in the original configuration, and twenty one overall. It was built by Lockheed Martin, using the AS-4000 satellite bus.

text: USA-175, also known as GPS IIR-10 and GPS SVN-47, is an

text: American

entity_name: Satellite navigation

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the tenth

entity_name: GPS satellite blocks

entity_section: Block IIR series

text: Block IIR

text: GPS satellite to be launched, out of thirteen in the original configuration, and twenty one

entity_section: Block IIR-M series

text: overall

text: . It was built by

entity_name: Lockheed Martin

text: Lockheed Martin

text: , using the

entity_name: Satellite bus

text: satellite bus

text: The smartphone was intended to provide cameras, accelerometers and high-performance computer processors - almost everything except solar panels and propulsion. During the first phase of the mission STRaND-1 was intended to use a number of experimental apps to collect data, while a new high-speed Linux-based CubeSat computer developed by SSC takes care of the satellite. During phase two the STRaND team intended to switch the satellite's in-orbit operations to the smartphone, thereby testing the capabilities of a number of standard smartphone components in a space environment. There was a public contest in August 2011 to create "space apps" to run on the phone. The winning entries included an app for magnetic field measurements, satellite telemetry display, an Earth imaging application called 360 App, as well as one app which is purported to allow users to see people scream in space. However, the smartphone on board STRaND-1 was not used to control the satellite before it unexpectedly turned off in March 2013 (Phase two was not turned on at this time).

text: The smartphone was intended to provide cameras, accelerometers and high-performance computer processors - almost everything except solar panels and propulsion. During the first phase of the mission STRaND-1 was intended to use a number of experimental

entity_name: Mobile app

text: apps

text: to collect data, while a new high-speed Linux-based CubeSat computer developed by SSC takes care of the satellite. During phase two the STRaND team intended to switch the satellite's in-orbit operations to the smartphone, thereby testing the capabilities of a number of standard smartphone components in a space environment. There was a public contest in August 2011 to create "space apps" to run on the phone. The winning entries included an app for

entity_name: Magnetic field

text: magnetic field

text: measurements,

entity_name: Telemetry

text: satellite telemetry

text: display, an

text: Earth imaging

text: application called 360 App, as well as one app which is purported to allow users to see people scream in space. However, the smartphone on board STRaND-1 was not used to control the satellite before it unexpectedly turned off in March 2013 (Phase two was not turned on at this time).

text: IRF participates in several international satellite projects. At present, data from satellite instruments are being analysed to help us better comprehend the plasma-physical processes in the solar wind and around comets and planets. For example, the Swedish Viking and Freja satellites, with equipment from IRF on board, have greatly increased our knowledge of the auroral processes in the Earth’s magnetosphere, as have the microsatellites Astrid 1 and 2, launched in 1995 and 1998. IRF's own nano-satellite Munin (at 6 kg (13 lb) the smallest-ever research satellite) was launched in 2000. An IRF-built instrument on board the Indian satellite Chandrayaan-1 (launched 2008) collected data from the moon and new techniques for making particle measurements in space were tested on the Swedish satellite mission Prisma (launched 2010). IRF has instruments on board the following on-going satellite projects:

text: IRF participates in several international satellite projects. At present, data from satellite instruments are being analysed to help us better comprehend the plasma-physical processes in the

entity_name: Solar wind

text: solar wind

text: and around

entity_name: Comet

text: comet

text: s and

entity_name: Planet

text: planet

text: s. For example, the Swedish

entity_name: Viking (satellite)

text: Viking

text: and

entity_name: Freja (satellite)

text: Freja

text: satellites, with equipment from IRF on board, have greatly increased our knowledge of the auroral processes in the Earth’s magnetosphere, as have the

entity_name: Small satellite

entity_section: Microsatellites

text: microsatellites

entity_name: Astrid (satellite)

text: Astrid 1 and 2

text: , launched in 1995 and 1998. IRF's own nano-satellite

entity_name: Munin (satellite)

text: Munin

text: (at 6 kg (13 lb) the smallest-ever research satellite) was launched in 2000. An IRF-built instrument on board the Indian satellite Chandrayaan-1 (launched 2008) collected data from the moon and new techniques for making particle measurements in space were tested on the Swedish satellite mission Prisma (launched 2010). IRF has instruments on board the following on-going satellite projects:

text: Since the 1960s, navigation has increasingly moved to satellite navigation systems. These are essentially DME systems located in space. The fact that the satellites are in orbit and normally move with respect to the receiver means that the calculation of the position of the satellite needs to be taken into account as well, which can only be handled effectively with a computer.

text: Since the 1960s, navigation has increasingly moved to

text: satellite navigation system

text: s. These are essentially DME systems located in space. The fact that the satellites are in orbit and normally move with respect to the receiver means that the calculation of the position of the satellite needs to be taken into account as well, which can only be handled effectively with a computer.

text: The HH-60J uses the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System as its primary long range navigational aid, using a Collins RCVR-3A radio to simultaneously receive information from four of the NAVSTAR system's 18 worldwide satellites.

text: The HH-60J uses the

text: NAVSTAR

text: Global Positioning System as its primary long range navigational aid, using a Collins RCVR-3A radio to simultaneously receive information from four of the NAVSTAR system's 18 worldwide satellites.

text: Scientific Atlanta helped NASA establish ground stations for communication with astronauts during the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo projects. When John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth in 1962 on Mercury-Atlas 6, his voice was transmitted and received by radio antennas designed and equipment built by Scientific Atlanta. In the 1970s, Robinson recognized the potential combination of communications satellites and cable television. Ted Turner purchased one of Scientific Atlanta's first satellite systems, which formed the basis of Turner's "Super Station" that was broadcast around the country to other cable providers. In 1975, HBO and TelePrompTer used Scientific Atlanta equipment to transmit the first live satellite-delivered cable event, the "Thrilla in Manila" heavyweight boxing championship bout between Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier. Scientific Atlanta is perhaps best known for pioneering television cable set-top boxes and equipment worldwide and the development of satellite Earth stations.

text: Scientific Atlanta helped NASA establish ground stations for communication with astronauts during the

entity_name: Project Mercury

text: Mercury

entity_name: Project Gemini

text: Gemini

text: and

entity_name: Apollo program

text: Apollo

text: projects. When

entity_name: John Glenn

text: John Glenn

text: became the first American to orbit the Earth in 1962 on

entity_name: Mercury-Atlas 6

text: Mercury-Atlas 6

text: , his voice was transmitted and received by radio antennas designed and equipment built by Scientific Atlanta. In the 1970s, Robinson recognized the potential combination of

entity_name: Communications satellite

text: communications satellite

text: s and

entity_name: Cable television

text: cable television

entity_name: Ted Turner

text: Ted Turner

text: purchased one of Scientific Atlanta's first satellite systems, which formed the basis of Turner's "

entity_name: TBS (U.S. TV channel)

text: Super Station

text: " that was broadcast around the country to other cable providers. In 1975,

entity_name: HBO

text: HBO

text: and

entity_name: TelePrompTer Corporation

text: TelePrompTer

text: used Scientific Atlanta equipment to transmit the first live satellite-delivered cable event, the "

entity_name: Thrilla in Manila

text: Thrilla in Manila

text: " heavyweight boxing championship bout between

entity_name: Muhammad Ali

text: Muhammad Ali

text: and

entity_name: Joe Frazier

text: Joe Frazier

text: . Scientific Atlanta is perhaps best known for pioneering television cable set-top boxes and equipment worldwide and the development of satellite Earth stations.

text: Satellite data based Meteorology And Oceanography Research and Training (SMART) is an ISRO initiative to support students, academics and researchers across the country to pursue research in the field of Meteorology and Oceanography using satellite data archived at MOSDAC and other related datasets. SMART is managed by MOSDAC Research and Training Division (MRTD), MOSDAC Research Group, SAC. The support includes state-of-the-art computer facilities, research guidance and familiarisation with MOSDAC data.

text: Around the Earth, stationary satellites orbit at altitudes of approximately . Writing in 1945, the science-fiction author Arthur C. Clarke imagined communications satellites as travelling in stationary orbits, where those satellites would travel around the Earth at the same speed the globe is spinning, making them hover stationary over one spot on the Earth's surface.

text: Around the

entity_name: Earth

text: Earth

text: , stationary satellites orbit at altitudes of approximately . Writing in 1945, the science-fiction author

entity_name: Arthur C. Clarke

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: imagined

text: communications satellite

text: s as travelling in stationary orbits, where those satellites would travel around the Earth at the same speed the globe is spinning, making them hover stationary over one spot on the Earth's surface.

text: While the orbit of a satellite around the Sun was empirically discovered by Kepler and theoretically proven by Newton to be an ellipse, at the time when the United States was interested in going to the Moon, there was no such solution known for the shape of a satellite orbiting regularly around two objects, such as a spacecraft going between the Earth and the Moon.  This is a special case of the infamous Three Body Problem, for which a  general analytical solution is not known because of its complexity of solving the effect of three bodies which all pull on each other while moving, a total of six interactions.  However the case of an Earth-Moon satellite can be simplified to four interactions, because although the three objects gravitationally all pull on each other, the effect of the spacecraft's gravity upon the motion of the vastly more massive Earth and Moon is practically non-existent.  Arenstorf found a stable orbit for a spacecraft orbiting between the Earth and Moon, shaped like an '8' with the Earth or Moon located inside each loop of the '8'.  This orbit is the basis of a path going to the Moon from the Earth, such as the United States Apollo program.  For a permanent presence on the Moon, it would be the path of what Arenstorf calls a 'Space Bus', a ferry which could regularly orbit supplies and people between the Earth and Moon without directly expending fuel.   By staying on the Arenstorf orbit, lunar astronauts automatically return to Earth.  Before leaving NASA at the first Moon Landing, Arenstorf mapped out an emergency rescue orbit, which was used in the Apollo 13 incident, in which a catastrophic malfunction forced aborting the Moon landing, but the astronauts ultimately returned safely to Earth without a major course adjustment.

text: While the orbit of a satellite around the Sun was empirically discovered by Kepler and theoretically proven by Newton to be an

entity_name: Ellipse

text: ellipse

text: , at the time when the United States was interested in going to the Moon, there was no such solution known for the shape of a satellite orbiting regularly around two objects, such as a spacecraft going between the Earth and the Moon.  This is a special case of the infamous

entity_name: Three-body problem

text: Three Body Problem

text: , for which a  general analytical solution is not known because of its complexity of solving the effect of three bodies which all pull on each other while moving, a total of six interactions.  However the case of an Earth-Moon satellite can be simplified to four interactions, because although the three objects gravitationally all pull on each other, the effect of the spacecraft's gravity upon the motion of the vastly more massive Earth and Moon is practically non-existent.  Arenstorf found a stable orbit for a spacecraft orbiting between the Earth and Moon, shaped like an '8' with the Earth or Moon located inside each loop of the '8'.  This orbit is the basis of a path going to the Moon from the Earth, such as the United States

text: Apollo program

text: .  For a permanent presence on the Moon, it would be the path of what Arenstorf calls a 'Space Bus', a ferry which could regularly orbit supplies and people between the Earth and Moon without directly expending fuel.   By staying on the Arenstorf orbit, lunar astronauts automatically return to Earth.  Before leaving NASA at the first Moon Landing, Arenstorf mapped out an emergency rescue orbit, which was used in the

entity_name: Apollo 13

text: Apollo 13

text: incident, in which a catastrophic malfunction forced aborting the Moon landing, but the astronauts ultimately returned safely to Earth without a major course adjustment.

text: Author Arthur C. Clarke is credited with proposing the notion of using a geostationary orbit for communications satellites. The orbit is also known as the Clarke Orbit.  Together, the collection of artificial satellites in these orbits is known as the Clarke Belt.

text: Author

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: is credited with proposing the notion of using a geostationary orbit for communications satellites. The orbit is also known as the Clarke Orbit.  Together, the collection of artificial satellites in these orbits is known as the Clarke Belt.

text: Be that as it may, the NEqO orbit does have 3 distinct disadvantages. Analysis through the commercially available Satellite Tool Kit (STK) software had shown that the orbit revisit over Malaysia was found to have a maximum peak of 2-4 overpasses per day during daylight hours (from 8 am to 6:30 pm) to a period of 6 consecutive days without any usable daylight overpasses. The second disadvantage is that most imagery acquired through the NEqO orbit are not usable through a remote sensing perspective as the NEqO orbit is not a sun-synchronous orbit, a vital criterion for monitoring and analysis work. Thirdly, it was found that the NEqO orbit exposes the satellite to the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) phenomenon on every orbit it takes around the earth unlike the polar orbit, near-polar or sun-synchronous orbits, thereby further increasing the risk of radiation damage to the satellite.

text: Be that as it may, the NEqO orbit does have 3 distinct disadvantages. Analysis through the commercially available

entity_name: Systems Tool Kit

text: Satellite Tool Kit

text: (STK) software had shown that the orbit revisit over Malaysia was found to have a maximum peak of 2-4 overpasses per day during daylight hours (from 8 am to 6:30 pm) to a period of 6 consecutive days without any usable daylight overpasses. The second disadvantage is that most imagery acquired through the NEqO orbit are not usable through a remote sensing perspective as the NEqO orbit is not a

entity_name: Sun-synchronous orbit

text: sun-synchronous

text: orbit, a vital criterion for monitoring and analysis work. Thirdly, it was found that the NEqO orbit exposes the satellite to the

entity_name: South Atlantic Anomaly

text: South Atlantic Anomaly

text: (SAA) phenomenon on every orbit it takes around the earth unlike the

entity_name: Polar orbit

text: polar orbit

text: , near-polar or

text: sun-synchronous

text: orbits, thereby further increasing the risk of radiation damage to the satellite.

text: The IRS system is the largest constellation of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today in the world, with 11 operational satellites. All these are placed in polar sun-synchronous orbit and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions. Though most are not meant to be dedicated military satellites, some have a spatial resolution of 1 metre or below which can be also used for military applications. The following is a noteworthy list of satellites:

text: The

entity_name: Indian Remote Sensing

text: IRS system

text: is the largest constellation of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today in the world, with 11 operational satellites. All these are placed in polar sun-synchronous orbit and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions. Though most are not meant to be dedicated military satellites, some have a spatial resolution of 1 metre or below which can be also used for military applications. The following is a noteworthy list of satellites:

text: Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military (spy) and civilian Earth observation satellites, communication satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites.

text: Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military (spy) and civilian Earth observation satellites, communication satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites.

entity_name: Space station

text: Space station

text: s and human

entity_name: Spacecraft

text: spacecraft

text: in orbit are also satellites.

text: While electric engines have been fitted in recent years to scientific spacecraft and to communications satellites for station-keeping, there is a benefit to extending this use of electric propulsion to raising a satellite from its initial orbit after launch to its final intended geostationary orbit, a task currently usually undertaken by chemical rocket engines.

text: While electric engines have been fitted in recent years to scientific spacecraft and to communications satellites for

entity_name: Orbital station-keeping

text: station-keeping

text: , there is a benefit to extending this use of electric propulsion to raising a satellite from its initial orbit after launch to its final intended geostationary orbit, a task currently usually undertaken by chemical

entity_name: Rocket engine

text: rocket engine

text: s.

text: A GPS tracking unit is a device, normally carried by a moving vehicle or person, that uses the Global Positioning System to determine and track its precise location, and hence that of its carrier, at intervals. The recorded location data can be stored within the tracking unit, or it may be transmitted to a central location database, or Internet-connected computer, using a cellular (GPRS or SMS), radio, or satellite modem embedded in the unit. This allows the asset's location to be displayed against a map backdrop either in real time or when analysing the track later, using GPS tracking software. Data tracking software is available for smartphones with GPS capability.

text: A GPS tracking unit is a device, normally carried by a moving vehicle or person, that uses the

text: Global Positioning System

text: to determine and track its precise location, and hence that of its carrier, at intervals. The recorded location data can be stored within the tracking unit, or it may be transmitted to a central location database, or

entity_name: Internet

text: Internet

text: -connected computer, using a

entity_name: Routing in cellular networks

text: cellular

entity_name: General Packet Radio Service

text: GPRS

text: or

entity_name: Short Message Service

text: SMS

entity_name: Radio

text: radio

text: , or

entity_name: Satellite modem

text: satellite modem

text: embedded in the unit. This allows the asset's location to be displayed against a map backdrop either in real time or when analysing the track later, using GPS tracking software. Data tracking software is available for

entity_name: Smartphone

text: smartphone

text: s with GPS capability.

text: The second application of space militarisation currently in use is GPS or Global Positioning System.   This satellite navigation system is used for determining one's precise location and providing a highly accurate time reference almost anywhere on Earth or in Earth orbit. It uses an intermediate circular orbit (ICO) satellite constellation of at least 24 satellites.  The GPS system was designed by and is controlled by the United States Department of Defense and can be used by anyone, free of charge. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$400 million per year, including the replacement of ageing satellites. The first of 24 satellites that form the current GPS constellation (Block II) was placed into orbit on February 14, 1989. The 52nd GPS satellite since the beginning in 1978 was launched November 6, 2004 aboard a Delta II rocket.The primary military purposes are to allow improved command and control of forces through improved location awareness, and to facilitate accurate targeting of smart bombs, cruise missiles, or other munitions. The satellites also carry nuclear detonation detectors, which form a major portion of the United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System.  European concern about the level of control over the GPS network and commercial issues has resulted in the planned Galileo positioning system. Russia already operates an independent system called GLONASS (global navigation system), the system operates with 24 satellites that are deployed in 3 orbital planes as opposed to the 4 GPS is deployed in.The Chinese "Beidou" system provides China a similar regional (not global) navigation capability. India is currently developing its own regional satellite navigation system, the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System.

text: The second application of space militarisation currently in use is GPS or

text: Global Positioning System

text: .   This

text: satellite navigation system

text: is used for determining one's precise location and providing a highly accurate

entity_name: Time transfer

text: time reference

text: almost anywhere on

text: Earth

text: or in

entity_name: Geocentric orbit

text: Earth orbit

text: . It uses an

entity_name: Medium Earth orbit

text: intermediate circular orbit

text: (ICO)

entity_name: Satellite constellation

text: satellite constellation

text: of at least 24 satellites.  The GPS system was designed by and is controlled by the

entity_name: United States Department of Defense

text: United States Department of Defense

text: and can be used by anyone, free of charge. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$400 million per year, including the replacement of ageing satellites. The first of 24 satellites that form the current GPS constellation (Block II) was placed into orbit on February 14, 1989. The 52nd GPS satellite since the beginning in 1978 was launched November 6, 2004 aboard a

entity_name: Delta II

text: Delta II

text: rocket.The primary military purposes are to allow improved command and control of forces through improved location awareness, and to facilitate accurate targeting of

entity_name: Guided bomb

text: smart bombs

entity_name: Cruise missile

text: cruise missiles

text: , or other munitions. The satellites also carry nuclear detonation detectors, which form a major portion of the

entity_name: Vela (satellite)

text: United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System

entity_name: Europe

text: Europe

text: an concern about the level of control over the GPS network and commercial issues has resulted in the planned

entity_name: Galileo (satellite navigation)

text: Galileo positioning system

text: . Russia already operates an independent system called

entity_name: GLONASS

text: GLONASS

text: (global navigation system), the system operates with 24 satellites that are deployed in 3 orbital planes as opposed to the 4 GPS is deployed in.The Chinese "Beidou" system provides China a similar regional (not global) navigation capability. India is currently developing its own regional satellite navigation system, the

entity_name: Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System

text: Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System

text: USA-183, also known as GPS IIR-14(M), GPS IIRM-1 and GPS SVN-53, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the first of eight Block IIRM satellites to be launched, and the fourteenth of twenty one Block IIR satellites overall. It was built by Lockheed Martin, using the AS-4000 satellite bus.

text: USA-183, also known as GPS IIR-14(M), GPS IIRM-1 and GPS SVN-53, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the first of eight

text: Block IIRM

text: satellites to be launched, and the fourteenth of twenty one

text: Block IIR

text: satellites overall. It was built by

text: Lockheed Martin

text: , using the

text: satellite bus

text: The spacecraft’s landing was to be completely automated. Mission Control would have sent coordinates to the onboard computer system. This system would also have used wind sensors and the Global Positioning System (a satellite-based coordinate system) to coordinate a safe trip home. Since the Crew Return Vehicle was designed with medical emergencies in mind, it made sense that the vehicle could find its way home automatically in the event that crew members were incapacitated or injured. If there was a need, the crew would have the capability to operate the vehicle by switching to the backup systems. In addition, seven high altitude low opening (HALO) parachute packs were included in the crew cabin, a measure designed to provide for the ability to bail out of the craft.

text: The spacecraft’s landing was to be completely automated. Mission Control would have sent coordinates to the onboard computer system. This system would also have used wind sensors and the

text: Global Positioning System

text: (a

text: satellite

text: -based coordinate system) to coordinate a safe trip home. Since the Crew Return Vehicle was designed with medical emergencies in mind, it made sense that the vehicle could find its way home automatically in the event that crew members were incapacitated or injured. If there was a need, the crew would have the capability to operate the vehicle by switching to the backup systems. In addition, seven high altitude low opening (

text: HALO

text: ) parachute packs were included in the crew cabin, a measure designed to provide for the ability to bail out of the craft.

text: The 2-meter band is also used in conjunction with the 70-centimeter band, or the 10-meter band and various microwave bands via orbiting amateur radio satellites.  This is known as cross band repeating.  On-board software defines what mode or band is in use at any particular time and this is determined by amateurs at so-called earth stations who control or instruct the satellite behavior.  Amateurs know what mode is in use via published internet schedules.  For instance, a favorite mode is Mode "B" or "V/U" which simply indicates the uplink and downlink frequencies or bands the satellite is currently using.  In this example, V/U means VHF/UHF or VHF uplink with UHF downlink.  Most amateur satellites are Low Earth Orbit satellites, or LEO's as they are affectionately known, and generally are about 450 miles (700 km) high.  At that height amateurs can expect reception distances of up to around .  However, there are a few amateur satellites that have very high elliptical orbits.  These satellites can reach altitudes of 30,000 miles (50,000 km) above the earth where an entire hemisphere is visible providing outstanding communications capabilities from any two points on the earth within line of sight of the satellite; distances that are far beyond the reach of the LEO's.  Satellites are basically orbiting repeaters.

text: The 2-meter band is also used in conjunction with the

text: 70-centimeter band

text: , or the

text: 10-meter band

text: and various microwave bands via orbiting

text: amateur radio satellite

text: s.  This is known as cross band repeating.  On-board software defines what mode or band is in use at any particular time and this is determined by amateurs at so-called earth stations who control or instruct the satellite behavior.  Amateurs know what mode is in use via published internet schedules.  For instance, a favorite mode is Mode "B" or "V/U" which simply indicates the uplink and downlink frequencies or bands the satellite is currently using.  In this example, V/U means VHF/UHF or VHF uplink with UHF downlink.  Most amateur satellites are

text: Low Earth Orbit

text: satellites, or LEO's as they are affectionately known, and generally are about 450 miles (700 km) high.  At that height amateurs can expect reception distances of up to around .  However, there are a few amateur satellites that have very high elliptical orbits.  These satellites can reach altitudes of 30,000 miles (50,000 km) above the earth where an entire hemisphere is visible providing outstanding communications capabilities from any two points on the earth within line of sight of the satellite; distances that are far beyond the reach of the LEO's.  Satellites are basically orbiting repeaters.

text: A GPS satellite is a satellite used by the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS). The first satellite in the system, Navstar 1, was launched February 22, 1978. The GPS satellite constellation is operated by the 50th Space Wing of the United States Air Force.

text: A GPS satellite is a

text: satellite

text: used by the NAVSTAR

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS). The first satellite in the system, Navstar 1, was launched February 22, 1978. The GPS

text: satellite constellation

text: is operated by the

text: 50th Space Wing

text: of the

text: United States Air Force

text: Though digital mapping can be found in a variety of computer applications the main use of these maps is with the Global Positioning System, or GPS satellite network, used in standard automotive navigation systems.

text: Though digital mapping can be found in a variety of computer applications the main use of these maps is with the

text: Global Positioning System

text: , or

text: GPS

text: satellite network, used in standard

text: automotive navigation system

text: s.

text: The Launch was scheduled for the fourth quarter of 2012 and is ready, but launch practicalities will move it into 2013. DubaiSat-2 also includes an experimental propulsion system for orbit correction and maintenance. The satellite’s expected lifetime is at least five years. The modules in the satellite use two CAN Bus networks to communicate with each other without the use of a host computer.

text: For the US and partner countries, to the extent that optical and radar resources allow, the Joint Space Operations Center gathers observations of all objects in Earth orbit.  The observations are used in new orbit determination calculations that maintain the overall accuracy of the satellite catalog.  Collision avoidance calculations may use this data to calculate the probability that one orbiting object will collide with another.  A satellite's operator may decide to adjust the orbit, if the risk of collision in the present orbit is unacceptable.  (It is not possible to adjust the orbit every time a very-low-probability situation is encountered; doing so would cause the satellite to quickly run out of propellant.)  When the quantity or quality of observations improves, the accuracy of the orbit determination process also improves, and fewer "false alarms" are brought to the attention of satellite operators.  Other countries, including Russia and China, have similar tracking assets.

text: For the

text: US

text: and partner countries, to the extent that

entity_name: United States Space Surveillance Network

entity_section: Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance

text: optical

text: and

text: radar

text: resources allow, the

text: Joint Space Operations Center

text: gathers observations of all objects in Earth orbit.  The observations are used in new orbit determination calculations that maintain the overall accuracy of the

text: satellite catalog

text: Collision avoidance

text: calculations may use this data to calculate the probability that one orbiting object will collide with another.  A satellite's operator may decide to adjust the orbit, if the risk of collision in the present orbit is unacceptable.  (It is not possible to adjust the orbit every time a very-low-probability situation is encountered; doing so would cause the satellite to quickly run out of

text: propellant

text: .)  When the quantity or quality of observations improves, the accuracy of the orbit determination process also improves, and fewer "

text: false alarms

text: " are brought to the attention of satellite operators.  Other countries, including

text: Russia

text: and

text: China

text: , have similar tracking assets.

text: The NAVIC or NAVigation with Indian Constellation is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system developed by Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) which would be under the total control of Indian government. The government approved the project in May 2006, with the intention of the system completed and implemented on 28 April 2016. It will consist of a constellation of 7 navigational satellites. 3 of the satellites will be placed in the Geostationary orbit (GEO) and the remaining 4 in the Geosynchronous orbit(GSO) to have a larger signal footprint and lower number of satellites to map the region. It is intended to provide an all-weather absolute position accuracy of better than 7.6 meters throughout India and within a region extending approximately 1,500 km around it. A goal of complete Indian control has been stated, with the space segment, ground segment and user receivers all being built in India. All seven satellites, IRNSS-1A, IRNSS-1B, IRNSS-1C, IRNSS-1D, IRNSS-1E, IRNSS-1F, and IRNSS-1G, of the proposed constellation were precisely launched on 1 July 2013, 4 April 2014, 16 October 2014, 28 March 2015, 20 January 2016, 10 March 2016 and 28 April 2016 respectively from Satish Dhawan Space Centre. The system is expected to be fully operational by August 2016.

text: The NAVIC or NAVigation with Indian Constellation is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system developed by

text: Indian Space Research Organisation

text: (ISRO) which would be under the total control of

text: Indian government

text: . The government approved the project in May 2006, with the intention of the system completed and implemented on 28 April 2016. It will consist of a constellation of 7 navigational satellites. 3 of the satellites will be placed in the

text: Geostationary orbit (GEO)

text: and the remaining 4 in the

text: Geosynchronous orbit(GSO)

text: to have a larger signal footprint and lower number of satellites to map the region. It is intended to provide an all-weather absolute position accuracy of better than 7.6 meters throughout

text: India

text: and within a region extending approximately 1,500 km around it. A goal of complete Indian control has been stated, with the

text: space segment

text: ground segment

text: and user receivers all being built in India. All seven satellites,

text: , and

text: , of the proposed constellation were precisely launched on 1 July 2013, 4 April 2014, 16 October 2014, 28 March 2015, 20 January 2016, 10 March 2016 and 28 April 2016 respectively from

text: Satish Dhawan Space Centre

text: . The system is expected to be fully operational by August 2016.

text: The formerly Soviet, and now Russian, Global'naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema (, GLObal NAvigation Satellite System), or GLONASS, is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides a civilian radionavigation-satellite service and is also used by the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces. The full orbital constellation of 24 GLONASS satellites enables full global coverage.

text: The formerly

text: Soviet

text: , and now

text: Russia

text: n, Global'naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema (, GLObal NAvigation Satellite System), or GLONASS, is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides a civilian radionavigation-satellite service and is also used by the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces. The full orbital constellation of 24 GLONASS satellites enables full global coverage.

text: The first home of the AMVER Center was at the New York Custom House in downtown New York City, due to the fact that many commercial cargo and passenger lines operating in the Atlantic maintained offices nearby, and AMVER's success would depend on close ties to the merchant fleet. The system's first computer was an IBM RAMAC (Random Access Method Accounting Control), characterized as being able to "evaluate information and determine the position of vessels through dead reckoning." The product of the computer was a "Surface Picture" or "SURPIC" of an area of the ocean, indicating the AMVER participating ships in the vicinity. In 1966, the Coast Guard moved its regional headquarters from the Custom House to Governors Island, in upper New York Bay. The move included the AMVER Center and consolidated all New York area Coast Guard activities, including a Rescue Coordination Center, at one site. One year after the move, AMVER's title was revised to read Automated Merchant VEssel Reporting program. Subsequent homes for the AMVER computer would include Washington, D.C; Governors Island, New York; and now at Martinsburg, West Virginia.In October 1982, the first joint AMVER/satellite-alerting rescue occurred, using the experimental ARGOS and Cospas-Sarsat system. December of that year saw the U.S. Maritime Administration and the Coast Guard sign an agreement making AMVER participation mandatory for U.S.-flag shipping, and suspending the requirement for the filing of reports to the overlapping USMER reporting system. This benefited many U.S. masters, already AMVER participants, who were juggling reports to two parallel systems, and allowed for a consolidated plot of all U.S. shipping worldwide.With the advent of the Global Maritime Distress Safety System (GMDSS), the role of AMVER was redefined to complement the emerging technology. Rescue coordination centers around the world began using Electronic Position Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRBS), Inmarsat-C and Digital Selective Calling terminal auto-alarms to "take the search out of search and rescue." Then, attention could be turned to AMVER as a tool for the rescue phase of the operation.The beginning of the 1990s saw the need for the entire software package of AMVER to be rewritten in UNIX/Windows technology to keep pace with the evolution of data processing. This new version would provide more capacity; mechanisms for recurrent routings and maintaining ships on station (e.g., research ships or fishing factory ships); graphic plot depiction; and parser capability, once again bringing AMVER current with the state-of-the-art. Home for the AMVER Center was moved to the Operations Systems Center, a new facility designed and built to consolidate many Coast Guard computer systems at Martinsburg, West Virginia. Contracted out to civilian operation, this facility released many staff members for reassignment throughout the Coast Guard.In conjunction with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and COMSAT (the U.S. signatory to Inmarsat) AMVER has assisted in the development of "compressed message" software to move report data at high speed and low cost to encourage more frequent, user-friendly reporting and thus increase plot accuracy at a time when many shipping companies are removing full-time radio officers from GMDSS-compliant ships.Today, over 22,000 ships from hundreds of nations participate in AMVER. An average of 4,000 ships are on the AMVER plot each day and those numbers continue to increase. The AMVER Center computer receives over 14,000 AMVER messages a day. Over 2,800 lives have been saved by AMVER participating ships since 2000.

text: The first home of the AMVER Center was at the

entity_name: United States Custom House (New York City)

text: New York Custom House

text: in downtown New York City, due to the fact that many commercial cargo and passenger lines operating in the Atlantic maintained offices nearby, and AMVER's success would depend on close ties to the merchant fleet. The system's first computer was an

text: IBM RAMAC

text: (Random Access Method Accounting Control), characterized as being able to "evaluate information and determine the position of vessels through

text: dead reckoning

text: ." The product of the computer was a "Surface Picture" or "SURPIC" of an area of the ocean, indicating the AMVER participating ships in the vicinity. In 1966, the Coast Guard moved its regional headquarters from the Custom House to

text: Governors Island

text: , in upper New York Bay. The move included the AMVER Center and consolidated all New York area Coast Guard activities, including a

text: Rescue Coordination Center

text: , at one site. One year after the move, AMVER's title was revised to read Automated Merchant VEssel Reporting program. Subsequent homes for the AMVER computer would include

text: Washington, D.C

text: ; Governors Island, New York; and now at

text: Martinsburg, West Virginia

text: .In October 1982, the first joint AMVER/satellite-alerting rescue occurred, using the experimental

text: ARGOS

text: and

text: Cospas-Sarsat

text: system. December of that year saw the

text: U.S. Maritime Administration

text: and the Coast Guard sign an agreement making AMVER participation mandatory for U.S.-flag shipping, and suspending the requirement for the filing of reports to the overlapping

text: USMER

text: reporting system. This benefited many U.S. masters, already AMVER participants, who were juggling reports to two parallel systems, and allowed for a consolidated plot of all U.S. shipping worldwide.With the advent of the

entity_name: Global Maritime Distress and Safety System

text: Global Maritime Distress Safety System

text: (GMDSS), the role of AMVER was redefined to complement the emerging technology. Rescue coordination centers around the world began using

entity_name: Emergency position-indicating radiobeacon station

text: Electronic Position Indicating Radio Beacons

text: (EPIRBS),

text: Inmarsat-C

text: and

text: Digital Selective Calling

text: terminal auto-alarms to "take the search out of search and rescue." Then, attention could be turned to AMVER as a tool for the rescue phase of the operation.The beginning of the 1990s saw the need for the entire software package of AMVER to be rewritten in

text: UNIX

text: Windows

text: technology to keep pace with the evolution of data processing. This new version would provide more capacity; mechanisms for recurrent routings and maintaining ships on station (e.g., research ships or fishing factory ships); graphic plot depiction; and parser capability, once again bringing AMVER current with the state-of-the-art. Home for the AMVER Center was moved to the Operations Systems Center, a new facility designed and built to consolidate many Coast Guard computer systems at Martinsburg, West Virginia. Contracted out to civilian operation, this facility released many staff members for reassignment throughout the Coast Guard.In conjunction with the

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: (NOAA) and

text: COMSAT

text: (the U.S. signatory to Inmarsat) AMVER has assisted in the development of "compressed message" software to move report data at high speed and low cost to encourage more frequent, user-friendly reporting and thus increase plot accuracy at a time when many shipping companies are removing full-time radio officers from GMDSS-compliant ships.Today, over 22,000 ships from hundreds of nations participate in AMVER. An average of 4,000 ships are on the AMVER plot each day and those numbers continue to increase. The AMVER Center computer receives over 14,000 AMVER messages a day. Over 2,800 lives have been saved by AMVER participating ships since 2000.

text: If the satellites being used are scattered throughout the sky, then the value of geometric dilution of precision (GDOP) is low while if satellites are clustered near each other from the receiver's vantage point the GDOP values are higher. The lower the value of GDOP then the better the ratio of position error to range error computing will be, so GDOP plays an important role in calculating the receiver's position on the surface of the earth using pseudoranges. The larger the number of satellites, the better the value of GDOP will be.

text: A Culinary Arts program was started in 1993 and a satellite campus in the Denver Design District at 675 S. Broadway is used for the Culinary Arts program. The Broadway location has four labs for production of hot and cold foods, one baking and pastry lab, one multipurpose lab, and one computer lab, along with the student-run Assignments Restaurant. In 2000, the school moved its main campus to 1200 Lincoln St., keeping the old location as another satellite building, primarily devoted to the Industrial Design department. In 2012, they vacated the building on 9th Avenue, and all programs other than Culinary are now hosted at the 1200 Lincoln location, which houses 26 classrooms; fifteen computer labs; a library; photography studios; digital video, animation, sound and editing studios; and the John Jellico Gallery in the Golden Triangle District in Downtown Denver. A long-term arrangement for student housing was made at 5785 E. 8th Ave. All three buildings are still used by the school today.

text: A

text: Culinary Arts

text: program was started in 1993 and a satellite campus in the Denver Design District at 675 S. Broadway is used for the Culinary Arts program. The Broadway location has four labs for production of hot and cold foods, one baking and pastry lab, one multipurpose lab, and one computer lab, along with the student-run Assignments Restaurant. In 2000, the school moved its main campus to 1200 Lincoln St., keeping the old location as another satellite building, primarily devoted to the Industrial Design department. In 2012, they vacated the building on 9th Avenue, and all programs other than Culinary are now hosted at the 1200 Lincoln location, which houses 26 classrooms; fifteen computer labs; a library; photography studios; digital video, animation, sound and editing studios; and the John Jellico Gallery in the Golden Triangle District in Downtown Denver. A long-term arrangement for student housing was made at 5785 E. 8th Ave. All three buildings are still used by the school today.

text: There are two on board computers in LituanicaSAT-1 due to redundancy requirements: the flight computer based on ARM Cortex-M4F microcontroller and secondary (back-up) computer based on an Atmel ATMega2560 microcontroller. The flight computer is the central control unit of the satellite responsible for maintaining the normal operating mode of the satellite, monitoring and control of energy resources, control of attitude determination sub-system and performance of telecommands received from the satellite ground station in Vilnius University, Lithuania. Secondary flight computer is based on Arduino. It ensures limited but safe functionality of the satellite in case of the main CPU failure and will also take and record the first pictures made from space, as well as control the radio beacon of the satellite.

text: There are two on board computers in LituanicaSAT-1 due to redundancy requirements: the flight computer based on

text: ARM Cortex-M4F

text: microcontroller and secondary (back-up) computer based on an

text: Atmel

text: microcontroller. The flight computer is the central control unit of the satellite responsible for maintaining the normal operating mode of the satellite, monitoring and control of energy resources, control of attitude determination sub-system and performance of telecommands received from the satellite ground station in

text: Vilnius University

text: Lithuania

text: . Secondary flight computer is based on

text: Arduino

text: . It ensures limited but safe functionality of the satellite in case of the main CPU failure and will also take and record the first pictures made from space, as well as control the radio beacon of the satellite.

text: The development of atomic clocks has led to many scientific and technological advances such as a worldwide system of precise position measurement (the Global Positioning System and GLObal NAvigation Satellite System), and applications in the Internet, which depend critically on frequency and time standards. Atomic clocks are installed at sites of time signal radio transmitters. They are used at some long wave and medium wave broadcasting stations to deliver a very precise carrier frequency. Atomic clocks are used in many scientific disciplines, such as for long-baseline interferometry in radioastronomy.

text: The development of atomic clocks has led to many scientific and technological advances such as a worldwide system of precise position measurement (the

text: Global Positioning System

text: and

text: GLObal NAvigation Satellite System

text: ), and applications in the

text: Internet

text: , which depend critically on frequency and time standards. Atomic clocks are installed at sites of

text: time signal

text: radio transmitters. They are used at some long wave and medium wave broadcasting stations to deliver a very precise carrier frequency. Atomic clocks are used in many scientific disciplines, such as for long-baseline

text: interferometry

text: in

text: radioastronomy

text: A special case of geosynchronous orbit is the geostationary orbit, which is a circular geosynchronous orbit at zero inclination (that is, directly above the equator). A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears stationary, always at the same point in the sky, to ground observers. Popularly or loosely, the term "geosynchronous" may be used to mean geostationary. Specifically, geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) may be a synonym for geosynchronous equatorial orbit, or geostationary Earth orbit. Communications satellites are often given geostationary orbits, or close to geostationary, so that the satellite antennas that communicate with them do not have to move, but can be pointed permanently at the fixed location in the sky where the satellite appears.

text: A special case of geosynchronous orbit is the

text: geostationary orbit

text: , which is a circular geosynchronous orbit at zero

text: inclination

text: (that is, directly above the

text: equator

text: ). A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears stationary, always at the same point in the sky, to ground observers. Popularly or loosely, the term "geosynchronous" may be used to mean geostationary. Specifically, geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) may be a synonym for geosynchronous equatorial orbit, or geostationary Earth orbit.

text: Communications satellite

text: s are often given geostationary orbits, or close to geostationary, so that the

text: satellite antenna

text: s that communicate with them do not have to move, but can be pointed permanently at the fixed location in the sky where the satellite appears.

text: Chinese media describe the satellites as intended for "scientific experiments, land survey, crop yield assessment, and disaster monitoring". Western analysts suspect that they are also used for military purposes.  Analysts believe that each satellite employs either optical or synthetic aperture radar (SAR) sensors and that the SAR satellites are of the Jian Bing-5 series.

text: Chinese media

text: describe the satellites as intended for "

text: scientific experiments

text: land survey

text: crop yield

text: assessment, and

text: disaster

text: monitoring".

text: Western

text: analysts suspect that they are also used for

text: military purposes

text: .  Analysts believe that each satellite employs either

text: optical

text: or

text: synthetic aperture radar

text: (SAR) sensors and that the SAR satellites are of the Jian Bing-5 series.

text: Since 1982, satellites have been increasingly utilized to measure SST and have allowed its spatial and temporal variation to be viewed more fully. For example, changes in SST monitored via satellite have been used to document the progression of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation since the 1970s.  Over the land the retrieval of temperature from radiances is harder, because of the inhomogeneities in the surface.  Studies have been conducted on the urban heat island effect via satellite imagery.  Use of advanced very high resolution infrared satellite imagery can be used, in the absence of cloudiness, to detect density discontinuities (weather fronts) such as cold fronts at ground level.  Using the Dvorak technique, infrared satellite imagery can be used to determine the temperature difference between the eye and the cloud top temperature of the central dense overcast of mature tropical cyclones to estimate their maximum sustained winds and their minimum central pressures.  Along Track Scanning Radiometers aboard weather satellites are able to detect wildfires, which show up at night as pixels with a greater temperature than .  The Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer aboard the Terra satellite can detect thermal hot spots associated with wildfires, volcanoes, and industrial hot spots.

text: Since 1982,

text: satellite

text: s have been increasingly utilized to measure SST and have allowed its

text: spatial

text: and

text: temporal

text: variation to be viewed more fully. For example, changes in SST monitored via satellite have been used to document the progression of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation since the 1970s.  Over the land the retrieval of temperature from radiances is harder, because of the inhomogeneities in the surface.  Studies have been conducted on the urban heat island effect via satellite imagery.  Use of

text: advanced very high resolution infrared satellite imagery

text: can be used, in the absence of cloudiness, to detect

text: density

text: discontinuities (

text: weather front

text: s) such as

text: cold front

text: s at ground level.  Using the

text: Dvorak technique

text: , infrared satellite imagery can be used to determine the temperature difference between the

text: eye

text: and the

text: cloud

text: top temperature of the

text: central dense overcast

text: of mature tropical cyclones to estimate their

text: maximum sustained wind

text: s and their minimum central

text: pressures

text: Along Track Scanning Radiometers

text: aboard weather satellites are able to detect wildfires, which show up at night as pixels with a greater temperature than .  The

text: Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

text: aboard the

text: Terra satellite

text: can detect thermal hot spots associated with wildfires, volcanoes, and industrial hot spots.

text: In 2013 LSSTI was one the creators of one of the two firsts scientific nano-satellite in Lithuania, which was intended both for scientific tasks, technologies demonstrations, educational purposes and popularization of science. The satellite was successfully launched in 2014.

text: In 2013 LSSTI was one the creators of one of the two firsts scientific

text: nano-satellite

text: in Lithuania, which was intended both for scientific tasks, technologies demonstrations, educational purposes and popularization of science. The satellite was successfully launched in 2014.

text: When satellites or rings are first discovered, they are given provisional designations such as "" (the 11th new satellite of Jupiter discovered in 2000), "" (the first new satellite of Pluto discovered in 2005), or "" (the second new ring of Saturn discovered in 2004). The initial "S/" or "R/" stands for "satellite" or "ring", respectively, distinguishing the designation from the prefixes "C/", "D/", "P/", and "X/" used for comets. These designations are sometimes written as "", dropping the second space.

text: When satellites or

text: rings

text: are first discovered, they are given provisional designations such as "" (the 11th new satellite of

text: Jupiter

text: discovered in 2000), "" (the first new satellite of

text: Pluto

text: discovered in 2005), or "" (the second new ring of

text: Saturn

text: discovered in 2004). The initial "S/" or "R/" stands for "satellite" or "ring", respectively, distinguishing the designation from the prefixes "C/", "D/", "P/", and "X/" used for

text: comet

text: s. These designations are sometimes written as "", dropping the second space.

text: According to a paper presented in the World Roads Conference 2006, the Land Transport Authority has been testing a system based on the Global Positioning System that may eventually replace the current Electronic Road Pricing system. The proposed system overcomes the inflexibility of having physical gantries, which "are not so flexible when it comes to re-locating them".

text: According to a paper presented in the World Roads Conference 2006, the

text: Land Transport Authority

text: has been testing a system based on the

text: Global Positioning System

text: that may eventually replace the current Electronic Road Pricing system. The proposed system overcomes the inflexibility of having physical gantries, which "are not so flexible when it comes to re-locating them".

text: The vast majority of the satellites launched (86 out of 100 as of March 2012 ) have been the first generation US-K satellites which operate in molniya orbits. Seven first generation satellites were launched into geosynchronous orbits, called US-KS, starting in 1975. A decree of 3 September 1979 led to the creation of the second generation satellites US-KMO which had their first launch in 1991. In total, 101 satellites have been launched.

text: The vast majority of the satellites launched (86 out of 100 as of March 2012 ) have been the first generation

text: US-K

text: satellites which operate in

text: molniya orbit

text: s. Seven first generation satellites were launched into

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: s, called

text: US-KS

text: , starting in 1975. A decree of 3 September 1979 led to the creation of the second generation satellites

text: US-KMO

text: which had their first launch in 1991. In total,

text: 101 satellites have been launched

text: Some satellite phones use satellites in geostationary orbit, which are meant to remain in a fixed position in the sky. These systems can maintain near-continuous global coverage with only three or four satellites, reducing the launch costs. The satellites used for these systems are very heavy (approx. 5000 kg) and expensive to build and launch. The satellites sit at an altitude of ; a noticeable delay is present while making a phone call or using data services due to the large distance from users. The amount of bandwidth available on these systems is substantially higher than that of the low Earth orbit (LEO) systems; all three active systems provide portable satellite Internet using laptop-sized terminals with speeds ranging from 60 to 512 kbit per second (kbps).

text: Some satellite phones use satellites in

text: geostationary orbit

text: , which are meant to remain in a fixed position in the sky. These systems can maintain near-continuous global coverage with only three or four satellites, reducing the launch costs. The satellites used for these systems are very heavy (approx. 5000 kg) and expensive to build and launch. The satellites sit at an altitude of ; a noticeable delay is present while making a phone call or using data services due to the large distance from users. The amount of bandwidth available on these systems is substantially higher than that of the

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO) systems; all three active systems provide portable satellite Internet using laptop-sized terminals with speeds ranging from 60 to 512 kbit per second (

text: kbps

text: ATS-6 has been the first geostationary satellite with three-axis stabilization and pointing., This subsystem was capable of a highly accurate pointing (better than 0.1° through the inertial measurement units, down to 0.002° by using a radio-frequency interferometer.). Furthermore, the satellite was able to follow low earth orbit satellites through slewing, by tracking the low earth-orbit satellite through an S-band RF sensing. The system was also able to perform orbitography of the tracked satellite, and was a precursor to the operational system TDRSS.This highly advanced (for the time) pointing subsystem used earth and sun sensors, a star tracker pointed to the pole star, Polaris, and three inertial sensors. The sensor measurements were fed to two digital computers (nominal and redundant), as well to a back-up analog computer. It was also possible to orient the satellite by using radio-frequency sensors.  Actuators were three momentum wheels, and hot gas (hydrazine mono-propellant) thrusters. One of the momentum wheels having failed in July 1975, an alternative scheme was developed, allowing station-keeping with the two remaining wheels and thrusters.

text: ATS-6 has been the first geostationary satellite with three-axis stabilization and pointing., This subsystem was capable of a highly accurate pointing (better than 0.1° through the inertial measurement units, down to 0.002° by using a radio-frequency interferometer.). Furthermore, the satellite was able to follow low earth orbit satellites through slewing, by tracking the low earth-orbit satellite through an S-band RF sensing. The system was also able to perform orbitography of the tracked satellite, and was a precursor to the operational system

entity_name: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System

text: TDRSS

text: .This highly advanced (for the time) pointing subsystem used earth and sun sensors, a star tracker pointed to the pole star,

text: Polaris

text: , and three inertial sensors. The sensor measurements were fed to two digital computers (nominal and redundant), as well to a back-up

text: analog computer

text: . It was also possible to orient the satellite by using radio-frequency sensors.  Actuators were three momentum wheels, and hot gas (hydrazine mono-propellant) thrusters. One of the momentum wheels having failed in July 1975, an alternative scheme was developed, allowing station-keeping with the two remaining wheels and thrusters.

text: In May, 1946, Project RAND had released the Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship, which stated, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century."The United States had been considering launching orbital satellites since 1945 under the Bureau of Aeronautics of the United States Navy. The United States Air Force's Project RAND eventually released the above report, but did not believe that the satellite was a potential military weapon; rather, they considered it to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda. In 1954, the Secretary of Defense stated, "I know of no American satellite program." In February 1954 Project RAND released "Scientific Uses for a Satellite Vehicle," written by R.R. Carhart. This expanded on potential scientific uses for satellite vehicles and was followed in June 1955 with "The Scientific Use of an Artificial Satellite," by H.K. Kallmann and W.W. Kellogg.

text: In May, 1946,

text: Project RAND

text: had released the

entity_name: Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship

text: Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship

text: , which stated, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century."The United States had been considering launching orbital satellites since 1945 under the

text: Bureau of Aeronautics

text: of the

text: United States Navy

text: . The

text: United States Air Force

text: 's Project RAND eventually released the above report, but did not believe that the satellite was a potential military weapon; rather, they considered it to be a tool for science, politics, and propaganda. In 1954, the Secretary of Defense stated, "I know of no American satellite program." In February 1954 Project RAND released "Scientific Uses for a Satellite Vehicle," written by R.R. Carhart. This expanded on potential scientific uses for satellite vehicles and was followed in June 1955 with "The Scientific Use of an Artificial Satellite," by H.K. Kallmann and W.W. Kellogg.

text: The first satellite navigation system, Transit, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Timation satellite that proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space, a technology required by the latter Global Positioning System.  In the 1970s, the ground-based Omega Navigation System, based on phase comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations, became the first worldwide radio navigation system. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy.

text: The first satellite navigation system,

text: Transit

text: , used by the

text: United States Navy

text: , was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the

text: Timation

text: satellite that proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space, a technology required by the latter

text: Global Positioning System

text: .  In the 1970s, the ground-based

text: Omega Navigation System

text: , based on phase comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations, became the first worldwide radio navigation system. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy.

text: The space segment of the new system would rely upon satellites in geostationary orbit.  These satellites, by virtue of their position, could transmit and receive data to lower orbiting satellites and still stay within sight of the ground station. The operational TDRSS constellation would use two satellites, designated TDE and TDW (for East and West), and one on-orbit spare.

text: In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development, mainly because of a potential denial of access and potential monitoring by the US government.  The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contemporaneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s. GLONASS can be added to GPS devices which makes more satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within 2 meters  There are also the European Union Galileo positioning system, China's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, the Japanese Quasi-Zenith Satellite System, and India's Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (NAVIC).

text: In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development, mainly because of a potential denial of access and potential monitoring by the US government.  The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (

text: GLONASS

text: ) was developed contemporaneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s. GLONASS can be added to GPS devices which makes more satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within 2 meters  There are also the European Union

text: Galileo positioning system

text: , China's

text: BeiDou Navigation Satellite System

text: , the Japanese

text: Quasi-Zenith Satellite System

text: , and India's

text: Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System

text: (NAVIC).

text: The development of the transistor, the solar cell, and telemetry, led in the 1950s and early 1960s to unmanned satellites that could take photographs of weather patterns or enemy nuclear weapons and send them to Earth. A large station was no longer necessary for such purposes, and the United States Apollo program to send men to the Moon chose a mission mode that would not need in-orbit assembly. A smaller station that a single rocket could launch retained value, however, for scientific purposes.

text: The development of the

text: transistor

text: , the

text: solar cell

text: , and

text: telemetry

text: , led in the 1950s and early 1960s to unmanned satellites that could take photographs of weather patterns or enemy nuclear weapons and send them to Earth. A large station was no longer necessary for such purposes, and the United States

text: Apollo program

text: to send men to the Moon chose a mission mode that would not need in-orbit assembly. A smaller station that a single rocket could launch retained value, however, for scientific purposes.

text: This is a list of past and present satellites of the BeiDou/Compass navigation satellite system. , 21 satellites are operational: 6 in geostationary orbits, 8 in 55-degree inclined geosynchronous orbits and 7 in medium Earth orbits. The full constellation is scheduled to comprise 35 satellites.

text: This is a list of past and present satellites of the

text: BeiDou/Compass navigation satellite system

text: . , 21 satellites are operational: 6 in

text: geostationary orbit

text: s, 8 in 55-degree

text: inclined geosynchronous orbit

text: s and 7 in

text: medium Earth orbit

text: s. The full constellation is scheduled to comprise 35 satellites.

text: In the absence of other information, the axis of rotation is assumed to be normal to the mean orbital plane; Mercury and most of the satellites are in this category. For many of the satellites, it is assumed that the rotation rate is equal to the mean orbital period. In the case of the giant planets, since their surface features are constantly changing and moving at various rates, the rotation of their magnetic fields is used as a reference instead. In the case of the Sun, even this criterion fails (because its magnetosphere is very complex and does not really rotate in a steady fashion), and an agreed-upon value for the rotation of its equator is used instead.

text: In the absence of other information, the axis of rotation is assumed to be normal to the mean

text: orbital plane

text: Mercury

text: and most of the satellites are in this category. For many of the satellites, it is assumed that the rotation rate is equal to the mean

text: orbital period

text: . In the case of the

text: giant planets

text: , since their surface features are constantly changing and moving at various rates, the rotation of their

text: magnetic field

text: s is used as a reference instead. In the case of the

text: Sun

text: , even this criterion fails (because its magnetosphere is very complex and does not really rotate in a steady fashion), and an agreed-upon value for the rotation of its equator is used instead.

text: People often decide to put a satellite in a frozen orbit.The path of a satellite closely orbiting the Earth can be accurately modeled starting from the 2-body elliptical orbit around the center of the Earth, and adding small corrections due to the oblateness of the Earth, gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon, atmospheric drag, etc.It is possible to find a frozen orbit without calculating the actual path of the satellite.

text: People often decide to put a satellite in a

text: frozen orbit

text: .The path of a satellite closely orbiting the Earth can be accurately modeled starting from the 2-body elliptical orbit around the center of the Earth, and adding small corrections due to the

text: oblateness of the Earth

text: , gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon, atmospheric drag, etc.It is possible to find a frozen orbit without calculating the actual path of the satellite.

text: Whipple envisioned a global network of specially designed instruments that could track and photograph satellites. This network, aided by a corps of volunteer satellite spotters and a computation bureau in Cambridge, USA (see The M.I.T. Computation Center and Operation Moonwatch), would establish ephemerides – predictions of where a satellite will be at particular times.  The instruments at these stations were eventually designed by Dr. James G. Baker and Joseph Nunn and hence known as Baker-Nunn cameras. Based on a series of super-Schmidt wide-angle telescopes and strategically placed around the globe at 12 locations, the innovative cameras could track rapidly moving targets while simultaneously viewing large swaths of the sky. From the start, Whipple planned that the professionally manned Baker-Nunn stations would be complemented by teams of dedicated amateurs. Amateur satellite spotters would inform the Baker-Nunn stations as to where to look, an important task given that scientists working on the Vanguard program likened finding a satellite in the sky to finding a golf ball tossed out of a jet plane.  Amateur teams would relay the information back to the SAO in Cambridge where professional scientists would use it to generate accurate satellite orbits. At this point, professionals at the Baker-Nunn stations would take over the full-time task of photographing them.

text: Whipple envisioned a global network of specially designed instruments that could track and photograph satellites. This network, aided by a corps of volunteer satellite spotters and a computation bureau in Cambridge, USA (see

entity_name: The M.I.T. Computation Center and Operation Moonwatch

text: The M.I.T. Computation Center and Operation Moonwatch

text: ), would establish ephemerides – predictions of where a satellite will be at particular times.  The instruments at these stations were eventually designed by

text: Dr. James G. Baker

text: and

text: Joseph Nunn

text: and hence known as

text: Baker-Nunn camera

text: s. Based on a series of super-Schmidt wide-angle telescopes and strategically placed around the globe at 12 locations, the innovative cameras could track rapidly moving targets while simultaneously viewing large swaths of the sky. From the start, Whipple planned that the professionally manned Baker-Nunn stations would be complemented by teams of dedicated amateurs. Amateur satellite spotters would inform the Baker-Nunn stations as to where to look, an important task given that scientists working on the Vanguard program likened finding a satellite in the sky to finding a golf ball tossed out of a jet plane.  Amateur teams would relay the information back to the SAO in Cambridge where professional scientists would use it to generate accurate satellite orbits. At this point, professionals at the Baker-Nunn stations would take over the full-time task of photographing them.

text: A GPS navigation device or GPS receiver, and when used for vehicle navigation commonly referred to simply as a GPS, is a device that is capable of receiving information from GPS satellites and then to accurately calculate its geographical location. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) made up of a network of a minimum of 24, but currently 30, satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense.

text: A GPS navigation device or GPS receiver, and when used for vehicle navigation commonly referred to simply as a GPS, is a device that is capable of receiving information from

text: GPS satellites

text: and then to accurately calculate its geographical location. The

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) is a

text: global navigation satellite system

text: (GNSS) made up of a network of a minimum of 24, but currently

text: 30, satellites

text: placed into orbit by the

text: U.S. Department of Defense

text: In 2001, the Pakistan Academy of Sciences held the physics and mathematics conference on astrophysics in Pakistan where scientists from all over the country were invited to come to Nathiagali.  In an media interview given at Nathiagali, Abdul Qadeer Khan maintained that, "Pakistan has very robust nuclear I.R.B.M. system which can launch geostationary orbiting satellites. All Pakistan has to do is to erase Delhi or Calcutta from the target and point it towards the sky. Instead of Hydrogen bombs and Atomic bombs, the missiles can easily carry a payload of a 80 kg satellite into the sky...".  Astrophysicist Shahid Kureshi also argued that [IRBM] missiles have very robust and effective electronics and computer system, the [SLV]s used the similar technology. Taking part in this discussion, Nuclear physicist Pervez Hoodbhoy believed that "If we [Pakistan] can launch a missile up to a range of 1,500 km, why not build an [SLV] that can launch low-atmosphere satellites?".

text: In 2001, the

text: Pakistan Academy of Sciences

text: held the

entity_name: International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics

text: physics and mathematics conference

text: on astrophysics in Pakistan where scientists from all over the country were invited to come to Nathiagali.  In an media interview given at Nathiagali, Abdul Qadeer Khan maintained that, "Pakistan has very robust nuclear

text: I.R.B.M.

text: system which can launch

text: geostationary orbit

text: ing satellites. All Pakistan has to do is to erase

text: Delhi

text: or

text: Calcutta

text: from the target and point it towards the sky. Instead of

text: Hydrogen bombs

text: and

text: Atomic bombs

text: , the missiles can easily carry a payload of a 80 kg satellite into the sky...".

text: Astrophysicist

text: Shahid Kureshi

text: also argued that [IRBM] missiles have very robust and effective electronics and computer system, the

text: [SLV]s

text: used the similar technology. Taking part in this discussion,

text: Nuclear physicist

text: Pervez Hoodbhoy

text: believed that "If we [Pakistan] can launch a missile up to a range of 1,500 km, why not build an [SLV] that can launch low-atmosphere satellites?".

text: The policy expresses support for an operational and autonomous Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) satellite capability before the end of 2008, and for a global navigation satellite system under European civil control, i.e. the Galileo positioning system.

text: The policy expresses support for an operational and autonomous

text: Global Monitoring for Environment and Security

text: (GMES)

text: satellite

text: capability before the end of 2008, and for a

text: global navigation satellite system

text: under European civil control, i.e. the

text: Galileo positioning system

text: 1st Aero used the methods of orbital prediction developed by Dr. Eberhart W. Wahl at Project Space Track in 1957, which computed ephemerides based on standard Keplerian orbits.  This excellent technique became less and less useful as a satellite got lower into the atmosphere, encountering drag, which made it difficult to forecast the ephemeris of the satellite accurately.  Because of this, in 1959, Lt Cotter at Space Track had the questionable pleasure of being the first person to lose track of an artificial earth satellite, Explorer IV, for which he was the Department of Defense orbital analyst.  The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory lost it a day or two later and only Mr. Arthur S. Leonard, of the Sacramento Moonwatch Team, was able to continue tracking somewhat longer, using his own special observational methods.

text: Geographic Information Systems (GIS) has become an integral part of aquatic science and limnology.  Water by its very nature is dynamic.  Features associated with water are thus ever-changing.  To be able to keep up with these changes, technological advancements have given scientists methods to enhance all aspects of scientific investigation, from satellite tracking of wildlife to computer mapping of habitats.  Agencies like the US Geological Survey, US Fish and Wildlife Service as well as other federal and state agencies are utilizing GIS to aid in their conservation efforts.

text: Geographic Information Systems

text: (GIS) has become an integral part of

text: aquatic science

text: and

text: limnology

text: .  Water by its very nature is dynamic.  Features associated with water are thus ever-changing.  To be able to keep up with these changes, technological advancements have given scientists methods to enhance all aspects of scientific investigation, from satellite tracking of wildlife to computer mapping of habitats.  Agencies like the

text: US Geological Survey

text: US Fish and Wildlife Service

text: as well as other federal and state agencies are utilizing GIS to aid in their conservation efforts.

text: ACS uses a MEMS gyroscope for stabilisation detection. Using the data from gyro sensor On-Board Computer declares stability of the satellite.

text: Uses typically involve experiments which can be miniaturized or serve purposes such as Earth observation or amateur radio. Many CubeSats are used to demonstrate spacecraft technologies that are targeted for use in small satellites or that present questionable feasibility and are unlikely to justify the cost of a larger satellite. Scientific experiments with questionable underlying theory may also find themselves aboard CubeSats as their low cost could justify riskier experiments. Biological research payloads have been flown on several missions, with more planned. Several missions to the Moon and Mars are planned to use CubeSats.

text: Uses typically involve experiments which can be miniaturized or serve purposes such as

text: Earth observation

text: or

text: amateur radio

text: . Many CubeSats are used to demonstrate spacecraft technologies that are targeted for use in small satellites or that present questionable feasibility and are unlikely to justify the cost of a larger satellite. Scientific experiments with questionable underlying theory may also find themselves aboard CubeSats as their low cost could justify riskier experiments. Biological research payloads have been flown on several missions, with more planned. Several missions to the

text: Moon

text: and

text: Mars

text: are planned to use CubeSats.

text: A Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO, also called a heliosynchronous orbit) is a geocentric orbit that combines altitude and inclination in such a way that the satellite passes over any given point of the planet's surface at the same local solar time. Such an orbit can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imaging, spy, and weather satellites. More technically, it is an orbit arranged in such a way that it precesses once a year.  The surface illumination angle will be nearly the same every time that the satellite is overhead.  This consistent lighting is a useful characteristic for satellites that image the Earth's surface in visible or infrared wavelengths (e.g. weather and spy satellites) and for other remote sensing satellites (e.g. those carrying ocean and atmospheric remote sensing instruments that require sunlight).  For example, a satellite in sun-synchronous orbit might ascend across the equator twelve times a day each time at approximately 15:00 mean local time. This is achieved by having the osculating orbital plane precess (rotate) approximately one degree each day with respect to the celestial sphere, eastward, to keep pace with the Earth's movement around the Sun.

text: A Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO, also called a heliosynchronous orbit) is a

text: geocentric orbit

text: that combines

text: altitude

text: and

text: inclination

text: in such a way that the satellite passes over any given point of the planet's surface at the same local

text: solar time

text: . Such an orbit can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imaging, spy, and weather satellites. More technically, it is an orbit arranged in such a way that it

text: precesses

text: once a year.  The surface

text: illumination angle

text: will be nearly the same every time that the satellite is overhead.  This consistent lighting is a useful characteristic for

text: satellite

text: s that image the Earth's surface in visible or infrared wavelengths (e.g. weather and spy satellites) and for other remote sensing satellites (e.g. those carrying ocean and atmospheric remote sensing instruments that require sunlight).  For example, a satellite in sun-synchronous orbit might ascend across the equator twelve times a day each time at approximately 15:00 mean local time. This is achieved by having the

text: osculating

text: orbital plane

text: precess

text: (rotate) approximately one degree each day with respect to the

text: celestial sphere

text: , eastward, to keep pace with the Earth's movement around the

text: Sun

text: Communication satellites are an important part of global networks. However, there are specific low Earth orbit (LEO) global satellite constellations, such as Iridium, Globalstar and Orbcomm, which are comprised by dozens of similar satellites which are put in orbit at regularly spaced positions and form a mesh network, sometimes sending and receiving information directly among themselves. Using VSAT technology, satellite internet access has become possible.

text: Communication satellite

text: s are an important part of global networks. However, there are specific

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO) global

text: satellite constellation

text: s, such as

text: Iridium

text: Globalstar

text: and

text: Orbcomm

text: , which are comprised by dozens of similar satellites which are put in orbit at regularly spaced positions and form a

text: mesh network

text: , sometimes sending and receiving information directly among themselves. Using

text: VSAT

text: technology,

text: satellite internet access

text: has become possible.

text: A total of 35 satellites were launched by ORBCOMM Global in the mid to late 1990s. Of the original 35, a total of 24 remain operational today, according to company filings. The plane F polar satellite, one of the original prototype first generation satellites launched in 1995, was retired in April 2007 due to intermittent service. Two additional satellites (one from each of Plane B and Plane D) were retired in 2008 also due to intermittent service. The other five satellites that are not operational experienced failures earlier. The absence of these eight satellites can increase system latency and decrease overall capacity. ORBCOMM has invested in replacement satellites as the first generation is at or nearing end of life. On 19 June 2008 six additional ORBCOMM satellites were launched with the Cosmos-3M rocket: one ORBCOMM CDS weighing 80 kg, and five ORBCOMM Quick Launches weighing 115 kg each. These new satellites were built by German OHB System AG (platform) and by Orbital Sciences Corporation (payload) and included a secondary AIS. Design and production of the satellite platform was subcontracted by OHB System to Russian KB Polyot. On November 9, 2009 ORBCOMM filed a report to the United States Securities and Exchange Commission stating that since launch, communications capability for three of the quick-launch satellites and the CDS has been lost. The failed satellites experienced attitude control system anomalies as well as anomalies with its power systems, which resulted in the satellites not pointing towards the sun and the earth as expected and as a consequence have reduced power generation. The company filed a $50 million claim with its insurers covering the loss of all six satellites and received $44.5 million in compensation.

text: A total of 35 satellites were launched by ORBCOMM Global in the mid to late 1990s. Of the original 35, a total of 24 remain operational today, according to company filings. The plane F polar satellite, one of the original prototype first generation satellites launched in 1995, was retired in April 2007 due to intermittent service. Two additional satellites (one from each of Plane B and Plane D) were retired in 2008 also due to intermittent service. The other five satellites that are not operational experienced failures earlier. The absence of these eight satellites can increase system latency and decrease overall capacity. ORBCOMM has invested in replacement satellites as the first generation is at or nearing end of life. On 19 June 2008 six additional ORBCOMM satellites were launched with the

text: rocket: one ORBCOMM CDS weighing 80 kg, and five ORBCOMM Quick Launches weighing 115 kg each. These new satellites were built by German OHB System AG (platform) and by Orbital Sciences Corporation (payload) and included a secondary

text: AIS

text: . Design and production of the satellite platform was subcontracted by OHB System to Russian KB Polyot. On November 9, 2009 ORBCOMM filed a report to the United States Securities and Exchange Commission stating that since launch, communications capability for three of the quick-launch satellites and the CDS has been lost. The failed satellites experienced attitude control system anomalies as well as anomalies with its power systems, which resulted in the satellites not pointing towards the sun and the earth as expected and as a consequence have reduced power generation. The company filed a $50 million claim with its insurers covering the loss of all six satellites and received $44.5 million in compensation.

text: In computer networking, Rate Based Satellite Control Protocol (RBSCP) is a tunneling method proposed by Cisco to improve the performance of satellite network links with high latency and error rates.

text: In

text: computer networking

text: , Rate Based Satellite Control Protocol (RBSCP) is a

text: tunneling method

text: proposed by

text: Cisco

text: to improve the performance of satellite network links with high latency and error rates.

text: The system employs various techniques to correct equatorial anomalies.  The advantage of the system is, it is global in scope and it has the potential to support all phases of flight providing a seamless global navigation guidance.  This could eliminate the need for a variety of ground and airborne systems that were designed to meet specific requirements for certain phases of flight.Standard and recommended practices for the air traffic management based on a global navigation satellite system are developed by ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization). Thus the system has to meet ICAO standards to become operational.

text: The system employs various techniques to correct equatorial anomalies.  The advantage of the system is, it is global in scope and it has the potential to support all phases of flight providing a seamless global navigation guidance.  This could eliminate the need for a variety of ground and airborne systems that were designed to meet specific requirements for certain phases of flight.Standard and recommended practices for the air traffic management based on a global navigation satellite system are developed by

entity_name: International Civil Aviation Organization

text: ICAO

text: (International Civil Aviation Organization). Thus the system has to meet ICAO standards to become operational.

text: They are commonly used for geosynchronous satellites, particularly communications satellites, but are also used in spacecraft which occupy lower orbits, occasionally including low Earth orbit missions.

text: They are commonly used for

text: geosynchronous

text: satellites, particularly

text: communications satellites

text: , but are also used in spacecraft which occupy lower orbits, occasionally including

text: low Earth orbit

text: missions.

text: The two core satellite constellations are the Global Positioning System (GPS) of the US and the Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) of Russia/India.  The third constellation will be the European Union Galileo system when it becomes fully operational.  These systems provide independent capabilities and can be used in combination with future core constellations and augmentation systems. Signals from core satellite are received by ground reference stations and any errors in the signals are identified.  Each station in the network relays the data to area-wide master stations where correction information for specific geographical areas is computed.  The correction message is prepared and uplinked to a geostationary communication satellite (GEO) via a ground uplink station. This message is broadcast to receivers on board aircraft flying within the broadcast coverage area of the system. The system is known in the US as WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System), in Europe as EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System), in Japan as MSAS (MTSAT Satellite Based Augmentation System) and in India as GAGAN (GPS-aided geo-augmented navigation).

text: The two core satellite constellations are the

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) of the US and the

text: Global Navigation Satellite System

text: (GLONASS) of Russia/India.  The third constellation will be the European Union

text: Galileo system

text: when it becomes fully operational.  These systems provide independent capabilities and can be used in combination with future core constellations and augmentation systems. Signals from core satellite are received by ground reference stations and any errors in the signals are identified.  Each station in the network relays the data to area-wide master stations where correction information for specific geographical areas is computed.  The correction message is prepared and uplinked to a

text: geostationary communication satellite

text: (GEO) via a ground uplink station. This message is broadcast to receivers on board aircraft flying within the broadcast coverage area of the system. The system is known in the US as WAAS (

text: Wide Area Augmentation System

text: ), in Europe as EGNOS (

entity_name: European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service

text: European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System

text: ), in Japan as MSAS (

text: MTSAT Satellite Based Augmentation System

text: ) and in India as GAGAN (

text: GPS-aided geo-augmented navigation

text: The Global Flood Monitoring System, "GFMS," a computer tool which maps flood conditions worldwide, is available online. Users anywhere in the world can use GFMS to determine when floods may occur in their area. GFMS uses precipitation data from NASA's Earth observing satellites and the Global Precipitation Measurement satellite, "GPM." Rainfall data from GPM is combined with a land surface model that incorporates vegetation cover, soil type, and terrain to determine how much water is soaking into the ground, and how much water is flowing into streamflow.

text: The Global Flood Monitoring System, "GFMS," a computer tool which maps flood conditions worldwide, is available online. Users anywhere in the world can use GFMS to determine when floods may occur in their area. GFMS uses precipitation data from

text: NASA

text: 's Earth observing satellites and the

text: Global Precipitation Measurement satellite

text: , "GPM." Rainfall data from GPM is combined with a land surface model that incorporates vegetation cover, soil type, and terrain to determine how much water is soaking into the ground, and how much water is flowing into

text: streamflow

text: While satellite navigation systems such as the Global Positioning System (GPS) require unprecedentedly accurate knowledge of time, this is supplied by equipment on the satellites; vehicles no longer need timekeeping equipment.

text: While

text: satellite navigation

text: systems such as the

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) require unprecedentedly accurate knowledge of time, this is supplied by equipment on the satellites; vehicles no longer need timekeeping equipment.

text: Special cases of the sun-synchronous orbit are the noon/midnight orbit, where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial longitudes is around noon or midnight, and the dawn/dusk orbit, where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial longitudes is around sunrise or sunset, so that the satellite rides the terminator between day and night. Riding the terminator is useful for active radar satellites as the satellites' solar panels can always see the Sun, without being shadowed by the Earth. It is also useful for some satellites with passive instruments that need to limit the Sun's influence on the measurements, as it is possible to always point the instruments towards the night side of the Earth.  The dawn/dusk orbit has been used for solar observing scientific satellites such as Yohkoh, TRACE, Hinode and PROBA2, affording them a nearly continuous view of the Sun.

text: Special cases of the sun-synchronous orbit are the noon/midnight orbit, where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial longitudes is around noon or midnight, and the dawn/dusk orbit, where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial longitudes is around sunrise or sunset, so that the satellite rides the terminator between day and night. Riding the terminator is useful for active radar satellites as the satellites' solar panels can always see the Sun, without being shadowed by the Earth. It is also useful for some satellites with passive instruments that need to limit the Sun's influence on the measurements, as it is possible to always point the instruments towards the night side of the Earth.  The dawn/dusk orbit has been used for solar observing

entity_section: Scientific Research Satellite (commercial and noncommercial)

text: scientific satellites

text: such as

text: Yohkoh

text: TRACE

text: Hinode

text: and

text: , affording them a nearly continuous view of the Sun.

text: QZSS is targeted at mobile applications, to provide communications-based services (video, audio, and data) and positioning information. With regards to its positioning service, QZSS can only provide limited accuracy on its own and is not currently required in its specifications to work in a stand-alone mode. As such, it is viewed as a GNSS Augmentation service. Its positioning service could also collaborate with the geostationary satellites in Japan's Multi-Functional Transport Satellite (MTSAT), currently under development, which itself is a Satellite Based Augmentation System similar to the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration's Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS).

text: QZSS is targeted at mobile applications, to provide communications-based services (video, audio, and data) and

text: positioning information

text: . With regards to its positioning service, QZSS can only provide limited accuracy on its own and is not currently required in its specifications to work in a stand-alone mode. As such, it is viewed as a

text: GNSS Augmentation

text: service. Its positioning service could also collaborate with the geostationary satellites in Japan's

text: Multi-Functional Transport Satellite

text: (MTSAT), currently under development, which itself is a

text: Satellite Based Augmentation System

text: similar to the U.S.

text: Federal Aviation Administration

text: 's

text: Wide Area Augmentation System

text: (WAAS).

text: Under the scientific lead of the German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ) the mission is managed by the Space Agency of the German Aerospace Center (DLR). The Hyperspectral Imager (HSI) will be developed by Kayser-Threde GmbH. OHB Technology is responsible for the development of the satellite bus. The ground segment will be developed and operated by the German Aerospace Center (DLR). The envisaged launch of the EnMAP satellite is 2019 using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle of Indian space agency ISRO.

text: Under the scientific lead of the German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ) the mission is managed by the Space Agency of the German Aerospace Center (

text: DLR

text: ). The Hyperspectral Imager (HSI) will be developed by

text: Kayser-Threde

text: GmbH. OHB Technology is responsible for the development of the satellite bus. The

text: ground segment

text: will be developed and operated by the German Aerospace Center (

text: DLR

text: ). The envisaged launch of the EnMAP satellite is 2019 using the

text: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: of Indian space agency ISRO.

text: In most cases, the Laplace plane is very close to the equatorial plane of its primary planet (if the satellite is very close to its planet) or to the plane of the primary planet's orbit around the Sun (if the satellite is far away from its planet).  This is because the strength of the planet's perturbation on the satellite's orbit is much stronger for orbits close to the planet, but drops below the strength of the Sun's perturbation for orbits farther away.  Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's equatorial plane include the satellites of Mars and the inner satellites of the giant planets.  Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's orbital plane include Earth's Moon and the outer satellites of the giant planets.  Some satellites, such as Saturn's Iapetus, are situated in the transitional zone and have Laplace planes that are midway between their planet's equatorial plane and the plane of its solar orbit.

text: In most cases, the Laplace plane is very close to the equatorial plane of its primary planet (if the satellite is very close to its planet) or to the plane of the primary planet's orbit around the Sun (if the satellite is far away from its planet).  This is because the strength of the planet's perturbation on the satellite's orbit is much stronger for orbits close to the planet, but drops below the strength of the Sun's perturbation for orbits farther away.  Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's equatorial plane include the

text: satellites of Mars

text: and the

text: inner satellites of the giant planets

text: .  Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's orbital plane include Earth's

text: Moon

text: and the

text: outer satellites of the giant planets

text: .  Some satellites, such as Saturn's

text: Iapetus

text: , are situated in the transitional zone and have Laplace planes that are midway between their planet's equatorial plane and the plane of its solar orbit.

text: The STP-2 (DoD Space Test Program) payload is scheduled to be launched aboard a Falcon Heavy in March 2017. The payload should include an ISAT (Innovative Spacebased radar Antenna Technology) flight demonstrator satellite massing over 5000 kg, and COSMIC-2, a cluster of six satellites, massing at 277.8 kg each. The ISAT program aims to deploy extremely large (up to 300 yards) electronically scanning radar antennas in orbit. The primary role of the COSMIC-2 satellite constellation is to provide radio occultation data with an average latency of 45 minutes. The six satellites will be placed on an orbit with an inclination of 24 to 28.5 degrees with six separate orbital planes with 60 degree separation between them. The integrated payload stack will be integrated using EELV Secondary Payload Adapter. Two ESPA Grande rings will be used to mount the six COSMIC-2 satellites beneath the ESPA ring hosting the DSX payload and avionics modules. STP-2 will also host up to 8 CubeSat nanosatellites deployed with P-PODs (Poly Picosatellite Orbital Deployers).

text: The STP-2 (DoD Space Test Program) payload is scheduled to be launched aboard a

text: Falcon Heavy

text: in March 2017. The payload should include an ISAT (Innovative Spacebased radar Antenna Technology) flight demonstrator satellite massing over 5000 kg, and COSMIC-2, a cluster of six satellites, massing at 277.8 kg each. The ISAT program aims to deploy extremely large (up to 300 yards) electronically scanning radar antennas in orbit. The primary role of the COSMIC-2

text: satellite constellation

text: is to provide

text: radio occultation

text: data with an average latency of 45 minutes. The six satellites will be placed on an orbit with an inclination of 24 to 28.5 degrees with six separate orbital planes with 60 degree separation between them. The integrated payload stack will be integrated using

text: EELV Secondary Payload Adapter

text: . Two ESPA Grande rings will be used to mount the six COSMIC-2 satellites beneath the ESPA ring hosting the DSX payload and avionics modules. STP-2 will also host up to 8

text: CubeSat

text: nanosatellites deployed with P-PODs (Poly Picosatellite Orbital Deployers).

text: , an asteroid discovered on 27 April 2016, is possibly the most stable quasi-satellite of Earth. As it orbits the Sun,  appears to circle around Earth as well. It is too distant to be a true satellite of Earth, but is the best and most stable example of a quasi-satellite, a type of near-Earth object. They appear to orbit a point other than Earth itself, such as the orbital path of the NEO asteroid 3753 Cruithne. Earth trojans, such as , are NEOs that orbit the Sun (not Earth) on the same orbital path as Earth, and appear to lead or follow Earth along the same orbital path.

text: , an

text: asteroid

text: discovered on 27 April 2016, is possibly the most stable

text: quasi-satellite

text: of

text: Earth

text: . As it orbits the Sun,  appears to circle around

text: Earth

text: as well. It is too distant to be a true

text: satellite

text: of Earth, but is the best and most stable example of a quasi-satellite, a type of

text: near-Earth object

text: . They appear to orbit a point other than Earth itself, such as the orbital path of the NEO

text: asteroid

text: 3753 Cruithne

text: Earth trojan

text: s, such as , are NEOs that orbit the Sun (not Earth) on the same orbital path as Earth, and appear to lead or follow Earth along the same orbital path.

text: Launched in Low Earth Orbit, onboard Dnepr launch vehicle from Dombarovsky, Russia. It houses several sensors to collect data for scientific purposes. iCUBE-1 is a fully autonomous satellite and is capable of maintaining its health via its on-board computer. It is a single-unit CubeSat, cubic in shape with sides of . Five sides of the satellites carry two triple-junction (ATJ) solar cells, providing the spacecraft with 2 watts of power. Each cell has dimensions of , and at the beginning of operations has an efficiency of at least 27.5% at 25°C.

text: Launched in

text: Low Earth Orbit

text: , onboard

text: Dnepr launch vehicle

text: from

text: Dombarovsky

text: Russia

text: . It houses several sensors to collect data for scientific purposes. iCUBE-1 is a fully autonomous satellite and is capable of maintaining its health via its on-board computer. It is a single-unit

text: CubeSat

text: , cubic in shape with sides of . Five sides of the satellites carry two

text: triple-junction (ATJ)

text: solar cell

text: s, providing the spacecraft with 2 watts of power. Each cell has dimensions of , and at the beginning of operations has an efficiency of at least 27.5% at 25°C.

text: Precise Point Positioning (PPP) is a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) positioning method to calculate very precise positions up to few centimeter level using a single (GNSS) receiver in a dynamic and global reference framework like International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS). PPP methods are different from (DGNSS) positioning methods which differentiate errors using one or more reference stations with known positions. PPP approach combines precise clocks and orbits calculated from a global network to calculate a precise position with a single receiver which can be double or single frequency.

text: Precise Point Positioning (PPP) is a

text: Global Navigation Satellite System

text: (GNSS)

text: positioning method to calculate

text: very precise positions up to few centimeter level using a single (GNSS) receiver in a dynamic and global reference framework like

entity_name: International Terrestrial Reference System

text: International Terrestrial Reference System

text: (ITRS). PPP methods are different from (

text: DGNSS

text: ) positioning methods which differentiate errors using one or more reference stations with known positions. PPP approach combines precise clocks and orbits calculated from a global network to calculate a precise position with a single receiver which can be double or single frequency.

text: In April 2007, the first satellite of BeiDou-2, namely Compass-M1 (to validate frequencies for the BeiDou-2 constellation) was successfully put into its working orbit. The second BeiDou-2 constellation satellite Compass-G2 was launched on 15 April 2009. On 15 January 2010, the official website of the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System went online, and the system's third satellite (Compass-G1) was carried into its orbit by a Long March 3C rocket on 17 January 2010. On 2 June 2010, the fourth satellite was launched successfully into orbit. The fifth orbiter was launched into space from Xichang Satellite Launch Center by an LM-3I carrier rocket on 1 August 2010. Three months later, on 1 November 2010, the sixth satellite was sent into orbit by LM-3C. Another satellite, the Beidou-2/Compass IGSO-5 (fifth inclined geosynchonous orbit) satellite, was launched from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center by a Long March-3A on 1 December 2011 (UTC).

text: In April 2007, the first satellite of BeiDou-2, namely Compass-M1 (to validate frequencies for the BeiDou-2 constellation) was successfully put into its working orbit. The second BeiDou-2 constellation satellite Compass-G2 was launched on 15 April 2009. On 15 January 2010, the official website of the BeiDou Navigation Satellite System went online, and the system's third satellite (Compass-G1) was carried into its orbit by a

text: Long March 3C

text: rocket on 17 January 2010. On 2 June 2010, the fourth satellite was launched successfully into orbit. The fifth orbiter was launched into space from

text: Xichang Satellite Launch Center

text: by an

text: carrier rocket on 1 August 2010. Three months later, on 1 November 2010, the sixth satellite was sent into orbit by LM-3C. Another satellite, the Beidou-2/Compass IGSO-5 (fifth inclined geosynchonous orbit) satellite, was launched from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center by a Long March-3A on 1 December 2011 (UTC).

text: The launch is scheduled, and the space shuttle Daedalus successfully launches into orbit. They find the satellite but all agree it looks nothing like a communication satellite. They secure the satellite with the shuttle's loading arm and begin repairs, but soon find it houses six nuclear missiles, relics from the Cold War and a violation of the Outer Space Treaty. The mission is quickly put under secrecy. Frank discovers that the control system for the satellite originated from Bob's own files and was stolen by the KGB, and that the satellite's computers will launch the missiles at predetermined targets if the satellite falls out of orbit. NASA and the crew devise a plan to use the payload-assist rockets to push the satellite out of orbit and into deep space. However, as they prepare for this maneuver, one of the younger astronauts, Ethan Glance (Loren Dean), acting under Bob's original orders, tries to put the satellite into stable orbit himself, which is mistimed and sets off a chain reaction: the satellite collides with the shuttle, damaging most of the shuttle's computer systems and engines, destroying the solar panels on the satellite, and sending it faster into a decay orbit, while Ethan is knocked out and dragged along with the satellite.

text: The launch is scheduled, and the

text: space shuttle

text: Daedalus successfully launches into orbit. They find the satellite but all agree it looks nothing like a communication satellite. They secure the satellite with the shuttle's loading arm and begin repairs, but soon find it houses six nuclear missiles, relics from the

text: Cold War

text: and a violation of the

text: Outer Space Treaty

text: . The mission is quickly put under secrecy. Frank discovers that the control system for the satellite originated from Bob's own files and was stolen by the

text: KGB

text: , and that the satellite's computers will launch the missiles at predetermined targets if the satellite falls out of orbit. NASA and the crew devise a plan to use the payload-assist rockets to push the satellite out of orbit and into deep space. However, as they prepare for this maneuver, one of the younger astronauts, Ethan Glance (

text: Loren Dean

text: ), acting under Bob's original orders, tries to put the satellite into stable orbit himself, which is mistimed and sets off a chain reaction: the satellite collides with the shuttle, damaging most of the shuttle's computer systems and engines, destroying the solar panels on the satellite, and sending it faster into a decay orbit, while Ethan is knocked out and dragged along with the satellite.

text: A PhoneSat-1.0 satellite, Bell was built to the single-unit (1U) CubeSat specification, and measures  in each dimension. The satellite is based on an off-the-shelf HTC Nexus One smartphone which serves in place of an onboard computer and avionics system. Unlike the more advanced PhoneSat-2.0 spacecraft, Bell is powered by non-rechargeable batteries, and has no attitude control system, however onboard sensors can be used to determine and monitor the satellite's attitude. The cameras built into the phones aboard Bell and its sister satellite Graham have been used to return images of the Earth from space.

text: A PhoneSat-1.0 satellite, Bell was built to the single-unit (1U)

text: CubeSat

text: specification, and measures  in each dimension. The satellite is based on an off-the-shelf

text: HTC

text: Nexus One

text: smartphone

text: which serves in place of an onboard computer and avionics system. Unlike the more advanced PhoneSat-2.0 spacecraft, Bell is powered by non-rechargeable batteries, and has no attitude control system, however onboard sensors can be used to determine and monitor the satellite's attitude. The cameras built into the phones aboard Bell and its sister satellite Graham have been used to return images of the Earth from space.

text: PSLV-C28 (a.k.a. DMC3 mission) was the 29th consecutive successful mission (overall 30th) of the PSLV program. The PSLV-C28 carried and successfully deployed 5 satellites in the Sun-synchronous orbit. With a launch mass of  and payload mass of payload mass , the C28 was the heaviest commercial mission undertaken by Indian Space Research Organisation and Antrix Corporation. The PSLV-C28 carried three identical optical earth observation satellites (DMC3-1, DMC3-2 & DMC3-3), an optical earth observation technology demonstrator micro satellite (CBNT-1) and an experimental nano satellite (De-orbitSail). All the satellites were built by Surrey Satellite Technology (SSTL). Although built by SSTL, the "De-orbitSail" belonged to the Surrey Space Centre.

text: PSLV-C28 (

text: a.k.a.

text: DMC3 mission) was the 29th consecutive successful mission (overall 30th) of the

text: PSLV

text: program. The PSLV-C28 carried and successfully deployed 5

text: satellite

text: s in the

text: Sun-synchronous orbit

text: . With a launch mass of  and payload mass of payload mass , the C28 was the heaviest commercial mission undertaken by

text: Indian Space Research Organisation

text: and

text: Antrix Corporation

text: . The PSLV-C28 carried three identical optical

text: earth observation satellite

text: s (

text: , DMC3-2 & DMC3-3), an optical

text: earth observation

text: technology demonstrator

text: micro satellite

text: (CBNT-1) and an experimental

text: nano satellite

text: (De-orbitSail). All the satellites were built by

text: Surrey Satellite Technology

text: (SSTL). Although built by SSTL, the "De-orbitSail" belonged to the Surrey Space Centre.

text: There are five major components in a DBS satellite system: the programming source, the broadcast center, the satellite, the satellite dish, and the receiver. Satellites used for transmission of television signals are generally in either naturally highly elliptical (with inclination of +/-63.4 degrees and orbital period of about twelve hours, also known as Molniya orbit) or geostationary orbit  above the earth's equator. Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a transmitting antenna located at an uplink facility. Uplink facilities transmit their signals typically in the C-band frequency range due to their resistance to rain fade. As a result, uplink satellite dishes are very large, often as much as 9 to 12 metres (30 to 40 feet) in diameter. The increased diameter results in more accurate aiming and increased signal strength at the satellite. The uplink dish is pointed toward a specific satellite and the uplinked signals are transmitted within a specific frequency range, so as to be received by one of the transponders tuned to that frequency range aboard that satellite. The transponder then converts the signals to K band, a process known as "translation," and transmits them back to earth to be received by home satellite stations.

text: There are five major components in a DBS satellite system: the programming source, the broadcast center, the satellite, the

text: satellite dish

text: , and the

text: receiver

text: . Satellites used for transmission of television signals are generally in either

text: naturally

text: highly

text: elliptical

text: (with

text: inclination

text: of +/-63.4 degrees and orbital period of about twelve hours, also known as

text: Molniya orbit

text: ) or

text: geostationary orbit

text: above the earth's

text: equator

text: . Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a transmitting antenna located at an

text: uplink

text: facility. Uplink facilities transmit their signals typically in the C-band frequency range due to their resistance to

text: rain fade

text: . As a result, uplink satellite dishes are very large, often as much as 9 to 12 metres (30 to 40 feet) in diameter. The increased diameter results in more accurate aiming and increased signal strength at the satellite. The uplink dish is pointed toward a specific satellite and the uplinked signals are transmitted within a specific frequency range, so as to be received by one of the

text: transponder

text: s tuned to that frequency range aboard that satellite. The transponder then converts the signals to K band, a process known as "translation," and transmits them back to earth to be received by home satellite stations.

text: Real Time Kinematic (RTK) satellite navigation is a technique used to enhance the precision of position data derived from satellite-based positioning systems (global navigation satellite systems, GNSS) such as GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou. It uses measurements of the phase of the signal's carrier wave, rather than the information content of the signal, and relies on a single reference station or interpolated virtual station to provide real-time corrections, providing up to centimetre-level accuracy. With reference to GPS in particular, the system is commonly referred to as Carrier-Phase Enhancement, or CPGPS. It has application in land survey and in hydrographic survey.

text: Real Time Kinematic (RTK)

text: satellite navigation

text: is a technique used to enhance the precision of position data derived from satellite-based positioning systems (global navigation satellite systems,

text: GNSS

text: ) such as

text: GPS

text: GLONASS

text: Galileo

text: , and

text: BeiDou

text: . It uses measurements of the

text: phase

text: of the signal's

text: carrier wave

text: , rather than the information content of the signal, and relies on a single reference station or interpolated virtual station to provide real-time corrections, providing up to

text: centimetre

text: -level

text: accuracy

text: . With reference to GPS in particular, the system is commonly referred to as Carrier-Phase Enhancement, or CPGPS. It has application in

text: land survey

text: and in

text: hydrographic survey

text: A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite system (GNSS).  only the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS), the Russian GLONASS and the EUs Galileo are global operational GNSSs. China is in the process of expanding its regional BeiDou Navigation Satellite System into the global Compass navigation system by 2020. The European Union's Galileo is a global GNSS scheduled to be fully operational by 2020. India currently has satellite-based augmentation system, GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN), which enhances the accuracy of NAVSTAR GPS and GLONASS positions. India has already launched the IRNSS, with an operational name NAVIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), a constellation of satellites for navigation in and around the Indian Subcontinent. It is expected to be fully operational by June 2016. France and Japan are in the process of developing regional navigation systems as well.

text: A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite system (GNSS).  only the

text: United States

text: NAVSTAR

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS), the

text: Russia

text: n

text: GLONASS

text: and the

text: EU

text: s

text: Galileo

text: are global operational GNSSs.

text: China

text: is in the process of expanding its regional

text: BeiDou Navigation Satellite System

text: into the global

text: Compass navigation system

text: by 2020. The

text: European Union's

text: Galileo

text: is a global GNSS scheduled to be fully operational by 2020. India currently has

text: satellite-based augmentation system

text: GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation

text: (GAGAN), which enhances the accuracy of NAVSTAR GPS and GLONASS positions. India has already launched the

text: IRNSS

text: , with an operational name NAVIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), a constellation of satellites for navigation in and around the

text: Indian Subcontinent

text: . It is expected to be fully operational by June 2016.

text: France

text: and

text: Japan

text: are in the process of developing regional navigation systems as well.

text: Hybrid positioning systems use a combination of network-based and handset-based technologies for location determination. One example would be some modes of Assisted GPS, which can both use GPS and network information to compute the location. Both types of data are thus used by the telephone to make the location more accurate (i.e., A-GPS). Alternatively tracking with both systems can also occur by having the phone attain its GPS-location directly from the satellites, and then having the information sent via the network to the person that is trying to locate the telephone. Such systems include Google Maps, as well as, LTE's OTDOA and E-CellID.

text: Hybrid positioning system

text: s use a combination of network-based and handset-based technologies for location determination. One example would be some modes of

text: Assisted GPS

text: , which can both use

text: GPS

text: and network information to compute the location. Both types of data are thus used by the telephone to make the location more accurate (i.e., A-GPS). Alternatively tracking with both systems can also occur by having the phone attain its GPS-location directly from the

text: satellite

text: s, and then having the information sent via the network to the person that is trying to locate the telephone. Such systems include

text: Google Maps

text: , as well as,

text: LTE

text: 's

text: OTDOA

text: and

text: E-CellID

text: A satellite system is a set of gravitationally bound objects in orbit around a planetary mass object or minor planet. Generally speaking, it is a set of natural satellites (moons), although such systems may also consist of bodies such as circumplanetary disks, ring systems, moonlets, minor-planet moons and artificial satellites any of which may themselves have satellite systems of their own. Some bodies also possess quasi-satellites that have orbits gravitationally influenced by their primary, but are generally not considered to be part of a satellite system. Satellite systems can have complex interactions including magnetic, tidal, atmospheric and orbital interactions such as orbital resonances and libration.  Individually major satellite objects are designated in Roman numerals.  Satellite systems are referred to either by the possessive adjectives of their primary (e.g. "Jovian system"), or less commonly by the name of their primary (e.g. "Jupiter system").  Where only one satellite is known, or it is a binary orbiting a common centre of gravity, it may be referred to using the hyphenated names of the primary and major satellite (e.g. the "Earth-Moon system").

text: A satellite system is a set of gravitationally bound objects in orbit around a

text: planetary mass object

text: or

text: minor planet

text: . Generally speaking, it is a set of

text: natural satellites

text: (moons), although such systems may also consist of bodies such as circumplanetary disks,

text: ring systems

text: moonlet

text: s,

text: minor-planet moon

text: s and

text: artificial satellites

text: any of which may themselves have satellite systems of their own. Some bodies also possess

text: quasi-satellite

text: s that have orbits gravitationally influenced by their primary, but are generally not considered to be part of a satellite system. Satellite systems can have complex interactions including magnetic, tidal, atmospheric and orbital interactions such as

text: orbital resonance

text: s and

text: libration

text: .  Individually major satellite objects are designated in Roman numerals.  Satellite systems are referred to either by the possessive adjectives of their primary (e.g. "Jovian system"), or less commonly by the name of their primary (e.g. "Jupiter system").  Where only one satellite is known, or it is a binary orbiting a common centre of gravity, it may be referred to using the hyphenated names of the primary and major satellite (e.g. the "Earth-Moon system").

text: Satellites are used for many purposes.  Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and space telescopes.  Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites.  Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways.  Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit.

text: Satellites are used for many purposes.  Common types include military and civilian

text: Earth observation satellite

text: s,

text: communications satellite

text: s,

text: navigation satellite

text: s,

text: weather satellite

text: s, and

text: space telescope

text: s.

text: Space station

text: s and human

text: spacecraft

text: in orbit are also satellites.  Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways.  Well-known (overlapping) classes include

text: low Earth orbit

text: polar orbit

text: , and

text: geostationary orbit

text: Possible future rendezvous may be made by a yet to be developed automated Hubble Robotic Vehicle (HRV), and by the CX-OLEV, which is being developed for rendezvous with a geosynchronous satellite that has run out of fuel. The CX-OLEV would take over orbital stationkeeping and/or finally bring the satellite to a graveyard orbit, after which the CX-OLEV can possibly be reused for another satellite. Gradual transfer from the geostationary transfer orbit to the geosynchronous orbit will take a number of months, using Hall effect thrusters.

text: Possible future rendezvous may be made by a yet to be developed automated Hubble Robotic Vehicle (HRV), and by the

text: CX-OLEV

text: , which is being developed for rendezvous with a

text: geosynchronous satellite

text: that has run out of fuel. The CX-OLEV would take over

text: orbital stationkeeping

text: and/or finally bring the satellite to a graveyard orbit, after which the CX-OLEV can possibly be reused for another satellite. Gradual transfer from the

text: geostationary transfer orbit

text: to the

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: will take a number of months, using

text: Hall effect thruster

text: s.

text: The Galileo positioning system is another EU infrastructure project. Galileo is a proposed Satellite navigation system, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). The Galileo project was launched partly to reduce the EU's dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System, but also to give more complete global coverage and allow for greater accuracy, given the aged nature of the GPS system.

text: The

text: Galileo positioning system

text: is another EU infrastructure project. Galileo is a proposed

text: Satellite navigation

text: system, to be built by the EU and launched by the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA). The Galileo project was launched partly to reduce the EU's dependency on the US-operated

text: Global Positioning System

text: , but also to give more complete global coverage and allow for greater accuracy, given the aged nature of the GPS system.

text: The pseudorange (from pseudo- and range) is the pseudo  distance between a satellite and a navigation satellite receiver (see GNSS positioning calculation) —for instance Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers.

text: The pseudorange (from

text: pseudo-

text: and

text: range

text: ) is the pseudo  distance between a

text: satellite

text: and a navigation satellite receiver (see

text: GNSS positioning calculation

text: ) —for instance

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) receivers.

text: Due to problems a delays with Vanguard TV-2 and complete fail of VT-3, Vanguard was not the first rocket to place into orbit an unmanned satellite. The first small-lift launch vehicle was the Sputnik rocket, it put into orbit an unmanned orbital carrier rocket designed by Sergey Korolyov in the Soviet Union, derived from the R-7 Semyorka ICBM. On 4 October 1957, the Sputnik rocket was used to perform the world's first satellite launch, placing Sputnik 1 satellite into a low Earth orbit.The USA later responded by launching the Vanguard TV-4 with Vanguard 1 satellite. that was intended to be the first launch vehicle the United States would use to place a satellite into orbit. Instead, the Sputnik crisis caused by the surprise launch of Sputnik 1 led the U.S., after the failure of Vanguard TV3, to quickly orbit the Explorer 1 satellite using a Juno I rocket launched on January 31, 1958. Thus Vanguard I was the second successful U.S. orbital launch. Thus started the space race, that gave the drive to put men on the moon with the USA's Apollo program.

text: Due to problems a delays with Vanguard TV-2 and complete fail of VT-3, Vanguard was not the first rocket to place into orbit an unmanned

text: satellite

text: . The first

text: small-lift launch vehicle

text: was the

text: Sputnik

text: rocket, it put into orbit an unmanned

text: orbit

text: al

text: carrier rocket

text: designed by

text: Sergey Korolyov

text: in the Soviet Union, derived from the

text: R-7 Semyorka

text: ICBM

text: . On 4 October 1957, the Sputnik rocket was used to perform the world's first satellite launch, placing

text: Sputnik 1

text: satellite into a

text: low Earth orbit

text: .The USA later responded by launching the

text: Vanguard TV-4

text: with Vanguard 1 satellite. that was intended to be the first launch vehicle the

text: United States

text: would use to place a satellite into orbit. Instead, the

text: Sputnik crisis

text: caused by the surprise launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: led the U.S., after the failure of

text: Vanguard TV3

text: , to quickly orbit the

text: Explorer 1

text: satellite using a

text: Juno I

text: rocket launched on January 31, 1958. Thus

text: Vanguard I

text: was the second successful U.S. orbital launch. Thus started the space race, that gave the drive to put men on the

text: moon

text: with the USA's

text: Apollo program

text: Communications satellites' orbital positions are normally spaced apart along the geostationary orbit to provide for frequency reuse for both uplink and downlink transmissions. By separating adjacent satellites by a distance greater than the at-orbit beamwidth of the uplink antennas, the same carrier frequencies can be used to uplink to both satellites without interference. Similarly, a sufficient separation so that the beamwidth of the receiving dishes on the ground can distinguish one satellite from its neighbours, allows the same frequency spectrum to be used for adjacent satellite downlinks.

text: Communications satellites' orbital positions are normally spaced apart along the geostationary orbit to provide for frequency reuse for both

text: uplink

text: and

text: downlink

text: transmissions. By separating adjacent satellites by a distance greater than the at-orbit

text: beamwidth

text: of the uplink antennas, the same carrier frequencies can be used to uplink to both satellites without interference. Similarly, a sufficient separation so that the beamwidth of the receiving dishes on the ground can distinguish one satellite from its neighbours, allows the same frequency spectrum to be used for adjacent satellite downlinks.

text: Downlink CNR (Carrier to noise ratio in satellite reception) is an important figure in system TVRO design. Below are certain parameters used in CNR computation.

text: Downlink CNR (Carrier to noise ratio in

text: satellite

text: reception) is an important figure in system

text: TVRO

text: design. Below are certain parameters used in CNR computation.

text: Kosmos 136 ( meaning Cosmos 136) or Zenit-2 No.47 was a Soviet optical film-return reconnaissance satellite launched in 1966. A Zenit-2 spacecraft, Kosmos 136 was the forty-fourth of eighty-one such satellites to be launched and had a mass of . In addition to its reconnaissance mission, the satellite was also used for scientific research.

text: Kosmos 136 ( meaning Cosmos 136) or Zenit-2 No.47 was a

text: Soviet

text: optical film-return

text: reconnaissance satellite

text: launched in 1966. A

text: spacecraft, Kosmos 136 was the forty-fourth of eighty-one such satellites to be launched and had a mass of . In addition to its reconnaissance mission, the satellite was also used for scientific research.

text: The global navigation satellite system (GNSS) positioning for receiver's position is derived through the calculation steps, or algorithm, given below. In essence, a GNSS receiver measures the transmitting time of GNSS signals emitted from four or more GNSS satellites and these measurements are used to obtain its position (i.e., spatial coordinates) and reception time.

text: The

text: global navigation satellite system

text: (GNSS) positioning for receiver's position is derived through the calculation steps, or algorithm, given below. In essence, a GNSS receiver measures the transmitting time of GNSS signals emitted from four or more GNSS satellites and these measurements are used to obtain its position (i.e., spatial coordinates) and reception time.

text: The Minitrack system that was developed in the late 1950s for the NRL Vanguard Satellite Program used the signals emitted by Sputnik and later satellites to determine their positions and orbits. This pioneering tracking system led to the concept of tracking nonradiating, or noncooperative, satellites by signals reflected off them. An experiment using a transmitter in Fort Monmouth, New Jersey and Minitrack receivers demonstrated the concept, and from this experiment a larger and more elaborate system was developed by NRL. This system became known as the Naval Space Surveillance System (NAVSPASUR), which was commissioned as an operational command in 1961. Although the operational command is now integrated with the Naval Space Command, the sensor system is still in active use as a major component of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), and has become the alternate Space Defense Computational Facility.

text: The Minitrack system that was developed in the late 1950s for the NRL Vanguard Satellite Program used the signals emitted by Sputnik and later satellites to determine their positions and orbits. This pioneering tracking system led to the concept of tracking nonradiating, or noncooperative, satellites by signals reflected off them. An experiment using a transmitter in

text: Fort Monmouth

text: , New Jersey and Minitrack receivers demonstrated the concept, and from this experiment a larger and more elaborate system was developed by NRL. This system became known as the Naval Space Surveillance System (NAVSPASUR), which was commissioned as an operational command in 1961. Although the operational command is now integrated with the Naval Space Command, the sensor system is still in active use as a major component of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), and has become the alternate Space Defense Computational Facility.

text: Technology Experiment Satellite  or (TES) is an experimental satellite to demonstrate and validate, in orbit, technologies that could be used in the future satellites of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). TES weighs 1108 kg and was successfully placed in 568 km sun synchronous orbit on  October 22, 2001 using the PSLV-C3 version of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle. PSLV-C3 also injected two more satellites: PROBA, a Belgian satellite and BIRD, a German satellite.

text: Technology Experiment Satellite  or (TES) is an experimental

text: satellite

text: to demonstrate and validate, in orbit, technologies that could be used in the future satellites of

text: Indian Space Research Organisation

text: (ISRO). TES weighs 1108 kg and was successfully placed in 568 km sun synchronous orbit on  October 22, 2001 using the

text: version of

text: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: . PSLV-C3 also injected two more satellites:

text: PROBA

text: , a Belgian satellite and BIRD, a German satellite.

text: Players control a Strategic Defense Initiative satellite orbiting the Earth and must destroy enemy missiles and satellites with its weapons, when activated the satellite's weapon systems fire at the crosshair present onscreen during play. The arcade version features a joystick to control the satellite and a trackball to control the crosshair. Home computer versions use different control schemes, such as depressing the fire button to control the crosshair, alternating between controlling the satellite and its weapons. It is also possible to use a joystick and mouse in combination to control the satellite and crosshair at the same time, emulating the arcade game's controls.

text: Players control a

text: Strategic Defense Initiative

text: satellite orbiting the Earth and must destroy enemy missiles and satellites with its weapons, when activated the satellite's weapon systems fire at the

text: crosshair

text: present onscreen during play. The arcade version features a

text: joystick

text: to control the satellite and a

text: trackball

text: to control the crosshair. Home computer versions use different control schemes, such as depressing the fire button to control the crosshair, alternating between controlling the satellite and its weapons. It is also possible to use a

text: joystick

text: and mouse in combination to control the satellite and crosshair at the same time, emulating the arcade game's controls.

text: The Vegetation and Environment monitoring on a New Micro-Satellite (VENµS) is a satellite to be used for Earth observation using a superspectral sensor, dedicated to vegetation monitoring. It is the first cooperation between Israel (ISA) and France (CNES). VENµS scientific objective is "the provision of data for scientific studies dealing with the monitoring, analysis, and modeling of land surface functioning under the influences of environmental factors as well as human activities."

text: The Vegetation and Environment monitoring on a New Micro-Satellite (

text: VENµS

text: ) is a satellite to be used for Earth observation using a superspectral sensor, dedicated to vegetation monitoring. It is the first cooperation between Israel (ISA) and France (

text: CNES

text: VENµS

text: scientific objective is "the provision of data for scientific studies dealing with the monitoring, analysis, and modeling of land surface functioning under the influences of environmental factors as well as human activities."

text: Gunn's early career included work at NASA on large-scale scientific computation and global communications, with special emphasis in infrared satellite image processing, computational fluid dynamics, and global climate and weather modeling. She also did work in robotics engineering  at IBM, Morton Thiokol, United Technologies/Pratt & Whitney, Lockheed-Martin, Rolls-Royce, and the US Navy.

text: Gunn's early career included work at

text: NASA

text: on large-scale scientific computation and global communications, with special emphasis in infrared satellite image processing, computational fluid dynamics, and global climate and weather modeling. She also did work in

text: robotics

text: engineering  at

text: IBM

text: Morton Thiokol

text: United Technologies

text: Pratt & Whitney

text: Lockheed-Martin

text: Rolls-Royce

text: , and the

text: US Navy

text: Currently, two-way information is delivered primarily via the Internet, but the company continues its satellite service for customers who are unable to connect to the Internet due to their remote locations. The current generation of satellite receiver is the DTN D8000-series, which can be networked into an existing LAN using Ethernet. Third-party software can be used to display and interpret the data on a personal computer.

text: Currently, two-way information is delivered primarily via the Internet, but the company continues its satellite service for customers who are unable to connect to the Internet due to their remote locations. The current generation of satellite receiver is the DTN D8000-series, which can be networked into an existing

text: LAN

text: using

text: Ethernet

text: . Third-party software can be used to display and interpret the data on a

text: personal computer

text: Gogo has satellite agreements in place with SES (for coverage over the U.S., Atlantic Ocean and Europe) and Intelsat (for coverage over portions of the Atlantic and northern Pacific oceans, as well as routes over South America, Asia, Africa and Australia). Gogo has also signed an agreement with Intelsat for  satellite capacity specifically for coverage in the Atlantic and northern Pacific oceans, as well as routes over Central and South America, Asia, Australia and parts of Africa. Gogo announced in May 2012, that it will partner with satellite equipment provider, AeroSat, to bring a Ku-satellite solution to commercial airlines. A Ku-satellite solution will allow Gogo to offer airlines connectivity services that extend beyond the United States, including transoceanic routes, and will serve the needs of some of their airline partners in the near-term until Inmarsat's Global Xpress -satellite becomes available. Gogo's Ku-band satellite technology is used for Gogo's Ground to Orbit and 2Ku.

text: Gogo has satellite agreements in place with

text: SES

text: (for coverage over the U.S., Atlantic Ocean and Europe) and

text: Intelsat

text: (for coverage over portions of the Atlantic and northern Pacific oceans, as well as routes over South America, Asia, Africa and Australia). Gogo has also signed an agreement with

text: Intelsat

text: for  satellite capacity specifically for coverage in the Atlantic and northern Pacific oceans, as well as routes over Central and South America, Asia, Australia and parts of Africa. Gogo announced in May 2012, that it will partner with satellite equipment provider,

text: AeroSat

text: , to bring a Ku-satellite solution to commercial airlines. A Ku-satellite solution will allow Gogo to offer airlines connectivity services that extend beyond the United States, including transoceanic routes, and will serve the needs of some of their airline partners in the near-term until Inmarsat's Global Xpress -satellite becomes available. Gogo's Ku-band satellite technology is used for Gogo's Ground to Orbit and 2Ku.

text: USA-256, also known as GPS IIF-7, GPS SVN-68 and NAVSTAR 71, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the seventh of twelve Block IIF satellites to be launched.

text: USA-256, also known as GPS IIF-7, GPS SVN-68 and NAVSTAR 71, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the seventh of twelve

text: Block IIF

text: satellites to be launched.

text: The key difference between a satellite and a quasi-satellite is that the orbit of a satellite of Earth fundamentally depends on the gravity of the Earth–Moon system, whereas the orbit of a quasi-satellite would negligibly change if Earth and the Moon were suddenly removed because a quasi-satellite is orbiting the Sun on an Earth-like orbit in the vicinity of Earth.

text: The KH-8 (BYEMAN codename Gambit-3) was a long-lived series of reconnaissance satellites of the "Key Hole" (KH) series used by the United States from July 1966 to April 1984, and also known as Low Altitude Surveillance Platform. The satellite ejected "film-bucket" canisters of photographic film that were retrieved as they descended through the atmosphere by parachute.  Ground resolution of the mature satellite system was better than .  There were 54 launch attempts of the 3,000 kilogram satellites, all from Vandenberg Air Force Base, on variants of the Titan III rocket. Three launches failed to achieve orbit. The first one was satellite #5 on April 26, 1967 which fell into the Pacific Ocean after the Titan second stage developed low thrust. The second was satellite #35 on May 20, 1972 which suffered an Agena pneumatic regulator failure and reentered the atmosphere. A few months later, pieces of the satellite turned up in England and the US managed to arrange for their hasty return. The third failure was satellite #39 on June 26, 1973 which suffered a stuck Agena fuel valve. The  Bell 8096 engine failed to start and the satellite burned up in the atmosphere. The KH-8 was manufactured by Lockheed. The camera system/satellite was manufactured by Eastman Kodak's A&O Division in Rochester, New York.

text: The KH-8 (

text: BYEMAN

text: codename Gambit-3) was a long-lived series of

text: reconnaissance satellite

text: s of the "

text: Key Hole

text: " (KH) series used by the

text: United States

text: from July 1966 to April 1984, and also known as Low Altitude Surveillance Platform. The satellite ejected

text: "film-bucket" canisters

text: of

text: photographic film

text: that were retrieved as they descended through the

text: atmosphere

text: by

text: parachute

text: .  Ground resolution of the mature satellite system was better than .  There were 54 launch attempts of the 3,000 kilogram satellites, all from

text: Vandenberg Air Force Base

text: , on variants of the

text: Titan III

text: rocket. Three launches failed to achieve orbit. The first one was satellite #5 on April 26, 1967 which fell into the Pacific Ocean after the Titan second stage developed low thrust. The second was satellite #35 on May 20, 1972 which suffered an Agena pneumatic regulator failure and reentered the atmosphere. A few months later, pieces of the satellite turned up in England and the US managed to arrange for their hasty return. The third failure was satellite #39 on June 26, 1973 which suffered a stuck Agena fuel valve. The  Bell 8096 engine failed to start and the satellite burned up in the atmosphere. The KH-8 was manufactured by

text: Lockheed

text: . The camera system/satellite was manufactured by

text: Eastman Kodak

text: 's A&O Division in

text: Rochester, New York

text: Fixed-satellite service (short: FSS | also:  fixed-satellite radiocommunication service) is – according to article 1.21 of the International Telecommunication Union´s (ITU) Radio Regulations (RR) – defined as A radiocommunication service between earth stations at given positions, when one or more satellites are used; the given position may be a specified fixed point or any fixed point within specified areas; in some cases this service includes satellite-to-satellite links, which may also be operated in the inter-satellite service; the fixed-satellite service may also include feeder links for other space radiocommunication services.

text: Fixed-satellite service (short: FSS | also:  fixed-satellite radiocommunication service) is – according to article 1.21 of the

text: International Telecommunication Union´s

text: (ITU)

text: Radio Regulations

text: (RR) – defined as A

text: radiocommunication service

text: between

text: earth station

text: s at given positions, when one or more

text: satellite

text: s are used; the given position may be a specified fixed point or any fixed point within specified areas; in some cases this service includes satellite-to-satellite links, which may also be operated in the

text: inter-satellite service

text: ; the fixed-satellite service may also include

text: feeder link

text: s for other space radiocommunication services.

text: Satellite servicing depots would extend the lifetime of satellites that have nearly consumed all of their orbital maneuvering fuel and are likely placed in a geosynchronous orbit .  The spacecraft would conduct a space rendezvous with the depot, or vice versa, and then transfer propellant to be used for subsequent orbital maneuvers.     Intelsat has recently contracted for an initial demonstration mission to refuel several satellites in geosynchronous orbit, beginning in 2015.

text: Satellite servicing depots would extend the lifetime of satellites that have nearly consumed all of their orbital maneuvering fuel and are likely placed in a geosynchronous orbit .  The spacecraft would conduct a

text: space rendezvous

text: with the depot, or vice versa, and then transfer propellant to be used for subsequent

text: orbital maneuver

text: s.

text: Intelsat

text: has recently contracted for an

text: initial demonstration mission

text: to refuel several satellites in

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: , beginning in 2015.

text: Accordingly, most space-borne proposals which would traditionally be considered "weapons" (a communications or reconnaissance satellite may be useful in warfare but isn't generally classified as a weapon) are designed to jam, sabotage, and outright destroy enemy satellites, and conversely to protect friendly satellites against such attacks. To this end, the US (and presumably other countries) is researching groups of small, highly mobile satellites called "microsats" (about the size of a refrigerator) and "picosats" (approximately 1 cubic foot (≈27 litres) in volume) nimble enough to maneuver around and interact with other orbiting objects to repair, sabotage, hijack, or simply collide with them.

text: With the addition of devices to give the precise current position and orientation of the blind pedestrian, the system could then be used outdoors. The outdoor positioning system is based on signals and satellites which give the longitude and latitude to within a metre; the computer converts this data to a position on an electronic map of locality. The output from the system is in the form of spoken messages.

text: With the addition of devices to give the precise current position and orientation of the blind pedestrian, the system could then be used outdoors. The outdoor positioning system is based on

text: signal

text: s and

text: satellite

text: s which give the

text: longitude

text: and

text: latitude

text: to within a metre; the computer converts this data to a position on an electronic map of locality. The output from the system is in the form of spoken messages.

text: Sputnik 2 was part of an idea that included Sputnik 1 that came from Korolev that was approved in January 1957. At that time, it was not clear that the Soviets' main satellite plan (which would eventually become Sputnik 3) would be able to get to space because of the ongoing issues with the R-7 ICBM, which would be needed to launch a satellite of that size. “Korolev proposed substituting two “simple satellites” for the IGY satellite”. The choice to launch these two instead of waiting for the more advanced Sputnik 3 to be finished was largely motivated by the desire the launch a satellite to orbit before the US.

text: Sputnik 2 was part of an idea that included

text: Sputnik 1

text: that came from Korolev that was approved in January 1957. At that time, it was not clear that the Soviets' main satellite plan (which would eventually become

text: Sputnik 3

text: ) would be able to get to space because of the ongoing issues with the R-7 ICBM, which would be needed to launch a satellite of that size. “Korolev proposed substituting two “simple satellites” for the

text: IGY

text: satellite”. The choice to launch these two instead of waiting for the more advanced Sputnik 3 to be finished was largely motivated by the desire the launch a satellite to orbit before the US.

text: A special case of the geosynchronous orbit, the geostationary orbit, has an eccentrity of zero (meaning the orbit is circular), and an inclination of zero in the Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed coordinate system (meaning the orbital plane is not tilted relative to the Earth's equator).  The "ground track" in this case consists of a single point on the Earth's equator, above which the satellite sits at all times. Note that the satellite is still orbiting the Earth — its apparent lack of motion is due to the fact that the Earth is rotating about its own center of mass at the same rate as the satellite is orbiting.

text: A special case of the geosynchronous orbit, the

text: geostationary orbit

text: , has an

text: eccentrity

text: of zero (meaning the orbit is circular), and an inclination of zero in the

text: Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed

text: coordinate system

text: (meaning the orbital plane is not tilted relative to the Earth's equator).  The "ground track" in this case consists of a single point on the Earth's equator, above which the satellite sits at all times. Note that the satellite is still orbiting the Earth — its apparent lack of motion is due to the fact that the Earth is rotating about its own

text: center of mass

text: at the same rate as the satellite is orbiting.

text: Tata Sky was the second operator to launch DTH or direct-to-home services in 2006. At that time, the company decided to use an ISRO satellite. In 2005, Tata Sky signed a contract with ISRO for provision of satellite space on the INSAT-4A satellite. In 2007, one year after the launch of the DTH player, Tata Sky asked for more space to increase the number of channels they telecast. The extra space was promised in 2009 on the GSAT-10 satellite, a then to be launched satellite inducted into the INSAT system. The GSAT-10 was launched in September 2012, but Tata Sky has not utilized  the transponders till today.

text: Tata Sky was the second operator to launch DTH or direct-to-home services in 2006. At that time, the company decided to use an

text: ISRO

text: satellite. In 2005, Tata Sky signed a contract with ISRO for provision of satellite space on the

text: satellite. In 2007, one year after the launch of the DTH player, Tata Sky asked for more space to increase the number of channels they telecast. The extra space was promised in 2009 on the

text: satellite, a then to be launched satellite inducted into the

text: INSAT

text: system. The GSAT-10 was launched in September 2012, but Tata Sky has not utilized  the transponders till today.

text: Now a lot of satellites and experimental spacecraft to launch satellites in the country, became a strong technical capabilities in this field. No. 7 meteorological satellite Himawari can reduce costs by using satellite bus that was used to Kiku No. 8, was able to launch a domestic satellite weather again. Has been launched plans to launch a small scientific satellite lot, this plan is to allow for rapid development of inexpensive, custom-made satellites aims to share some semi.

text: In optical tracking, the satellite can be used as a very high target for triangulation and can be used to ascertain the geometric relationship between multiple observing stations.  Optical tracking with the BC-4, PC-1000, MOTS, or Baker Nunn cameras consisted of photographic observations of a satellite, or flashing light on the satellite, against a background of stars. The stars, whose positions were accurately determined, provided a framework on the photographic plate or film for a determination of precise directions from camera station to satellite. Geodetic positioning work with cameras was usually performed with one camera observing simultaneously with one or more other cameras. Camera systems are weather dependent and that is one major reason why they fell out of use by the 1980s.

text: In optical tracking, the satellite can be used as a very high target for

text: triangulation

text: and can be used to ascertain the geometric relationship between multiple observing stations.  Optical tracking with the BC-4, PC-1000, MOTS, or Baker Nunn cameras consisted of photographic observations of a satellite, or flashing light on the satellite, against a background of stars. The stars, whose positions were accurately determined, provided a framework on the photographic plate or film for a determination of precise directions from camera station to satellite. Geodetic positioning work with cameras was usually performed with one camera observing simultaneously with one or more other cameras. Camera systems are weather dependent and that is one major reason why they fell out of use by the 1980s.

text: The Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) program opened up a whole new field for space support operations at the Cape in the 1980s: the launching of satellites to provide highly accurate three-dimensional ground, sea and air navigation. The U.S. Navy and Air Force began the effort in the early 1960s with a series of studies and experiments dealing with the feasibility of using satellite-generated radio signals to improve the effectiveness of military navigation. After ten years of extensive research, the services concluded that Defense Department requirements would be best served by a single, highly precise, satellite-based Global Positioning System (GPS). In December 1973, the Defense Navigation Satellite System (later known as Navstar GPS) entered its concept validation phase.

text: The Navstar

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) program opened up a whole new field for space support operations at the Cape in the 1980s: the launching of satellites to provide highly accurate three-dimensional ground, sea and air navigation. The U.S. Navy and Air Force began the effort in the early 1960s with a series of studies and experiments dealing with the feasibility of using satellite-generated radio signals to improve the effectiveness of military navigation. After ten years of extensive research, the services concluded that Defense Department requirements would be best served by a single, highly precise, satellite-based Global Positioning System (GPS). In December 1973, the Defense Navigation Satellite System (later known as Navstar GPS) entered its concept validation phase.

text: Operating at lower frequency and lower power than DBS, FSS satellites require a much larger dish for reception (3 to 8 feet (1 to 2.5 m) in diameter for K band, and 12 feet (3.6 m) or larger for C band).  They use linear polarization for each of the transponders' RF input and output (as opposed to circular polarization used by DBS satellites), but this is a minor technical difference that users do not notice. FSS satellite technology was also originally used for DTH satellite TV from the late 1970s to the early 1990s in the United States in the form of TVRO (TeleVision Receive Only) receivers and dishes. It was also used in its K band form for the now-defunct Primestar satellite TV service.

text: Operating at lower frequency and lower power than DBS, FSS satellites require a much larger dish for reception (3 to 8 feet (1 to 2.5 m) in diameter for K band, and 12 feet (3.6 m) or larger for C band).  They use

text: linear polarization

text: for each of the transponders' RF input and output (as opposed to

text: circular polarization

text: used by DBS satellites), but this is a minor technical difference that users do not notice. FSS satellite technology was also originally used for DTH satellite TV from the late 1970s to the early 1990s in the United States in the form of

text: TVRO

text: (TeleVision Receive Only) receivers and dishes. It was also used in its K band form for the now-defunct

text: Primestar

text: satellite TV service.

text: The electronics can be divided into four categories: a satellite transmitter used after surfacing, the set of sensors, a time reference clock, and a microprocessor.The clock is essential in locating the float, since it is used as reference to calculate the time travel of the sound signals from the moored emitters. It is also useful to have the float work on schedule.The microprocessor controls all subsystems except the clock, and stores the collected data at a regular schedule.The satellite transmitter is used to send data packages to orbiting satellites after the surfacing. It usually takes three days for the satellite to collect all the dataset.

text: The TDRS-1 program was overall less successful, with the satellite suffering several computer failures and an overall loss of telemetry for several hours. In all, the orbiter was able to use the satellite for 65 of the planned 89 orbits, and could make successful use of the connection on about forty. The Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System equipment functioned as planned, processing several hundred times more material than would have been possible on Earth, and the Asahi Shimbun crystal experiment, flown for the second time, was able to produce snow crystals after the canister was redesigned.

text: The

text: program was overall less successful, with the satellite suffering several computer failures and an overall loss of telemetry for several hours. In all, the orbiter was able to use the satellite for 65 of the planned 89 orbits, and could make successful use of the connection on about forty. The Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System equipment functioned as planned, processing several hundred times more material than would have been possible on Earth, and the Asahi Shimbun crystal experiment, flown for the second time, was able to produce

text: snow

text: crystals after the canister was redesigned.

text: As human analysts using the technique lead to subjective biases, efforts have been made to make more objective estimates using computer programs, which have been aided by higher-resolution satellite imagery and more powerful computers.  Since tropical cyclone satellite patterns can fluctuate over time, automated techniques use a six-hour averaging period to lead to more reliable intensity estimates.  Development of the objective Dvorak technique began in 1998, which performed best with tropical cyclones that had eyes (of hurricane or typhoon strength).  It still required a manual center placement, keeping some subjectivity within the process.  By 2004, an advanced objective Dvorak technique was developed which utilized banding features for systems below hurricane intensity and to objectively determine the tropical cyclone's center.  A central pressure bias was uncovered in 2004 relating to the slope of the tropopause and cloud top temperatures which change with latitude that helped improve central pressure estimates within the objective technique.

text: As human analysts using the technique lead to subjective biases, efforts have been made to make more objective estimates using computer programs, which have been aided by higher-resolution satellite imagery and more powerful computers.  Since tropical cyclone satellite patterns can fluctuate over time, automated techniques use a six-hour averaging period to lead to more reliable intensity estimates.  Development of the objective Dvorak technique began in 1998, which performed best with tropical cyclones that had eyes (of hurricane or typhoon strength).  It still required a manual center placement, keeping some subjectivity within the process.  By 2004, an advanced objective Dvorak technique was developed which utilized banding features for systems below hurricane intensity and to objectively determine the tropical cyclone's center.  A central pressure bias was uncovered in 2004 relating to the slope of the

text: tropopause

text: and cloud top temperatures which change with latitude that helped improve central pressure estimates within the objective technique.

text: SpaceX has plans to also sell satellites that use the same satellite bus, satellites that might be used for scientific or exploratory purposes.

text: The satellites were deployed in a circular orbit along the equator at an altitude of 8063 km (medium Earth orbit) at a velocity of approximately , each making 5 orbits a day. The constellation currently has twelve satellites operational in orbit, after three launches of four satellites each. Due to problems with a component of the first four satellites launched, two of those four have been placed on standby for the other two, so ten are used operationally.

text: The satellites were deployed in a circular orbit along the equator at an altitude of 8063 km (

text: medium Earth orbit

text: ) at a velocity of approximately , each making 5 orbits a day. The constellation currently has twelve satellites operational in orbit, after three launches of four satellites each. Due to problems with a component of the first four satellites launched, two of those four have been placed on standby for the other two, so ten are used operationally.

text: On 19 August 1972, Hurricane Celeste destroyed most of the facilities and guidance computers at Johnston. Though the systems were able to be restored by September 1972, unspecified damage caused them to fail on 8 December. The program became fully repaired and restored by 29 March 1973, and remained in standby status until the anti-satellite mission on the Johnston Island facilities were ceased on 10 August 1974. Program 437 was officially terminated on 6 March 1975 at the request of NORAD, and on 1 April 1975 the Department of Defense terminated funding for any anti-satellite programs or development. In January 1977, at the end of his term of office, then President Gerald Ford issued a directive for the DoD to again enter research and development on an operational anti-satellite program. It was an order his successor, President Jimmy Carter, followed through on, and anti-satellite technology has continued to be in some form of research or development since.

text: On 19 August 1972,

text: Hurricane Celeste

text: destroyed most of the facilities and guidance

text: computer

text: s at Johnston. Though the systems were able to be restored by September 1972, unspecified damage caused them to fail on 8 December. The program became fully repaired and restored by 29 March 1973, and remained in standby status until the anti-satellite mission on the Johnston Island facilities were ceased on 10 August 1974. Program 437 was officially terminated on 6 March 1975 at the request of

entity_name: North American Aerospace Defense Command

text: NORAD

text: , and on 1 April 1975 the

text: Department of Defense

text: terminated funding for any anti-satellite programs or development. In January 1977, at the end of his term of office, then

text: President

text: Gerald Ford

text: issued a directive for the DoD to again enter research and development on an operational anti-satellite program. It was an order his successor, President

text: Jimmy Carter

text: , followed through on, and anti-satellite technology has continued to be in some form of research or development since.

text: In database systems and transaction processing (transaction management) global concurrency control relates to the concurrency control of a multidatabase system (for example, a Federated database; other examples are Grid computing and Cloud computing environments). It deals with the properties of the global schedule, which is the unified schedule of the multidatabase system, comprising all the individual schedules of the database systems and possibly other transactional objects in the system. A major goal for global concurrency control is Global serializability (or Modular serializability). The problem of achieving global serializability in a heterogeneous environment had been open for many years, until an effective solution based on Commitment ordering (CO) has been proposed (see Global serializability). Global concurrency control deals also with relaxed forms of global serializability which compromise global serializability (and in many applications also correctness, and thus are avoided there). While local (to a database system) relaxed serializability methods compromise serializability for performance gain (utilized when the application allows), it is unclear that the various proposed relaxed global serializability methods provide any performance gain over CO, which guarantees global serializability.

text: In

text: database systems

text: and

text: transaction processing

text: (transaction management) global concurrency control relates to the concurrency control of a multidatabase system (for example, a

text: Federated database

text: ; other examples are

text: Grid computing

text: and

text: Cloud computing

text: environments). It deals with the properties of the global

text: schedule

text: , which is the unified schedule of the multidatabase system, comprising all the individual schedules of the

text: database system

text: s and possibly other

text: transactional object

text: s in the system. A major goal for global concurrency control is

text: Global serializability

text: (or Modular serializability). The problem of achieving global serializability in a

text: heterogeneous

text: environment had been

text: open

text: for many years, until an effective solution based on

text: Commitment ordering

text: (CO) has been proposed (see

text: Global serializability

text: ). Global concurrency control deals also with

text: relaxed

text: forms of global serializability which compromise global serializability (and in many applications also correctness, and thus are avoided there). While local (to a database system)

text: relaxed serializability methods

text: compromise serializability for performance gain (utilized when the application allows), it is unclear that the various proposed relaxed global serializability methods provide any performance gain over CO, which guarantees global serializability.

text: MaSat-1 (from the words Magyar and Satellite, the first meaning "Hungarian" in Hungarian, maszat, pronounced IPA [ˈmɒsɒt], meaning "smudge") is the first indigenous Hungarian satellite, developed and built by students at the Technical University of Budapest. The 1U CubeSat-type satellite was launched into low Earth orbit on 13 February 2012. The satellite provides telemetric data as well as VGA resolution color images at the 70 cm amateur radio wavelength (437.345 MHz frequency) received at the tracking center at Budapest. The center was tested on 31 March 2009 with the help of Charles Simonyi on board the International Space Station. With the successful launch of MaSat-1, Hungary became the 47th nation to orbit a satellite. Between 9 and 10 January 2015, the satellite reentered into the atmosphere, so the mission is closed.

text: MaSat-1 (from the words Magyar and Satellite, the first meaning "

text: Hungarian

text: " in Hungarian, maszat, pronounced IPA [ˈmɒsɒt], meaning "smudge") is the first indigenous Hungarian

text: satellite

text: , developed and built by students at the

entity_name: Budapest University of Technology and Economics

text: Technical University of Budapest

text: . The 1U

text: CubeSat

text: -type satellite was launched into

text: low Earth orbit

text: on 13 February 2012. The satellite provides telemetric data as well as VGA resolution color images at the 70 cm amateur radio wavelength (437.345 MHz frequency) received at the tracking center at

text: Budapest

text: . The center was tested on 31 March 2009 with the help of

text: Charles Simonyi

text: on board the

text: International Space Station

text: . With the successful launch of MaSat-1, Hungary became the 47th nation to orbit a satellite. Between 9 and 10 January 2015, the satellite reentered into the atmosphere, so the mission is closed.

text: For many years satellite phones have been able to connect to the Internet. Bandwidth varies from about 2400 bit/s for Iridium network satellites and ACeS based phones to 15 kbit/s upstream and 60 kbit/s downstream for Thuraya handsets. Globalstar also provides Internet access at 9600 bit/s—like Iridium and ACeS a dial-up connection is required and is billed per minute, however both Globalstar and Iridium are planning to launch new satellites offering always-on data services at higher rates. With Thuraya phones the 9,600 bit/s dial-up connection is also possible, the 60 kbit/s service is always-on and the user is billed for data transferred (about $5 per megabyte). The phones can be connected to a laptop or other computer using a USB or RS-232 interface. Due to the low bandwidths involved it is extremely slow to browse the web with such a connection, but useful for sending email, Secure Shell data and using other low-bandwidth protocols. Since satellite phones tend to have omnidirectional antennas no alignment is required as long as there is a line of sight between the phone and the satellite.

text: For many years

text: satellite phone

text: s have been able to connect to the Internet. Bandwidth varies from about 2400

text: bit/s

text: for

text: Iridium network satellites

text: and

text: ACeS

text: based phones to 15 kbit/s

text: upstream

text: and 60 kbit/s

text: downstream

text: for

text: Thuraya

text: handsets. Globalstar also provides Internet access at 9600 bit/s—like Iridium and ACeS a

text: dial-up

text: connection is required and is billed per minute, however both

text: Globalstar

text: and Iridium are planning to launch new satellites offering always-on data services at higher rates. With Thuraya phones the 9,600 bit/s dial-up connection is also possible, the 60 kbit/s service is always-on and the user is billed for data transferred (about $5 per

text: megabyte

text: ). The phones can be connected to a laptop or other computer using a USB or

text: interface. Due to the low bandwidths involved it is extremely slow to browse the web with such a connection, but useful for sending email,

text: Secure Shell

text: data and using other low-bandwidth protocols. Since satellite phones tend to have

text: omnidirectional antenna

text: s no alignment is required as long as there is a line of sight between the phone and the satellite.

text: USA-242, also known as GPS IIF-4, GPS IIF SV-5 and Vega, is an American navigation satellite which was launched on 15 May 2013 and became operational on 21 June 2013. The fourth Block IIF GPS satellite, it forms part of the Global Positioning System.

text: USA-242, also known as GPS IIF-4, GPS IIF SV-5 and Vega, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which was launched on 15 May 2013 and became operational on 21 June 2013. The fourth

text: Block IIF

text: GPS satellite

text: , it forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: The almanac consists of coarse orbit and status information for each satellite in the constellation, an ionospheric model, and information to relate GPS derived time to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Each frame contains a part of the almanac (in subframes 4 and 5) and the complete almanac is transmitted by each satellite in 25 frames total (requiring 12.5 minutes). The almanac serves several purposes. The first is to assist in the acquisition of satellites at power-up by allowing the receiver to generate a list of visible satellites based on stored position and time, while an ephemeris from each satellite is needed to compute position fixes using that satellite. In older hardware, lack of an almanac in a new receiver would cause long delays before providing a valid position, because the search for each satellite was a slow process. Advances in hardware have made the acquisition process much faster, so not having an almanac is no longer an issue. The second purpose is for relating time derived from the GPS (called GPS time) to the international time standard of UTC. Finally, the almanac allows a single-frequency receiver to correct for ionospheric delay error by using a global ionospheric model. The corrections are not as accurate as augmentation systems like WAAS or dual-frequency receivers. However, it is often better than no correction, since ionospheric error is the largest error source for a single-frequency GPS receiver.

text: The almanac consists of coarse orbit and status information for each satellite in the constellation, an

text: ionospheric model

text: , and information to relate GPS derived time to

text: Coordinated Universal Time

text: (UTC). Each frame contains a part of the almanac (in subframes 4 and 5) and the complete almanac is transmitted by each satellite in 25 frames total (requiring 12.5 minutes). The almanac serves several purposes. The first is to assist in the acquisition of satellites at power-up by allowing the receiver to generate a list of visible satellites based on stored position and time, while an ephemeris from each satellite is needed to compute position fixes using that satellite. In older hardware, lack of an almanac in a new receiver would cause long delays before providing a valid position, because the search for each satellite was a slow process. Advances in hardware have made the acquisition process much faster, so not having an almanac is no longer an issue. The second purpose is for relating time derived from the GPS (called GPS time) to the international time standard of

text: UTC

text: . Finally, the almanac allows a single-frequency receiver to correct for

entity_name: Error analysis for the Global Positioning System

text: ionospheric delay

text: error by using a global ionospheric model. The corrections are not as accurate as augmentation systems like

text: WAAS

text: or dual-frequency receivers. However, it is often better than no correction, since ionospheric error is the largest error source for a single-frequency GPS receiver.

text: Data access to the station is provided by access via NASA's TDRS-4, 5, and 6, the DOD DSCS-3 satellite & the commercial Iridium satellite constellation. For the 2007–08 season, the TDRS relay (named South Pole TDRSS Relay or SPTR) was upgraded to support a data return rate of 50 Mbit/s, which comprises over 90% of the data return capability.  The TDRS-1 satellite formerly provided services to the station, but it failed in October 2009 and was subsequently decommissioned. Marisat and LES 9 were also formerly used. In July 2016, the GOES-3 satellite was decommissioned due to it nearing the end of its supply of propellant and was replaced by the use of the DSCS-3 satellite, a military communications satellite. DSCS-3 can provide a 30 MB/s data rate compared to GOES-3's 1.5 MB/s. DSCS-3 and TDRS-4, 5, and 6 are used together to provide the main communications capability for the station. These satellites provide the data uplink for the station's scientific data as well as provide broadband internet and telecommunications access. Only during the main satellite events is the station's telephone system able to dial out. The commercial Iridium satellite is used when the TDRS and DSCS satellites are all out of range to give the station limited communications capability during those times. During those times, telephone calls may only be made on several Iridium satellite telephones owned by the station. The station's IT system also has a limited data uplink over the Iridium network which allows emails less than 100KB to be sent and received and small critical data files to be transmitted. This uplink works by bonding the data stream over 12 voice channels.

text: Data access to the station is provided by access via

text: NASA

text: 's

text: TDRS

text: -4, 5, and 6, the DOD DSCS-3 satellite & the commercial

text: Iridium satellite constellation

text: . For the 2007–08 season, the TDRS relay (named South Pole TDRSS Relay or

text: SPTR

text: ) was upgraded to support a data return rate of 50 Mbit/s, which comprises over 90% of the data return capability.  The TDRS-1 satellite formerly provided services to the station, but it failed in October 2009 and was subsequently decommissioned.

text: Marisat

text: and

text: LES 9

text: GP is extremely versatile in the earthmoving industry but it does have its limitations.  GPS satellite signals can only be received in a non obstructed view of the sky with the exception of clouds.  If a contractor wanted to perform grade work in preparation for a concrete floor within a building for example, the roof would block the view to the GPS satellites preventing the system from working.  Working too close to a structure can also obstruct the machine's view of the sky creating dead zones.  High-voltage power-lines can also create dead zones when working underneath them.  GPS satellite coverage can also be weaker during certain parts of the day lowering the amount of satellites the machine's system can use.  This all depends on the geographical location and time of day.  Improvements in GPS technology and the addition of GLONASS (Russian GNSS Satellites) satellites have reduced this issue.  As mentioned earlier, in order to increase the overall accuracy of GPS you have to purchase and use a base station which adds additional cost.

text: GP is extremely versatile in the earthmoving industry but it does have its limitations.  GPS satellite signals can only be received in a non obstructed view of the sky with the exception of clouds.  If a contractor wanted to perform grade work in preparation for a concrete floor within a building for example, the roof would block the view to the GPS satellites preventing the system from working.  Working too close to a structure can also obstruct the machine's view of the sky creating dead zones.  High-voltage power-lines can also create dead zones when working underneath them.  GPS satellite coverage can also be weaker during certain parts of the day lowering the amount of satellites the machine's system can use.  This all depends on the

text: geographical location

text: and time of day.  Improvements in GPS technology and the addition of GLONASS (Russian GNSS Satellites) satellites have reduced this issue.  As mentioned earlier, in order to increase the overall accuracy of GPS you have to purchase and use a base station which adds additional cost.

text: In mid-1965, there was concern that two Soviet satellites had attempted a rendezvous in space.  Thanks to a seemingly overnight miracle, Ralph Schinnerer of Aeronutronic combined the existing XROADS and GROUNDTRACK programs into a new program that could compare the relative positions of two satellites.  This enabled the Duty Orbital Analyst to prove that a rendezvous had not taken place.  [In fact, Ralph had been developing the program while at Hanscom Field in support of Project Space Track but it had not previously been available for use.  He called his program COMBO, which was appropriate, but later gave it the formal name, Computation of Miss Between Orbits.]

text: The Cospas-Sarsat system was made possible by Doppler processing.  LUTs detecting non-geostationary satellites perform mathematical calculations based on the Doppler-induced frequency shift received by LEOSAR and MEOSAR satellites as they pass over a beacon transmitting at a fixed frequency.  From the mathematical calculations, it is possible to determine both bearing and range with respect to the satellite.  The range and bearing are measured from the rate of change of the received frequency, which varies both according to the path of the satellite in space and the rotation of the earth. This allows a computer algorithm to triangulate the position of the beacon. A faster change in the received frequency indicates that the beacon is closer to the satellite's ground track.  When the beacon is moving toward or away from the satellite track due to the earth's rotation, that Doppler shift also can be used in the calculation.

text: The Cospas-Sarsat system was made possible by

text: Doppler

text: processing.  LUTs detecting non-geostationary satellites perform mathematical calculations based on the

text: Doppler

text: -induced frequency shift received by LEOSAR and MEOSAR satellites as they pass over a beacon transmitting at a fixed frequency.  From the mathematical calculations, it is possible to determine both bearing and range with respect to the satellite.  The range and bearing are measured from the rate of change of the received frequency, which varies both according to the path of the satellite in space and the rotation of the earth. This allows a computer algorithm to

text: triangulate

text: the position of the beacon. A faster change in the received frequency indicates that the beacon is closer to the satellite's

text: ground track

text: .  When the beacon is moving toward or away from the satellite track due to the earth's rotation, that Doppler shift also can be used in the calculation.

text: IRNSS-1D is a satellite in the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) constellation. The satellite is the fourth of seven in the constellation, launched after IRNSS-1A, IRNSS-1B and IRNSS-1C. The satellite is the only satellite in the constellation slated to provide navigational services to the region. The satellite will be placed in geosynchronous orbit. It was launched successfully on 28 March 2015 onboard ISRO's PSLV-C27 from Satish Dhawan Space Center, Sriharikota.

text: IRNSS-1D is a satellite in the

text: Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS)

text: constellation. The satellite is the fourth of seven in the constellation, launched after

text: and

text: . The satellite is the only satellite in the constellation slated to provide navigational services to the region. The satellite will be placed in

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: . It was launched successfully on 28 March 2015 onboard ISRO's

text: from

text: Satish Dhawan Space Center

text: Sriharikota

text: USA-150, also known as GPS IIR-4 and GPS SVN-51, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the fourth Block IIR GPS satellite to be launched, out of thirteen in the original configuration, and twenty one overall. It was built by Lockheed Martin, using the AS-4000 satellite bus.

text: USA-150, also known as GPS IIR-4 and GPS SVN-51, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the fourth

text: Block IIR

text: overall

text: . It was built by

text: Lockheed Martin

text: , using the

text: satellite bus

text: Satellites are uniquely identified by a serial number called space vehicle number (SVN) which does not change during its lifetime. In addition, all operating satellites are numbered with a space vehicle identifier (SV ID) and pseudorandom noise number (PRN number) which uniquely identifies the ranging codes that a satellite uses. There is a fixed one-to-one correspondence between SV identifiers and PRN numbers described in the interface specification. Unlike SVNs, the SV ID/PRN number of a satellite may be changed (also changing the ranging codes it uses). At any point in time, any SV ID/PRN number is in use by at most a single satellite. A single SV ID/PRN number may have been used by several satellites at different points in time and a single satellite may have used different SV ID/PRN numbers at different points in time. The current SVNs and PRN numbers for the GPS constellation may be found at NAVCEN.

text: Satellites are uniquely identified by a serial number called space vehicle number (SVN) which does not change during its lifetime. In addition, all operating satellites are numbered with a space vehicle identifier (SV ID) and pseudorandom noise number (PRN number) which uniquely identifies the ranging codes that a satellite uses. There is a fixed

text: one-to-one correspondence

text: between SV identifiers and PRN numbers described in the interface specification. Unlike SVNs, the SV ID/PRN number of a satellite may be changed (also changing the ranging codes it uses). At any point in time, any SV ID/PRN number is in use by at most a single satellite. A single SV ID/PRN number may have been used by several satellites at different points in time and a single satellite may have used different SV ID/PRN numbers at different points in time. The current SVNs and PRN numbers for the GPS constellation may be found at NAVCEN.

text: STS-51 Discovery, (September 12–22, 1993) was launched from and returned to make the first night landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida. During the ten-day flight, the crew of five deployed the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) and the Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer on the Shuttle Pallet Satellite (ORFEUS/SPAS). Newman was responsible for the operation of the SPAS, was the backup operator for the RMS, and on flight day five conducted a seven-hour-five-minute spacewalk with Carl Walz. The extravehicular activity (EVA) tested tools and techniques for use on future missions. In addition to working with numerous secondary payloads and medical test objectives, the crew successfully tested a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver to determine real-time Shuttle positions and velocities and completed a test routing Orbiter data to on-board laptop computers. STS-51 made 158 orbits of the Earth, traveling 4.1 million miles in 236 hours and 11 minutes.

text: Discovery

text: , (September 12–22, 1993) was launched from and returned to make the first night landing at

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: Florida

text: . During the ten-day flight, the crew of five deployed the

text: Advanced Communications Technology Satellite

text: (ACTS) and the

text: Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer

text: on the

text: Shuttle Pallet Satellite

text: (ORFEUS/SPAS). Newman was responsible for the operation of the SPAS, was the backup operator for the RMS, and on flight day five conducted a seven-hour-five-minute spacewalk with Carl Walz. The

text: extravehicular activity

text: (EVA) tested tools and techniques for use on future missions. In addition to working with numerous secondary payloads and medical test objectives, the crew successfully tested a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver to determine real-time Shuttle positions and velocities and completed a test routing Orbiter data to on-board laptop computers. STS-51 made 158 orbits of the Earth, traveling 4.1 million miles in 236 hours and 11 minutes.

text: The Mississippi watershed was part of the GEWEX Continental scale International Projects and as a result was well situated for the  analysis of the Great Flood of 1993 (Mississippi River and Red River water sheds). The coordination between ground sensing observations and satellite information allowed more thorough analysis of events that led up to the flood. Researchers at the Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies (COLA) found that upstream soil moisture and a multifold increase of moist air flow from the Gulf of Mexico to the flooded regions was a major factor in excessive rainfall. The Global Land/Atmosphere System Study (GLASS) gave GEWEX investigators the ability to observe soil wetness over much of the worlds surface by correlating observations on the ground with information obtained by satellites. While the ability to show cause is important, the different conditions (soil wetness, global patterns) that were permissive for weather anomalies are the focus of Phase I, gathering information and learning how to use satellite information better.

text: The Mississippi watershed was part of the GEWEX Continental scale International Projects and as a result was well situated for the  analysis of the Great Flood of 1993 (

text: Mississippi River

text: and

text: Red River

text: water sheds). The coordination between ground sensing observations and satellite information allowed more thorough analysis of events that led up to the flood. Researchers at the

text: Center for Ocean-Land-Atmosphere Studies

text: (COLA) found that upstream

text: soil moisture

text: and a multifold increase of

text: moist

text: air flow from the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: to the flooded regions was a major factor in excessive rainfall. The Global Land/Atmosphere System Study (GLASS) gave GEWEX investigators the ability to observe soil wetness over much of the worlds surface by correlating observations on the ground with information obtained by satellites. While the ability to show cause is important, the different conditions (soil wetness, global patterns) that were permissive for weather anomalies are the focus of Phase I, gathering information and learning how to use satellite information better.

text: The United States Naval Academy announced that it was discontinuing its course on celestial navigation, considered to be one of its most demanding non-engineering courses, from the formal curriculum in the spring of 1998. It stated that a sextant is accurate to a three-mile (5 km) radius, while a satellite-linked computer can pinpoint a ship within  as long as the satellites are functioning correctly. Midshipmen continued to learn to use the sextant, but instead of performing a tedious 22-step mathematical calculation to plot a ship's position, midshipmen feed the raw data into a computer. The US Naval Academy continued to practice celestial navigation for members of the USNA Varsity Offshore Sailing Team (VOST) and competes in the celestial spinnaker division in the bi-annual Marion-Bermuda Race racing aboard the venerable Navy 44 sail training craft. The Naval Academy Sailing Squadron (NASS) that consists of both the Offshore Sail Training Squadron (OSTS) and VOST crews use both long forms with paper plotting sheets and electronic celestial applications. Celestial navigation certification is required to achieve the highest "E" qualification at NASS. In October 2015, citing concerns about the reliability of GPS systems in the face of potential hostile hacking, the USNA reinstated instruction in celestial navigation in the 2015-2016 academic year. At another federal service academy, the US Merchant Marine Academy, there was no break in instruction in celestial navigation as it is required to pass the US Coast Guard License Exam.  It is also taught at Harvard, most recently as Astronomy 2.

text: The

text: United States Naval Academy

text: hacking

text: , the USNA reinstated instruction in celestial navigation in the 2015-2016 academic year. At another federal service academy, the US Merchant Marine Academy, there was no break in instruction in celestial navigation as it is required to pass the US Coast Guard License Exam.  It is also taught at

text: Harvard

text: , most recently as Astronomy 2.

text: A geostationary orbit is not stable. It takes regular manoeuvres to actively counteract the above gravitational forces. The majority of the fuel of the satellite, typically hydrazine, is spent for this purpose. Otherwise, the satellite experiences a change in the inclination over time. At the end of the satellite's lifetime, when fuel approaches depletion, satellite operators may decide to omit these expensive manoeuvres to correct inclination and only control eccentricity. This prolongs the life-time of the satellite as it consumes less fuel over time, but the satellite can then only be used by ground antennas capable of following the north-south movement, satellite-tracking Earth stations. Before the fuel runs out, satellites can be moved to a graveyard orbit to keep the geostationary altitude free for subsequent missions.

text: A geostationary orbit is not stable. It takes regular manoeuvres to actively counteract the above gravitational forces. The majority of the fuel of the satellite, typically

text: hydrazine

text: , is spent for this purpose. Otherwise, the satellite experiences a change in the inclination over time. At the end of the satellite's lifetime, when fuel approaches depletion, satellite operators may decide to omit these expensive manoeuvres to correct inclination and only control eccentricity. This prolongs the life-time of the satellite as it consumes less fuel over time, but the satellite can then only be used by ground antennas capable of following the north-south movement, satellite-tracking Earth stations. Before the fuel runs out, satellites can be moved to a

text: graveyard orbit

text: to keep the geostationary altitude free for subsequent missions.

text: Without an extra global navigation satellite system, receiver tracking is difficult, but not impossible, as the position of a mobile unit can be determined using a Doppler shift calculation from the satellite. These readings however can be inaccurate with errors in the tens of kilometers. Even without using Doppler shifts, a rough indication of a unit's position can be found by checking the location of the spot-beam being used and the mobile unit's timing advance.

text: Without an extra

text: global navigation satellite system

text: , receiver tracking is difficult, but not impossible, as the position of a mobile unit can be determined using a Doppler shift calculation from the satellite. These readings however can be inaccurate with errors in the tens of kilometers. Even without using Doppler shifts, a rough indication of a unit's position can be found by checking the location of the spot-beam being used and the mobile unit's

text: timing advance

text: Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) including the Chinese Beidou, the American Global Positioning System((introduced in 1978)GPS) and the Russian GLONASS broadcast navigational signals in various bands between about 1.2 GHz and 1.6 GHz.

text: Global Navigation Satellite System

text: s (GNSS) including the Chinese

text: Beidou

text: , the American

text: Global Positioning System

text: ((introduced in 1978)GPS) and the Russian

text: GLONASS

text: broadcast navigational signals in various bands between about 1.2 GHz and 1.6 GHz.

text: Modern systems are more direct. The satellite broadcasts a signal that contains orbital data (from which the position of the satellite can be calculated) and the precise time the signal was transmitted. The orbital data is transmitted in a data message that is superimposed on a code that serves as a timing reference. The satellite uses an atomic clock to maintain synchronization of all the satellites in the constellation. The receiver compares the time of broadcast encoded in the transmission of three (at sea level) or four different satellites, thereby measuring the time-of-flight to each satellite. Several such measurements can be made at the same time to different satellites, allowing a continual fix to be generated in real time using an adapted version of trilateration: see GNSS positioning calculation for details.

text: Modern systems are more direct. The satellite broadcasts a signal that contains orbital data (from which the position of the satellite can be calculated) and the precise time the signal was transmitted. The orbital data is transmitted in a data message that is superimposed on a code that serves as a timing reference. The satellite uses an

text: atomic clock

text: to maintain synchronization of all the satellites in the constellation. The receiver compares the time of broadcast encoded in the transmission of three (at sea level) or four different satellites, thereby measuring the time-of-flight to each satellite. Several such measurements can be made at the same time to different satellites, allowing a continual fix to be generated in real time using an adapted version of

text: trilateration

text: : see

text: GNSS positioning calculation

text: for details.

text: The Computer Channel was a British satellite television channel run by British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB).

text: The Computer Channel was a British satellite television channel run by

text: British Satellite Broadcasting

text: (BSB).

text: Using observations with the Hubble Space Telescope from November 13, 2005, Mike Brown and T.A. Suer detected a natural satellite. The discovery of a satellite of Orcus was reported in IAUC 8812 on 22 February 2007. The satellite was given the designation S/2005 (90482) 1 before later being named Vanth. It orbits Orcus in a nearly face-on circular orbit with an eccentricity of about 0.007, and an orbital period of 9.54 days. Vanth orbits only  from Orcus and is too close to Orcus for ground-based spectroscopy to determine the surface composition of the satellite.

text: Using observations with the Hubble Space Telescope from November 13, 2005, Mike Brown and T.A. Suer detected a natural satellite. The discovery of a satellite of Orcus was reported in IAUC 8812 on 22 February 2007. The satellite was given the designation S/2005 (90482) 1 before later being named Vanth. It orbits Orcus in a nearly face-on circular orbit with an

text: eccentricity

text: of about 0.007, and an orbital period of 9.54 days. Vanth orbits only  from Orcus and is too close to Orcus for ground-based spectroscopy to determine the surface composition of the satellite.

text: The satellite contains a large set of scientific devices, designed and built in Bulgaria:

text: Türksat A.Ş. is the primary communications satellite operator of Turkey, controlling the Turksat series of satellites. TÜBİTAK and Turkish Aerospace Industries have developed scientific observation satellites and reconnaissance satellites like the RASAT, Göktürk-1 and Göktürk-2.

text: Türksat A.Ş.

text: is the primary

text: communications satellite

text: operator of Turkey, controlling the

text: Turksat series of satellites

entity_name: Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey

text: TÜBİTAK

text: and

text: Turkish Aerospace Industries

text: have developed

text: scientific observation satellites

text: and

text: reconnaissance satellites

text: like the RASAT, Göktürk-1 and Göktürk-2.

text: Today, the Global Positioning System in coordination with the Network Time Protocol can be used to synchronize timekeeping systems across the globe.

text: Today, the

text: Global Positioning System

text: in coordination with the

text: Network Time Protocol

text: can be used to synchronize timekeeping systems across the globe.

text: SmartSPHERES experiment equipped the three SPHERES satellite aboard the International Space Station with Nexus S smartphones that were delivered via the Space Shuttle mission STS-135. Each satellite was enhanced through the use of processing power, wireless networking, camera, sensors and the touch sensitive display of the connected smartphone. The availability Android operating system’s source code enabled the devices to be used as a compact, low-cost, low-power computers.

text: SmartSPHERES experiment equipped the three SPHERES satellite aboard the International Space Station with

text: Nexus S

text: smartphone

text: s that were delivered via the Space Shuttle mission

text: . Each satellite was enhanced through the use of processing power, wireless networking, camera, sensors and the touch sensitive display of the connected smartphone. The availability

text: Android

text: operating system’s source code enabled the devices to be used as a compact, low-cost, low-power computers.

text: Each distance measurement, regardless of the system being used, places the receiver on a spherical shell at the measured distance from the broadcaster. By taking several such measurements and then looking for a point where they meet, a fix is generated. However, in the case of fast-moving receivers, the position of the signal moves as signals are received from several satellites. In addition, the radio signals slow slightly as they pass through the ionosphere, and this slowing varies with the receiver's angle to the satellite, because that changes the distance through the ionosphere. The basic computation thus attempts to find the shortest directed line tangent to four oblate spherical shells centred on four satellites. Satellite navigation receivers reduce errors by using combinations of signals from multiple satellites and multiple correlators, and then using techniques such as Kalman filtering to combine the noisy, partial, and constantly changing data into a single estimate for position, time, and velocity.

text: Each distance measurement, regardless of the system being used, places the receiver on a spherical shell at the measured distance from the broadcaster. By taking several such measurements and then looking for a point where they meet, a fix is generated. However, in the case of fast-moving receivers, the position of the signal moves as signals are received from several satellites. In addition, the radio signals slow slightly as they pass through the ionosphere, and this slowing varies with the receiver's angle to the satellite, because that changes the distance through the ionosphere. The basic computation thus attempts to find the shortest directed line tangent to four oblate spherical shells centred on four satellites. Satellite navigation receivers reduce errors by using combinations of signals from multiple satellites and multiple correlators, and then using techniques such as

text: Kalman filter

text: ing to combine the noisy, partial, and constantly changing data into a single estimate for position, time, and velocity.

text: The early warning radars could only cover satellites in low earth orbits. In the 1980s more US military satellites were placed in geosynchronous orbits.  This required specialised equipment, such as Krona and Okno, which could analyse satellites at that height. In the late 1980s the centre received a new building housing an Elbrus-2 computer. Later a new network based on the Elbrus-90 Micro computer was installed.

text: The early warning radars could only cover satellites in low earth orbits. In the 1980s more US military satellites were placed in

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: s.  This required specialised equipment, such as Krona and Okno, which could analyse satellites at that height. In the late 1980s the centre received a new building housing an

text: Elbrus

text: -2 computer. Later a new network based on the Elbrus-90 Micro computer was installed.

text: A version of the product was sold with a GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver to allow users to use the product as a satellite navigation system. Since version 2008, Microsoft started requiring Product Activation for Streets & Trips.

text: A version of the product was sold with a GPS (

text: Global Positioning System

text: ) receiver to allow users to use the product as a satellite navigation system. Since version 2008, Microsoft started requiring

text: Product Activation

text: for Streets & Trips.

text: The term user equivalent range error (UERE) refers to the error of a component in the distance from receiver to a satellite. These UERE errors are given as ± errors thereby implying that they are unbiased or zero mean errors. These UERE errors are therefore used in computing standard deviations. The standard deviation of the error in receiver position,

text: Currently projects at the Boeing Satellite Development Center (spacecraft being designed, built, tested, or prepared for launch) are satellites made for XM (satellite radio), DirecTV (satellite television), MSV (satellite mobile telephony), Spaceway (data networks), GPS (satellite navigation), and for the Wideband Global SATCOM system (military communications). Designs for ISAT (military orbital radar demonstrator), for additional GOES satellites (meteorology), and for other spacecraft, are currently being developed and proposed.

text: Currently projects at the Boeing Satellite Development Center (spacecraft being designed, built, tested, or prepared for launch) are satellites made for

text: XM

text: satellite radio

text: DirecTV

text: satellite television

text: MSV

text: satellite mobile telephony

text: Spaceway

text: data networks

text: GPS

text: satellite navigation

text: ), and for the

text: Wideband Global SATCOM system

text: (military communications). Designs for ISAT (

text: military orbital radar

text: demonstrator), for additional

entity_name: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

text: GOES

text: satellites (

text: meteorology

text: ), and for other spacecraft, are currently being developed and proposed.

text: In 1993, Malaysia's Prime Minister, Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, called for the end of the Malaysian government's monopoly on communications services. He believed that the creation of privately owned companies could better serve Malaysia's communications needs in the decades ahead. One result of Mahathir's 1993 "Malaysia Plan" was the creation of the Binariang Sdn. Bhd. company by Malaysian tycoon Ananda Krishnan, which was given the charter to develop Malaysia's first satellite communications system. In 1994, Binariang signed a contract with Hughes Space and Communications Company (now Boeing Satellite Systems) for two Model 376 satellites.  The project was named the "Malaysia East Asia Satellite" program, or "MEASAT" for short. The satellites opened the door to reliable telephone and data transmission services to all of Malaysia, helping to strengthen the unity between the peninsula and the island portions of the nation. The satellites also contributed greatly to the rapid growth of computer networking in Malaysia, as well as the creation of a new direct-to-home (DTH) satellite television service, called "Astro".

text: In 1993,

text: Malaysia's Prime Minister

text: Dr.

text: Mahathir Mohamad

text: , called for the end of the Malaysian government's monopoly on communications services. He believed that the creation of privately owned companies could better serve Malaysia's communications needs in the decades ahead. One result of Mahathir's 1993 "Malaysia Plan" was the creation of the Binariang Sdn. Bhd. company by Malaysian tycoon

text: Ananda Krishnan

text: , which was given the charter to develop Malaysia's first satellite communications system. In 1994, Binariang signed a contract with Hughes Space and Communications Company (now Boeing Satellite Systems) for two Model 376 satellites.  The project was named the "Malaysia East Asia Satellite" program, or "MEASAT" for short. The satellites opened the door to reliable telephone and data transmission services to all of Malaysia, helping to strengthen the unity between the peninsula and the island portions of the nation. The satellites also contributed greatly to the rapid growth of computer networking in Malaysia, as well as the creation of a new direct-to-home (DTH) satellite television service, called "

text: Astro

text: Low-Earth orbit is sometimes used to cut this delay, at the expense of more complicated satellite tracking on the ground and requiring more satellites in the satellite constellation to ensure continuous coverage.

text: Low-Earth orbit

text: is sometimes used to cut this delay, at the expense of more complicated satellite tracking on the ground and requiring more satellites in the

text: satellite constellation

text: to ensure continuous coverage.

text: One of the first contributions of Gaur to the science of geology came during his doctoral studies at Imperial College when he discovered the host rock effect in geo-electromagnetics, which had been unsuspected till then and this discovery assisted him in earning his PhD. His later studies covered the fields of geodesy, seismology and electromagnetics and his studies on the tectonics of Himalayas assisted in estimating the plate under-thrusts and understanding the micro-earthquakes in the region. He is credited with the discovery of the thick Deccan lithosphere which he accomplished using the seismic tomography experiments for the first time in India. He is reported to be the first scientist to use Global Positioning System Geodesy to measure the Indian plate velocity quantitatively in comparison to the Eurasian plate velocity and as well as the first to conduct an experiment to constrain global carbon fluxes in India and Central Asia through inversion of ultra-high precision atmospheric concentration data. His studies have been documented as several peer-reviewed articles, the article repository of the Indian Academy of Sciences has listed 61 of them. On the infrastructure development front, his contributions are reported in the implementation of Marine Satellite and Ocean Information Services and in the establishment of a CO2 laboratory at Indian Astronomical Observatory, Hanle. It was during his tenure as the professor, academic programs on signal analysis, inverse theory and computational geophysics were introduced at the University of Roorkee and the University Grants Commission of India subsequently extended the courses designed by him to other universities. His involvement is also known in the preparation of science texts for higher secondary studies of the Central Board of Secondary Education. He was one of the propagators of the Science to People programs and also sat in the councils of the Indian National Science Academy (1985-87 and 1994-96) and the Indian Academy of (Sciences 1992-97).

text: One of the first contributions of Gaur to the science of geology came during his doctoral studies at Imperial College when he discovered the host rock effect in geo-electromagnetics, which had been unsuspected till then and this discovery assisted him in earning his PhD. His later studies covered the fields of

text: geodesy

text: seismology

text: and

text: electromagnetics

text: and his studies on the tectonics of Himalayas assisted in estimating the plate under-thrusts and understanding the micro-earthquakes in the region. He is credited with the discovery of the thick Deccan

text: lithosphere

text: which he accomplished using the seismic tomography experiments for the first time in India. He is reported to be the first scientist to use

text: Global Positioning System

text: Geodesy to measure the Indian plate velocity quantitatively in comparison to the Eurasian plate velocity and as well as the first to conduct an experiment to constrain global carbon fluxes in India and Central Asia through inversion of ultra-high precision atmospheric concentration data. His studies have been documented as several peer-reviewed articles, the article repository of the Indian Academy of Sciences has listed 61 of them. On the infrastructure development front, his contributions are reported in the implementation of Marine Satellite and Ocean Information Services and in the establishment of a CO2 laboratory at

text: Indian Astronomical Observatory

text: , Hanle. It was during his tenure as the professor, academic programs on signal analysis, inverse theory and computational geophysics were introduced at the University of Roorkee and the

text: University Grants Commission of India

text: subsequently extended the courses designed by him to other universities. His involvement is also known in the preparation of science texts for higher secondary studies of the

text: Central Board of Secondary Education

text: . He was one of the propagators of the Science to People programs and also sat in the councils of the Indian National Science Academy (1985-87 and 1994-96) and the Indian Academy of (Sciences 1992-97).

text: The final output of a navigation receiver is usually its position, speed or other related physical quantities. However, the calculation of these quantities are based on a series of measurements from one or more satellite constellations. Although receivers calculate positions in real time, in many cases it is interesting to store intermediate measures for later use. RINEX is the standard format that allows the management and disposal of the measures generated by a receiver, as well as their off-line processing by a multitude of applications, whatever the manufacturer of both the receiver and the computer application.

text: For example, for ground stations at latitudes of φ = ±45° on the same meridian as the satellite, the time taken for a signal to pass from Earth to the satellite and back again can be computed using the cosine rule, given the geostationary orbital radius r (derived below), the Earth's radius R and the speed of light c, as

text: For example, for ground stations at

text: latitudes

text: of φ = ±45° on the same

text: meridian

text: as the satellite, the time taken for a signal to pass from Earth to the satellite and back again can be computed using the

text: cosine rule

text: , given the geostationary orbital radius r (derived below), the

text: Earth's radius

text: R and the

text: speed of light

text: c, as

text: The concept of the home range can be traced back to a publication in 1943 by W. H. Burt, who constructed maps delineating the spatial extent or outside boundary of an animal's movement during the course of its everyday activities.  Associated with the concept of a home range is the concept of a utilization distribution, which takes the form of a two dimensional probability density function that represents the probability of finding an animal in a defined area within its home range. The home range of an individual animal is typically constructed from a set of location points that have been collected over a period of time identifying the position in space of an individual at many points in time.  Such data are now collected automatically using collars placed on individuals that transmit through satellites or using mobile cellphone technology and global positioning systems (GPS) technology, at regular intervals.

text: The concept of the home range can be traced back to a publication in 1943 by W. H. Burt, who constructed maps delineating the spatial extent or outside boundary of an animal's movement during the course of its everyday activities.  Associated with the concept of a home range is the concept of a

text: utilization distribution

text: , which takes the form of a two dimensional

text: probability density function

text: that represents the probability of finding an animal in a defined area within its home range. The home range of an individual animal is typically constructed from a set of location points that have been collected over a period of time identifying the position in space of an individual at many points in time.  Such data are now collected automatically using collars placed on individuals that transmit through

text: satellite

text: s or using mobile

text: cellphone

text: technology and global positioning systems (

text: GPS

text: ) technology, at regular intervals.

text: Only downlinks from the satellite are affected, uplinks from the Earth are normally not, as the planet "shades" the Earth station when viewed from the satellite.  Satellites in geosynchronous orbit are irregularly affected based on their inclination.  Reception from satellites in other orbits are frequently but only momentarily affected by this, and by their nature the same signal is usually repeated or relayed on another satellite, if a tracking dish is used at all.  Satellite radio and other services like GPS are not affected, as they use no receiving dish, and therefore do not concentrate the interference.  (GPS and certain satellite radio systems use non-geosynchronous satellites.)

text: Only

text: downlink

text: s from the satellite are affected,

text: uplink

text: s from the Earth are normally not, as the

text: planet

text: shades

text: " the Earth station when viewed from the satellite.  Satellites in

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: are irregularly affected based on their

text: inclination

text: .  Reception from satellites in other

text: orbit

text: s are frequently but only momentarily affected by this, and by their nature the same signal is usually

text: repeated

text: or

text: relay

text: ed on another satellite, if a tracking dish is used at all.  Satellite radio and other services like

text: GPS

text: are not affected, as they use no receiving dish, and therefore do not concentrate the interference.  (GPS and certain satellite radio systems use non-geosynchronous satellites.)

text: One idea proposed is that the vehicle would make use of its Global Positioning System (GPS) determined position to avoid crashes with other vehicles; the position would be transmitted to other vehicles using a communications technology.  With all of the vehicles knowing their whereabouts, it would allow each car to drive itself to avoid obstacles including other vehicles and pedestrians. The developers claim that crash-avoidance systems would eliminate the need for airbags and would include seat belts exclusively for "comfort purposes".

text: One idea proposed is that the vehicle would make use of its

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) determined position to avoid crashes with other vehicles; the position would be transmitted to other vehicles using a communications technology.  With all of the vehicles knowing their whereabouts, it would allow each car to drive itself to avoid obstacles including other vehicles and pedestrians. The developers claim that crash-avoidance systems would eliminate the need for

text: airbag

text: s and would include

text: seat belt

text: s exclusively for "comfort purposes".

text: Although to the observer low Earth orbit satellites move at about the same apparent speed as aircraft, individual satellites can be faster or slower; they do not all move at the same speed. Individual satellites never deviate in their velocity (speed and direction). They can be distinguished from aircraft because satellites do not leave contrails.  They are lit solely by the reflection of sunlight from solar panels or other surfaces.  A satellite's brightness sometimes changes as it moves across the sky.  Occasionally a satellite will 'flare' as its orientation changes relative to the viewer, suddenly increasing in reflectivity. Satellites often grow dimmer and are more difficult to see toward the horizons. Because reflected sunlight is necessary to see satellites, the best viewing times are for a few hours immediately after nightfall and a few hours before dawn. Given the number of satellites now in orbit, a fifteen-minute session of sky watching will generally yield at least one satellite passing overhead.

text: Although to the observer

text: low Earth orbit

text: satellites move at about the same apparent speed as aircraft, individual satellites can be faster or slower; they do not all move at the same speed. Individual satellites never deviate in their velocity (speed and direction). They can be distinguished from aircraft because satellites do not leave contrails.  They are lit solely by the reflection of sunlight from solar panels or other surfaces.  A satellite's brightness sometimes changes as it moves across the sky.  Occasionally a satellite will '

text: flare

text: ' as its orientation changes relative to the viewer, suddenly increasing in reflectivity. Satellites often grow dimmer and are more difficult to see toward the horizons. Because reflected sunlight is necessary to see satellites, the best viewing times are for a few hours immediately after nightfall and a few hours before dawn. Given the number of satellites now in orbit, a fifteen-minute session of sky watching will generally yield at least one satellite passing overhead.

text: The satellite has a 2-day revisit orbit which allows constant viewing angles at constant sun lighting angles. The unique combination is hoped to allow the development of new image processing methods. A set of at least 50 points of interest around the world were chosen to be scanned throughout the scientific mission. The points will be rescanned every 2 days for the entire duration of the mission where it will collect sensory and imagery data. Some of the objectives from the scientific mission are:

text: There are many planetarium  and satellite tracking computer programs to aid satellite spotting. More recently, accompanied by the development of Augmented Reality technologies, satellite watching mobile programs have been developed. During the 64th International Astronautical Congress 2013 in Beijing a citizen science method to track satellite beacon signals by a Distributed Ground Station Network (DGSN) was presented. The purpose of this network is to support small satellites and cubesats of universities.

text: There are many

text: planetarium

text: and

text: satellite tracking

text: computer program

text: s to aid satellite spotting. More recently, accompanied by the development of Augmented Reality technologies, satellite watching mobile programs have been developed. During the 64th

text: International Astronautical Congress

text: 2013 in Beijing a

text: citizen science

text: method to track satellite beacon signals by a Distributed Ground Station Network (DGSN) was presented. The purpose of this network is to support

text: small satellite

text: s and

text: cubesats

text: of universities.

text: Engineering Test Satellite by these rockets Tansei and many other scientific satellites have been launched, ISAS began to store the information and satellite technology. Also, Yokkou come and firmament, such as atmospheric observation satellite, Hakucho and Hinotori such as X-ray astronomy satellite that was active. Development of the ISAS rocket M-3SII rocket dip in paragraph finished. The rocket is a solid fuel rocket is the first whole page, leaving the area to bring the gravity of the earth to the satellite Sakigake and Suisei to Halley Armada were participating. M-3SII to launch satellite rocket technology and an established one after another.

text: Engineering Test Satellite by these rockets

text: Tansei

text: and many other scientific satellites have been launched, ISAS began to store the information and satellite technology. Also,

text: Yokkou come

text: and

text: firmament

text: , such as atmospheric observation satellite,

text: Hakucho

text: and

text: Hinotori

text: such as X-ray astronomy satellite that was active. Development of the ISAS rocket

text: M-3SII rocket

text: dip in paragraph finished. The rocket is a solid fuel rocket is the first whole page, leaving the area to bring the gravity of the earth to the satellite

text: Sakigake

text: and

text: Suisei

text: to

text: Halley Armada

text: were participating. M-3SII to launch satellite rocket technology and an established one after another.

text: The company produces and launches mini-satellites, and has demonstrated future launches using 12-foot scale P-20 rockets, of its Vector R known as the Vector 1. Each payload is client-specific, so that launches are not shared between companies. Currently they are capable of launching satellites up to 50kg into Low-Earth Orbit, and are developing orbital launch capabilities. The first client of Vector was Iceye, a company in Finland. Mini-satellites produced by Vector are partially assembled by 3-D printed engineered parts.

text: The company produces and launches mini-satellites, and has demonstrated future launches using 12-foot scale P-20 rockets, of its Vector R known as the Vector 1. Each payload is client-specific, so that launches are not shared between companies. Currently they are capable of launching satellites up to 50kg into

text: Low-Earth Orbit

text: , and are developing orbital launch capabilities. The first client of Vector was Iceye, a company in Finland. Mini-satellites produced by Vector are partially assembled by 3-D printed engineered parts.

text: The type of satellite television which uses direct-broadcast satellites is known as direct-broadcast satellite television (DBSTV) or direct-to-home television (DTHTV).  The term "direct broadcast" is used to distinguish satellites which transmit radio or television signals directly to receivers in consumers' homes from other communications satellites which transmit signals to satellite ground stations, for example those which distribute cable television signals to cable head end facilities.   Since home satellite television receivers use small dish antennas less than a meter in diameter, DBS satellites must have much higher downlink transmitter power than other communication satellites, which are received by larger dishes from 2 up to 50 meters diameter.

text: The type of satellite television which uses direct-broadcast satellites is known as

text: direct-broadcast satellite television

text: (DBSTV) or direct-to-home television (DTHTV).  The term "direct broadcast" is used to distinguish satellites which transmit radio or television signals directly to receivers in consumers' homes from other

text: communications satellite

text: s which transmit signals to

text: satellite ground station

text: s, for example those which distribute

text: cable television

text: signals to cable

text: head end

text: facilities.   Since

text: home satellite television receivers

text: use small

text: dish antennas

text: less than a meter in diameter, DBS satellites must have much higher

text: downlink

text: transmitter power than other communication satellites, which are received by larger dishes from 2 up to 50 meters diameter.

text: Over one million satellite detections, or observations, are collected by this surveillance network each month. Data gathered is transmitted to a computer center at Naval Space Command headquarters in Dahlgren, where it is used to constantly update a data base of spacecraft orbital elements. This information is reported to Fleet and Fleet Marine Forces to alert them when particular satellites of interest are overhead. The command also maintains a catalog of all earth-orbiting satellites and supports USSPACECOM as part of the nation's worldwide Space Surveillance Network.

text: Satellite telemetry involves following an object on the Earth’s surface through the use of orbiting satellites. Researchers at CCC use this technology to track the migratory patterns of sea turtles in the Caribbean and the Atlantic Ocean. Satellite telemetry allows researchers to obtain up-to-date location data every time the sea turtle rises to the surface for air. A Platform Terminal Transmitter (PTT) is attached to the back of a sea turtle. The PTT sends a signal full of information to an orbiting satellite each time the turtle surfaces. The satellite re-transmits the data to a receiving station on Earth. Researchers can then access this information through their computer. Satellite transmitters can be attached several different ways. For hard-shell turtles, such as Green turtles, Loggerhead or Hawksbills, the Marine Epoxy Method or the Fiberglass and Resin Method are used. Both methods are safe for the turtles, neither hurting their shells nor restricting their movements in the ocean. Transmitters are designed to safely fall off the turtles after about a year and a half. Leatherback turtles, which lack a hard shell, require a different method because of their size and the texture of their carapace. A harness that goes over the shell is used to secure a transmitter. The harness tends to last longer than the epoxy or fiberglass methods, allowing researchers to track leatherbacks for up to two years before the harness falls off harmlessly.

text: Satellite

entity_section: Fisheries and wildlife research and management

text: telemetry

text: involves following an object on the Earth’s surface through the use of orbiting satellites. Researchers at

text: CCC

text: use this technology to track the migratory patterns of sea turtles in the

text: Caribbean

text: and the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: . Satellite telemetry allows researchers to obtain up-to-date location data every time the sea turtle rises to the surface for air. A Platform Terminal Transmitter (PTT) is attached to the back of a sea turtle. The PTT sends a signal full of information to an orbiting satellite each time the turtle surfaces. The satellite re-transmits the data to a receiving station on Earth. Researchers can then access this information through their computer. Satellite transmitters can be attached several different ways. For hard-shell turtles, such as

text: Green turtles

text: Loggerhead

text: or

text: Hawksbills

text: , the Marine

text: Epoxy

text: Method or the

text: Fiberglass

text: and Resin Method are used. Both methods are safe for the turtles, neither hurting their shells nor restricting their movements in the ocean. Transmitters are designed to safely fall off the turtles after about a year and a half. Leatherback turtles, which lack a hard shell, require a different method because of their size and the texture of their

text: carapace

text: . A harness that goes over the shell is used to secure a transmitter. The harness tends to last longer than the epoxy or fiberglass methods, allowing researchers to track leatherbacks for up to two years before the harness falls off harmlessly.

text: This computation is in accordance with Chapter 11 of The global positioning system by Parkinson and Spilker where the weighting matrix, P, has been set to the identity matrix. The elements of the Q matrix are designated as:

text: The site is primarily used to launch meteorological satellites, earth resource satellites and scientific satellites on Long March launch vehicles into sun-synchronous orbits. TSLC is also a major launch site for intercontinental ballistic missiles and overland Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) tests.

text: The site is primarily used to launch meteorological satellites, earth resource satellites and scientific satellites on

text: Long March

text: launch vehicles into

text: sun-synchronous orbit

text: s. TSLC is also a major launch site for

text: intercontinental ballistic missile

text: s and overland

text: Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile

text: (SLBM) tests.

text: Russia developed the original system, and its success drove the desire to develop the improved 406 MHz system. The original system was a brilliant adaptation to the low quality beacons, originally designed to aid air searches. It used just a simple, lightweight transponder on the satellite, with no digital recorders or other complexities. Ground stations listened to each satellite as long as it was above the horizon. Doppler shift was used to locate the beacon(s). Multiple beacons were separated when a computer program  analysed the signals with a fast fourier transform. Also, two satellite passes per beacon were used. This eliminated false alarms by using two measurements to verify the beacon's location from two different bearings. This prevented false alarms from VHF channels that affected a single satellite. Regrettably, the second satellite pass almost doubled the average time before notification of the rescuing authority. However, the notification time was much less than a day.

text: Russia

text: developed the original system, and its success drove the desire to develop the improved 406 MHz system. The original system was a brilliant adaptation to the low quality beacons, originally designed to aid air searches. It used just a simple, lightweight transponder on the satellite, with no digital recorders or other complexities. Ground stations listened to each satellite as long as it was above the horizon. Doppler shift was used to locate the beacon(s). Multiple beacons were separated when a computer program  analysed the signals with a

text: fast fourier transform

text: . Also, two satellite passes per beacon were used. This eliminated false alarms by using two measurements to verify the beacon's location from two different bearings. This prevented false alarms from VHF channels that affected a single satellite. Regrettably, the second satellite pass almost doubled the average time before notification of the rescuing authority. However, the notification time was much less than a day.

text: USA-180, also known as GPS IIR-13 and GPS SVN-61, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the thirteenth of twenty one Block IIR GPS satellites to be launched, and the last in the original configuration. It was built by Lockheed Martin, using the AS-4000 satellite bus.

text: USA-180, also known as GPS IIR-13 and GPS SVN-61, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the thirteenth of twenty one

text: Block IIR

text: GPS satellites to be launched, and the last in the original configuration. It was built by

text: Lockheed Martin

text: , using the

text: satellite bus

text: According to the agreement, upgrades were to take place through use of INTELSAT satellites and modems, facsimile machines, and computers.   The facsimile terminals were operational by 1986. The teletype circuits were cut in 1988 after several years of testing and use proved the fax links to be reliable. The Soviets transferred the hotline link to the newer, geostationary Gorizont-class satellites of the Statsionar system.

text: According to the agreement, upgrades were to take place through use of

text: INTELSAT

text: satellites and modems, facsimile machines, and computers.   The facsimile terminals were operational by 1986. The teletype circuits were cut in 1988 after several years of testing and use proved the fax links to be reliable. The Soviets transferred the hotline link to the newer, geostationary

text: Gorizont

text: -class satellites of the

text: Statsionar

text: system.

text: Galileo is the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that is currently being created by the European Union (EU) through the European Space Agency (ESA) and the European GNSS Agency (GSA), headquartered in Prague in the Czech Republic, with two ground operations centres, Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich in Germany and Fucino in Italy. The €5 billion project is named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. One of the aims of Galileo is to provide an indigenous alternative high-precision positioning system upon which European nations can rely, independently from the Russian GLONASS, Indian NAVIC, Chinese Bei Dou and US GPS systems, in case they were disabled by their operators.The use of basic (low-precision) Galileo services will be free and open to everyone. The high-precision capabilities will be available for paying commercial users. Galileo is intended to provide horizontal and vertical position measurements within 1-metre precision, and better positioning services at high latitudes than other positioning systems.

text: Galileo is the

text: global navigation satellite system

text: (GNSS) that is currently being created by the

text: European Union

text: (EU) through the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA) and the

text: European GNSS Agency

text: (GSA), headquartered in

text: Prague

text: in the

text: Czech Republic

text: , with two ground operations centres,

text: Oberpfaffenhofen

text: near

text: Munich

text: in Germany and

text: Fucino

text: in Italy. The €5 billion project is named after the Italian astronomer

text: Galileo Galilei

text: . One of the aims of Galileo is to provide an indigenous alternative high-precision positioning system upon which European nations can rely, independently from the Russian

text: GLONASS

text: , Indian

text: NAVIC

text: , Chinese

text: Bei Dou

text: and US

text: GPS

text: systems, in case they were disabled by their operators.The use of basic (low-precision) Galileo services will be free and open to everyone. The high-precision capabilities will be available for paying commercial users. Galileo is intended to provide horizontal and vertical position measurements within 1-metre precision, and better positioning services at high

text: latitude

text: s than other positioning systems.

text: According to Tal Dekel, a research fellow at Tel Aviv University’s Yuval Ne’eman Workshop for Science, Technology and Security, few were aware of the extent of Egypt’s satellite program and the satellite is disguised as scientific research but the truth it would be used by the Egyptian Armed Forces as a spying satellite.

text: According to Tal Dekel, a research fellow at

text: Tel Aviv University

text: ’s Yuval Ne’eman Workshop for Science, Technology and Security, few were aware of the extent of Egypt’s satellite program and the satellite is disguised as scientific research but the truth it would be used by the

text: Egyptian Armed Forces

text: as a spying satellite.

text: The soldiers are also trained in the use of multiple computer applications such as VIASAT, PDA-184, and MoVer to install, operate and maintain satellite communications links.

text: After the failure of TV-3, the backup vehicle, Vanguard TV-3 BU (BU=Backup), was prepared for another attempt. Pad crews hastened to repair the damage done to LC-18A by TV-3's explosion and in the third week of January 1958, the job was completed. TV-3BU was erected on the pad, but continuous delays frustrated the launch attempt. Heavy rains shorted some electrical cables on the ground and necessitated their replacement. The second stage engine was found to have damage and had to be taken down and replaced by a different stage. Finally, the launch got under way on February 5. The Vanguard lifted smoothly into the night sky and performed well until around 50 seconds into launch, when the booster suddenly pitched down. The skinny second stage broke in half from aerodynamic stress, causing the Vanguard to tumble end-over-end before Range Safety sent the destruct command. Cause of the failure was attributed to a spurious guidance signal that caused the first stage to perform unintended pitch maneuvers. On March 17, TV-4 finally succeeded in orbiting the Vanguard 1 satellite. By that time, however, the Army's Juno (Jupiter-C) had already launched the United States' first satellite. The TV-4 rocket had put the satellite Vanguard 1, to a relatively high orbit of (3966 km (2465 miles) x ) and is currently the oldest human artifact in space. The following four flights, TV-5 and SLV (Satellite Launch Vehicle)-1, -2 and -3 all failed, but on February 17, 1959, SLV-4 launched Vanguard 2 (weighing 10.8 kg (23.7 lb)) into orbit. The SLVs were the "production" Vanguard rockets. SLV-5 and -6 also failed, but the final flight on September 18, 1959 successfully orbited the 23.6 kg (52 lb) Vanguard 3 satellite. That last mission was designated TV-4BU, because it used a remaining test vehicle, which had been upgraded with a new third stage, the Allegheny Ballistics Lab X-248A2 Altair. This more powerful motor enabled the launch of the heavier payload. The combination of the AJ10 liquid engine and X-248 solid motor was also used, under the name Able, as an upper stage combination for Thor and Atlas space launch vehicles.

text: After the failure of TV-3, the backup vehicle,

text: Vanguard TV-3 BU

text: (BU=Backup), was prepared for another attempt. Pad crews hastened to repair the damage done to LC-18A by TV-3's explosion and in the third week of January 1958, the job was completed. TV-3BU was erected on the pad, but continuous delays frustrated the launch attempt. Heavy rains shorted some electrical cables on the ground and necessitated their replacement. The second stage engine was found to have damage and had to be taken down and replaced by a different stage. Finally, the launch got under way on February 5. The Vanguard lifted smoothly into the night sky and performed well until around 50 seconds into launch, when the booster suddenly pitched down. The skinny second stage broke in half from aerodynamic stress, causing the Vanguard to tumble end-over-end before Range Safety sent the destruct command. Cause of the failure was attributed to a spurious guidance signal that caused the first stage to perform unintended pitch maneuvers. On March 17, TV-4 finally succeeded in orbiting the

text: Vanguard 1

text: satellite. By that time, however, the Army's

text: Juno

text: Jupiter-C

text: ) had already launched the

text: United States' first satellite

text: . The TV-4 rocket had put the satellite Vanguard 1, to a relatively high orbit of (3966 km (2465 miles) x ) and is currently the oldest human artifact in space. The following four flights,

text: and SLV (Satellite Launch Vehicle)

text: and

text: all failed, but on February 17, 1959,

text: launched

text: Vanguard 2

text: (weighing 10.8 kg (23.7 lb)) into orbit. The SLVs were the "production" Vanguard rockets.

text: and

text: also failed, but the final flight on September 18, 1959 successfully orbited the 23.6 kg (52 lb)

text: Vanguard 3

text: satellite. That last mission was designated TV-4BU, because it used a remaining test vehicle, which had been upgraded with a new third stage, the Allegheny Ballistics Lab X-248A2 Altair. This more powerful motor enabled the launch of the heavier payload. The combination of the AJ10 liquid engine and X-248 solid motor was also used, under the name

text: Able

text: , as an upper stage combination for Thor and Atlas space launch vehicles.

text: Luch 5B is one of a planned three Luch relay satellites. Luch 5A was launched on 11 December 2011 and Luch 5V is expected in 2013 or 2014. They are dual purpose satellites with both military and civil uses, and are similar to those in the US Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System.

text: Luch 5B is one of a planned three Luch relay satellites.

text: Luch 5A

text: was launched on 11 December 2011 and

text: Luch 5V

text: is expected in 2013 or 2014. They are

text: dual purpose

text: satellites with both military and civil uses, and are similar to those in the US

text: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System

text: Blue Force Tracking systems consist of a computer, used to display location information, a satellite terminal and satellite antenna, used to transmit location and other military data, a Global Positioning System receiver (to determine its own position), command-and-control software (to send and receive orders, and many other battlefield support functions), and mapping software, usually in the form of a geographic information system (GIS), that plots the BFT device on a map. The system displays the location of the host vehicle on the computer's terrain-map display, along with the locations of other platforms (friendly in blue, and enemy in red) in their respective locations. BFT can also be used to send and receive text and imagery messages, and Blue Force Tracking has a mechanism for reporting the locations of enemy forces and other battlefield conditions (for example, the location of mine fields, battlefield obstacles, bridges that are damaged, etc.).

text: Blue Force Tracking systems consist of a

text: computer

text: , used to display location information, a satellite terminal and

text: satellite antenna

text: , used to transmit location and other military data, a

text: Global Positioning System

text: receiver (to determine its own position), command-and-control software (to send and receive orders, and many other battlefield support functions), and mapping software, usually in the form of a

text: geographic information system

text: (GIS), that plots the BFT device on a map. The system displays the location of the host vehicle on the computer's terrain-map display, along with the locations of other platforms (friendly in blue, and enemy in red) in their respective locations. BFT can also be used to send and receive text and imagery messages, and Blue Force Tracking has a mechanism for reporting the locations of enemy forces and other battlefield conditions (for example, the location of mine fields, battlefield obstacles, bridges that are damaged, etc.).

text: The analysis of errors computed using the global positioning system is important for understanding how GPS works, and for knowing what magnitude errors should be expected. The Global Positioning System makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other effects but there are still residual errors which are not corrected. The Global Positioning System (GPS) was created by the United States Department of Defense (DOD) in the 1970s. It has come to be widely used for navigation both by the U.S. military and the general public.

text: The analysis of errors computed using the

text: global positioning system

text: is important for understanding how GPS works, and for knowing what magnitude errors should be expected. The Global Positioning System makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other effects but there are still residual errors which are not corrected. The Global Positioning System (GPS) was created by the United States Department of Defense (DOD) in the 1970s. It has come to be widely used for navigation both by the U.S. military and the general public.

text: USA-199, also known as GPS IIR-18(M), GPS IIRM-5 and GPS SVN-57, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the fifth of eight Block IIRM satellites to be launched, and the eighteenth of twenty one Block IIR satellites overall. It was built by Lockheed Martin, using the AS-4000 satellite bus.

text: USA-199, also known as GPS IIR-18(M), GPS IIRM-5 and GPS SVN-57, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the fifth of eight

text: Block IIRM

text: satellites to be launched, and the eighteenth of twenty one

text: Block IIR

text: satellites overall. It was built by

text: Lockheed Martin

text: , using the

text: satellite bus

text: Fast, Affordable, Science and Technology Satellite or FASTSAT, also known as USA 220 is a NASA satellite that was launched from the Kodiak Launch Complex in Kodiak, Alaska, United States, on November 20, 2010 on a Minotaur IV rocket. The mission's objective is to demonstrate the capability to build, design and test a microsatellite platform to enable researchers to conduct low-cost scientific and technology experiments on an autonomous satellite in space.

text: Fast, Affordable, Science and Technology Satellite or FASTSAT, also known as USA 220 is a

text: NASA

text: satellite

text: that was launched from the

text: Kodiak Launch Complex

text: in

text: Kodiak, Alaska

text: United States

text: , on November 20, 2010 on a

text: Minotaur IV

text: rocket. The mission's objective is to demonstrate the capability to build, design and test a microsatellite platform to enable researchers to conduct low-cost scientific and technology experiments on an autonomous satellite in space.

text: 1960 Global navigation satellite system

text: Global navigation satellite system

text: Early Space Track observations of satellites were collected at more than 150 individual sites, including radar stations, Baker–Nunn cameras, telescopes, radio receivers, and the Operation Moonwatch participants. Individuals at these Moonwatch sites took manual observations on satellites by visual means, but there were numerous observation types and sources, some automated, some only semi-automated. The observations were transferred to the NSSCC by teletype, telephone, mail, and personal messenger. There, a duty analyst reduced the data and determined corrections that should be made to the orbital elements before they were used for further predictions. After this analysis, the corrections were fed into an IBM 709 computer that computed the updated orbital data. The updated orbital data were then used in another phase of the same computer program to yield the geocentric ephemeris. From the geocentric ephemeris, three different products were computed and sent back to the observing stations for their planning of future observing opportunities.

text: Early Space Track observations of satellites were collected at more than 150 individual sites, including radar stations,

text: Baker–Nunn camera

text: s, telescopes, radio receivers, and the

text: Operation Moonwatch

text: participants. Individuals at these Moonwatch sites took manual observations on satellites by visual means, but there were numerous observation types and sources, some automated, some only semi-automated. The observations were transferred to the NSSCC by teletype, telephone, mail, and personal messenger. There, a duty analyst reduced the data and determined corrections that should be made to the orbital elements before they were used for further predictions. After this analysis, the corrections were fed into an

text: IBM 709

text: computer that computed the updated orbital data. The updated orbital data were then used in another phase of the same computer program to yield the

text: geocentric

text: ephemeris

text: . From the geocentric ephemeris, three different products were computed and sent back to the observing stations for their planning of future observing opportunities.

text: During a satellite pass, a GE receiver would receive the orbital parameters and encrypted messages from the satellite, as well as measure the Doppler-shifted frequency at intervals and provide this data to the AN/UYK-1 computer. The computer would also receive from the ship's inertial navigation system (SINS) a reading of latitude and longitude. Using this information the AN/UYK-1 ran the least squares algorithm and provided a location reading in about fifteen minutes.

text: During a satellite pass, a GE receiver would receive the orbital parameters and encrypted messages from the satellite, as well as measure the Doppler-shifted frequency at intervals and provide this data to the AN/UYK-1 computer. The computer would also receive from the ship's inertial navigation system (SINS) a reading of latitude and longitude. Using this information the AN/UYK-1 ran the

text: least squares

text: algorithm and provided a location reading in about fifteen minutes.

text: USA-251, also known as GPS IIF-6, GPS SVN-67 and NAVSTAR 70, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the sixth of twelve Block IIF satellites to be launched.

text: USA-251, also known as GPS IIF-6, GPS SVN-67 and NAVSTAR 70, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the sixth of twelve

text: Block IIF

text: satellites to be launched.

text: Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. For example, a ship or aircraft may have known elevation. Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer, to give a (possibly degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible.

text: Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. For example, a ship or aircraft may have known elevation. Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions such as reusing the last known

text: altitude

text: dead reckoning

text: inertial navigation

text: , or including information from the vehicle computer, to give a (possibly degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible.

text: Communications satellites came into use in the 1960s and today carry a variety of information including credit card transaction data, radio, television and telephone calls.  The Global Positioning System (GPS) operates on signals from satellites.

text: Communications satellites

text: came into use in the 1960s and today carry a variety of information including credit card transaction data, radio, television and telephone calls.  The

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) operates on signals from satellites.

text: Launch test efforts at KSC with regard to the Kappa, Lambda and Lambda-4 rockets set the stage for small satellite missions. At the same time, the Mu program of large rockets was pursued. After four launch failures, an engineering test satellite was successfully put into orbit aboard a Lambda 4S-5 rocket. The satellite Ōsumi (named after a peninsula in Kagoshima Prefecture) marked Japan's first successful satellite launch. Subsequent improvements in the Mu class rocket enabled scientific satellite launches at a rate of one per year. Development of the new generation M-V rocket resulted in successful launch of the scientific satellite MUSES-B (HALCA) in February 1997.

text: Launch test efforts at KSC with regard to the

text: Kappa

text: Lambda

text: and Lambda-4 rockets set the stage for small satellite missions. At the same time, the

text: Mu

text: program of large rockets was pursued. After four launch failures, an engineering test satellite was successfully put into orbit aboard a Lambda 4S-5 rocket. The satellite

text: Ōsumi

text: (named after a peninsula in Kagoshima Prefecture) marked Japan's first successful satellite launch. Subsequent improvements in the Mu class rocket enabled scientific satellite launches at a rate of one per year. Development of the new generation

text: M-V

text: rocket resulted in successful launch of the scientific satellite MUSES-B (

text: HALCA

text: ) in February 1997.

text: Astérix, the first French satellite, was launched on November 26, 1965 by a Diamant A rocket from Hammaguir, Algeria. With Astérix, France became the sixth country to have an artificial satellite in orbit after: USSR (Sputnik 1, 1957), the United States (Explorer 1, 1958), the United Kingdom (Ariel 1, 1962), Canada (Alouette 1, 1962) and Italy (San Marco 1, 1964), and the third to launch a satellite on its own (the UK, Canada and Italy's satellites were launched on American rockets).  The satellite was originally designated A-1, as the French Army's first satellite, but later renamed after the popular French comics character Astérix.  Due to the relatively high altitude of its orbit, it is not expected to re-enter Earth's atmosphere for several centuries.

text: Astérix, the first

text: French

text: satellite, was launched on November 26, 1965 by a

text: Diamant A

text: rocket from

text: Hammaguir

text: , Algeria. With Astérix, France became the sixth country to have an artificial satellite in orbit after:

text: USSR

text: Sputnik 1

text: , 1957), the United States (

text: Explorer 1

text: , 1958), the United Kingdom (

text: Ariel 1

text: , 1962), Canada (

text: Alouette 1

text: , 1962) and Italy (

text: San Marco 1

text: , 1964), and the third to launch a satellite on its own (the UK, Canada and Italy's satellites were launched on American rockets).  The satellite was originally designated A-1, as the French Army's first satellite, but later renamed after the popular

text: French comics

text: character

text: Astérix

text: .  Due to the relatively high altitude of its orbit, it is not expected to re-enter Earth's atmosphere for several centuries.

text: SaTReC, which is located within the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), promotes the education and training of satellite engineers through research programs in satellite engineering, space science and remote sensing. In 1992, SaTReC developed and launched the first satellite of Korea, KITSAT-1, a scientific microsatellite. Since then, SaTReC continues to develop satellites with scientific and technology demonstration missions.

text: Attitude Control System (ACS) controls the dynamic behaviour of satellite like orientation and motion of satellite. In Swayam, the unique technique of Passive Magnetic Attitude Control System (PMACS) is implemented for the first time on an Indian satellite. The uniqueness of the technique is that it controls the orientation of satellite without any power consumption with reasonable accuracy for communication. It is the scientific mission of the Satellite to prove that PMACS is a robust and cost effective solution for attitude control.

text: The signals use similar DSSS encoding and binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulation as in GPS signals. All GLONASS satellites transmit the same code as their standard-precision signal; however each transmits on a different frequency using a 15-channel frequency division multiple access (FDMA) technique spanning either side from 1602.0 MHz, known as the L1 band. The center frequency is 1602 MHz + n × 0.5625 MHz, where n is a satellite's frequency channel number (n=−7,−6,−5,...0,...,6, previously n=0,...,13). Signals are transmitted in a 38° cone, using right-hand circular polarization, at an EIRP between 25 and 27 dBW (316 to 500 watts).  Note that the 24-satellite constellation is accommodated with only 15 channels by using identical frequency channels to support antipodal (opposite side of planet in orbit) satellite pairs, as these satellites are never both in view of an earth-based user at the same time.

text: The signals use similar

text: DSSS

text: encoding and

text: binary phase-shift keying

text: (BPSK) modulation as in GPS signals. All GLONASS satellites transmit the same code as their standard-precision signal; however each transmits on a different frequency using a 15-channel

text: frequency division multiple access

text: (FDMA) technique spanning either side from 1602.0

text: MHz

text: , known as the L1 band. The center frequency is 1602 MHz + n × 0.5625 MHz, where n is a satellite's frequency channel number (n=−7,−6,−5,...0,...,6, previously n=0,...,13). Signals are transmitted in a 38° cone, using right-hand

text: circular polarization

text: , at an

text: EIRP

text: between 25 and 27

text: dBW

text: (316 to 500 watts).  Note that the 24-satellite constellation is accommodated with only 15 channels by using identical frequency channels to support

text: antipodal

text: (opposite side of planet in orbit) satellite pairs, as these satellites are never both in view of an earth-based user at the same time.

text: In database systems and transaction processing (transaction management) distributed concurrency control refers primarily to the concurrency control of a distributed database. It also refers to the concurrency control in a multidatabase (and other multi-transactional object) environment (e.g., federated database, grid computing, and cloud computing environments. A major goal for distributed concurrency control is distributed serializability (or global serializability for multidatabase systems). Distributed concurrency control poses special challenges beyond centralized one, primarily due to communication and computer latency. It often requires special techniques, like distributed lock manager over fast computer networks with low latency, like switched fabric (e.g., InfiniBand). commitment ordering (or commit ordering) is a general serializability technique that achieves distributed serializability (and global serializability in particular) effectively on a large scale, without concurrency control information distribution (e.g., local precedence relations, locks, timestamps, or tickets), and thus without performance penalties that are typical to other serializability techniques (Raz 1992).

text: In

text: database systems

text: and

text: transaction processing

text: (transaction management) distributed concurrency control refers primarily to the concurrency control of a

text: distributed database

text: . It also refers to the concurrency control in a multidatabase (and other multi-

text: transactional object

text: ) environment (e.g.,

text: federated database

text: grid computing

text: , and

text: cloud computing

text: environments. A major goal for distributed concurrency control is distributed

text: serializability

text: (or

text: global serializability

text: for multidatabase systems). Distributed concurrency control poses special challenges beyond centralized one, primarily due to communication and computer

text: latency

text: . It often requires special techniques, like

text: distributed lock manager

text: over fast

text: computer network

text: s with low latency, like

text: switched fabric

text: (e.g.,

text: InfiniBand

text: commitment ordering

text: (or commit ordering) is a general serializability technique that achieves distributed serializability (and global serializability in particular) effectively on a large scale, without concurrency control information distribution (e.g., local precedence relations, locks, timestamps, or tickets), and thus without performance penalties that are typical to other serializability techniques (

text: Raz 1992

text: Due to later problems with Vanguard it was not the first rocket to into orbit an unmanned  satellite. The first small-lift launch vehicle was the Sputnik rocket, it put into orbit an unmanned orbital carrier rocket designed by Sergey Korolyov in the Soviet Union, derived from the R-7 Semyorka ICBM. On 4 October 1957, the Sputnik rocket was used to perform the world's first satellite launch, placing Sputnik 1 satellite into a low Earth orbit.The USA responded by launching the Vanguard rocket, that was intended to be the first launch vehicle the United States would use to place a satellite into orbit. Instead, the Sputnik crisis caused by the surprise launch of Sputnik 1 led the U.S., after the failure of Vanguard TV3, to quickly orbit the Explorer 1 satellite using a Juno I rocket launched on January 31, 1958. Thus Vanguard I was the second successful U.S. orbital launch. Thus started the space race, that gave the drive to put men on the moon with the USA's Apollo program.

text: Due to later problems with Vanguard it was not the first rocket to into orbit an unmanned

text: satellite

text: . The first

text: small-lift launch vehicle

text: was the

text: Sputnik

text: rocket, it put into orbit an unmanned

text: orbit

text: al

text: carrier rocket

text: designed by

text: Sergey Korolyov

text: in the Soviet Union, derived from the

text: R-7 Semyorka

text: ICBM

text: Sputnik 1

text: satellite into a

text: low Earth orbit

text: .The USA responded by launching the

text: Vanguard rocket

text: , that was intended to be the first launch vehicle the

text: United States

text: Sputnik crisis

text: caused by the surprise launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: led the U.S., after the failure of

text: Vanguard TV3

text: , to quickly orbit the

text: Explorer 1

text: satellite using a

text: Juno I

text: Vanguard I

text: moon

text: with the USA's

text: Apollo program

text: The Global Positioning System (GPS) is the American satellite-based system for positioning and navigation. Receivers on or near the earth's surface can determine their locations based on signals received from any four or more of the satellites in the network.

text: The

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) is the American satellite-based system for positioning and navigation. Receivers on or near the earth's surface can determine their locations based on signals received from any four or more of the satellites in the network.

text: Technological advances used for the fishing industry are comparable to that of modern warfare. Systems of satellite technology such as Global Positioning System are used near the surface of the water and sonars with advanced echolocation are used under the water. Boats have improved engines, nets, and lines. Computers can plot fish underwater, specify its quantity, and map it with a three-dimensional image.

text: Technological advances used for the fishing industry are comparable to that of modern warfare. Systems of satellite technology such as

text: Global Positioning System

text: are used near the surface of the water and sonars with advanced echolocation are used under the water. Boats have improved engines, nets, and lines. Computers can plot fish underwater, specify its quantity, and map it with a three-dimensional image.

text: Global Positioning System receivers determine one's position on the surface of the Earth by trilateration of microwave signals from satellites orbiting at an altitude of 20,200 km. Tracks of a journey can automatically be recorded into the GPS receiver's memory and can subsequently be downloaded onto an electronic computer as a basis for drawing, sculpture or animation.  This journey may be on the surface (e.g. walking) or taken in 3D (e.g. while flying).

text: Global Positioning System

text: receivers determine one's

text: position

text: on the surface of the

text: Earth

text: by

text: trilateration

text: of

text: microwave

text: signals

text: from

text: satellite

text: s

text: orbit

text: ing at an

text: altitude

text: of 20,200 km. Tracks of a journey can automatically be recorded into the

text: GPS

text: receiver's

text: memory

text: and can subsequently be

text: download

text: ed onto an

text: electronic computer

text: as a basis for drawing,

text: sculpture

text: or

text: animation

text: .  This journey may be on the surface (e.g. walking) or taken in

text: (e.g. while flying).

text: Another aspect to the CRN is the DDN. The Digital Delivery Network works alongside the CRN satellite feed through online applications. A radio station can select its preferred programs on the DDN website and the stations’ DDN-enabled computer will automatically record the selected programs.  Three months worth of current music content in a variety of genres is also made available for stations to use.

text: Another aspect to the CRN is the DDN. The Digital Delivery Network works alongside the CRN satellite feed through

text: online

text: applications. A radio station can select its preferred programs on the DDN

text: website

text: and the stations’ DDN-enabled computer will automatically record the selected programs.  Three months worth of current music content in a variety of genres is also made available for stations to use.

text: US-K are the first generation of Oko satellites, the first of which was launched in 1972. The vast majority of the satellites launched (86 out of 100 as of March 2012 ) have been US-K satellites in molniya orbits. Seven first generation satellites were launched into geosynchronous orbits, called US-KS, starting in 1975. A decree of 3 September 1979 led to the creation of the second generation satellites US-KMO which had their first launch in 1991. In total, 101 satellites have been launched.

text: US-K are the first generation of Oko satellites, the first of which was launched in 1972. The vast majority of the satellites launched (86 out of 100 as of March 2012 ) have been US-K satellites in

text: molniya orbit

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: s, called

text: US-KS

text: US-KMO

text: 101 satellites have been launched

text: PSLV-C6 carried and deployed two Indian satellites, Cartosat-1 (a.k.a. IRS-P5) and HAMSAT into the Sun-synchronous orbit. Built by ISRO, Cartosat-1 was a stereoscopic remote sensing satellite and first of the Cartosat series of satellites. HAMSAT was a microsatellite, built for providing satellite based amateur radio satellite to the national as well as the international community of amateur radio operators (HAM).

text: PSLV-C6 carried and deployed two Indian satellites,

text: (a.k.a. IRS-P5) and

text: HAMSAT

text: into the

text: Sun-synchronous orbit

text: . Built by

text: ISRO

text: , Cartosat-1 was a stereoscopic

text: remote sensing satellite

text: and first of the

text: Cartosat

text: series of satellites. HAMSAT was a

text: microsatellite

text: , built for providing satellite based

text: amateur radio satellite

text: to the national as well as the international community of

text: amateur radio operator

text: s (HAM).

text: Communications satellites are used for military communications applications, such as Global Command and Control Systems. Examples of military systems that use communication satellites are the MILSTAR, the DSCS, and the FLTSATCOM of the United States, NATO satellites, United Kingdom satellites (for instance Skynet), and satellites of the former Soviet Union. India has launched its first Military Communication satellite GSAT-7, its transponders operate in UHF, F, C and  bands. Typically military satellites operate in the UHF, SHF (also known as X-band) or EHF (also known as K band) frequency bands.

text: Communications satellites are used for

text: military communications

text: applications, such as

text: Global Command and Control System

text: s. Examples of military systems that use communication satellites are the

text: MILSTAR

text: , the

text: DSCS

text: , and the

text: FLTSATCOM

text: of the United States,

text: NATO

text: satellites,

text: United Kingdom

text: satellites (for instance

text: Skynet

text: ), and satellites of the former

text: Soviet Union

text: . India has launched its first Military Communication satellite

text: , its transponders operate in

text: UHF

text: F

text: C

text: and  bands. Typically military satellites operate in the

text: UHF

text: SHF

text: (also known as

text: X-band

text: ) or

text: EHF

text: (also known as

text: K band

text: ) frequency bands.

text: Tromsø Satellite Station (, TSS), until 1988 known as Tromsø Telemetry Station (), is a satellite earth station located in Tromsø, Norway. The facility is owned by Kongsberg Satellite Services (KSAT), a joint venture between the Kongsberg Group and the Norwegian Space Centre (NSC). In addition to hosting its own antennas serving thirty satellites, TSS acts as the center-point of KSAT's operations and provides backbone services for the high Arctic Svalbard Satellite Station (SvalSat) and the Antarctic Troll Satellite Station (TrollSat).

text: Tromsø Satellite Station (, TSS), until 1988 known as Tromsø Telemetry Station (), is a

text: satellite earth station

text: located in

text: Tromsø

text: Norway

text: . The facility is owned by

text: Kongsberg Satellite Services

text: (KSAT), a joint venture between the

text: Kongsberg Group

text: and the

text: Norwegian Space Centre

text: (NSC). In addition to hosting its own antennas serving thirty satellites, TSS acts as the center-point of KSAT's operations and provides backbone services for the high Arctic

text: Svalbard Satellite Station

text: (SvalSat) and the Antarctic

text: Troll Satellite Station

text: (TrollSat).

text: CUTE-1.7 + APD (Cubical Tokyo Tech Engineering satellite 1.7) or CO-56 (Cubesat-Oscar-56) is an amateur radio satellite in the form of a double CubeSat.  The satellite uses commercial off-the-shelf components extensively, in particular, using the Hitachi NPD-20JWL PDA as a control computer, and using a USB hub for sensor communications.  At the end of its mission, the satellite will deploy an electrodynamic tether to help it deorbit. It was launched on February 21 2006 on board a Japanese launcher M-V.

text: CUTE-1.7 + APD (Cubical Tokyo Tech Engineering satellite 1.7) or CO-56 (Cubesat-

text: Oscar

text: -56) is an

text: amateur radio satellite

text: in the form of a double

text: CubeSat

text: .  The satellite uses

text: commercial off-the-shelf

text: components extensively, in particular, using the

text: Hitachi

text: PDA

text: as a control computer, and using a

text: USB hub

text: for sensor communications.  At the end of its mission, the satellite will deploy an

text: electrodynamic tether

text: to help it deorbit. It was launched on February 21 2006 on board a Japanese launcher

text: M-V

text: Once the GM goal had been reached, the satellite still had a useful life.  An opportunity existed to observe the next order physical process that affects the ocean surface.  Currents, tides and wind forcing all create changes in water levels.  While there are extreme waves and events (tsunamis and hurricane surge), typical ocean features would be considered large if the water level change caused by them were 1 m.  Most areas of the world experience features of typical amplitude of 20 cm.  The ERM established the satellite in an exact repeat orbit.  The satellite would orbit the Earth, and after 17.05 days the satellite would return to the same point.  The satellite was actively controlled through thrust maneuvers to maintain the exact repeat orbit to within 1 km of the predefined ground track.  In this manner, the satellite could observe long term changes at the points along the ground track.

text: Once the GM goal had been reached, the satellite still had a useful life.  An opportunity existed to observe the next order physical process that affects the ocean surface.

text: Currents

text: tide

text: s and wind forcing all create changes in water levels.  While there are extreme waves and events (

text: tsunami

text: s and

text: hurricane surge

text: ), typical ocean features would be considered large if the water level change caused by them were 1 m.  Most areas of the world experience features of typical amplitude of 20 cm.  The ERM established the satellite in an exact repeat orbit.  The satellite would orbit the Earth, and after 17.05 days the satellite would return to the same point.  The satellite was actively controlled through thrust maneuvers to maintain the exact repeat orbit to within 1 km of the predefined

text: ground track

text: .  In this manner, the satellite could observe long term changes at the points along the ground track.

text: The HF-2E Block I missile uses inertial guidance with Global Positioning System (GPS) and TERCOM updates. For terminal guidance, it uses infrared homing (Imaging infrared) with an autonomous digital target recognition system. The IIR terminal seeker is used for target acquisition and to positively identify an optimal aim point. The target image is then compared against digitized files in the memory of the on-board guidance computer (DSMAC terminal guidance). The HF-2E block I missile's cruising speed is high subsonic, typically in the  range. When the missile approaches hostile territory, it would descend to an altitude of about . On its final approach to its target, the missile would climb up to avoid any physical barriers and to allow its IIR seeker to acquire the target and identify an optimal aim point before plunging down onto the designated impact point. The report in Taiwan Defense Review, credited the HF-2E block I missile with a pre-terminal accuracy of around 15 m.

text: The HF-2E Block I missile uses

text: inertial guidance

text: with

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) and

text: TERCOM

text: updates. For

text: terminal guidance

text: , it uses

text: infrared homing

text: Imaging infrared

text: ) with an autonomous digital target recognition system. The IIR terminal seeker is used for target acquisition and to positively identify an optimal aim point. The target image is then compared against digitized files in the memory of the on-board guidance computer (

text: DSMAC

text: terminal guidance). The HF-2E block I missile's cruising speed is high subsonic, typically in the  range. When the missile approaches hostile territory, it would descend to an altitude of about . On its final approach to its target, the missile would climb up to avoid any physical barriers and to allow its IIR seeker to acquire the target and identify an optimal aim point before plunging down onto the designated impact point. The report in Taiwan Defense Review, credited the HF-2E block I missile with a pre-terminal accuracy of around 15 m.

text: An anomaly occurred during the second burn of the Briz-M upper stage. As a result, the satellite failed to reach the planned orbit. The Russian commission investigating the anomaly determined the cause to be a rupture of the gas duct between the gas generator and the propellant pump turbine in the Briz M main engine, which caused the upper stage engine to shut down two minutes early.  AMC-14 was the 36th A2100 spacecraft and was expected to provide more than 15 years of service life. SES and Lockheed Martin explored ways to attempt to bring the functioning satellite into its correct orbital position, and subsequently began attempting to move the satellite into geosynchronous orbit by means of a lunar flyby (as done a decade earlier with HGS-1). In April 2008, it was announced that this had been abandoned after it was discovered that Boeing held a patent on the trajectory that would be required.  At the time, a lawsuit was ongoing between SES and Boeing, and Boeing refused to allow the trajectory to be used unless SES dropped its case. Another company had expressed interest in purchasing the satellite, however SES began procedures to expedite the satellite's immediate de-orbit. While it is expected that the patent would not stand up to legal challenge, SES intend to de-orbit the spacecraft in order to collect the insurance payout. If this attempt had been successful, the extra use of fuel needed to correct the orbital error would have significantly reduced AMC-14's originally expected service life of 15 years to just four.

text: An anomaly occurred during the second burn of the Briz-M

text: upper stage

text: . As a result, the satellite failed to reach the planned orbit. The Russian commission investigating the anomaly determined the cause to be a rupture of the gas duct between the gas generator and the propellant pump turbine in the Briz M main engine, which caused the upper stage engine to shut down two minutes early.  AMC-14 was the 36th A2100 spacecraft and was expected to provide more than 15 years of service life. SES and

text: Lockheed Martin

text: explored ways to attempt to bring the functioning satellite into its correct orbital position, and subsequently began attempting to move the satellite into geosynchronous orbit by means of a lunar flyby (as done a decade earlier with

text: ). In April 2008, it was announced that this had been abandoned after it was discovered that

text: Boeing

text: held a patent on the trajectory that would be required.  At the time, a lawsuit was ongoing between SES and Boeing, and Boeing refused to allow the trajectory to be used unless SES dropped its case. Another company had expressed interest in purchasing the satellite, however SES began procedures to expedite the satellite's immediate de-orbit. While it is expected that the patent would not stand up to legal challenge, SES intend to de-orbit the spacecraft in order to collect the insurance payout. If this attempt had been successful, the extra use of fuel needed to correct the orbital error would have significantly reduced AMC-14's originally expected service life of 15 years to just four.

text: A satellite finder (or sat finder) is a satellite signal meter used to accurately point satellite dishes at communications satellites in geostationary orbit.

text: A satellite finder (or sat finder) is a

text: satellite

text: signal meter used to accurately point

text: satellite dish

text: es at communications satellites in

text: geostationary orbit

text: At the time of the fire there were four satellites in the constellation, all US-K in molniya orbits. The effect of the fire was that control was lost of the satellites for 12 hours. Satellites in molniya orbits need contact from the ground station every 2 or three orbits to maintain their orbital position. The fire caused the loss of four satellites - two satellites were lost immediately (Kosmos 2340 and Kosmos 2351) and two more (Kosmos 2368 and Kosmos 2342) within a year due to the negative effect on their orbits.

text: At the time of the fire there were four satellites in the constellation, all

text: US-K

text: in

text: molniya orbit

text: s. The effect of the fire was that control was lost of the satellites for 12 hours. Satellites in molniya orbits need contact from the ground station every 2 or three orbits to maintain their orbital position. The fire caused the loss of four satellites - two satellites were lost immediately (

text: Kosmos 2340

text: and

text: Kosmos 2351

text: ) and two more (

text: Kosmos 2368

text: and

text: Kosmos 2342

text: ) within a year due to the negative effect on their orbits.

text: The Regional Positioning and Timing System (), shortly BKZS, is a space-based project of the Turkish Armed Forces on global positioning and time transfer by satellite navigation system.

text: The Regional Positioning and Timing System (), shortly BKZS, is a space-based project of the

text: Turkish Armed Forces

text: on

text: global positioning

text: and

text: time transfer

text: by

text: satellite navigation system

text: Ocean surface topography is also used to understand how the ocean moves heat around the globe, a critical component of Earth's climate, and for monitoring changes in global sea level.  The sea surface height (SSH) is calculated through altimetry satellites, which determine the distance from the satellite to a target surface by measuring the satellite-to-surface round-trip time of a radar pulse. The satellites then measure the distance between their orbit altitude and the surface of the water.  Due to the differing depths of the ocean, an approximation is made. This is called the Arbitrary Reference Surface.  Arbitrary Reference Surface is an estimated surface that is calculated to factor in the shape of the Earth.  The general shape of the earth is spherical, but flattened out at the North and South Pole. This approximated surface is called the reference ellipsoid.  This enables data to be taken precisely due to the uniform surface level.  The satellite’s altitude then has to be calculated with respect to the reference ellipsoid.  It is calculated using the orbital parameters of the satellite and various positioning instruments.  The sea surface height is then the difference between the satellite’s altitude relative to the reference ellipsoid and the altimeter range.  The satellite sends microwave pulses to the ocean surface.  The travel time of the pulses ascending to the oceans surface and back provides data of the sea surface height. In the image below you can see the measurement system using by the satellite Jason-1.

text: Ocean surface topography is also used to understand how the ocean moves heat around the globe, a critical component of Earth's

text: climate

text: , and for monitoring changes in global

text: sea level

text: .  The sea surface height (SSH) is calculated through altimetry satellites, which determine the distance from the satellite to a target surface by measuring the satellite-to-surface round-trip time of a radar pulse. The satellites then measure the distance between their orbit altitude and the surface of the water.  Due to the differing depths of the ocean, an approximation is made. This is called the Arbitrary Reference Surface.  Arbitrary Reference Surface is an estimated surface that is calculated to factor in the shape of the Earth.  The general shape of the earth is spherical, but flattened out at the

text: North and South Pole

text: . This approximated surface is called the reference ellipsoid.  This enables data to be taken precisely due to the uniform surface level.  The satellite’s altitude then has to be calculated with respect to the reference ellipsoid.  It is calculated using the orbital parameters of the satellite and various positioning instruments.  The sea surface height is then the difference between the satellite’s altitude relative to the reference ellipsoid and the altimeter range.  The satellite sends microwave pulses to the ocean surface.  The travel time of the pulses ascending to the oceans surface and back provides data of the sea surface height. In the image below you can see the measurement system using by the satellite

text: The space segment of the TDRSS constellation is the most dynamic part of the system. Even with nine satellites on orbit, the system provides support with three primary satellites, while using the rest as on-orbit spares capable of immediate usage as primaries. The original TDRSS design had two primary satellites, designated TDE, for "east", and TDW, for "west" and one on-orbit spare. The surge in user requirements during the 1980s allowed NASA to expand the network with the addition of more satellites, with some being co-located in a particularly busy orbital slot. See Tracking and Data Relay Satellite for more details on the satellites.

text: The space segment of the TDRSS constellation is the most dynamic part of the system. Even with nine satellites on orbit, the system provides support with three primary satellites, while using the rest as on-orbit spares capable of immediate usage as primaries. The original TDRSS design had two primary satellites, designated TDE, for "east", and TDW, for "west" and one on-orbit spare. The surge in user requirements during the 1980s allowed NASA to expand the network with the addition of more satellites, with some being co-located in a particularly busy orbital slot. See

text: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite

text: for more details on the satellites.

text: The same launcher carried French and Spanish scientific satellites and four Essaim ("Swarm") experimental ELINT satellites

text: The same launcher carried French and Spanish scientific satellites and four

text: Essaim

text: ("Swarm") experimental ELINT satellites

text: Global Positioning System units were relatively new at the time and were important in enabling coalition units to easily navigate across the desert. Since military GPS receivers were not available for most troops, many used commercially available units. To permit these to be used to best effect, the "selective availability" feature of the GPS system was turned off for the duration of Desert Storm, allowing these commercial receivers to provide the same precision as the military equipment.

text: Global Positioning System

text: units were relatively new at the time and were important in enabling coalition units to easily navigate across the desert. Since military GPS receivers were not available for most troops, many used commercially available units. To permit these to be used to best effect, the "selective availability" feature of the GPS system was turned off for the duration of Desert Storm, allowing these commercial receivers to provide the same precision as the military equipment.

text: Many companies today utilize some type of satellite vehicle tracking or trailer tracking to assist in fleet management. In this context "tracking" refers to a location tracking and "satellite" refers either to a  GPS or GLONASS satellites system providing location information or communications satellites used for location data transmission. A special location tracking device also known as tracker or an AVL unit is installed on a truck and automatically determines its position in real-time and sends it to a remote computer database for visualizing and analysis.

text: Many companies today utilize some type of

text: satellite

text: vehicle tracking

text: or

text: trailer tracking

text: to assist in

text: fleet management

text: . In this context "tracking" refers to a

text: location tracking

text: and "satellite" refers either to a

text: GPS

text: or

text: GLONASS

text: satellites system providing location information or

text: communications satellite

text: s used for location data transmission. A special location tracking device also known as tracker or an

text: AVL unit

text: is installed on a truck and automatically determines its position in real-time and sends it to a remote computer database for visualizing and analysis.

text: USA-258, also known as GPS IIF-8, GPS SVN-69 and NAVSTAR 72, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the eighth of twelve Block IIF satellites to be launched.

text: USA-258, also known as GPS IIF-8, GPS SVN-69 and NAVSTAR 72, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the eighth of twelve

text: Block IIF

text: satellites to be launched.

text: Typically, OV satellites carried scientific or technological experiments.

text: A geosynchronous satellite is a satellite in geosynchronous orbit, with an orbital period the same as the Earth's rotation period. Such a satellite returns to the same position in the sky after each sidereal day, and over the course of a day traces out a path in the sky that is typically some form of analemma. A special case of geosynchronous satellite is the geostationary satellite, which has a geostationary orbit – a circular geosynchronous orbit directly above the Earth's equator. Another type of geosynchronous orbit used by satellites is the Tundra elliptical orbit.

text: A geosynchronous satellite is a

text: satellite

text: in

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: , with an orbital period the same as the Earth's rotation period. Such a satellite returns to the same position in the sky after each

text: sidereal day

text: , and over the course of a day traces out a path in the sky that is typically some form of

text: analemma

text: . A special case of geosynchronous satellite is the geostationary satellite, which has a

text: geostationary orbit

text: – a circular geosynchronous orbit directly above the Earth's equator. Another type of geosynchronous orbit used by satellites is the

text: Tundra elliptical orbit

text: Traditional launch methods of satellites are too costly to put small payloads into orbit without a larger payload accompanying it to make the launch worth the expense.  Current launches of sub-100-pound satellites are performed as "piggyback payloads" on launches of much larger spacecraft, usually headed for geostationary orbit, and are released at the altitude of the primary payload.  In addition, range costs of operating from ground-based infrastructure have escalated as they have aged, accounting for up to 35 percent of the launch cost.  This restricts the number of light satellite launches to 10-12 per year, which could be increased if small payloads could be launched into space affordably and without ground range constraints.  Air-launching satellites was first seriously considered during the 1950s and 1960s, but small payloads in the 100-pound class at the time did not have effective capabilities, so the method was overlooked.  The first air-launched rocket to put a satellite into orbit was the Orbital Sciences Corporation Pegasus, which did it on 13 June 1990; however, it is currently deployed from a heavily modified and expensive Lockheed L-1011 airliner.  The ALASA program's objective is to use an unmodified aircraft platform (except for software) that does not have to be dedicated to the mission to place a 100 lb satellite into orbit that requires only 24 hours notice to integrate and launch the payload, with the ability to re-plan the launch in flight and relocate the aircraft to any civilian airport or military airfield in a crisis situation, while using onboard GPS/inertial position reporting rather than ground-based radar tracking.

text: Traditional launch methods of satellites are too costly to put small payloads into orbit without a larger payload accompanying it to make the launch worth the expense.  Current launches of sub-100-pound satellites are performed as "piggyback payloads" on launches of much larger spacecraft, usually headed for

text: geostationary orbit

text: , and are released at the altitude of the primary payload.  In addition, range costs of operating from ground-based infrastructure have escalated as they have aged, accounting for up to 35 percent of the launch cost.  This restricts the number of light satellite launches to 10-12 per year, which could be increased if small payloads could be launched into space affordably and without ground range constraints.  Air-launching satellites was first seriously considered during the 1950s and 1960s, but small payloads in the 100-pound class at the time did not have effective capabilities, so the method was overlooked.  The first air-launched rocket to put a satellite into orbit was the

text: Orbital Sciences Corporation

text: Pegasus

text: , which did it on 13 June 1990; however, it is currently deployed from a heavily modified and expensive

text: Lockheed L-1011

text: airliner.  The ALASA program's objective is to use an unmodified aircraft platform (except for software) that does not have to be dedicated to the mission to place a 100 lb satellite into orbit that requires only 24 hours notice to integrate and launch the payload, with the ability to re-plan the launch in flight and relocate the aircraft to any civilian airport or military airfield in a crisis situation, while using onboard

text: GPS

text: /inertial position reporting rather than ground-based radar tracking.

text: "Ionosat-Micro" scientific instrumentation set is installed on the satellite platform «Microsat-M»  designed by Yuzhnoye State Design Office to conduct scientific and technological experiments. Ideas for the satellite launching into orbit are processed.

text: USA-265, also known as GPS IIF-11, GPS SVN-73 and NAVSTAR 75, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the eleventh of twelve Block IIF satellites to be launched.

text: USA-265, also known as GPS IIF-11, GPS SVN-73 and NAVSTAR 75, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the eleventh of twelve

text: Block IIF

text: satellites to be launched.

text: In Resident Evil: Extinction, five years after the incident of the Hive, the world has succumbed to the T-virus. Alice stays on the move to avoid capture by the Umbrella Corporation after she learned Umbrella could track her through satellites. She left the group to protect them, using the satellites trajectories to stay off the grid. On her travels she finds a journal detailing the possibility of Alaska as a sanctuary, isolated from the rest of the T-virus infested world. However, the Umbrella Corporation is utilizing the White Queen, a more advanced artificial intelligence computer that is able to find Alice. Early in the film, she uses her mental powers to save Claire Redfield's Convoy — the convoy which L.J. and Carlos have since joined. However, in doing so, the massive psionic activity produced by Alice is detected by the White Queen through their Umbrella satellites, and Isaacs is then made aware of her location. The leaders of the convoy decide to make the trip to Alaska, but first refuel in Las Vegas. Isaacs decides to go after Alice, defying orders from Umbrella Chairman Albert Wesker.

text: In Resident Evil: Extinction, five years after the incident of the Hive, the world has succumbed to the T-virus. Alice stays on the move to avoid capture by the Umbrella Corporation after she learned Umbrella could track her through satellites. She left the group to protect them, using the satellites trajectories to stay off the grid. On her travels she finds a journal detailing the possibility of Alaska as a sanctuary, isolated from the rest of the T-virus infested world. However, the Umbrella Corporation is utilizing the

text: White Queen

text: , a more advanced artificial intelligence computer that is able to find Alice. Early in the film, she uses her mental powers to save Claire Redfield's Convoy — the convoy which L.J. and Carlos have since joined. However, in doing so, the massive psionic activity produced by Alice is detected by the White Queen through their Umbrella satellites, and Isaacs is then made aware of her location. The leaders of the convoy decide to make the trip to Alaska, but first refuel in

text: Las Vegas

text: . Isaacs decides to go after Alice, defying orders from Umbrella Chairman Albert Wesker.

text: The SI-200 satellite bus was a model of satellite, based on the Malaysian RazakSAT, produced by the South Korean Satrec Initiative. The bus was suitable for small satellites where the accommodation of Earth observation or other scientific payloads is required, and was used on the Emirati remote sensing satellite DubaiSat-1 launched in 2009.

text: The SI-200

text: satellite bus

text: was a model of satellite, based on the

text: Malaysia

text: n

text: RazakSAT

text: , produced by the

text: South Korea

text: n

text: Satrec Initiative

text: . The bus was suitable for small satellites where the accommodation of

text: Earth observation

text: or other scientific payloads is required, and was used on the

text: Emirati

text: remote sensing

text: satellite

text: launched in 2009.

text: As of February 2016, 72 Global Positioning System navigation satellites have been launched; not all remain operational.  The minimum number of satellites for a full constellation is 24 operational 95% of the time; the current number exceeds this.  The target number is 33 and decommissioned reserves are available to maintain the numbers.

text: As of February 2016, 72

text: Global Positioning System

text: navigation satellites

text: have been launched; not all remain operational.  The minimum number of satellites for a full constellation is 24 operational 95% of the time; the current number exceeds this.  The target number is 33 and decommissioned reserves are available to maintain the numbers.

text: The UNAVCO GAGE Facility provides access to several types of data that scientists use for quantifying the motions of rock, ice and water at or near the Earth’s surface. Geodetic GPS/GNSS Data (Global Navigation Satellite System / Global Positioning System Data), enable millimeter-scale surface motion measurements at discrete points. Geodetic Imaging Data are collected by a variety of different sensors deployed on satellites, aircraft, and on the ground, and provide high resolution terrain models and deformation measurements over areas of tens of meters to hundreds of square kilometers. Data collected from Strain and Seismic Borehole instruments measure the deformation at or near the surface of the Earth and measure rock physical properties in the vicinity of the installations. At many of the sites where geodetic measurements are made, Meteorological Data are also collected to aid in the processing of the geodetic data. Under the large EarthScope Plate Boundary Observatory, UNAVCO acquires, archives, and/or distributes a number of community data sets including GPS, strainmeter, borehole seismometer, tilt meter, and geodetic imaging with radar and lidar, as part of EarthScope’s Plate Boundary Observatory.

text: The ISO containers are secured for sea using normal ship’s tie-down points in any appropriate open space. The design also includes satellite communication antennas for connectivity to DISA’s Global Information Grid. This connectivity may also be provided via the ship’s organic satellite communications system. The demonstrator, which has been successfully tested, can easily be scaled larger when the mission requires it by adding more ISO containers of each type. In addition, the C2 architecture is sufficiently robust to support a large number of additional external users in other ship spaces (e.g., embarked unit spaces). The demonstrator can be installed on a designated ship of opportunity – including Navy, Military Sealift Command, Maritime Pre-Positioning Force Units, Coalition Force ships – or ashore. Since it is self-contained and easy to install/uninstall, it can be moved as needed among ships and installed wherever space and power are available.

text: The ISO containers are secured for sea using normal ship’s tie-down points in any appropriate open space. The design also includes satellite communication antennas for connectivity to DISA’s

text: Global Information Grid

text: . This connectivity may also be provided via the ship’s organic satellite communications system. The demonstrator, which has been successfully tested, can easily be scaled larger when the mission requires it by adding more ISO containers of each type. In addition, the C2 architecture is sufficiently robust to support a large number of additional external users in other ship spaces (e.g., embarked unit spaces). The demonstrator can be installed on a designated ship of opportunity – including Navy,

text: Military Sealift Command

text: , Maritime Pre-Positioning Force Units, Coalition Force ships – or ashore. Since it is self-contained and easy to install/uninstall, it can be moved as needed among ships and installed wherever space and power are available.

text: However, Red Tornado is still alive in the satellite's wreckage. In Justice League of America Annual Vol. 1, #3 (August 1985), he links with the still-functioning JLA computer to learn more about himself. A bolt of energy sends the wreckage down to Earth (where the Martian Manhunter finds Red Tornado's head), but Red Tornado sends his consciousness into a nearby S.T.A.R. Labs weather-control satellite. Gathering energy to give himself physical form, he uses the satellites to wreak havoc on Earth. The JLA destroys the satellites one by one, eventually freeing the now-corporeal Tornado Champion. Red Tornado tries to contacting Kathy Sutton with several electronic devices. The JLA brings her to Tornado Champion, who says that he now has the power to remake worlds. Kathy convinces him that he needs to be more human to be accepted. Although he seems to believe Kathy, an attack by Superman angers him and he heads off into the universe. The Crisis on Infinite Earths ends when the Spectre confronts the Anti-Monitor at the moment when Krona creates the multiverse; Darkseid and the Earth-Two Superman then destroy the weakened Anti-Monitor.

text: However, Red Tornado is still alive in the satellite's wreckage. In Justice League of America Annual Vol. 1, #3 (August 1985), he links with the still-functioning JLA computer to learn more about himself. A bolt of energy sends the wreckage down to Earth (where the

text: Martian Manhunter

text: finds Red Tornado's head), but Red Tornado sends his consciousness into a nearby

text: S.T.A.R. Labs

text: weather-control satellite. Gathering energy to give himself physical form, he uses the satellites to wreak havoc on Earth. The JLA destroys the satellites one by one, eventually freeing the now-corporeal Tornado Champion. Red Tornado tries to contacting Kathy Sutton with several electronic devices. The JLA brings her to Tornado Champion, who says that he now has the power to remake worlds. Kathy convinces him that he needs to be more human to be accepted. Although he seems to believe Kathy, an attack by Superman angers him and he heads off into the universe. The Crisis on Infinite Earths ends when the Spectre confronts the Anti-Monitor at the moment when Krona creates the multiverse;

text: Darkseid

text: and the

text: Earth-Two Superman

text: then destroy the weakened Anti-Monitor.

text: Ekspress AM4 was a communications satellite placed into the wrong orbit from a faulty Briz-M rocket stage. This satellite was to be part of the Ekspress series of geostationary communications satellites owned by Russian State Company for Satellite Communications. The satellite was de-orbited on 28 March 2012 into the Pacific Ocean, in spite of efforts of it being used for Antarctic broadband purposes.

text: Ekspress AM4 was a

text: communications satellite

text: placed into the wrong

text: orbit

text: from a faulty

text: Briz-M

text: rocket stage

text: . This satellite was to be part of the

text: Ekspress

text: series of

text: geostationary

text: communications satellites owned by

entity_name: Russian Satellite Communications Company

text: Russian State Company for Satellite Communications

text: . The satellite was

text: de-orbited

text: on 28 March 2012 into the Pacific Ocean, in spite of efforts of it being used for Antarctic

text: broadband

text: purposes.

text: The low-rate picture transmission (LRPT) is a digital transmission system, intended to deliver images and data from an orbital weather satellite directly to end users via a VHF radio signal. It is used aboard polar-orbiting, near-Earth weather satellite programs such as MetOp and NPOESS.

text: The low-rate picture transmission (LRPT) is a digital transmission system, intended to deliver images and data from an orbital

text: weather satellite

text: directly to end users via a

text: VHF

text: radio signal. It is used aboard polar-orbiting, near-Earth weather satellite programs such as

text: MetOp

text: and

text: NPOESS

text: Typically, satellites have a roughly sinusoidal ground track.  A satellite with an orbital inclination between zero and ninety degrees is said to be in what is called a direct or prograde orbit, meaning that it orbits in the same direction as the Earth's rotation.  A satellite with an orbital inclination between 90° and 180° (or, equivalently, between -90° and 0°) is said to be in a retrograde orbit. (Direct orbits are by far the most common for artificial satellites, as the initial velocity imparted by the Earth's rotation at launch reduces the delta-v needed to achieve orbit.)

text: Typically, satellites have a roughly

text: sinusoidal

text: ground track.  A satellite with an orbital

text: inclination

text: between zero and ninety degrees is said to be in what is called a direct or

text: prograde orbit

text: , meaning that it orbits in the same direction as the Earth's rotation.  A satellite with an orbital inclination between 90° and 180° (or, equivalently, between -90° and 0°) is said to be in a

text: retrograde orbit

text: . (Direct orbits are by far the most common for artificial satellites, as the initial velocity imparted by the Earth's rotation at launch reduces the

text: delta-v

text: needed to achieve orbit.)

text: Part of an orbiting satellite's broadcast included its precise orbital data. In order to ensure accuracy, the US Naval Observatory (USNO) continuously observed the precise orbits of these satellites. As a satellite's orbit deviated, the USNO would send the updated information to the satellite. Subsequent broadcasts from an updated satellite would contain the most recent accurate information about its orbit.

text: Part of an orbiting satellite's broadcast included its precise orbital data. In order to ensure accuracy, the

text: US Naval Observatory (USNO)

text: continuously observed the precise orbits of these satellites. As a satellite's orbit deviated, the USNO would send the updated information to the satellite. Subsequent broadcasts from an updated satellite would contain the most recent accurate information about its orbit.

text: One reason to study reversible universal models of computation such as the billiard-ball model is that they could theoretically lead to actual computer systems that consume very low quantities of energy. According to Landauer's principle, irreversible computational steps require a certain minimal amount of energy per step, but reversible steps can be performed with an amount of energy per step that is arbitrarily close to zero. However, in order to perform computation using less energy than Landauer's bound, it is not good enough for a cellular automaton to have a transition function that is globally reversible: what is required is that the local computation of the transition function also be done in a reversible way. For instance, reversible block cellular automata are always locally reversible: the behavior of each individual block involves the application of an invertible function with finitely many inputs and outputs.  were the first to ask whether every reversible cellular automaton has a locally reversible update rule.  showed that for one- and two-dimensional automata the answer is positive, and  showed that any reversible cellular automaton could be simulated by a (possibly different) locally reversible cellular automaton. However, the question of whether every reversible transition function is locally reversible remains open for dimensions higher than two.

text: One reason to study reversible universal models of computation such as the billiard-ball model is that they could theoretically lead to actual computer systems that consume very low quantities of energy. According to

text: Landauer's principle

text: In a federated database system or any other more loosely defined multidatabase system, which are typically distributed in a communication network, transactions span multiple and possibly Distributed databases. Enforcing global serializability in such system is problematic. Even if every local schedule of a single database is serializable, still, the global schedule of a whole system is not necessarily serializable. The massive communication exchanges of conflict information needed between databases to reach conflict serializability would lead to unacceptable performance, primarily due to computer and communication latency. The problem of achieving global serializability effectively had been characterized as open until the public disclosure of CO in 1991 by its inventor Yoav Raz (Raz 1991a; see also Global serializability).

text: In a

text: federated database system

text: or any other more loosely defined multidatabase system, which are typically distributed in a communication network, transactions span multiple and possibly

text: Distributed database

text: s. Enforcing

text: global serializability

text: in such system is problematic. Even if every local schedule of a single database is serializable, still, the global schedule of a whole system is not necessarily serializable. The massive communication exchanges of conflict information needed between databases to reach conflict serializability would lead to unacceptable performance, primarily due to computer and communication

text: latency

text: . The problem of achieving global serializability effectively had been characterized as

text: open

text: until the public disclosure of CO in 1991 by its

text: inventor

text: Yoav Raz

text: Raz 1991a

text: ; see also

text: Global serializability

text: The ground control segment determines the orbital position of satellites and transmits information to satellites in space to keep the GPS system operational and performing within specification.  The Operation Control Segment (OCS) currently serves as the control segment of record. It provides the operational capability that supports global GPS users and keeps the GPS system operational and performing within specification. OCS successfully replaced the legacy 1970’s-era mainframe computer at Schriever Air Force Base in September 2007. After installation, the system helped enable upgrades and provide a foundation for a new security architecture.

text: The

text: ground control segment

text: determines the orbital position of satellites and transmits information to satellites in space to keep the GPS system operational and performing within specification.  The Operation Control Segment (OCS) currently serves as the control segment of record. It provides the operational capability that supports global GPS users and keeps the GPS system operational and performing within specification. OCS successfully replaced the legacy 1970’s-era mainframe computer at Schriever Air Force Base in September 2007. After installation, the system helped enable upgrades and provide a foundation for a new security architecture.

text: The geo graveyard belt orbital regime is valuable as a storage and disposal location for derelict satellite space debris after their useful economic life is completed as geosynchronous communication satellites.  Artificial satellites are left in space because the economic cost of removing the debris would be high, and current public policy does not require nor incentivize rapid removal by the party that first inserted the debris in outer space and thus created a negative externality for others.One public policy proposal to deal with growing space debris is a "one-up/one-down" launch license policy for Earth orbits. Launch vehicle operators would have to pay the cost of debris mitigation. They would need to build the capability into their launch vehicle-robotic capture, navigation, mission duration extension, and substantial additional propellant – to be able to rendezvous with, capture and deorbit an existing derelict satellite from approximately the same orbital plane.

text: The geo graveyard belt orbital regime is valuable as a storage and disposal location for

text: derelict satellite

text: space debris

text: after their

text: useful economic life

text: is completed as geosynchronous

text: communication satellites

text: .  Artificial satellites are left in space because the economic cost of removing the debris would be high, and current

text: public policy

text: does not require nor

text: incentivize

text: rapid removal by the party that first inserted the debris in

text: outer space

text: and thus created a

text: negative externality

text: for others.One public policy proposal to deal with growing space debris is a "one-up/one-down"

text: launch license

text: policy for Earth orbits. Launch vehicle operators would have to pay the cost of debris mitigation. They would need to build the capability into their launch vehicle-robotic capture, navigation, mission duration extension, and substantial additional propellant – to be able to rendezvous with, capture and deorbit an existing derelict satellite from approximately the same orbital plane.

text: The satellite’s scientific payload includes an array of 12 instruments. Eight instruments were designed for registering electromagnetic radiation from the Sun in a wide range of spectrum from near electromagnetic waves to gamma-radiation, as well as solar neutrons. Two instruments were designed to detect charged particles such as protons and electrons.

text: VALIS has been described as one node of an artificial satellite network originating from the star Sirius in the Canis Major constellation. According to Dick, the Earth satellite used "pink laser beams" to transfer information and project holograms on Earth and to facilitate communication between an extraterrestrial species and humanity. Dick claimed that VALIS used "disinhibiting stimuli" to communicate, using symbols to trigger recollection of intrinsic knowledge through the loss of amnesia, achieving gnosis.  Drawing directly from Platonism and Gnosticism, Dick wrote in his Exegesis: "We appear to be memory coils (DNA carriers capable of experience) in a computer-like thinking system which, although we have correctly recorded and stored thousands of years of experiential information, and each of us possesses somewhat different deposits from all the other life forms, there is a malfunction—a failure—of memory retrieval."

text: VALIS has been described as one node of an artificial

text: satellite

text: network originating from the star

text: Sirius

text: in the

text: Canis Major

text: constellation. According to Dick, the Earth satellite used "pink laser beams" to transfer information and project holograms on Earth and to facilitate communication between an extraterrestrial species and humanity. Dick claimed that VALIS used "disinhibiting stimuli" to communicate, using symbols to trigger

text: recollection

text: of

text: intrinsic knowledge

text: through the

text: loss of amnesia

text: , achieving

text: gnosis

text: .  Drawing directly from

text: Platonism

text: and

text: Gnosticism

text: , Dick wrote in his Exegesis: "We appear to be memory coils (DNA carriers capable of experience) in a computer-like thinking system which, although we have correctly recorded and stored thousands of years of experiential information, and each of us possesses somewhat different deposits from all the other life forms, there is a malfunction—a failure—of

text: memory retrieval

text: Satellite phones are usually issued with numbers with a special country calling code. For example, Inmarsat satellite phones are issued with code +870, while Global Mobile Satellite System providers, such as Iridium, issue numbers in country code +881 ("Global Mobile Satellite System") or +882 ("International Networks"). Some satellite phones are issued with ordinary phone numbers, such as Globalstar satellite phones issued with NANP telephone numbers.

text: Satellite phone

text: s are usually issued with numbers with a special country calling code. For example,

text: Inmarsat

text: satellite phones are issued with code +870, while

text: Global Mobile Satellite System

text: providers, such as

text: Iridium

text: , issue numbers in country code +881 ("Global Mobile Satellite System") or +882 ("International Networks"). Some satellite phones are issued with ordinary phone numbers, such as

text: Globalstar

text: satellite phones issued with NANP telephone numbers.

text: In 1962 the 1009 was part of a test of data communications using the Telstar satellite to link two 1401 computer systems.

text: In 1962 the 1009 was part of a test of data communications using the

text: Telstar

text: satellite to link two 1401 computer systems.

text: In Brazil, VLI and ALL deployed a technology based on an onboard computer that uses satellite communication (Autotrac or Iridium satellite constellation), GPS positioning system and, when possible, GPRS or Radio communication. The control center sends licenses to the train and its computer supervises the train avoiding it to overspeed or to occupy an unauthorized block. It is simple and effective. Also is a relatively cheap solution since it doesn't need any signaling system implemented on the railway.

text: In Brazil,

text: VLI

text: and

text: ALL

text: deployed a technology based on an onboard computer that uses satellite communication (Autotrac or

text: Iridium satellite constellation

text: ), GPS positioning system and, when possible, GPRS or Radio communication. The control center sends licenses to the train and its computer supervises the train avoiding it to overspeed or to occupy an unauthorized block. It is simple and effective. Also is a relatively cheap solution since it doesn't need any signaling system implemented on the railway.

text: VMS units principally rely on global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) such as GPS for position and time information. LORAN may be a backup or complementary technology. These transceivers transmit data to monitoring systems generally using a variety of communication technologies including terrestrial & satellite AIS and conventional satellite systems from Inmarsat, Iridium, Argos, ORBCOMM or Qualcomm. Increasingly nations are implementing a mixture of technologies with the largest vessels over 60 tons being required to use the expensive traditional satellites and smaller vessels to use AIS.

text: VMS units principally rely on

text: global navigation satellite system

text: s (GNSS) such as

text: GPS

text: for position and time information. LORAN may be a backup or complementary technology. These transceivers transmit data to monitoring systems generally using a variety of communication technologies including terrestrial & satellite AIS and conventional satellite systems from

text: Inmarsat

text: Iridium

text: Argos

text: ORBCOMM

text: or

text: Qualcomm

text: . Increasingly nations are implementing a mixture of technologies with the largest vessels over 60 tons being required to use the expensive traditional satellites and smaller vessels to use AIS.

text: Global Navigation Satellite System or GNSS is the term for satellite navigation systems that provide positioning with global coverage. A GNSS allow small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) to within a few metres using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites.  Receivers on the ground with a fixed position can also be used to calculate the precise time as a reference for scientific experiments.

text: Global Navigation Satellite System or GNSS is the term for satellite navigation systems that provide positioning with global coverage. A GNSS allow small

text: electronic

text: receivers to determine their location (

text: longitude

text: latitude

text: , and

text: altitude

text: ) to within a few metres using

text: time signal

text: s transmitted along a

text: line of sight

text: by

text: radio

text: from

text: satellite

text: s.  Receivers on the ground with a fixed position can also be used to calculate the precise time as a reference for scientific experiments.

text: GEO communications satellites <br>With its proprietary GEOStar-2 satellite platform, Orbital has become a leading supplier of 1.5 - 5.5 kilowatt Geosynchronous-Earth Orbit (GEO) communications satellites used to provide direct-to-home TV broadcasting, cable program distribution, business data network capacity, regional mobile communications and similar services. With its new GEOStar-3 satellite platform, Orbital is extending its capabilities with up to 8 kW of total satellite payload power. The list of Orbital built GeoStar satellites are provided next.

text: GEO communications satellites <br>With its proprietary

text: satellite platform, Orbital has become a leading supplier of 1.5 - 5.5 kilowatt

text: Geosynchronous-Earth Orbit

text: (GEO)

text: communications satellite

text: s used to provide direct-to-home TV broadcasting, cable program distribution, business data network capacity, regional mobile communications and similar services. With its new GEOStar-3 satellite platform, Orbital is extending its capabilities with up to 8 kW of total satellite

text: payload

text: power. The list of Orbital built GeoStar satellites are provided next.

text: The Global Positioning System also broadcasts a very precise time signal worldwide, along with instructions for converting GPS time to UTC.  GPS-time is based on, and regularly synchronized with or from, UTC-time.

text: The

text: Global Positioning System

text: also broadcasts a very precise time signal worldwide, along with instructions for converting GPS time to UTC.  GPS-time is based on, and regularly synchronized with or from, UTC-time.

text: Due to the difficulty in finding analytic solutions to most problems of interest, computer modeling and simulation is typically used to analyze orbital motion. Commercial software applications such as Satellite Tool Kit have been created for the specific purpose of simulating orbits and trajectories of spacecraft.

text: Due to the difficulty in finding analytic solutions to most problems of interest, computer

text: modeling and simulation

text: is typically used to analyze orbital motion. Commercial software applications such as

text: Satellite Tool Kit

text: have been created for the specific purpose of simulating orbits and trajectories of spacecraft.

text: For visualization on a modern computer screen the polar coordinates have to be converted into Cartesian coordinates. This process called radar scan conversion is presented with more detail in the next section.The second problem to solve arises from the fact that a radar system is placed in the real world and measures real world echo positions. These echoes have to be displayed together with other real world data like object positions, vector maps and satellite images in a consistent way. All this information refers to the curved earth surface but is dis-played on a flat computer display. Building a link from real world earth positions to dis-play pixels is commonly called geographical referencing or in short geo-referencing.Part of the geo-referencing process is to map the 3D earth surface onto a 2D display. This process of a geographical projection can be performed in many ways, but different data sources have their own ‘natural’ projection. E.g. Cartesian radar video data from a radar source on the earth surface are geo-referenced by a so-called radar projection. When using this radar projection the Cartesian radar video pixels can directly displayed on a computer screen (only being linearly transformed according to the current position on the screen and e.g. the current zoom level).A problem now arises if e.g. also a satellite map shall be shown together with the radar video data. The ‘natural’ geographical projection of a satellite image would be a satellite projection which depends on the satellite orbit, position and further parameters. Now either the satellite image has to be reprojected to a radar projection or the radar video has to use the satellite projection. This geographical re-projection is also called geographical warping or Geo Warping where each image pixel has to be transformed from one projection into another.This article describes in further detail the Geo Warping of radar video images in real time. It will also show that radar video Geo Warping is done most efficiently when it is integrated with the radar scan conversion process.

text: For visualization on a modern computer screen the

text: polar

text: coordinates have to be converted into

text: Cartesian

text: In 2012, the Defence Research and Development Organisation received a "miniaturised version" of the device with all the features from global positioning systems (GPS) and global navigation satellite systems (GNSS). The module weighing just 17 gm, can be used in multiple platforms ranging from aircraft (e.g. winged or rotor-craft) to small boats, ships. Reportedly, it can also assist "survey applications". It is a cost-efficient device and can be of "tremendous" civilian use. The navigation output is composed of GPS, GLONASS and GPS+GLONASS position, speed and time data. According to a statement released by the DRDO, G3oM is a state-of-the-art technology receiver, integrating Indian GAGAN as well as both global positioning system and GLONASS systems.

text: In 2012, the

entity_name: Defence Research and Development Organisation

text: Defence Research and Development Organisation

text: received a "miniaturised version" of the device with all the features from

text: global positioning systems

text: (GPS) and

text: global navigation satellite systems

text: (GNSS). The module weighing just 17 gm, can be used in multiple platforms ranging from aircraft (e.g. winged or rotor-craft) to small boats, ships. Reportedly, it can also assist "survey applications". It is a cost-efficient device and can be of "tremendous" civilian use. The navigation output is composed of GPS, GLONASS and GPS+GLONASS position, speed and time data. According to a statement released by the DRDO, G3oM is a state-of-the-art technology receiver, integrating Indian GAGAN as well as both global positioning system and GLONASS systems.

text: The news station Satellite 5 is part of the Fourth Great and Bountiful Human Empire, and has five-hundred floors, along with floor 0.  Some of the upper floors are entirely abandoned due to the Editor keeping the Mighty Jagrafess of the Holy Hadrojassic Maxarodenfoe hidden. The people who work on Satellite 5 are marooned there forever, never allowed to leave. To work for Satellite 5, the people must have a computer chip inserted into their head so they can interact with the computers of the system. The reporters who travel around for Satellite 5 have all of the information partly stored in their heads until it is time to process.

text: The news station Satellite 5 is part of the Fourth Great and Bountiful Human Empire, and has five-hundred floors, along with floor 0.  Some of the upper floors are entirely abandoned due to

text: the Editor

text: keeping the

text: Mighty Jagrafess of the Holy Hadrojassic Maxarodenfoe

text: hidden. The people who work on Satellite 5 are marooned there forever, never allowed to leave. To work for Satellite 5, the people must have a computer chip inserted into their head so they can interact with the computers of the system. The reporters who travel around for Satellite 5 have all of the information partly stored in their heads until it is time to process.

text: High-speed computers and sophisticated simulation software allow meteorologists to run computer models that forecast tropical cyclone tracks based on the future position and strength of high- and low-pressure systems.  Combining forecast models with increased understanding of the forces that act on tropical cyclones, and a wealth of data from Earth-orbiting satellites and other sensors, scientists have increased the accuracy of track forecasts over recent decades.  The addition of dropwindsonde missions around tropical cyclones in what are known as synoptic flow missions in the Atlantic Basin decreased track error by 15-20 percent. Using a consensus of forecast models, as well as ensemble members of the various models, can help reduce forecast error.  However, regardless how small the average error becomes, large errors within the guidance are still possible.  An accurate track forecast is important, because if the track forecast is incorrect, forecasts for intensity, rainfall, storm surge, and tornado threat will also be incorrect.

text: High-speed computers and sophisticated simulation software allow

text: meteorologist

text: s to run

text: computer models

text: that forecast tropical cyclone tracks based on the future position and strength of high- and low-pressure systems.  Combining forecast models with increased understanding of the forces that act on tropical cyclones, and a wealth of data from Earth-orbiting satellites and other sensors, scientists have increased the accuracy of track forecasts over recent decades.  The addition of

text: dropwindsonde

text: missions around tropical cyclones in what are known as synoptic flow missions in the Atlantic Basin decreased track error by 15-20 percent. Using a consensus of forecast models, as well as ensemble members of the various models, can help reduce forecast error.  However, regardless how small the average error becomes, large errors within the guidance are still possible.  An accurate track forecast is important, because if the track forecast is incorrect, forecasts for intensity, rainfall, storm surge, and tornado threat will also be incorrect.

text: The constellation consists of 66 active satellites in orbit required for global coverage, and additional spare satellites to serve in case of failure. Satellites are in low Earth orbit at a height of approximately  and inclination of 86.4°. Orbital velocity of the satellites is approximately .  Satellites communicate with neighboring satellites via  inter-satellite links. Each satellite can have four inter-satellite links: two to neighbors fore and aft in the same orbital plane, and two to satellites in neighboring planes to either side. The satellites orbit from pole to same pole with an orbital period of roughly 100 minutes. This design means that there is excellent satellite visibility and service coverage even at the North and South poles. The over-the-pole orbital design produces "seams" where satellites in counter-rotating planes next to one another are traveling in opposite directions.  Cross-seam inter-satellite link hand-offs would have to happen very rapidly and cope with large Doppler shifts; therefore, Iridium supports inter-satellite links only between satellites orbiting in the same direction. The constellation of 66 active satellites has 6 orbital planes spaced 30 degrees apart, with 11 satellites in each plane (not counting spares). The original concept was to have 77 satellites, which is where the name Iridium came from, being the element with the atomic number 77 and the satellites evoking the Bohr model image of electrons orbiting around the Earth as its nucleus. This reduced set of 6 planes is sufficient to cover the entire Earth's surface at every moment.

text: The constellation consists of 66 active satellites in orbit required for global coverage, and additional spare satellites to serve in case of failure. Satellites are in

text: low Earth orbit

text: at a height of approximately  and

text: inclination

text: of 86.4°. Orbital velocity of the satellites is approximately .  Satellites communicate with neighboring satellites via  inter-satellite links. Each satellite can have four inter-satellite links: two to neighbors fore and aft in the same orbital plane, and two to satellites in neighboring planes to either side. The satellites orbit from pole to same pole with an orbital period of roughly 100 minutes. This design means that there is excellent satellite visibility and service coverage even at the North and South poles. The over-the-pole orbital design produces "seams" where satellites in counter-rotating planes next to one another are traveling in opposite directions.  Cross-seam inter-satellite link hand-offs would have to happen very rapidly and cope with large

text: Doppler shifts

text: ; therefore, Iridium supports inter-satellite links only between satellites orbiting in the same direction. The constellation of 66 active satellites has 6

text: orbital plane

text: s spaced 30 degrees apart, with 11 satellites in each plane (not counting spares). The original concept was to have 77 satellites, which is where the name Iridium came from, being

text: the element

text: with the atomic number 77 and the satellites evoking the

text: Bohr model

text: image of electrons orbiting around the Earth as its nucleus. This reduced set of 6 planes is sufficient to cover the entire Earth's surface at every moment.

text: Payload of the Satellite is point to point packet communication with which a user can send and receive messages from one point to other point on the earth. Scientific objective of the satellite is to demonstrate passive attitude control to stabilise and appropriately orient the satellite. This technique is being used for the first time on an Indian Satellite. Another objective is to provide Low earth orbit channel characterisation in UHF HAM band.

text: Payload

text: of the Satellite is point to point packet communication with which a user can send and receive messages from one point to other point on the earth. Scientific objective of the satellite is to demonstrate passive

text: attitude control

text: to stabilise and appropriately orient the satellite. This technique is being used for the first time on an Indian Satellite. Another objective is to provide Low earth orbit channel characterisation in

text: UHF

text: HAM

text: band.

text: In late 2009 satellite-positioning receivers for a new navigation system at Newark airport in New Jersey were suffering brief daily breaks in reception. Something was interfering with the signals from orbiting global positioning system (GPS) satellites. A driver who passed by on the nearby New Jersey Turnpike each day used a cheap GPS jammer in his truck. Jammers prevent tracking devices from determining (and then reporting) its location.

text: USA-213, also known as GPS SVN-62, GPS IIF SV-1 and NAVSTAR 65, is the first satellite in the Block IIF series of Global Positioning System navigation satellites. It will be used to relay signals for the United States Air Force Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS). The satellite was launched at 03:00 GMT on 28 May 2010. It will be placed into plane B of the GPS constellation, and will transmit the PRN-25 signal. PRN-25 was previously broadcast by USA-79, which was retired in late 2009 after almost eighteen years of service.

text: USA-213, also known as GPS SVN-62, GPS IIF SV-1 and NAVSTAR 65, is the first satellite in the

text: Block IIF

text: series of

text: Global Positioning System

text: navigation satellite

text: s. It will be used to relay signals for the

text: United States Air Force

text: Navstar

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS). The satellite was launched at 03:00 GMT on 28 May 2010. It will be placed into plane B of the GPS constellation, and will transmit the PRN-25 signal. PRN-25 was previously broadcast by

text: , which was retired in late 2009 after almost eighteen years of service.

text: A PhoneSat-1.0 satellite, Graham was built to the single-unit (1U) CubeSat specification, and measures  in each dimension. The satellite is based on an off-the-shelf HTC Nexus One smartphone which serves in place of an onboard computer and avionics system. Unlike the more advanced PhoneSat-2.0 spacecraft, Graham is powered by non-rechargeable batteries, and has no attitude control system, however onboard sensors can be used to determine and monitor the satellite's attitude. The cameras built into the phones aboard Graham and its sister satellite Bell was used to return images of the Earth from space.

text: A PhoneSat-1.0 satellite, Graham was built to the single-unit (1U)

text: CubeSat

text: HTC

text: Nexus One

text: smartphone

text: which serves in place of an onboard computer and avionics system. Unlike the more advanced PhoneSat-2.0 spacecraft, Graham is powered by non-rechargeable batteries, and has no attitude control system, however onboard sensors can be used to determine and monitor the satellite's attitude. The cameras built into the phones aboard Graham and its sister satellite Bell was used to return images of the Earth from space.

text: Satellite communications are still used in many applications today. Remote islands such as Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Diego Garcia, and Easter Island, where no submarine cables are in service, need satellite telephones. There are also regions of some continents and countries where landline telecommunications are rare to nonexistent, for example large regions of South America, Africa, Canada, China, Russia, and Australia. Satellite communications also provide connection to the edges of Antarctica and Greenland. Other land use for satellite phones are rigs at sea, a back up for hospitals, military, and recreation. Ships at sea, as well as planes, often use satellite phones.

text: Satellite communications are still used in many applications today. Remote islands such as

text: Ascension Island

text: Saint Helena

text: Diego Garcia

text: , and

text: Easter Island

text: , where no submarine cables are in service, need satellite telephones. There are also regions of some continents and countries where landline telecommunications are rare to nonexistent, for example large regions of

text: South America

text: Africa

text: , Canada,

text: China

text: , Russia, and

text: Australia

text: . Satellite communications also provide connection to the edges of

text: Antarctica

text: and

text: Greenland

text: . Other land use for satellite phones are rigs at sea, a back up for hospitals, military, and recreation. Ships at sea, as well as planes, often use satellite phones.

text: Wireless data connections used in mobile computing take three general forms so. Cellular data service uses technologies such as GSM, CDMA or GPRS, 3G networks such as W-CDMA, EDGE or CDMA2000. and more recently 4G networks such as LTE, LTE-Advanced.  These networks are usually available within range of commercial cell towers. Wi-Fi connections offer higher performance, may be either on a private business network or accessed through public hotspots, and have a typical range of 100 feet indoors and up to 1000 feet outdoors. Satellite Internet access covers areas where cellular and Wi-Fi are not available and may be set up anywhere the user has a line of sight to the satellite's location, which for satellites in geostationary orbit means having an unobstructed view of the southern sky. Some enterprise deployments combine networks from multiple cellular networks or use a mix of cellular, Wi-Fi and satellite. When using a mix of networks, a mobile virtual private network (mobile VPN) not only handles the security concerns, but also performs the multiple network logins automatically and keeps the application connections alive to prevent crashes or data loss during network transitions or coverage loss.

text: Wireless

text: data connections used in mobile computing take three general forms so.

text: Cellular

text: data service uses technologies such as

text: GSM

text: CDMA

text: or

text: GPRS

text: networks such as

text: W-CDMA

text: EDGE

text: or

text: . and more recently

text: networks such as

text: LTE

text: LTE-Advanced

text: .  These networks are usually available within range of commercial

text: cell towers

text: Wi-Fi

text: connections offer higher performance, may be either on a private business network or accessed through public

text: hotspots

text: , and have a typical range of 100 feet indoors and up to 1000 feet outdoors.

text: Satellite Internet access

text: covers areas where cellular and Wi-Fi are not available and may be set up anywhere the user has a

text: line of sight

text: to the satellite's location, which for satellites in

text: geostationary

text: orbit means having an unobstructed view of the southern sky. Some enterprise deployments combine networks from multiple cellular networks or use a mix of cellular, Wi-Fi and satellite. When using a mix of networks, a

text: mobile virtual private network

text: mobile VPN

text: ) not only handles the

text: security

text: concerns, but also performs the multiple network

text: login

text: s automatically and keeps the

text: application

text: connections alive to prevent

text: crashes

text: or data loss during network transitions or coverage loss.

text: A network of ground stations, whose locations were accurately known, continually tracked the Transit satellites.  They measured the Doppler shift and transferred the data to 5-hole paper tape.  This data was sent to the Satellite Control Center at Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland using commercial and military teleprinter networks. The data from the fixed ground stations provided the location information on the Transit satellite orbit.  Locating a Transit satellite in earth orbit from a known ground station using the Doppler shift is simply the reverse of using the known location of the satellite in orbit to locate an unknown location on the earth, again using the Doppler shift .

text: These types of satellites are almost always in Sun synchronous and "frozen" orbits.  The Sun synchronous orbit is in general sufficiently close to polar to get the desired global coverage while the relatively constant geometry to the Sun mostly is an advantage for the instruments.  The "frozen" orbit is selected as this is the closest to a circular orbit that is possible in the gravitational field of the Earth.

text: These types of satellites are almost always in

text: Sun synchronous

text: and

text: "frozen"

text: orbits.  The Sun synchronous orbit is in general sufficiently close to polar to get the desired global coverage while the relatively constant geometry to the Sun mostly is an advantage for the instruments.  The

text: "frozen"

text: orbit is selected as this is the closest to a circular orbit that is possible in the

text: gravitational field

text: of the Earth.

text: October 4, 1957 the Soviet Union put the first satellite into orbit around the Earth. Sputnik one caused many in the U.S. scientific community to outburst on the lack of work put into a satellite program. One of the key contributors to these outbursts was a former German scientist, turned American through project paperclip, Wernher von Braun. Von Braun stated that if given the correct materials and the go ahead he would have an American satellite in orbit in a matter of months, and he did not disappoint. January 31, 1958, two months after the Soviets launch their second satellite, Sputnik II, into orbit Explorer I, the first American satellite, was launched into orbit. The Soviets launch of Sputnik I and Sputnik II showed that America was falling behind in fall facets of scientific research only adding to the need of a national laboratory set aside for scientific research according to the issues present.

text: October 4, 1957 the Soviet Union put the first satellite into orbit around the Earth.

text: Sputnik

text: one caused many in the U.S. scientific community to outburst on the lack of work put into a satellite program. One of the key contributors to these outbursts was a former German scientist, turned American through project paperclip,

text: Wernher von Braun

text: . Von Braun stated that if given the correct materials and the go ahead he would have an American satellite in orbit in a matter of months, and he did not disappoint. January 31, 1958, two months after the Soviets launch their second satellite, Sputnik II, into orbit Explorer I, the first American satellite, was launched into orbit. The Soviets launch of Sputnik I and Sputnik II showed that America was falling behind in fall facets of scientific research only adding to the need of a national laboratory set aside for scientific research according to the issues present.

text: LAGEOS, Laser Geodynamics Satellite or Laser Geometric Environmental Observation Survey, are a series of two scientific research satellites designed to provide an orbiting laser ranging benchmark for geodynamical studies of the Earth. Each satellite is a high-density passive laser reflector in a very stable medium Earth orbit (MEO).

text: LAGEOS, Laser Geodynamics Satellite or Laser Geometric Environmental Observation Survey, are a series of two scientific research

text: satellite

text: s designed to provide an orbiting

text: laser ranging

text: benchmark for

text: geodynamical

text: studies of the

text: Earth

text: . Each satellite is a high-density passive laser reflector in a very stable

text: medium Earth orbit

text: (MEO).

text: (Abbreviation for Global Positioning System) is a land positioning system consisting on a satellite network orbiting around the Earth which continuously send their position and transmission time. From these data, the receiver triangulates its position with all the available satellites to get a higher accuracy. This position is sent to the microprocessor by a serial port as a data line.

text: The KAUR (Russian: '''КАУР, Космический Аппарат Унифицированного Ряда''', Universal Spacecraft Series) was a very successful satellite bus designed and manufactured by ISS Reshetnev (then NPO PM). It is a pressurized bus originally developed in the 1960s, it has been used from low Earth Orbit to medium Earth orbit and even to GEO. It has four different generations and its different versions have been used from civilian communications to satellite navigation.

text: The KAUR (

text: Russian

text: : '''КАУР, Космический Аппарат Унифицированного Ряда''', Universal Spacecraft Series) was a very successful

text: satellite bus

text: designed and manufactured by

text: ISS Reshetnev

text: (then NPO PM). It is a pressurized bus originally developed in the 1960s, it has been used from

text: low Earth Orbit

text: to

text: medium Earth orbit

text: and even to

text: GEO

text: . It has four different generations and its different versions have been used from civilian communications to

text: satellite navigation

text: The superiority of satellite navigation systems to astronomical navigation are currently undeniable, especially with the development and use of GPS/NAVSTAR. This global satellite system

text: Other small natural objects in orbit around the Sun may enter orbit around Earth for a short amount of time, becoming temporary natural satellites. , the only confirmed example has been  in Earth orbit during 2006 and 2007, though further instances are already predicted.

text: Other

text: small natural objects in orbit around the Sun

text: may enter orbit around Earth for a short amount of time, becoming temporary natural satellites. , the only confirmed example has been  in Earth orbit during 2006 and 2007, though further instances are already predicted.

text: There are several computer labs for students, teachers, and campus residents to use. Broadband Internet is available through a VSAT satellite connection. The computers and network are maintained by a team of nationals and expats.

text: The US Air Force launched the first prototype satellites of the Global Positioning System (GPS) in 1978. GPS used a larger constellation of satellites and improved signal transmission to provide more accuracy. Early GPS observations required several hours of observations by a static receiver to reach survey accuracy requirements. Recent improvements to both satellites and receivers allow Real Time Kinematic (RTK) surveying. RTK surveys get high-accuracy measurements by using a fixed base station and a second roving antenna. The position of the roving antenna can be tracked.

text: The US Air Force launched the first prototype satellites of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) in 1978. GPS used a larger constellation of satellites and improved signal transmission to provide more accuracy. Early GPS observations required several hours of observations by a static receiver to reach survey accuracy requirements. Recent improvements to both satellites and receivers allow

text: Real Time Kinematic

text: (RTK) surveying. RTK surveys get high-accuracy measurements by using a fixed base station and a second roving antenna. The position of the roving antenna can be tracked.

text: Caribou are monitored through a capture and collaring with VHF or Global Positioning System (GPS) collars tracking collars. Satellite tracking Argos system, a satellite-based system collects, processes and disseminates the data from caribou tracking collars, clearly locating exact geographically coordinates. Satellite networks have tracked the migration and territorial movements of caribou. Electronic tags are giving scientists a complete, accurate picture of migration patterns. Using radio transmitters to track one herd of caribou, scientists learned that the herd moves much more than previously thought and they learned that each year the herd returns to about the same place to give birth. Environment Canada uses Landsat satellite imagery, for example, to identify anthropogenic disturbance (human-caused disturbance) to the natural landscape. This includes roads, seismic lines, pipe lines, well sites, and cutblocks that accompany industrial activities such as oil and gas exploration and development and forestry. British Columbia uses telemetry and computer modelling.

text: Caribou are monitored through a capture and collaring with VHF or

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) collars

text: tracking collars

text: . Satellite tracking

text: Argos system

text: , a satellite-based system collects, processes and disseminates the data from caribou tracking collars, clearly locating exact geographically coordinates. Satellite networks have tracked the migration and territorial movements of

text: caribou

text: . Electronic tags are giving scientists a complete, accurate picture of migration patterns. Using radio transmitters to track one herd of caribou, scientists learned that the herd moves much more than previously thought and they learned that each year the herd returns to about the same place to give birth. Environment Canada uses

text: Landsat satellite imagery

text: , for example, to identify anthropogenic disturbance (human-caused disturbance) to the natural landscape. This includes roads, seismic lines, pipe lines, well sites, and cutblocks that accompany industrial activities such as oil and gas exploration and development and forestry. British Columbia uses telemetry and computer modelling.

text: YouthSat is a Russian-Indian scientific-educational artificial satellite developed on the basis of an agreement between the Russian Federal Space Agency and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It is built using ISRO's Indian Mini Satellite-1 bus. YouthSat and Resourcesat-2 were launched on 20 April 2011 from Sriharikota, India.

text: YouthSat is a Russian-Indian scientific-educational

text: artificial satellite

text: developed on the basis of an agreement between the

text: Russian Federal Space Agency

text: and the

text: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

text: . It is built using ISRO's

text: Indian Mini Satellite

text: -1 bus. YouthSat and

text: were launched on 20 April 2011 from Sriharikota, India.

text: In ".exe", Finch uploads the deadly Ice-9 computer virus to Samaritan. The virus destroys the main Samaritan program, while also causing significant damage to global infrastructure. Samaritan's last backup, hosted in an orbiting satellite, is eliminated when Reese uploads a copy of the Machine to the same satellite.

text: IRNSS-1F is the sixth navigation satellite out of seven in the Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) series of satellites after IRNSS-1A, IRNSS-1B, IRNSS-1C, IRNSS-1D and IRNSS-1E. The satellite is one among the seven of the IRNSS constellation of satellites launched to provide navigational services to the region. It was launched aboard a PSLV-XL rocket bearing flight number C32 and was successfully put into geosynchronous orbit at 1601 IST on 10 March 2016.

text: IRNSS-1F is the sixth navigation satellite out of seven in the

text: (IRNSS) series of satellites after

text: and

text: . The satellite is one among the seven of the IRNSS constellation of satellites launched to provide navigational services to the region. It was launched aboard a

text: PSLV

text: -XL rocket bearing flight number C32 and was successfully put into geosynchronous orbit at 1601

text: IST

text: on 10 March 2016.

text: The world's first commercial communications satellite, called Intelsat I and nicknamed "Early Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on April 6, 1965. The first national network of television satellites, called Orbita, was created by the Soviet Union in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical Molniya satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television signals to ground downlink stations. The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was Canada's geostationary Anik 1, which was launched on 9 November 1972. ATS-6, the world's first experimental educational and Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS), was launched on May 30, 1974.  It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use.

text: The world's first commercial communications satellite, called

text: Intelsat I

text: and nicknamed "Early Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on April 6, 1965. The first national

text: network

text: of television satellites, called

text: Orbita

text: , was created by the

text: Soviet Union

text: in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical

text: Molniya

text: satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television

text: signal

text: s to ground

text: downlink

text: stations. The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was

text: Canada

text: 's geostationary

text: Anik 1

text: , which was launched on 9 November 1972.

text: , the world's first experimental educational and

text: Direct Broadcast Satellite

text: (DBS), was launched on May 30, 1974.  It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use.

text: The medium-scale Broadcasting Satellite for Experimental Purposes (BSE) was planned by Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (MOPT) and developed by the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) since 1974. After that, the first Japanese experimental broadcasting satellite, called BSE or Yuri, was launched in 1978. NHK started experimental broadcasting of TV program using BS-2a satellite on May, 1984.  The satellite BS-2a was launched in preparation for the start of full scale 2-channel broadcasts. Broadcasting Satellite BS-2a was the first national DBS (direct broadcasting satellite), transmitting signals directly into the home of TV viewers. Attitude control of the satellite was conducted using the 3 axial method (zero momentum), and design life was 5 years. The TV transponder units are designed to sufficiently amplify transmitted signals to enable reception by small, 40 or 60 cm home-use parabolic antennas. The satellite was equipped with 3 TV transponders (including reserve units). However, one transponder malfunctioned 2 months after launch (March 23, 1984) and a second transponder malfunctioned 3 months after launch (May 3, 1984). So, the scheduled satellite broadcasting had to be hastily adjusted to test broadcasting on a single channel.Later, NHK started regular service (NTSC) and experimental HDTV broadcasting using BS-2b on June, 1989. Some Japanese producers of home electronic consumer devices began to deliver TVsets, VCRs and even home acoustic systems equipped by built-in satellite tuners or receivers. Such electronic goods had a specific BS logo. On April, 1991, Japanese company JSB started pay TV service while BS-3 communication satellite was in use. In 1996 total number of households that receive satellite broadcasting exceeded 10 million. The modern two satellite systems in use in Japan are BSAT and JCSAT; the modern WOWOW Broadcasting Satellite digital service uses BSAT satellites, while other system of digital TV broadcasting SKY PerfecTV! uses JCSAT satellites.

text: The medium-scale Broadcasting Satellite for Experimental Purposes (BSE) was planned by Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (MOPT) and developed by the National Space Development Agency of Japan (

entity_name: National Space Development Agency of Japan

text: NASDA

text: ) since 1974. After that, the first Japanese experimental broadcasting satellite, called BSE or

text: Yuri

text: , was launched in 1978.

text: NHK

text: started experimental broadcasting of TV program using BS-2a satellite on May, 1984.  The satellite BS-2a was launched in preparation for the start of full scale 2-channel broadcasts.

text: Broadcasting Satellite

text: BS-2a was the first national

text: DBS

text: (direct broadcasting satellite), transmitting signals directly into the home of TV viewers. Attitude control of the satellite was conducted using the 3 axial method (zero momentum), and design life was 5 years. The TV transponder units are designed to sufficiently amplify transmitted signals to enable reception by small, 40 or 60 cm home-use parabolic

text: antennas

text: . The satellite was equipped with 3 TV transponders (including reserve units). However, one transponder malfunctioned 2 months after launch (March 23, 1984) and a second transponder malfunctioned 3 months after launch (May 3, 1984). So, the scheduled satellite broadcasting had to be hastily adjusted to test broadcasting on a single channel.Later, NHK started regular service (

text: NTSC

text: ) and experimental

text: HDTV

text: broadcasting using BS-2b on June, 1989. Some Japanese producers of home electronic consumer devices began to deliver

text: TV

text: sets,

text: VCR

text: s and even home acoustic systems equipped by built-in satellite

text: tuners

text: or

text: receiver

text: s. Such electronic goods had a specific

text: BS

text: logo. On April, 1991, Japanese company

text: JSB

text: started pay TV service while BS-3 communication satellite was in use. In 1996 total number of households that receive satellite broadcasting exceeded 10 million. The modern two satellite systems in use in Japan are BSAT and JCSAT; the modern

text: WOWOW

text: Broadcasting Satellite

text: digital service uses BSAT satellites, while other system of digital TV broadcasting

text: SKY PerfecTV!

text: uses JCSAT satellites.

text: To determine its position, a satellite navigation receiver will determine the ranges to (at least) four satellites as well as their positions at time of transmitting. Knowing the satellites' orbital parameters, these positions can be calculated for any point in time. The pseudoranges of each satellite are obtained by multiplying the speed of light by the time the signal has taken from the satellite to the receiver. As there are accuracy errors in the time measured, the term pseudo-ranges is used rather than ranges for such distances.

text: To determine its position, a satellite navigation receiver will determine the ranges to (at least) four satellites as well as their positions at time of transmitting. Knowing the satellites'

text: orbital parameters

text: , these positions can be calculated for any point in time. The pseudoranges of each satellite are obtained by multiplying the

text: speed of light

text: by the time the signal has taken from the satellite to the receiver. As there are accuracy errors in the time measured, the term pseudo-ranges is used rather than ranges for such distances.

text: Google Earth Engine is a cloud computing platform for processing satellite imagery and other Earth observation data.  It provides access to a large warehouse of satellite imagery and the computational power needed to analyze those images. The platform was developed by Google, in partnership with Carnegie Mellon University, NASA, the United States Geological Survey and TIME.

text: Google Earth Engine is a

text: cloud computing

text: platform for processing satellite imagery and other Earth observation data.  It provides access to a large warehouse of satellite imagery and the computational power needed to analyze those images. The platform was developed by

text: Google

text: , in partnership with

text: Carnegie Mellon University

text: NASA

text: , the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: and

text: TIME

text: .  In a two-body simulation, these elements are sufficient to compute the satellite's position and velocity at any time in the future, using the universal variable formulation.  Conversely, at any moment in the satellite's orbit, we can measure its position and velocity, and then use the universal variable approach to determine what its initial position and velocity would have been at the epoch.  In perfect two-body motion, these orbital elements would be invariant (just like the Keplerian elements would be).

text: A 10 mW transmitter, powered by a mercury battery, on the 108 MHz band used for International Geophysical Year (IGY) scientific satellites, and a 5 mW, 108.03 MHz transmitter powered by six solar cells were used as part of a radio phase-comparison angle-tracking system. The tracking data were used to show that the shape of the Earth has a very slight north-south asymmetry, occasionally described as pear-shaped with the stem at the North Pole. These radio signals were also used to determine the total electron content between the satellite and selected ground-receiving stations. The battery-powered transmitter provided internal package temperature for about sixteen days and sent tracking signals for twenty days. The solar cell powered transmitter operated for more than six years. Signals gradually weakened and were last received at Quito, Ecuador in May 1964 after which the spacecraft was optically tracked from Earth.

text: A 10

text: mW

text: transmitter, powered by a mercury battery, on the 108 MHz band used for

text: International Geophysical Year

text: (IGY) scientific satellites, and a 5 mW, 108.03 MHz transmitter powered by six solar cells were used as part of a radio phase-comparison angle-tracking system. The tracking data were used to show that the

text: shape of the Earth

text: has a very slight north-south asymmetry, occasionally described as pear-shaped with the stem at the North Pole. These radio signals were also used to determine the total electron content between the satellite and selected ground-receiving stations. The battery-powered transmitter provided internal package temperature for about sixteen days and sent tracking signals for twenty days. The solar cell powered transmitter operated for more than six years. Signals gradually weakened and were last received at

text: Quito, Ecuador

text: in May 1964 after which the spacecraft was optically tracked from Earth.

text: SvalSat is part of NASA's Near Earth Network. This includes support for the Earth Observing System, which includes satellites such as Aqua, Aura, Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite, and QuikSCAT, as well as the Small Explorer program which includes Galaxy Evolution Explorer, the Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite, Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission, Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics, Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph, and Transition Region and Coronal Explorer. SvalSat and Poker Flat are collectively responsible for half of the network's 140 daily passes. Satellites operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration using SvalSat includes the Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership and the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program. Other American satellites include the United States Geological Survey's Landsat 5 and Landsat 7 and the private Iridium Communications' satellites.

text: SvalSat is part of NASA's

text: Near Earth Network

text: . This includes support for the Earth Observing System, which includes satellites such as

text: Aqua

text: Aura

text: Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite

text: , and

text: QuikSCAT

text: , as well as the

text: Small Explorer program

text: which includes

text: Galaxy Evolution Explorer

text: , the

text: Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite

text: Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission

text: Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics

text: Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

text: , and

text: Transition Region and Coronal Explorer

text: . SvalSat and Poker Flat are collectively responsible for half of the network's 140 daily passes. Satellites operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration using SvalSat includes the

text: Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership

text: and the

entity_name: Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

text: Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

text: . Other American satellites include the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: 's

text: Landsat 5

text: and

text: Landsat 7

text: and the private

text: Iridium Communications

text: ' satellites.

text: Outernet's goal is to provide free access to content from the web through geostationary and Low Earth Orbit satellites, made available effectively to all parts of the world. The project uses datacasting and User Datagram Protocol through both small satellites, such as CubeSats, and larger, more conventional geostationary communications satellites in a satellite constellation network. Wi-Fi enabled devices would communicate with the satellite hotspots, which receive data broadcasts from satellites.

text: Outernet

text: 's goal is to provide free access to content from the web through geostationary and Low Earth Orbit satellites, made available effectively to all parts of

text: the world

text: . The project uses datacasting and

text: User Datagram Protocol

text: through both small satellites, such as

text: CubeSat

text: s, and larger, more conventional

text: geostationary communications satellite

text: s in a

text: satellite constellation

text: network.

text: Wi-Fi

text: enabled devices would communicate with the satellite

text: hotspot

text: s, which receive data broadcasts from satellites.

text: Eagle Vision One (EV1) is a military based Commercial Satellite Imagery (CSI) capability programmed and funded by HQ AF/A2QS (Air Force ISR Innovations). It is located at Ramstein Air Base, Germany, and is staffed by intelligence personnel assigned to the 24th Intelligence Squadron (24IS). The mission of EV1 is to maintain a deployable commercial satellite imagery system ready to support contingency operations, theater security cooperation events, and disaster relief efforts. The EV1 system consists of the two elements: a Data Acquisition Segment (DAS) which includes a direct downlink antenna and a computer server shelter that collects and processes imagery into a standard format, and a transit-cased Data Integration Segment (DIS) that processes the standard format products into useful products.

text: Eagle Vision One (EV1) is a military based Commercial Satellite Imagery (CSI) capability programmed and funded by HQ AF/A2QS (Air Force ISR Innovations). It is located at

text: Ramstein Air Base

text: , Germany, and is staffed by intelligence personnel assigned to the

text: 24th Intelligence Squadron

text: (24IS). The mission of EV1 is to maintain a deployable commercial satellite imagery system ready to support contingency operations, theater security cooperation events, and disaster relief efforts. The EV1 system consists of the two elements: a Data Acquisition Segment (DAS) which includes a direct downlink antenna and a computer server shelter that collects and processes imagery into a standard format, and a transit-cased Data Integration Segment (DIS) that processes the standard format products into useful products.

text: As the K'Had Sajuuk's forces approach the primary anomaly, a weapons satellite opens fire on them from orbit; Rachel leaves to investigate the source of the signal that triggered the satellite, as the Kapisi holds its ground against enemy forces on the plateau in order to secure a runway for the landers. Just as the Coalition forces gain the upper hand, however, the Siidim forces betray them, opening fire on the S'jet cargo landers; the Siidim, long-time enemies of the Gaalsien, declare that they alone were of divine origin and would "purify" the desert, and that Khar-Toba and its secrets were theirs to claim. Rachel discovers that the signal that triggered the orbital satellite was from a Taiidan carrier, which crashed on the surface after deploying the weapon; Jacob used the transponder to trigger the satellite himself before dying of starvation and exposure. Rachel escapes the wreck with the transponder and makes a rendezvous with the Kapisi, which engages and destroys the Sakala and its escort forces.

text: The United States' Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of up to 32 medium Earth orbit satellites in six different orbital planes, with the exact number of satellites varying as older satellites are retired and replaced. Operational since 1978 and globally available since 1994, GPS is currently the world's most utilized satellite navigation system.

text: The United States' Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of up to 32

text: medium Earth orbit

text: satellites in six different

text: orbital plane

text: s, with the exact number of satellites varying as older satellites are retired and replaced. Operational since 1978 and globally available since 1994, GPS is currently the world's most utilized satellite navigation system.

text: Goddard Space Flight Center remained involved in the manned space flight program, providing computer support and radar tracking of flights through a worldwide network of ground stations called the Spacecraft Tracking and Data Acquisition Network (STDN). However, the Center focused primarily on designing unmanned satellites and spacecraft for scientific research missions. Goddard pioneered several fields of spacecraft development, including modular spacecraft design, which reduced costs and made it possible to repair satellites in orbit. Goddard's Solar Max satellite, launched in 1980, was repaired by astronauts on the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1984.

text: Goddard Space Flight Center remained involved in the manned space flight program, providing

text: computer

text: support and

text: radar

text: tracking of flights through a worldwide network of

text: ground station

text: s called the

entity_name: Spacecraft Tracking and Data Acquisition Network

text: Spacecraft Tracking and Data Acquisition Network

text: (STDN). However, the Center focused primarily on designing unmanned

text: satellite

text: s and

text: spacecraft

text: for scientific research missions. Goddard pioneered several fields of spacecraft development, including

text: modular

text: spacecraft design, which reduced costs and made it possible to

text: repair

text: satellites in orbit. Goddard's

text: Solar Max

text: satellite, launched in 1980, was repaired by astronauts on the

text: Space Shuttle Challenger

text: in 1984.

text: ISI research spans artificial intelligence (AI), cybersecurity, grid computing, quantum computing, microelectronics, supercomputing, nano-satellites and many other areas.  AI expertise includes natural language processing, in which ISI has an international reputation, reconfigurable robotics, information integration, motion analysis and social media analysis. Hardware/software expertise includes cyber-physical system security, data mining, reconfigurable computing and cloud computing.  In networking, ISI explores Internet resilience, Internet traffic analysis and photonics, among other areas. Researchers also work in scientific data management, wireless technologies, biomimetics and electrical smart grid, in which ISI is advising the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power on a major demonstration project. Another current initiative involves big data brain imaging jointly with the Keck School of Medicine of USC.

text: ISI research spans artificial intelligence (AI), cybersecurity,

text: grid computing

text: quantum computing

text: , microelectronics, supercomputing, nano-satellites and many other areas.  AI expertise includes natural language processing, in which ISI has an international reputation, reconfigurable robotics, information integration, motion analysis and social media analysis. Hardware/software expertise includes cyber-physical system security, data mining, reconfigurable computing and cloud computing.  In networking, ISI explores Internet resilience, Internet traffic analysis and photonics, among other areas. Researchers also work in scientific data management, wireless technologies,

text: biomimetics

text: and electrical

text: smart grid

text: , in which ISI is advising the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power on a major demonstration project. Another current initiative involves

text: big data

text: brain imaging jointly with the Keck School of Medicine of USC.

text: Small solar sails have been proposed to accelerate the deorbiting of small artificial satellites from Earth orbits.  Satellites in low Earth orbit can use a combination of solar pressure on the sail and increased atmospheric drag to accelerate satellite reentry.  A de-orbit sail developed at Cranfield University is part of the UK satellite TechDemoSat-1, launched in 2014, and is expected to be deployed at the end of the satellite's five-year useful life. The sail's purpose is to bring the satellite out of orbit over a period of about 25 years. In July 2015 British 3U CubeSat called DeorbitSail was launched into space with the purpose of testing 16 m deorbit structure, but eventually it failed to deploy it. There is also a student 2U CubeSat mission called PW-Sat2 planned to launch in 2017 that will test 4 m deorbit sail.

text: Small solar sails have been proposed to accelerate the deorbiting of small artificial satellites from Earth orbits.  Satellites in

text: low Earth orbit

text: can use a combination of solar pressure on the sail and increased atmospheric drag to accelerate satellite

text: reentry

text: .  A de-orbit sail developed at

text: Cranfield University

text: is part of the UK satellite TechDemoSat-1, launched in 2014, and is expected to be deployed at the end of the satellite's five-year useful life. The sail's purpose is to bring the satellite out of orbit over a period of about 25 years. In July 2015 British 3U

text: CubeSat

text: called

text: DeorbitSail

text: was launched into space with the purpose of testing 16 m deorbit structure, but eventually it failed to deploy it. There is also a student 2U CubeSat mission called

text: planned to launch in 2017 that will test 4 m deorbit sail.

text: The Solaris Mobile services use DVB-SH technology to deliver IP based data and media content to handheld and in-vehicle terminals using a hybrid satellite/terrestrial system with satellite transmission serving the whole of Europe and beyond, and terrestrial repeaters for urban and indoor penetration.

text: The Solaris Mobile services use

text: DVB-SH

text: technology to deliver IP based data and media content to handheld and in-vehicle terminals using a hybrid satellite/terrestrial system with satellite transmission serving the whole of Europe and beyond, and terrestrial repeaters for urban and indoor penetration.

text: Many artificial satellites carry retroreflectors to be tracked from ground stations.Some satellites were built solely for laser ranging.Other satellites include retroreflectors for orbit calibration, such as in satellite navigation (e.g., most GLONASS satellites and a few GPS satellites) as well as in satellite altimetry (e.g., TOPEX/Poseidon).Retroreflectors can also be used for inter-satellite laser ranging (e.g., GRACE-FO).

text: Many

text: artificial satellites

text: carry retroreflectors to be tracked from

text: ground stations

text: .Some satellites were built solely for laser ranging.Other satellites include retroreflectors for orbit calibration, such as in

text: satellite navigation

text: (e.g., most

text: GLONASS satellites

text: and a few

text: GPS satellites

text: ) as well as in

text: satellite altimetry

text: (e.g.,

text: TOPEX/Poseidon

text: ).Retroreflectors can also be used for inter-satellite laser ranging (e.g.,

text: GRACE-FO

text: Cassini's laws describe the motion of satellites within a system with their precessions defined by the Laplace plane. Most satellite systems are found orbiting the ecliptic plane of the primary.  An exception is Earth's moon, which orbits in to the planet's equatorial plane.

text: Cassini's laws

text: describe the motion of satellites within a system with their precessions defined by the

text: Laplace plane

text: . Most satellite systems are found orbiting the

text: ecliptic plane

text: of the primary.  An exception is Earth's moon, which orbits in to the planet's

text: equatorial plane

text: Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control and orbit control.

text: Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation,

text: thermal control

text: , telemetry,

text: attitude control

text: and orbit control.

text: Each satellite carries a scientific payload of 11 instruments designed to study the small-scale plasma structures in space and time in the key plasma regions: solar wind, bow shock, magnetopause, polar cusps, magnetotail, plasmapause boundary layer and over the polar caps and the auroral zones.

text: Each satellite carries a scientific payload of 11 instruments designed to study the small-scale plasma structures in space and time in the key plasma regions: solar wind,

text: bow shock

text: magnetopause

text: polar cusp

text: s,

text: magnetotail

text: plasmapause

text: boundary layer and over the polar caps and the auroral zones.

text: USA-196, also known as GPS IIR-17(M), GPS IIRM-4 and GPS SVN-55, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the fourth of eight Block IIRM satellites to be launched, and the seventeenth of twenty one Block IIR satellites overall. It was built by Lockheed Martin, using the AS-4000 satellite bus.

text: USA-196, also known as GPS IIR-17(M), GPS IIRM-4 and GPS SVN-55, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the fourth of eight

text: Block IIRM

text: satellites to be launched, and the seventeenth of twenty one

text: Block IIR

text: satellites overall. It was built by

text: Lockheed Martin

text: , using the

text: satellite bus

text: Similarly, the use of multiple co-located satellites at more than one orbital position allows for an operator to vary the capacity allocation at each position by moving individual satellites between positions in orbit to reduce or increase the capacity at each position without the delays and costs associated with launching additional satellites.

text: Small satellites can use conventional radio systems in UHF, VHF, S-band and X-band, although often miniaturized using more up-to-date technology as compared to larger satellites. Tiny satellites such as nanosats and small microsats may lack the power supply or mass for large conventional radio transponders, and various miniaturized or innovative communications systems have been proposed, such as laser receivers, antenna arrays and satellite-to-satellite communication networks. Few of these have been demonstrated in practice.

text: Small satellites can use conventional radio systems in UHF, VHF, S-band and X-band, although often miniaturized using more up-to-date technology as compared to larger satellites. Tiny satellites such as nanosats and small microsats may lack the power supply or mass for large conventional radio

text: transponder

text: s, and various miniaturized or innovative communications systems have been proposed, such as laser receivers, antenna arrays and satellite-to-satellite communication networks. Few of these have been demonstrated in practice.

text: The Long March 4A (), also known as the Changzheng 4A, CZ-4A and LM-4A, sometimes misidentified as the Long March 4 due to the lack of any such designated rocket, was a Chinese orbital carrier rocket. It was launched from Launch Area 7 at the Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center. It was a 3-stage rocket, used for two launches in 1988 and 1990. On its maiden flight, on 6 September 1988, it placed the FY-1A weather satellite into orbit. On its second, and final, flight it launched another weather satellite, FY-1B.

text: The Long March 4A (), also known as the Changzheng 4A, CZ-4A and LM-4A, sometimes misidentified as the Long March 4 due to the lack of any such designated rocket, was a

text: Chinese

text: orbit

text: al

text: carrier rocket

text: . It was launched from Launch Area 7 at the

text: Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center

text: . It was a 3-stage rocket, used for two launches in 1988 and 1990. On its maiden flight, on 6 September 1988, it placed the

text: weather satellite

text: into orbit. On its second, and final, flight it launched another weather satellite,

text: Developed by the United States Department of Defense, GPS is officially named NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System). The satellite constellation is managed by the United States Air Force 50th Space Wing. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$750 million per year, including the replacement of aging satellites, and research and development. Despite this fact, GPS is free for civilian use as a public good.

text: Developed by the

text: United States Department of Defense

text: , GPS is officially named NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System). The

text: satellite constellation

text: is managed by the

text: United States Air Force

text: 50th Space Wing

text: . The cost of maintaining the system is approximately

text: US$

text: 750 million per year, including the replacement of aging satellites, and research and development. Despite this fact, GPS is free for civilian use as a

text: public good

text: The modern OBDH always uses an on-board computer (OBC) that is reliable, usually with redundant processors. The processing power is made available to other applications which support the spacecraft bus, such as attitude control algorithms, thermal control, failure detection isolation and recovery. If the mission itself requires only a small amount of computing power (such as a small scientific satellite) then the payload may also be controlled by the software running on the OBC, to save launch mass and the considerable expense of a dedicated payload computer.

text: The modern OBDH always uses an on-board computer (OBC) that is reliable, usually with

text: redundant

text: processors. The processing power is made available to other applications which support the spacecraft bus, such as attitude control algorithms, thermal control,

text: failure detection isolation and recovery

text: . If the mission itself requires only a small amount of computing power (such as a small scientific satellite) then the payload may also be controlled by the software running on the OBC, to save launch mass and the considerable expense of a dedicated payload computer.

text: The Transit satellite system was used extensively for Doppler surveying, navigation, and positioning. Observations of satellites in the 1970s by worldwide triangulation networks allowed for the establishment of the World Geodetic System.  The development of GPS by the United States in the 1980s allowed for precise navigation and positioning and soon became a standard tool in surveying. In the 1980s and 1990s satellite geodesy began to be used for monitoring of geodynamic phenomena, such as crustal motion, Earth rotation, and polar motion.

text: The

text: Transit

text: satellite system was used extensively for Doppler surveying, navigation, and positioning. Observations of satellites in the 1970s by worldwide triangulation networks allowed for the establishment of the

text: World Geodetic System

text: .  The development of

text: GPS

text: by the United States in the 1980s allowed for precise navigation and positioning and soon became a standard tool in surveying. In the 1980s and 1990s satellite geodesy began to be used for monitoring of geodynamic phenomena, such as

text: crustal motion

text: Earth rotation

text: , and

text: polar motion

text: The satellites (known as OSCAR or NOVA satellites) used in the system were placed in low polar orbits, at an altitude of about 600 nautical miles (1,100 km), with an orbital period of about 106 minutes. A constellation of five satellites was required to provide reasonable global coverage. While the system was operational, at least ten satellites – one spare for each satellite in the basic constellation – were usually kept in orbit. Note that these OSCAR satellites were not the same as the OSCAR series of satellites that were devoted to use by amateur radio operators to use in satellite communications.

text: The satellites (known as OSCAR or NOVA satellites) used in the system were placed in low

text: polar orbit

text: s, at an altitude of about 600 nautical miles (1,100 km), with an orbital period of about 106 minutes. A constellation of five satellites was required to provide reasonable global coverage. While the system was operational, at least ten satellites – one spare for each satellite in the basic constellation – were usually kept in orbit. Note that these OSCAR satellites were not the same as the

text: OSCAR

text: series of satellites that were devoted to use by

text: amateur radio

text: operators to use in

text: satellite communications

text: NSAU has engineered, constructed and launched a total of 6 satellites (since 1992). The latest Ukrainian satellite, Sich-1M, was launched in 2004 and was a successful mission. The launch of Sich-2 was scheduled in 2007 with a goal of scientific research and space exploration; it was launched in August 2011. NSAU currently is working on further Sich series satellites: Sich-3, Sich-3-O and Sich-3-P; and a satellite to fly around the Moon in 2017.

text: NSAU has engineered, constructed and launched a total of 6 satellites (since 1992). The latest Ukrainian satellite, Sich-1M, was launched in 2004 and was a successful mission. The launch of Sich-2 was scheduled in 2007 with a goal of scientific research and space exploration; it was launched in August 2011. NSAU currently is working on further Sich series satellites: Sich-3, Sich-3-O and Sich-3-P; and a satellite to fly around the

text: Moon

text: in 2017.

text: Spacecraft magnetometers are magnetometers used aboard spacecraft and satellites, mostly for scientific investigations, plus attitude sensing. Magnetometers are among the most widely used scientific instruments in exploratory and observation satellites. These instruments were instrumental in the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts around Earth by Explorer 1, and have detailed the magnetic fields of the Earth, Moon, Sun, Mars, Venus and other planets. There are ongoing missions using magnetometers, including attempts to define the shape and activity of Saturn's core.

text: Spacecraft magnetometers are

text: magnetometer

text: s used aboard

text: spacecraft

text: and

text: satellites

text: , mostly for scientific investigations, plus

text: attitude sensing

text: . Magnetometers are among the most widely used

text: scientific instrument

text: s in exploratory and observation satellites. These instruments were instrumental in the discovery of the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: s around Earth by

text: Explorer 1

text: , and have detailed the

text: magnetic fields

text: of the

text: Earth

text: Moon

text: Sun

text: Mars

text: Venus

text: and other planets. There are ongoing missions using magnetometers, including attempts to define the shape and activity of

text: Saturn

text: 's core.

text: ROBUSTA-1B (Radiation on Bipolar Test for University Satellite Application) is a nano-satellite (Cubesat) scientific experiment developed by the University of Montpellier students, a successor to the ROBUSTA satellite, which was launched in February 2012 and lost soon after.

text: ROBUSTA-1B (Radiation on Bipolar Test for University Satellite Application) is a nano-satellite (

text: Cubesat

text: ) scientific experiment developed by the

text: University of Montpellier

text: students, a successor to the

text: ROBUSTA

text: satellite, which was launched in February 2012 and lost soon after.

text: Orbit spectrum is nothing but spectrum which become available due to placement of satellites in orbit. This orbit spectrum or more commonly called as satellite spectrum is a limited and precious natural resource for every country. In order to ensure optimum utilization of orbit spectrum the national administrations of countries worldwide undertake regular monitoring exercises. It is this orbit spectrum which is being used by different service providers to impart satellite based broadcasting, telecommunication & metrological services. To ensure good quality of services to millions of users it is necessary that this orbit spectrum should be used by service providers as per terms and conditions approved by the Government. Regulatory measures are required to be enforced for efficient and legal usage of spectrum. This practice of regulating the spectrum within the limits of permissions or licenses is considered to be a part of spectrum management.

text: For many small satellites it is desirable to be the primary payload and be placed into the orbit desired, as opposed to being a secondary payload placed in a compromise orbit. For example, Pegasus launches from equatorial launch sites can put spacecraft in orbits avoiding the South Atlantic Anomaly (a high radiation region over the South Atlantic Ocean) which is desirable for many scientific spacecraft.  Though more expensive than satellites launched as secondary cargoes on larger launchers, Pegasus offers these benefits.

text: For many small satellites it is desirable to be the primary payload and be placed into the orbit desired, as opposed to being a secondary payload placed in a compromise orbit. For example, Pegasus launches from equatorial launch sites can put spacecraft in orbits avoiding the

text: South Atlantic Anomaly

text: (a high radiation region over the South Atlantic Ocean) which is desirable for many scientific spacecraft.  Though more expensive than satellites launched as secondary cargoes on larger launchers, Pegasus offers these benefits.

text: After the daily RASSN runs had been checked, one element correction run was made using the Satellite General Perturbations Differential Corrections (SGPDC) program.  This automation was a definite improvement on the manual data plotting done at Project Space Track in 1960.  In those days, the DOA would plot data points showing the difference in the time the satellite crossed the equator versus the current ephemeris prediction (on the ordinate) against the time of observation (on the abscissa).  He would manually sketch a line as a best estimate of the fit to the data and choose a few points on either side of the line.  He then filled out a form with these data points.  The form was used to input the data at the IBM 709 computer (earlier the IBM 610), which ran a least squares fit and produced improved orbital elements.

text: The SUPARCO negotiated with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for the launch of the satellite and approval required from the United States Government for the launch of the Badr-I.  The Air Force Strategic Command decided to fly the satellite by using one of its C-130 aircraft in 1986 to Florida, United States. The Delta 3000 was selected by NASA's administration as its launch vehicle. Preparation was made and its crew and satellite was stored at the aircraft, however, it was delayed due to unknown reasons. The Badr-I was never shipped to United States and its launch was delayed for until next four years. As aftermath of the Challenger disaster in 1986, the United States Government and NASA had halt all the flights of the rockets carrying spacecraft and satellite payloads until the investigations were thoroughly completed. The satellite was stored at the Instrumentation Laboratories (IL) and SUPARCO began to negotiate with other space powers. In 1990, representatives of Chinese government offered Government of Pakistan to launch the satellite on one of its Long March Rockets and its facility. SUPARCO did not want to wait any longer, therefore, the Air Force Strategic Command flew the satellite, in sub-assembly form, to People's Republic of China. The satellite was re-assembled by Air Force Strategic Command and Suparco's official who visited the Xichang Satellite Launch Center. The satellite was load at the Launch Area 2 and final preparations were made. The Chinese Government used Long March 2E, a three-stage orbital carrier rocket designed to commercial communications satellites, to launch the Badr-I who also took its first maiden flight with the launch of Badr-I in 16 July 1990.

text: The

entity_name: Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission

text: SUPARCO

text: negotiated with the

text: National Aeronautics and Space Administration

text: (NASA) for the launch of the satellite and approval required from the

text: United States Government

text: for the launch of the Badr-I.  The

text: Air Force Strategic Command

text: decided to fly the satellite by using one of its

text: aircraft in 1986 to Florida, United States. The

text: Delta 3000

text: was selected by NASA's administration as its launch vehicle. Preparation was made and its crew and satellite was stored at the aircraft, however, it was delayed due to unknown reasons. The Badr-I was never shipped to United States and its launch was delayed for until next four years. As aftermath of the

text: Challenger disaster

text: in 1986, the United States Government and NASA had halt all the flights of the rockets carrying spacecraft and satellite payloads until the investigations were thoroughly completed. The satellite was stored at the Instrumentation Laboratories (IL) and SUPARCO began to negotiate with other space powers. In 1990, representatives of

text: Chinese government

text: offered Government of Pakistan to launch the satellite on one of its

text: Long March Rockets

text: and its facility. SUPARCO did not want to wait any longer, therefore, the

text: Air Force Strategic Command

text: flew the satellite, in sub-assembly form, to People's Republic of China. The satellite was re-assembled by Air Force Strategic Command and Suparco's official who visited the

text: Xichang Satellite Launch Center

text: . The satellite was load at the

text: Launch Area 2

text: and final preparations were made. The Chinese Government used

text: Long March 2E

text: , a three-stage orbital carrier rocket designed to commercial communications satellites, to launch the Badr-I who also took its first maiden flight with the launch of Badr-I in 16 July 1990.

text: Starting in the early 1930s, single-beam sounders were used to make bathymetry maps. Today, multibeam echosounders (MBES) are typically used, which use hundreds of very narrow adjacent beams arranged in a fan-like swath of typically 90 to 170 degrees across.  The tightly packed array of narrow individual beams provides very high angular resolution and accuracy.  In general a wide swath, which is depth dependent, allows a boat to map more seafloor in less time than a single-beam echosounder by making fewer passes.  The beams update many times per second (typically 0.1-50 Hz depending on water depth), allowing faster boat speed while maintaining 100% coverage of the seafloor.  Attitude sensors allow for the correction of the boat's roll and pitch on the ocean surface, and a gyrocompass provides accurate heading information to correct for vessel yaw.  (Most modern MBES systems use an integrated motion-sensor and position system that measures yaw as well as the other dynamics and position.)  A boat-mounted Global Positioning System (GPS) (or other Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)) positions the soundings with respect to the surface of the earth.  Sound speed profiles (speed of sound in water as a function of depth) of the water column correct for refraction or "ray-bending" of the sound waves owing to non-uniform water column characteristics such as temperature, conductivity, and pressure.  A computer system processes all the data, correcting for all of the above factors as well as for the angle of each individual beam.  The resulting sounding measurements are then processed either manually, semi-automatically or automatically (in limited circumstances) to produce a map of the area.   a number of different outputs are generated, including a sub-set of the original measurements that satisfy some conditions (e.g., most representative likely soundings, shallowest in a region, etc.) or integrated Digital Terrain Models (DTM) (e.g., a regular or irregular grid of points connected into a surface). Historically, selection of measurements was more common in hydrographic applications while DTM construction was used for engineering surveys, geology, flow modeling, etc.  Since ca. 2003-2005, DTMs have become more accepted in hydrographic practice.

text: Starting in the early 1930s, single-beam sounders were used to make bathymetry maps. Today,

text: multibeam echosounder

text: s (MBES) are typically used, which use hundreds of very narrow adjacent beams arranged in a fan-like

text: swath

text: of typically 90 to 170 degrees across.  The tightly packed array of narrow individual beams provides very high

text: angular resolution

text: and accuracy.  In general a wide swath, which is depth dependent, allows a boat to map more seafloor in less time than a single-beam echosounder by making fewer passes.  The beams update many times per second (typically 0.1-50

text: Hz

text: depending on water depth), allowing faster boat speed while maintaining 100% coverage of the seafloor.  Attitude sensors allow for the correction of the boat's

text: roll and pitch

text: on the ocean surface, and a gyrocompass provides accurate heading information to correct for vessel

text: yaw

text: .  (Most modern MBES systems use an integrated motion-sensor and position system that measures yaw as well as the other dynamics and position.)  A boat-mounted

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) (or other Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)) positions the soundings with respect to the surface of the earth.  Sound speed profiles (speed of sound in water as a function of depth) of the water column correct for refraction or "ray-bending" of the sound waves owing to non-uniform water column characteristics such as temperature, conductivity, and pressure.  A computer system processes all the data, correcting for all of the above factors as well as for the angle of each individual beam.  The resulting sounding measurements are then processed either manually, semi-automatically or automatically (in limited circumstances) to produce a map of the area.   a number of different outputs are generated, including a sub-set of the original measurements that satisfy some conditions (e.g., most representative likely soundings, shallowest in a region, etc.) or integrated

text: Digital Terrain Models

text: (DTM) (e.g., a regular or irregular grid of points connected into a surface). Historically, selection of measurements was more common in

text: hydrographic

text: applications while DTM construction was used for engineering surveys, geology, flow modeling, etc.  Since ca. 2003-2005, DTMs have become more accepted in hydrographic practice.

text: If a geosynchronous satellite's orbit is not exactly aligned with the Earth's equator, the orbit is known as an inclined orbit.  It will appear (when viewed by someone on the ground) to oscillate daily around a fixed point. As the angle between the orbit and the equator decreases, the magnitude of this oscillation becomes smaller; when the orbit lies entirely over the equator in a circular orbit, the satellite remains stationary relative to the Earth's surface – it is said to be geostationary.

text: If a geosynchronous satellite's orbit is not exactly aligned with the Earth's

text: equator

text: , the orbit is known as an

text: inclined orbit

text: .  It will appear (when viewed by someone on the ground) to oscillate daily around a fixed point. As the angle between the orbit and the equator decreases, the magnitude of this oscillation becomes smaller; when the orbit lies entirely over the equator in a circular orbit, the satellite remains stationary relative to the Earth's surface – it is said to be geostationary.

text: In 1984, Salim Mehmud quickly launched the Badr satellite program. The development and the construction of Badr-1, Pakistan's first domestically-built digital communication satellite, was started. A small team of SUPARCO scientists and engineers who had studied and trained in University of Surrey were the part of the university's UO-9, UO-11 and UO-22 hamsats miniature satellite development and program, began the development of the satellite. Mehmud, then briefed the General Zia and suggested to launch the satellite from Pakistani Satellite Launch Vehicle. However, having found difficulties in SLV-required technology, the idea of Pakistani SLV was postponed and later was cancelled. Mehmud retired from SUPARCO in 1989 as a chief scientist and was transferred in DESTO. In 1990, Badr-1 was finally launched via Long March 2E rocket from Xichang Satellite Launch Center.

text: In 1984, Salim Mehmud quickly launched the

text: Badr satellite program

text: . The development and the construction of

text: , Pakistan's first

text: domestically

text: -built

text: digital communication satellite

text: , was started. A small team of

text: SUPARCO

text: scientists and engineers who had studied and trained in

text: University of Surrey

text: were the part of the university's

text: and

text: hamsat

text: s miniature

text: satellite

text: development and program, began the development of the satellite. Mehmud, then briefed the

text: General Zia

text: and suggested to launch the satellite from Pakistani

text: Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: . However, having found difficulties in

text: SLV

text: -required technology, the idea of Pakistani SLV was postponed and later was cancelled. Mehmud retired from

text: SUPARCO

text: in 1989 as a chief scientist and was transferred in

entity_name: Defence Science and Technology Organization (Pakistan)

text: DESTO

text: . In 1990,

text: was finally launched via

text: Long March 2E

text: rocket from

text: Xichang Satellite Launch Center

text: In 1946 he returned to the U.S. Weather Bureau, becoming Chief of the Scientific Services division. As head researcher, Dr. Wexler encouraged a study into the atmospheres of planets other than the Earth. He is particularly noted for his work on the use of satellites for meteorological purposes, the development of the TIROS-1—the world's first weather satellite. Science fiction author and futurist, Arthur C. Clarke, had been following Wexler's work on hurricanes in the 40s and wrote to Wexler to ask for his thoughts on Clarke's idea of using an artificial satellite to study weather patterns from space. This put Wexler on a path that would eventually lead to the launch of TIROS-1 in 1960. He also studied the use of computers for weather prediction and modification.

text: In 1946 he returned to the U.S. Weather Bureau, becoming Chief of the Scientific Services division. As head researcher, Dr. Wexler encouraged a study into the atmospheres of planets other than the

text: Earth

text: . He is particularly noted for his work on the use of

text: satellite

text: s for meteorological purposes, the development of the

text: —the world's first weather satellite.

text: Science fiction

text: author and

text: futurist

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: , had been following Wexler's work on hurricanes in the 40s and wrote to Wexler to ask for his thoughts on Clarke's idea of using an artificial satellite to study weather patterns from space. This put Wexler on a path that would eventually lead to the launch of TIROS-1 in 1960. He also studied the use of computers for weather prediction and modification.

text: The Thorad-Agena was an American expendable launch system, derived from the Thor and Delta rockets. The first stage of the rocket was a stretched Thor variant named "Long Tank Thrust Augmented Thor".  The Long Tank Thor first stage was later adopted by NASA's Delta program for its "Thrust Augmented Improved Delta", which first flew in 1968. The second stage was the Agena-D, which had already been used in conjunction with the standard configuration Thor, as the Thor-Agena. Three Castor rockets would be used as boosters. Most launches carried Corona (KeyHole) reconnaissance satellites, particularly spacecraft of the KH-4 series, however some scientific and technology development satellites were also flown, mostly towards the end of the program.

text: The Thorad-Agena was an

text: American

text: expendable launch system

text: , derived from the

text: Thor

text: and

text: Delta

text: rocket

text: s. The first stage of the rocket was a stretched Thor variant named "Long Tank Thrust Augmented Thor".  The Long Tank Thor first stage was later adopted by NASA's Delta program for its "Thrust Augmented Improved Delta", which first flew in 1968. The second stage was the

text: Agena-D

text: , which had already been used in conjunction with the standard configuration Thor, as the

text: Thor-Agena

text: . Three

text: Castor rocket

text: s would be used as

text: boosters

text: . Most launches carried

text: Corona

text: (KeyHole)

text: reconnaissance satellite

text: s, particularly spacecraft of the KH-4 series, however some scientific and technology development satellites were also flown, mostly towards the end of the program.

text: Global positioning systems based on systems of satellites provides a spatial navigation sytstem on the globe allowing electronic receivers to determine their location in the 3-dimensional coordinate system of longitude, latitude, and altitude to within meter scale.

text: Global positioning systems

text: based on systems of satellites provides a spatial

text: navigation

text: sytstem on the globe allowing electronic receivers to determine their location in the 3-dimensional coordinate system of longitude, latitude, and altitude to within meter scale.

text: The system is being developed as part of the ARTES 7 programme and is intended to be an independent, European satellite system that reduces time delays in the transmission of large quantities of data. The programme is similar to the American Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System that was set up to support the Space Shuttle—but EDRS will use a new generation Laser Communication Terminal (LCT) technology. The laser terminal transmits 1.8 Gbit/s across 45,000 km, the distance of a LEO-GEO link. Such a terminal was successfully tested during in-orbit verification between the German radar satellite TerraSAR-X and the American NFIRE satellite.  It is also embarked on the commercial telecommunication satellite Alphasat to perform further system- and operational service demonstrations and in the operational sentinel satellites part of the European Copernicus Programme.

text: The system is being developed as part of the

text: ARTES

text: 7 programme and is intended to be an independent, European satellite system that reduces time delays in the transmission of large quantities of data. The programme is similar to the American

text: that was set up to support the Space Shuttle—but EDRS will use a new generation Laser Communication Terminal (LCT) technology. The laser terminal transmits 1.8 Gbit/s across 45,000 km, the distance of a LEO-GEO link. Such a terminal was successfully tested during in-orbit verification between the German radar satellite

text: TerraSAR-X

text: and the American

text: NFIRE

text: satellite.  It is also embarked on the commercial telecommunication satellite

text: Alphasat

text: to perform further system- and operational service demonstrations and in the operational sentinel satellites part of the European

text: Copernicus Programme

text: There are two separation systems for the FASTRAC satellites, both designed and manufactured by Planetary Systems Corporation (PSC), which will be used to separate the satellites in their stacked configuration from the Launch Vehicle and then to separate the two satellites while they are in orbit.  The PSC Lightband Separation System is composed of two spring-loaded rings and a motorized release mechanism.

text: Using stereotaxy neurosurgeons can approach a minute target in the brain through a minimal opening. This is used in functional neurosurgery where electrodes are implanted or gene therapy is instituted with high level of accuracy as in the case of Parkinson's disease or Alzheimer's disease. Using the combination method of open and stereotactic surgery, intraventricular hemorrhages can potentially be evacuated successfully. Conventional surgery using image guidance technologies is also becoming common and is referred to as surgical navigation, computer assisted surgery, navigated surgery, stereotactic navigation. Similar to a car or mobile Global Positioning System (GPS), image guided surgery systems, like Curve Image Guided Surgery and StealthStation, use cameras or electromagnetic fields to capture and relay the patient’s anatomy and the surgeon’s precise movements in relation to the patient, to computer monitors in the operating room. These sophisticated computerized systems are used before and during surgery to help orient the surgeon with three-dimensional images of the patient’s anatomy including the tumor.

text: The Mozhayets 5 was a Russian satellite launched on Thursday, 27 October 2005.  Manufactured by AO Polyot and Mozhaisky Military Space Academy the satellite's purpose was to carry a set of scientific equipment for studying the effects of outer space factors on the operation of microelectronic devices and onboard computers.

text: The Mozhayets 5 was a

text: Russia

text: n satellite launched on Thursday, 27 October 2005.  Manufactured by AO Polyot and

text: Mozhaisky Military Space Academy

text: the satellite's purpose was to carry a set of scientific equipment for studying the effects of outer space factors on the operation of microelectronic devices and onboard computers.

text: Communications were handled via HF (shortwave) amateur radio between the skiers and support stations on and near the Arctic Ocean, and headquarters in Moscow and Ottawa. Special amateur radio call signs, CI8UA and EXOVE, were allocated for the expedition; and prefixes, CI8 and EX, for the support stations. The University of Surrey's orbiting space satellite UoSAT-OSCAR-11 was used to relay the position of the group, using the on-board Digitalker, (a computer speech synthesizer).  At this time, before the advent of GPS, the position of the group was obtained by celestial measurements made by skiers themselves, and by using a beacon or Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) to send signals to be picked up by one of the COSPAS and SARSAT 'Search and Rescue' satellites when it flies overhead. Like the UoSAT satellite, they are in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), flying over the poles every 95–98 minutes. The position is calculated by command and tracking stations in Moscow and Canada, using the on-board stored date and time of the signal, and the measured Doppler effect, (a shift in frequency due to the relative velocity between the beacon and the satellite). The skiers could not do the translation to degrees longitude and latitude, because this would require special receivers and computers. Once processed, the data was sent directly to the skiers via shortwave amateur radio, (radio propagation conditions permitting), and by telex or shortwave radio (digital packet radio or voice) to the UoSAT command station at the University of Surrey in Guildford, Surrey, UK. There the information was subsequently loaded into the UoSAT-OSCAR-11 Digitalker. To listen to the satellite, the skiers carried ICOM u2AT handhelds, which were donated by ICOM and tested at very low temperatures, (-50 °C).

text: Communications were handled via

text: HF (shortwave)

text: amateur radio

text: between the skiers and support stations on and near the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: , and headquarters in

text: Moscow

text: and

text: Ottawa

text: . Special amateur radio

text: call signs

text: , CI8UA and EXOVE, were allocated for the expedition; and prefixes, CI8 and EX, for the support stations. The University of Surrey's orbiting space satellite

text: was used to relay the position of the group, using the on-board

text: Digitalker

text: , (a computer speech synthesizer).  At this time, before the advent of GPS, the position of the group was obtained by

text: celestial

text: measurements made by skiers themselves, and by using a beacon or

text: Emergency Locator Transmitter

text: (ELT) to send signals to be picked up by one of the

text: COSPAS and SARSAT

text: 'Search and Rescue' satellites when it flies overhead. Like the UoSAT satellite, they are in

text: Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

text: , flying over the poles every 95–98 minutes. The position is calculated by command and tracking stations in Moscow and Canada, using the on-board stored date and time of the signal, and the measured

text: Doppler effect

text: , (a shift in frequency due to the relative velocity between the beacon and the satellite). The skiers could not do the translation to

text: degrees longitude and latitude

text: , because this would require special receivers and computers. Once processed, the data was sent directly to the skiers via shortwave amateur radio, (

text: radio propagation

text: conditions permitting), and by

text: telex

text: or shortwave radio (digital

text: packet radio

text: or voice) to the UoSAT command station at the

text: University of Surrey

text: in Guildford, Surrey, UK. There the information was subsequently loaded into the

text: Digitalker. To listen to the satellite, the skiers carried ICOM u2AT handhelds, which were donated by ICOM and tested at very low temperatures, (-50 °C).

text: Satellite communications are becoming more common on cruising boats.  Many boats are now equipped with satellite telephone systems; however, these systems can be expensive to use, and may operate only in certain areas. Many cruisers still use short wave maritime SSB and amateur radio, which has no running costs. These radios provide two-way voice communications, can receive weather fax graphics or GRIB files via a laptop computer, and with a compatible modem (e.g. PACTOR) can send and receive email at very slow speed. Such emails are usually limited to basic communication using plain text, without HTML formatting or attachments.

text: Satellite communication

text: s are becoming more common on cruising boats.  Many boats are now equipped with

text: satellite telephone

text: systems; however, these systems can be expensive to use, and may operate only in certain areas. Many cruisers still use

text: short wave

text: maritime

text: SSB

text: and

text: amateur radio

text: , which has no running costs. These radios provide two-way voice communications, can receive weather fax graphics or

text: GRIB

text: files via a laptop computer, and with a compatible modem (e.g.

text: PACTOR

text: ) can send and receive email at very slow speed. Such emails are usually limited to basic communication using plain text, without

text: HTML

text: formatting or attachments.

text: NOAA has at least two polar-orbiting meteorological satellites in orbit at all times, with one satellite crossing the equator in the early morning and early evening and the other crossing the equator in the afternoon and late evening. The primary sensor on board both satellites is the AVHRR instrument. Morning-satellite data are most commonly used for land studies, while data from both satellites are used for atmosphere and ocean studies. Together they provide twice-daily global coverage, and ensure that data for any region of the earth are no more than six hours old. The swath width, the width of the area on the Earth's surface that the satellite can "see", is approximately 2,500 kilometers (~1,540 mi). The satellites orbit between 833 or 870 kilometers (+/− 19 kilometers, 516–541 miles) above the surface of the Earth.

text: NOAA has at least two

text: polar-orbiting

text: meteorological satellites in orbit at all times, with one satellite crossing the equator in the early morning and early evening and the other crossing the equator in the afternoon and late evening. The primary sensor on board both satellites is the AVHRR instrument. Morning-satellite data are most commonly used for land studies, while data from both satellites are used for atmosphere and ocean studies. Together they provide twice-daily global coverage, and ensure that data for any region of the earth are no more than six hours old. The swath width, the width of the area on the Earth's surface that the satellite can "see", is approximately 2,500 kilometers (~1,540 mi). The satellites orbit between 833 or 870 kilometers (+/− 19 kilometers, 516–541 miles) above the surface of the Earth.

text: The Global Positioning System can also be used for clock synchronization. The accuracy of GPS time signals is ±10 ns and is second only to the atomic clocks upon which they are based.

text: The

text: Global Positioning System

text: can also be used for clock synchronization. The accuracy of GPS time signals is ±10 ns and is second only to the atomic clocks upon which they are based.

text: Another consideration was that the Navy proposal used civilian sounding rockets rather than military missiles, which were considered inappropriate for peaceful scientific exploration. What went unstated at the time was that the U.S. already had a covert satellite program underway, WS-117, which was developing the ability to launch spy satellites using USAF Thor IRBMs. The US government was concerned that the Soviets would object to military satellites overflying the Soviet Union as they had to various aircraft incursions and the balloons of the Genetrix project. The idea was that if a clearly "civilian" and "scientific" satellite went up first, the Soviets might not object, and thus the precedent would be established that space was above national boundaries.

text: Another consideration was that the Navy proposal used civilian

text: sounding rocket

text: s rather than military missiles, which were considered inappropriate for peaceful scientific exploration. What went unstated at the time was that the U.S. already had a covert satellite program underway, WS-117, which was developing the ability to launch spy satellites using USAF Thor IRBMs. The US government was concerned that the Soviets would object to military satellites overflying the Soviet Union as they had to various aircraft incursions and the balloons of the

text: Genetrix

text: project. The idea was that if a clearly "civilian" and "scientific" satellite went up first, the Soviets might not object, and thus the precedent would be established that space was

text: above national boundaries

text: In September 1954, von Braun proposed using the Redstone as the main booster of a multi-stage rocket for launching artificial satellites. A year later, a study for Project Orbiter was completed, detailing plans and schedules for a series of scientific satellites. The Army's official role in the U.S. space satellite program was delayed, however, after higher authorities elected to use the Vanguard rocket then being developed by the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL).

text: In September 1954, von Braun proposed using the Redstone as the main booster of a multi-stage rocket for launching artificial satellites. A year later, a study for

text: Project Orbiter

text: was completed, detailing plans and schedules for a series of scientific satellites. The Army's official role in the U.S. space satellite program was delayed, however, after higher authorities elected to use the

text: Vanguard rocket

text: then being developed by the

text: Naval Research Laboratory

text: (NRL).

text: Most commercial communications satellites, broadcast satellites and SBAS satellites operate in geostationary orbits. A geostationary transfer orbit is used to move a satellite from low Earth orbit (LEO) into a geostationary orbit. The first satellite placed into a geostationary orbit was the Syncom-3, launched by a Delta D rocket in 1964.

text: Most commercial

text: communications satellite

text: s,

entity_name: List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit

text: broadcast satellite

text: s and

text: SBAS

text: satellites operate in geostationary orbits. A

text: geostationary transfer orbit

text: is used to move a satellite from

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO) into a geostationary orbit. The first satellite placed into a geostationary orbit was the

text: Syncom

text: -3, launched by a

text: Delta D rocket

text: in 1964.

text: As database systems have become distributed, or started to cooperate in distributed environments (e.g., Federated databases in the early 1990s, and nowadays Grid computing, Cloud computing, and networks with smartphones), some transactions have become distributed. A distributed transaction means that the transaction spans processes, and may span computers and geographical sites. This generates a need in effective distributed concurrency control mechanisms. Achieving the Serializability property of a distributed system's schedule (see Distributed serializability and Global serializability (Modular serializability)) effectively poses special challenges typically not met by most of the regular serializability mechanisms, originally designed to operate locally. This is especially due to a need in costly distribution of concurrency control information amid communication and computer latency. The only known general effective technique for distribution is Commitment ordering, which was disclosed publicly in 1991 (after being patented). Commitment ordering (Commit ordering, CO; Raz 1992) means that transactions' chronological order of commit events is kept compatible with their respective precedence order. CO does not require the distribution of concurrency control information and provides a general effective solution (reliable, high-performance, and scalable) for both distributed and global serializability, also in a heterogeneous environment with database systems (or other transactional objects) with different (any) concurrency control mechanisms. CO is indifferent to which mechanism is utilized, since it does not interfere with any transaction operation scheduling (which most mechanisms control), and only determines the order of commit events. Thus, CO enables the efficient distribution of all other mechanisms, and also the distribution of a mix of different (any) local mechanisms, for achieving distributed and global serializability. The existence of such a solution has been considered "unlikely" until 1991, and by many experts also later, due to misunderstanding of the CO solution (see Quotations in Global serializability). An important side-benefit of CO is automatic distributed deadlock resolution. Contrary to CO, virtually all other techniques (when not combined with CO) are prone to distributed deadlocks (also called global deadlocks) which need special handling. CO is also the name of the resulting schedule property: A schedule has the CO property if the chronological order of its transactions' commit events is compatible with the respective transactions' precedence (partial) order.

text: As database systems have become

text: distributed

text: , or started to cooperate in distributed environments (e.g.,

text: Federated database

text: s in the early 1990s, and nowadays

text: Grid computing

text: Cloud computing

text: , and networks with

text: smartphone

text: s), some transactions have become distributed. A

text: distributed transaction

text: means that the transaction spans

text: processes

text: , and may span

text: computer

text: s and geographical sites. This generates a need in effective

text: distributed concurrency control

text: mechanisms. Achieving the Serializability property of a distributed system's schedule (see

text: Distributed serializability

text: and

text: Global serializability

text: (Modular serializability)) effectively poses special challenges typically not met by most of the regular serializability mechanisms, originally designed to operate locally. This is especially due to a need in costly distribution of concurrency control information amid communication and computer

text: latency

text: . The only known general effective technique for distribution is Commitment ordering, which was disclosed publicly in 1991 (after being

text: patent

text: ed).

text: Commitment ordering

text: (Commit ordering, CO;

text: Raz 1992

text: ) means that transactions' chronological order of commit events is kept compatible with their respective

text: precedence order

text: . CO does not require the distribution of concurrency control information and provides a general effective solution (

text: reliable

text: , high-performance, and

text: scalable

text: ) for both distributed and global serializability, also in a heterogeneous environment with database systems (or other transactional objects) with different (any) concurrency control mechanisms. CO is indifferent to which mechanism is utilized, since it does not interfere with any transaction operation scheduling (which most mechanisms control), and only determines the order of commit events. Thus, CO enables the efficient distribution of all other mechanisms, and also the distribution of a mix of different (any) local mechanisms, for achieving distributed and global serializability. The existence of such a solution has been considered "unlikely" until 1991, and by many experts also later, due to misunderstanding of the

text: CO solution

text: (see

text: Quotations

text: in

text: Global serializability

text: ). An important side-benefit of CO is

entity_section: Exact characterization of voting-deadlocks by global cycles

text: automatic distributed deadlock resolution

text: . Contrary to CO, virtually all other techniques (when not combined with CO) are prone to

text: distributed deadlocks

text: (also called global deadlocks) which need special handling. CO is also the name of the resulting schedule property: A schedule has the CO property if the chronological order of its transactions' commit events is compatible with the respective transactions'

text: precedence (partial) order

text: The process of combining multiple observations to compute a position fix is equivalent to solving a system of linear equations.  Navigation systems use regression algorithms such as Least squares in order to compute a position fix in 3D space. This is most commonly done by combining distance measurements to 4 or more GPS satellites, which orbit the earth along paths of predetermined position.

text: The process of combining multiple observations to compute a position fix is equivalent to solving a system of

text: linear equations

text: .  Navigation systems use regression

text: algorithms

text: such as

text: Least squares

text: in order to compute a position fix in 3D space. This is most commonly done by combining distance measurements to 4 or more

text: GPS

text: satellites

text: , which orbit the earth along paths of predetermined position.

text: One particular set of observations is related to eminently useful practical applications, namely to satellite navigation systems such as the Global Positioning System that are used both for precise positioning and timekeeping. Such systems rely on two sets of atomic clocks: clocks aboard satellites orbiting the Earth, and reference clocks stationed on the Earth's surface. General relativity predicts that these two sets of clocks should tick at slightly different rates, due to their different motions (an effect already predicted by special relativity) and their different positions within the Earth's gravitational field. In order to ensure the system's accuracy, the satellite clocks are either slowed down by a relativistic factor, or that same factor is made part of the evaluation algorithm. In turn, tests of the system's accuracy (especially the very thorough measurements that are part of the definition of universal coordinated time) are testament to the validity of the relativistic predictions.

text: One particular set of observations is related to eminently useful practical applications, namely to

text: satellite navigation system

text: s such as the

text: Global Positioning System

text: that are used both for precise

text: positioning

text: and

text: timekeeping

text: . Such systems rely on two sets of

text: atomic clocks

text: : clocks aboard satellites orbiting the Earth, and reference clocks stationed on the Earth's surface. General relativity predicts that these two sets of clocks should tick at slightly different rates, due to their different motions (an effect already predicted by special relativity) and their different positions within the Earth's gravitational field. In order to ensure the system's accuracy, the satellite clocks are either slowed down by a relativistic factor, or that same factor is made part of the evaluation algorithm. In turn, tests of the system's accuracy (especially the very thorough measurements that are part of the definition of

text: universal coordinated time

text: ) are testament to the validity of the relativistic predictions.

text: Whilst details of the satellites and their missions are officially classified, amateur observers have identified that the Atlas V deployed two satellites, one of which has officially been catalogued as debris. The two spacecraft have been identified as being a pair of third or fourth generation Naval Ocean Surveillance System satellites. Amateur observations have located the spacecraft in an orbit with a perigee of  and an apogee of , inclined at 64.4 degrees to the plane of the equator. Current generation NOSS satellites are always launched and operated in pairs, and are used to locate and track ships from the radio transmissions that they emit.

text: Whilst details of the satellites and their missions are officially classified, amateur observers have identified that the Atlas V deployed two satellites, one of which has officially been catalogued as debris. The two spacecraft have been identified as being a pair of third or fourth generation

text: Naval Ocean Surveillance System

text: satellites. Amateur observations have located the spacecraft in an orbit with a

text: perigee

text: of  and an

text: apogee

text: of ,

text: inclined

text: at 64.4 degrees to the plane of the equator. Current generation NOSS satellites are always launched and operated in pairs, and are used to locate and track ships from the radio transmissions that they emit.

text: A Micro-satellite is defined as any object orbiting the earth that has a mass greater than 10 kg and less than 500 kg. This includes man made satellites and natural satellites, like debris. While man made micro-satellites are primarily peaceful, they are easily weaponized. Because of a satellite’s high relative velocity to another satellite, any collision would destroy both satellites, and micro-satellites have the advantage of being cheaper, more maneuverable and harder to track.In 2001, a Chinese newspaper stated that the PRC was testing a parasitic micro-satellite that could latch onto another satellite and destroy it on command. While no evidence has been found to demonstrate  the development of such a parasite system, in 2008 the BX-1 micro-satellite released by the PRC passed dangerously close to the International Space Station  at a  relative speed which would have destroyed both objects had they collided. This close call raised awareness of the PRC's ability to use micro-satellites as a kinetic kill ASAT system.

text: A

text: Micro-satellite

text: is defined as any object

text: orbiting

text: the earth that has a mass greater than 10 kg and less than 500 kg. This includes man made satellites and natural satellites, like debris. While man made micro-satellites are primarily peaceful, they are easily weaponized. Because of a satellite’s high

text: relative velocity

text: to another satellite, any collision would destroy both satellites, and micro-satellites have the advantage of being cheaper, more maneuverable and harder to track.In 2001, a Chinese newspaper stated that the

text: PRC

text: was testing a

text: parasitic

text: micro-satellite that could latch onto another satellite and destroy it on command. While no evidence has been found to demonstrate  the development of such a parasite system, in 2008 the

text: micro-satellite released by the PRC passed dangerously close to the

text: International Space Station

text: at a  relative speed which would have destroyed both objects had they collided. This close call raised awareness of the PRC's ability to use micro-satellites as a

text: kinetic kill

text: ASAT system.

text: PSLV-C3 was the third operational launch and overall sixth mission of the PSLV program. This launch was also the forty-sixth launch by Indian Space Research Organisation since its first mission on 1 January 1962. The vehicle carried three satellites which were deployed in the Sun-synchronous Low Earth orbit. The vehicle carried Technology Experiment Satellite (Indian experimental earth observation satellite), BIRD (German earth observation satellite) and PROBA (experimental satellite from Belgium). This was India's and ISRO's second commercial spaceflight. PSLV-C3 was launched at 10:23 a.m. IST on 22 October 2001 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre  (then called "Sriharikota Launching Range").

text: PSLV-C3 was the third operational launch and overall sixth mission of the

text: PSLV

text: program. This launch was also the forty-sixth launch by

text: Indian Space Research Organisation

text: since its first mission on 1 January 1962. The vehicle carried three satellites which were deployed in the

text: Sun-synchronous

text: Low Earth orbit

text: . The vehicle carried

text: Technology Experiment Satellite

text: India

text: n experimental

text: earth observation satellite

text: BIRD

text: German

text: earth observation satellite

text: ) and

text: PROBA

text: (experimental satellite from

text: Belgium

text: ). This was India's and ISRO's second commercial

text: spaceflight

text: . PSLV-C3 was launched at 10:23 a.m.

text: IST

text: on 22 October 2001 from

text: Satish Dhawan Space Centre

text: (then called "Sriharikota Launching Range").

text: WAAS uses a network of ground-based reference stations, in North America and Hawaii, to measure small variations in the GPS satellites' signals in the western hemisphere. Measurements from the reference stations are routed to master stations, which queue the received Deviation Correction (DC) and send the correction messages to geostationary WAAS satellites in a timely manner (every 5 seconds or better). Those satellites broadcast the correction messages back to Earth, where WAAS-enabled GPS receivers use the corrections while computing their positions to improve accuracy.

text: WAAS uses a network of ground-based reference stations, in

text: North America

text: and

text: Hawaii

text: , to measure small variations in the GPS satellites' signals in the

text: western hemisphere

text: . Measurements from the reference stations are routed to master stations, which queue the received Deviation Correction (DC) and send the correction messages to geostationary WAAS satellites in a timely manner (every 5 seconds or better). Those satellites broadcast the correction messages back to Earth, where WAAS-enabled GPS receivers use the corrections while computing their positions to improve accuracy.

text: Live Earth was carried on all major satellite radio carriers in the US such as XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio.

text: Live Earth

text: was carried on all major

text: satellite radio

text: carriers in the US such as

text: XM Satellite Radio

text: and

text: Sirius Satellite Radio

text: Hermes was a single-unit CubeSat picosatellite which was primarily designed to test communications systems for future satellites. It was intended to test a new system which would allow data to be transferred at a higher rate than on previous satellites, thereby enabling future missions to return more data from scientific experiments or images. A secondary objective was to have seen tests performed upon the satellite bus, which was to have served as the basis for future COSGC missions. The satellite would also have returned data on the temperature and magnetic field of its surroundings.

text: Hermes was a single-unit

text: CubeSat

text: picosatellite

text: which was primarily designed to test communications systems for future satellites. It was intended to test a new system which would allow data to be transferred at a higher rate than on previous satellites, thereby enabling future missions to return more data from scientific experiments or images. A secondary objective was to have seen tests performed upon the satellite bus, which was to have served as the basis for future COSGC missions. The satellite would also have returned data on the temperature and magnetic field of its surroundings.

text: In 1984, Yurick published a quite prescient and imaginative short story that considered how the use of a virtual, entirely imaginary island nation combined with advanced computer networking might be used to suck tremendous wealth from, and wreak havoc on, the global banking system. Appearing in Datamation, a then-leading trade magazine focused on enterprise computing, "The King of Malaputa" (translation: bad whore) predates by at least 15 years Neal Stephenson's better-known novel, Cryptonomicon (1999) and its imaginary island nation, Kinakuta, which has been set up for use in anonymous, computer-based banking activities. Yurick's island "exists" only as bogus entries in various banking and geographic databases; when searched for in these databases, the island appears to exist in many dimensions, including map coordinates and convincing satellite photos, but it is entirely virtual – a figment of digital imagination. Elsewhere, criminals use satellite dishes to hack into the global banking system and divert money to the imaginary island and then, into their own pockets. The story reflects Yurick's longstanding focus on banks and bankers as the source and agents of much power and trouble in the highly capitalized modern world.

text: In 1984, Yurick published a quite prescient and imaginative short story that considered how the use of a virtual, entirely imaginary island nation combined with advanced computer networking might be used to suck tremendous wealth from, and wreak havoc on, the global banking system. Appearing in Datamation, a then-leading trade magazine focused on enterprise computing, "The King of Malaputa" (translation: bad whore) predates by at least 15 years

text: Neal Stephenson

text: 's better-known novel,

text: Cryptonomicon

text: (1999) and its imaginary island nation,

text: Kinakuta

text: , which has been set up for use in anonymous, computer-based banking activities. Yurick's island "exists" only as bogus entries in various banking and geographic databases; when searched for in these databases, the island appears to exist in many dimensions, including map coordinates and convincing satellite photos, but it is entirely virtual – a figment of digital imagination. Elsewhere, criminals use satellite dishes to hack into the global banking system and divert money to the imaginary island and then, into their own pockets. The story reflects Yurick's longstanding focus on banks and bankers as the source and agents of much power and trouble in the highly capitalized modern world.

text: The satellites that most concern us are those with a low-Earth, polar orbit since geostationary satellites view the same point throughout their lifetime.The diagram shows measurements from AMSU-Binstruments mounted on three satellites over a period of 12 hours.This illustrates both the orbit path and the scan pattern which runs crosswise.Since the orbit of a satellite is deterministic, barring orbit maneuvers, we can predict the location of thesatellite at a given time and, by extension, the location ofthe measurement pixels.In theory, collocations can be performed by inverting thedetermining equations starting from the desired time period.In practice, partially processed data (usually referred to aslevel 1b, 1c or level 2) contain the coordinates of each ofthe measurement pixels and  it is common to simply feed these coordinates to a nearest neighbor search.As mentioned previously, the satellite data is always binnedin some manner.  At minimum, the data will be arranged in swaths extending from pole to pole.The swaths will be labelled by time period and theapproximate location known.

text: The

text: satellite

text: s that most concern us are those with a

text: low-Earth

text: polar orbit

text: since

text: geostationary

text: satellites view the same point throughout their lifetime.The diagram shows measurements from

text: AMSU-B

text: instruments mounted on three satellites over a period of 12 hours.This illustrates both the orbit path and the scan pattern which runs crosswise.Since the

text: orbit

text: of a satellite is

text: deterministic

text: , barring

text: orbit maneuvers

text: , we can predict the location of thesatellite at a given time and, by extension, the location ofthe measurement pixels.In theory, collocations can be performed by inverting thedetermining equations starting from the desired time period.In practice, partially processed data (usually referred to aslevel 1b, 1c or level 2) contain the coordinates of each ofthe measurement pixels and  it is common to simply feed these coordinates to a nearest neighbor search.As mentioned previously, the satellite data is always

text: binned

text: in some manner.  At minimum, the data will be arranged in swaths extending from pole to pole.The swaths will be labelled by time period and theapproximate location known.

text: The term "microsatellite" or "microsat" is usually applied to the name of an artificial satellite with a wet mass between . However, this is not an official convention and sometimes those terms can refer to satellites larger than that, or smaller than that (e.g., ). Sometimes designs or proposed designs from some satellites of these types have microsatellites working together or in a formation. The generic term "small satellite" or "smallsat" is also sometimes used, as is "satlet".

text: The term "microsatellite" or "microsat" is usually applied to the name of an artificial satellite with a wet mass between . However, this is not an official convention and sometimes those terms can refer to satellites larger than that, or smaller than that (e.g., ). Sometimes designs or proposed designs from some satellites of these types have microsatellites

text: working together

text: or in a

text: formation

text: . The generic term "small satellite" or "smallsat" is also sometimes used, as is "satlet".

text: A satellite navigation system is a system of satellites that provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning with global coverage. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude/elevation) to high precision (within a few metres) using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. The signals also allow the electronic receivers to calculate the current local time to high precision, which allows time synchronisation. A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite system (GNSS).

text: A

text: satellite navigation

text: system is a system of

text: satellite

text: s that provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning with global coverage. It allows small

text: electronic

text: receivers to determine their location (

text: longitude

text: latitude

text: , and

text: altitude

text: elevation

text: ) to high precision (within a few metres) using

text: time signal

text: s transmitted along a

text: line of sight

text: by

text: radio

text: from

text: satellite

text: s. The signals also allow the electronic receivers to calculate the current local time to high precision, which allows time synchronisation. A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite system (GNSS).

text: mappings in 1987. This same year Michael Shub published his book Global Stability of Dynamical Systems, which is often used as a reference in introductory and advanced books on the subject of Dynamical Systems.He described jointly with Lenore and Manuel Blum a simple, unpredictable, secure random number generator, see Blum Blum Shub. This random generator is useful from theoretical and practical perspectives, see.In 1989 he proposed with Lenore Blum and Stephen Smale the notion of Blum–Shub–Smale machine, an alternative to the classical Turing model of computation. Their model is used to analyse the computability of functions.In 1993, Shub and Smale initiated a rigorous analysis of homotopy-based algorithms for solving systems of nonlinear algebraic equations which has inspired much of the work in that area during the last two decades.Shub was one of the founders of the nonprofit association Foundations of Computational Mathematics, and editor of their   journal Foundations of Computational Mathematics with the same name until 2009.

text: mappings in 1987. This same year Michael Shub published his book Global Stability of Dynamical Systems, which is often used as a reference in introductory and advanced books on the subject of Dynamical Systems.He described jointly with Lenore and Manuel Blum a simple, unpredictable, secure random number generator, see

text: Blum Blum Shub

text: . This random generator is useful from theoretical and practical perspectives, see.In 1989 he proposed with

text: Lenore Blum

text: and Stephen Smale the notion of

text: Blum–Shub–Smale machine

text: , an alternative to the classical Turing model of computation. Their model is used to analyse the computability of functions.In 1993, Shub and Smale initiated a rigorous analysis of homotopy-based algorithms for solving systems of nonlinear algebraic equations which has inspired much of the work in that area during the last two decades.Shub was one of the founders of the nonprofit association

entity_name: Foundations of Computational Mathematics

text: Foundations of Computational Mathematics

text: , and editor of their   journal

text: with the same name until 2009.

text: The Global Positioning System, better known simply as GPS, sends several signals that are used to decode the position and distance of the satellite. One signal encodes the satellite's "ephemeris" data, which is used to accurately calculate the satellite's location at any time. Space weather and other effects causes the orbit to change over time so the ephemeris has to be updated periodically. Other signals send out the time as measured by the satellite's onboard atomic clock. By measuring this signal from several satellites, the receiver can re-build an accurate clock signal of its own. Comparing the two produces the distance to the satellite, and several such measurements allows a form of triangulation to be carried out.

text: The

text: Global Positioning System

text: , better known simply as GPS, sends several signals that are used to decode the position and distance of the satellite. One signal encodes the satellite's "ephemeris" data, which is used to accurately calculate the satellite's location at any time. Space weather and other effects causes the orbit to change over time so the ephemeris has to be updated periodically. Other signals send out the time as measured by the satellite's onboard

text: atomic clock

text: . By measuring this signal from several satellites, the receiver can re-build an accurate clock signal of its own. Comparing the two produces the distance to the satellite, and several such measurements allows a form of triangulation to be carried out.

text: Prior to joining Cospas-Sarsat Mr. Lett was Deputy United States Coordinator for International Communications and Information Policy, immediately under Ambassadors Philip L. Verveer (2009-2011), David A. Gross (2001-2009) and Vonya B. McCann (1994-1999) at the U.S. Department of State.  He directed the Office of Technology and Security Policy and was responsible for strategic international policy-making and diplomatic outreach for issues that included telecommunications and Internet security, the international satellite market, and emerging technologies.  He was the U.S. representative at the 150-nation International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO, known as INTELSAT prior to privatization of INTELSAT’s commercial activities in 2001), and the 34-nation Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD’s) Committee for Information, Computer and Communications Policy.  He headed U.S. delegations in the 95-nation International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO, known as Inmarsat prior to privatization of Inmarsat’s commercial activities in 1999).  Mr. Lett also has participated in committees and conferences of the United Nations, the International Telecommunication Union, and the International Maritime Organization, where topics included improved access to information and communications technologies for the world’s poor, greater efficiency in the international management of radio spectrum and satellite orbits, and the use of technology to advance maritime safety and security.  He has testified about satellite matters before the U.S. Senate.

text: Prior to joining Cospas-Sarsat Mr. Lett was Deputy United States Coordinator for International Communications and Information Policy, immediately under Ambassadors Philip L. Verveer (2009-2011),

text: David A. Gross

text: (2001-2009) and Vonya B. McCann (1994-1999) at the U.S. Department of State.  He directed the Office of Technology and Security Policy and was responsible for strategic international policy-making and diplomatic outreach for issues that included telecommunications and Internet security, the international satellite market, and emerging technologies.  He was the U.S. representative at the 150-nation

entity_name: International Telecommunications Satellite Organization

text: International Telecommunications Satellite Organization

text: (ITSO, known as INTELSAT prior to privatization of INTELSAT’s commercial activities in 2001), and the 34-nation

entity_name: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

text: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

text: ’s (OECD’s) Committee for Information, Computer and Communications Policy.  He headed U.S. delegations in the 95-nation

entity_name: International Mobile Satellite Organization

text: International Mobile Satellite Organization

text: (IMSO, known as Inmarsat prior to privatization of Inmarsat’s commercial activities in 1999).  Mr. Lett also has participated in committees and conferences of the

text: United Nations

text: , the

text: International Telecommunication Union

text: , and the

text: International Maritime Organization

text: , where topics included improved access to information and communications technologies for the world’s poor, greater efficiency in the international management of radio spectrum and satellite orbits, and the use of technology to advance maritime safety and security.  He has testified about satellite matters before the U.S. Senate.

text: The satellite has a scientific and a technological mission. Their requirements were defined by Centre d'Etudes Spatiales de la BIOsphère, France, and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel, and CNES.

text: The satellite has a scientific and a technological mission. Their requirements were defined by

text: Centre d'Etudes Spatiales de la BIOsphère

text: France

text: , and

text: Ben-Gurion University of the Negev

text: Israel

text: , and

text: CNES

text: The ASkyB company sold the incomplete Tempo 1 and Tempo 2 DBS satellites to PrimeStar in the process of going out of business.  PrimeStar launched Tempo-2 in 1997 but it was not used for many years.  PrimeStar stored the other satellite, Tempo-1, until the company and the two satellites were purchased by DirecTV.  DirecTV eventually launched the Tempo 1 satellite after years of delays as the DirecTV-5 satellite in 2002. Meanwhile, ASkyB's license for the 110-degree satellite location, and an uplink center, was resold to EchoStar, the parent company of DISH Network.  The 110-degree satellite is now named EchoStar West 110 and is the most commonly used satellite, along with 119 as both can be received with a single wide-format parabolic dish, providing signal to North America.

text: The ASkyB company sold the incomplete

text: Tempo 1

text: and Tempo 2 DBS satellites to PrimeStar in the process of going out of business.  PrimeStar launched Tempo-2 in 1997 but it was not used for many years.  PrimeStar stored the other satellite, Tempo-1, until the company and the two satellites were purchased by

text: DirecTV

text: .  DirecTV eventually launched the Tempo 1 satellite after years of delays as the DirecTV-5 satellite in 2002. Meanwhile, ASkyB's license for the 110-degree satellite location, and an uplink center, was resold to

text: EchoStar

text: , the parent company of

text: DISH Network

text: .  The 110-degree satellite is now named EchoStar West 110 and is the most commonly used satellite, along with 119 as both can be received with a single wide-format parabolic dish, providing signal to North America.

text: USA-178, also known as GPS IIR-12 and GPS SVN-60, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the twelfth Block IIR GPS satellite to be launched, out of thirteen in the original configuration, and twenty one overall. It was built by Lockheed Martin, using the AS-4000 satellite bus.

text: USA-178, also known as GPS IIR-12 and GPS SVN-60, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the twelfth

text: Block IIR

text: overall

text: . It was built by

text: Lockheed Martin

text: , using the

text: satellite bus

text: The GPS concept is based on time and the known position of specialized satellites. The satellites carry very stable atomic clocks that are synchronized with one another and to ground clocks. Any drift from true time maintained on the ground is corrected daily. Likewise, the satellite locations are known with great precision. GPS receivers have clocks as well; however, they are usually not synchronized with true time, and are less stable. GPS satellites continuously transmit their current time and position. A GPS receiver monitors multiple satellites and solves equations to determine the precise position of the receiver and its deviation from true time. At a minimum, four satellites must be in view of the receiver for it to compute four unknown quantities (three position coordinates and clock deviation from satellite time).

text: The GPS concept is based on time and the known position of specialized satellites. The satellites carry very stable

text: atomic clocks

text: that are synchronized with one another and to ground clocks. Any drift from true time maintained on the ground is corrected daily. Likewise, the satellite locations are known with great precision. GPS receivers have clocks as well; however, they are usually not synchronized with true time, and are less stable. GPS satellites continuously transmit their current time and position. A GPS receiver monitors multiple satellites and solves equations to determine the precise position of the receiver and its deviation from true time. At a minimum, four satellites must be in view of the receiver for it to compute four unknown quantities (three position coordinates and clock deviation from satellite time).

text: An easy way to visualize a satellite orbiting the Earth is that it makes circles directly above the equator. In this case, the plane of the satellite's orbit is the same as the Earth's equatorial plane, and the satellite's orbital inclination is 0°. The general case is that the satellite's orbit is tilted; it spends half an orbit over the northern hemisphere and half over the southern. If the orbit swung between 20° north latitude and 20° south latitude, then its orbital inclination would be 20°.

text: An easy way to visualize a satellite orbiting the Earth is that it makes circles directly above the equator. In this case, the plane of the satellite's orbit is the same as the Earth's equatorial plane, and the satellite's orbital inclination is 0°. The general case is that the satellite's orbit is tilted; it spends half an orbit over the northern hemisphere and half over the southern. If the orbit swung between 20° north

text: latitude

text: and 20° south latitude, then its orbital inclination would be 20°.

text: KSAT operates two polar ground stations optimized for low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, the other being TrollSat at Troll in Antarctica. These are the only two ground stations able to see a polar-orbiting satellite on every revolution. By using both stations, customers can communicate with a satellite twice per orbit.

text: KSAT operates two polar ground stations optimized for low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, the other being TrollSat at

text: Troll

text: in Antarctica. These are the only two ground stations able to see a polar-orbiting satellite on every revolution. By using both stations, customers can communicate with a satellite twice per orbit.

text: Oko consists of two types of early warning satellites - US-K and US-KMO. The older US-K satellites are in highly elliptical molniya orbits which give them coverage of the United States at certain times during the day. For full coverage of the US missile grounds four US-K satellites need to be operational and the system can have up to nine of them in orbit at once.  The US-KMO satellites are geosynchronous satellites providing continuous coverage. In total, 101 satellites have been launched.

text: Oko consists of two types of early warning satellites -

text: US-K

text: and

text: US-KMO

text: . The older US-K satellites are in highly elliptical

text: molniya orbit

text: s which give them coverage of the United States at certain times during the day. For full coverage of the US missile grounds four US-K satellites need to be operational and the system can have up to nine of them in orbit at once.  The US-KMO satellites are

text: geosynchronous

text: satellites providing continuous coverage. In total,

text: 101 satellites have been launched

text: The Global Positioning System (GPS), also known as Navstar GPS or simply Navstar, is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. The GPS system operates independently of any telephonic or internet  reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning information. The GPS system provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver. However, the US government can selectively deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil War.

text: The Global Positioning System (GPS), also known as Navstar GPS or simply Navstar, is a

text: global navigation satellite system

text: (GNSS) that provides

text: geolocation

text: and time information to a

text: GPS receiver

text: in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. The GPS system operates independently of any telephonic or internet  reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning information. The GPS system provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver. However, the US government can selectively deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the

text: Kargil War

text: There are several unique features of telemetry system design for spacecraft.  One of these is the approach to the fact that for any given satellite in LEO, because it is traveling so quickly, it may only be in contact with a particular station for ten to twenty minutes. This would require hundreds of ground stations to stay in constant communication, which is not at all practical. One solution to this is onboard data storage. Data storage can accumulate data slowly throughout the orbit and dump it quickly when over a ground station. In deep space missions, the recorder is often used the opposite way, to capture high-rate data and play it back slowly over data-rate-limited links. Another solution is data relay satellites. NASA has satellites in GEO called TDRS, Tracking and Data Relay Satellites, which relay commands and telemetry from LEO satellites. Prior to TDRS, astronauts could communicate with the Earth for only about 15% of the orbit, using 14 NASA ground stations around the world.  With TDRS, coverage of low-altitude satellites is global, from a single ground station at White Sands, New Mexico.

text: There are several unique features of telemetry system design for spacecraft.  One of these is the approach to the fact that for any given satellite in

text: LEO

text: , because it is traveling so quickly, it may only be in contact with a particular station for ten to twenty minutes. This would require hundreds of ground stations to stay in constant communication, which is not at all practical. One solution to this is onboard

text: data storage

text: . Data storage can accumulate data slowly throughout the orbit and dump it quickly when over a ground station. In deep space missions, the recorder is often used the opposite way, to capture high-rate data and play it back slowly over data-rate-limited links. Another solution is data relay satellites.

text: NASA

text: has satellites in

text: GEO

text: called TDRS,

text: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite

text: s, which relay commands and telemetry from LEO satellites. Prior to TDRS, astronauts could communicate with the Earth for only about 15% of the orbit, using 14 NASA ground stations around the world.  With TDRS, coverage of low-altitude satellites is global, from a single ground station at

text: White Sands, New Mexico

text: Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments using a technique called coordinate geometry (COGO). Positions from a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) like Global Positioning System can also be collected and then imported into a GIS. A current trend in data collection gives users the ability to utilize field computers with the ability to edit live data using wireless connections or disconnected editing sessions. This has been enhanced by the availability of low-cost mapping-grade GPS units with decimeter accuracy in real time. This eliminates the need to post process, import, and update the data in the office after fieldwork has been collected. This includes the ability to incorporate positions collected using a laser rangefinder. New technologies also allow users to create maps as well as analysis directly in the field, making projects more efficient and mapping more accurate.

text: Survey

text: data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments using a technique called

text: coordinate geometry (COGO)

text: . Positions from a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) like

text: Global Positioning System

text: can also be collected and then imported into a GIS. A current trend in data collection gives users the ability to utilize

text: field computers

text: with the ability to edit live data using wireless connections or disconnected editing sessions. This has been enhanced by the availability of low-cost mapping-grade GPS units with decimeter accuracy in real time. This eliminates the need to post process, import, and update the data in the office after fieldwork has been collected. This includes the ability to incorporate positions collected using a

text: laser rangefinder

text: . New technologies also allow users to create maps as well as analysis directly in the field, making projects more efficient and mapping more accurate.

text: A transmit and receive integrated assembly (TRIA) is used on a two-way satellite dish to process signals to and from a ground based system and an earth-orbiting satellite. The TRIA is the part of the antenna which contains both the feed horn and the circuits which convert high-frequency satellite signals such as X-band, Ku-band and Ka-band to and from the L-band microwave signals used for transmission between the dish and the customer-premises equipment.

text: A transmit and receive integrated assembly (TRIA) is used on a two-way

text: satellite dish

text: to process signals to and from a ground based system and an earth-orbiting

text: satellite

text: . The TRIA is the part of the

text: antenna

text: which contains both the

text: feed horn

text: and the circuits which convert high-frequency satellite signals such as

text: X-band

text: Ku-band

text: and

text: Ka-band

text: to and from the

text: L-band

text: microwave signals used for transmission between the dish and the

text: customer-premises equipment

text: ASI’s first large scientific satellite mission was BeppoSAX, developed in collaboration with the Netherlands and launched in 1996. Named after Giuseppe “Beppo” Occhialini, an important figure in Italian high-energy physics, the satellite was a mission to study the universe in the X-ray part of the spectrum.

text: ASI’s first large scientific satellite mission was

text: BeppoSAX

text: , developed in collaboration with the Netherlands and launched in 1996. Named after

text: Giuseppe “Beppo” Occhialini

text: , an important figure in Italian high-energy physics, the satellite was a mission to study the universe in the

text: X-ray

text: part of the spectrum.

text: GPS is a space-based dual use radio navigation system nominally consisting of a minimum of 24-satellite constellation that provides positioning, velocity and timing to military and civilian users worldwide. GPS satellites, in one of six medium earth orbits, circle the earth every 12 hours transmitting continuous ranging signals. In addition to the satellites, the system consists of a worldwide satellite control network and GPS receiver units that acquire the satellite's signals and compute navigation solutions to provide positioning, velocity and timing to the user.

text: The answer to that question was telecommunications products, primarily the satellite earth station, a large mobile dish used to receive signals transmitted from communications satellites orbiting the earth. In 1973 the company displayed a portable satellite earth station at a communications trade show in California. It planned to sell the portable stations to companies in the relatively new and rapidly growing cable television field so they could transmit their programming to a large number of stations in different areas. The stations, in turn, would send the programming to consumers' homes over their cable networks. At the time, however, observers told Scientific-Atlanta executives that satellite transmission of cable television programming would take place only in the distant future.

text: Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik (; ), also known as DS, was a series of satellites launched by the Soviet Union between 1961 and 1982. DS satellites were used for a number of missions, including technological and scientific research, and radar tracking targets for anti-satellite weapons and anti-ballistic missiles. 185 were launched, using dedicated Kosmos rockets.The first DS satellite, DS-1 No.1, was launched on the maiden flight of the Kosmos-2I 63S1 rocket on 27 October 1961. It failed to reach orbit after an acceleration integrator malfunctioned. A second launch attempt, with DS-1 No.2, failed due to a second stage malfunction. The third satellite, as DS-2, successfully reached orbit and was subsequently assigned the designation Kosmos 1, becoming the first satellite to be designated under the Kosmos system. Kosmos designations were assigned to all DS satellites, except those that failed to reach orbit, and a small number which were launched as part of the Interkosmos and Oreol programmes.

text: Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik (; ), also known as DS, was a series of

text: satellite

text: s launched by the

text: Soviet Union

text: between 1961 and 1982. DS satellites were used for a number of missions, including technological and scientific research, and radar tracking targets for

text: anti-satellite weapon

text: s and

text: anti-ballistic missile

text: s. 185 were launched, using dedicated

text: Kosmos

text: rockets.The first DS satellite,

text: DS-1 No.1

text: , was launched on the

text: maiden flight

text: of the

text: 63S1 rocket on 27 October 1961. It failed to reach orbit after an

text: acceleration integrator

text: malfunctioned. A second launch attempt, with

text: DS-1 No.2

text: , failed due to a second stage malfunction. The third satellite, as DS-2, successfully reached orbit and was subsequently assigned the designation

text: Kosmos 1

text: , becoming the first satellite to be designated under the

text: Kosmos system

text: . Kosmos designations were assigned to all DS satellites, except those that failed to reach orbit, and a small number which were launched as part of the

text: Interkosmos

text: and

text: Oreol

text: programmes.

text: The defence ministry in 2010 had drafted a 15-year "Technology Perspective and Roadmap", which held development of ASAT weapons "for electronic or physical destruction of satellites in both LEO (2,000-km altitude above earth's surface) and the higher geosynchronous orbit" as a thrust area in its long-term integrated perspective plan under the management of DRDO.  On 10 February 2010, Defence Research and Development Organisation Director-General and Scientific Advisor to the Defence Minister, Dr VK Saraswat stated that India had "all the building blocks necessary" to integrate an anti-satellite weapon to neutralise hostile satellites in low earth and polar orbits. India is known to have been developing an exo-atmospheric kill vehicle that can be integrated with the missile to engage satellites.

text: The defence ministry in 2010 had drafted a 15-year "Technology Perspective and Roadmap", which held development of

text: ASAT weapons

text: "for electronic or physical destruction of satellites in both LEO (2,000-km altitude above earth's surface) and the higher geosynchronous orbit" as a thrust area in its long-term integrated perspective plan under the management of DRDO.  On 10 February 2010,

text: Director-General and Scientific Advisor to the Defence Minister, Dr VK Saraswat stated that India had "all the building blocks necessary" to integrate an anti-satellite weapon to neutralise hostile satellites in

text: low earth

text: and

text: polar orbit

text: s. India is known to have been developing an exo-atmospheric kill vehicle that can be integrated with the missile to engage satellites.

text: In agriculture, the use of the Global Positioning System provides benefits in geo-fencing, map-making and surveying. GPS receivers dropped in price over the years, making it more popular for civilian use. With the use of GPS, civilians can produce simple yet highly accurate digitized map without the help of a professional cartographer.

text: In agriculture, the use of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: provides benefits in

text: geo-fencing

text: map-making

text: and

text: surveying

text: . GPS receivers dropped in price over the years, making it more popular for civilian use. With the use of GPS, civilians can produce simple yet highly accurate digitized map without the help of a professional

text: cartographer

text: In a June 2012 article in The Space Review, a number of approaches to satellite servicing were discussed and contrasted.  The MDA Space Infrastructure Servicing concept is reported to be somewhat more complex than the competitive ViviSat Mission Extension Vehicle, and is considered to be similar to the concepts that NASA is investigating experimentally with a test platform called the Robotic Refueling Mission flying on the International Space Station during the Expedition 29–32 timeframe in 2011-2013.  MDA's approach "would use its manipulators to refuel or repair the spacecraft. The original announcement of the SIS by MDA in March of 2011 envisioned using it to deploy stuck [solar] arrays—like the case of [Intelsat] IS-19—or grapple debris.  'Direct refueling, robotically, of a satellite is not trivial, but it’s fully doable.'"By comparison, the DARPA Project Phoenix program has an even more complex mission concept:  "cooperatively harvest and re-use valuable components from satellites in orbit that have been retired.  DARPA envisions a servicing spacecraft that could remove a solar array, antenna, or other component from a defunct satellite and transport it to another satellite, either a newly constructed spacecraft or one in need or repairs.  'Phoenix is truly all about going up to retired, non-cooperative, non-controlled satellites that have been left for dead in the geosynchronous graveyard orbit, essentially, and see if we can resurrect capability out of those satellites or those satellite components.'"

text: In a June 2012 article in The Space Review, a number of approaches to satellite servicing were discussed and contrasted.  The MDA Space Infrastructure Servicing concept is reported to be somewhat more complex than the competitive

text: ViviSat

text: Mission Extension Vehicle

text: , and is considered to be similar to the concepts that

text: NASA

text: is investigating experimentally with a test platform called the

text: Robotic Refueling Mission

text: flying on the

text: International Space Station

text: during the

text: Expedition 29

text: –32 timeframe in 2011-2013.  MDA's approach "would use its manipulators to refuel or repair the spacecraft. The original announcement of the SIS by MDA in March of 2011 envisioned using it to deploy stuck [solar] arrays—like the case of [Intelsat]

text: —or grapple

text: debris

text: .  'Direct refueling, robotically, of a satellite is not trivial, but it’s fully doable.'"By comparison, the

text: DARPA

text: Project Phoenix

text: program has an even more complex mission concept:  "cooperatively harvest and re-use valuable components from satellites in orbit that have been retired.  DARPA envisions a servicing spacecraft that could remove a solar array, antenna, or other component from a defunct satellite and transport it to another satellite, either a newly constructed spacecraft or one in need or repairs.  'Phoenix is truly all about going up to retired, non-cooperative, non-controlled satellites that have been left for dead in the geosynchronous

text: graveyard orbit

text: , essentially, and see if we can resurrect capability out of those satellites or those satellite components.'"

text: Because of this shift in meaning, the term moon, which had continued to be used in a generic sense in works of popular science and in fiction, has regained respectability and is now used interchangeably with natural satellite, even in scientific articles. When it is necessary to avoid both the ambiguity of confusion with Earth's natural satellite the Moon and the natural satellites of the other planets on the one hand, and artificial satellites on the other, the term natural satellite (using "natural" in a sense opposed to "artificial") is used.  To further avoid ambiguity, the convention is to capitalize the word Moon when referring to Earth's natural satellite, but not when referring to other natural satellites.

text: Because of this shift in meaning, the term moon, which had continued to be used in a generic sense in works of popular science and in fiction, has regained respectability and is now used interchangeably with natural satellite, even in scientific articles. When it is necessary to avoid both the ambiguity of confusion with Earth's natural satellite the

text: Moon

text: and the natural satellites of the other planets on the one hand, and artificial satellites on the other, the term natural satellite (using "natural" in a sense opposed to "artificial") is used.  To further avoid ambiguity, the convention is to capitalize the word Moon when referring to Earth's natural satellite, but not when referring to other natural satellites.

text: All satellite navigation systems use satellites with precision clocks. The satellite transmits its position, and the time of the transmission. The receiver listens to four satellites, and can figure its position as being on a line that is tangent to a spherical shell around each satellite, determined by the time-of-flight of the radio signals from the satellite. A computer in the receiver does the math.

text: All

text: satellite navigation

text: systems use satellites with precision clocks. The satellite transmits its position, and the time of the transmission. The receiver listens to four satellites, and can figure its position as being on a line that is tangent to a spherical shell around each satellite, determined by the

text: time-of-flight

text: of the radio signals from the satellite. A

text: computer

text: in the receiver does the math.

text: A geostationary orbit, geostationary Earth orbit or geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO) is a circular orbit  above the Earth's equator and following the direction of the Earth's rotation. An object in such an orbit has an orbital period equal to the Earth's rotational period (one sidereal day) and thus appears motionless, at a fixed position in the sky, to ground observers. Communications satellites and weather satellites are often placed in geostationary orbits, so that the satellite antennas (located on Earth) that communicate with them do not have to rotate to track them, but can be pointed permanently at the position in the sky where the satellites are located. Using this characteristic, ocean color satellites with visible and near-infrared light sensors (e.g. the Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI)) can also be operated in geostationary orbit in order to monitor sensitive changes of ocean environments.

text: A geostationary orbit, geostationary Earth orbit or geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO) is a circular

text: orbit

text: above the Earth's

text: equator

text: and following the direction of the Earth's rotation. An object in such an orbit has an

text: orbital period

text: equal to the Earth's rotational period (one

text: sidereal day

text: ) and thus appears motionless, at a fixed position in the sky, to ground observers.

text: Communications satellite

text: s and

text: weather satellite

text: s are often placed in geostationary orbits, so that the

text: satellite antenna

text: s (located on

text: Earth

text: ) that communicate with them do not have to rotate to track them, but can be pointed permanently at the position in the sky where the satellites are located. Using this characteristic, ocean color satellites with visible and near-infrared light sensors (e.g. the

text: Geostationary Ocean Color Imager

text: (GOCI)) can also be operated in geostationary orbit in order to monitor sensitive changes of ocean environments.

text: It is only because GPS satellites orbit about the geocentre, that this point becomes naturally the origin of a coordinate system defined by satellite geodetic means, as the satellite positions in space are themselves computed in such a system.

text: It is only because

text: GPS

text: satellites orbit about the geocentre, that this point becomes naturally the origin of a coordinate system defined by satellite geodetic means, as the satellite positions in space are themselves computed in such a system.

text: The OEDMS was mounted on the ASTRO. It was used to capture and service the NEXTSat, the client satellite provided by Ball Aerospace. Using a robotic arm on-orbit, the Orbital Express mission demonstrated autonomous capture of a fully unconstrained free-flying client satellite, autonomous transfer of a functional battery ORU between two spacecraft, and autonomous transfer of a functional computer ORU. These operations were executed as part of mission scenarios that demonstrated complete sequences of autonomous rendezvous, capture, berthing and ORU transfer.

text: OS/2 was used as part of the Satellite Operations Support System (SOSS) for NPR's Public Radio Satellite System.  SOSS was a computer-controlled system using OS/2 that NPR member stations used to receive programming feeds via satellite.  SOSS was introduced in 1994 using OS/2 3.0, and was retired in 2007, when NPR switched over to its successor, the ContentDepot.

text: OS/2 was used as part of the Satellite Operations Support System (SOSS) for

text: NPR

text: 's

text: Public Radio Satellite System

text: .  SOSS was a computer-controlled system using OS/2 that NPR member stations used to receive programming feeds via satellite.  SOSS was introduced in 1994 using OS/2 3.0, and was retired in 2007, when NPR switched over to its successor, the

text: ContentDepot

text: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is contributing towards augmenting ESA Galileo satellite navigation system and GPS service in northern Europe by sharing data from the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS). ISRO Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle has launched Miniaturized satellites of several European universities and opened payload capacity on Indian CubeSats to European scientific experiments. India relies on Arianespace for the launch of I-3K-class satellites to geosynchronous transfer orbits.

text: Indian Space Research Organisation

text: (ISRO) is contributing towards augmenting

text: ESA

text: Galileo satellite navigation system

text: and GPS service in northern Europe by sharing data from the

text: (IRNSS). ISRO

text: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: has launched

text: Miniaturized satellite

text: s of several European universities and opened payload capacity on Indian

text: CubeSat

text: s to European scientific experiments. India relies on

text: Arianespace

text: for the launch of

text: -class satellites to geosynchronous transfer orbits.

text: BLITS  (Ball Lens In The Space) is a Russian satellite launched on September 17, 2009, as a secondary payload on a Soyuz-2.1b/Fregat, from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.The satellite is totally passive and spherical, and is tracked using satellite laser ranging by the International Laser Ranging Service. The purpose of the mission is experimental verification of the spherical glass retroreflector satellite concept as well as obtaining SLR data for solution of scientific problems in geophysics, geodynamics, and relativity . The design of BLITS is based on the optical Luneburg lens concept. The retroreflector is a multilayer glass sphere; it provides uniform reflection characteristics when viewed within a very wide range of angles, and can provide a cross-section sufficient for observations at low to medium orbit heights. A similar design was already tested on a smaller laser reflector carried on board of the METEOR-3M spacecraft launched on December 10, 2001.The satellite body consists of two outer hemispheres (radius 85.16 mm) made of a low-refraction-index glass and an inner ball lens (radius 53.52 mm) made of a high-refraction-index glass; the two outer hemispheres and the inner ball are glued together, and one of the outer hemispheres is externally coated with a reflective coating, covered with a protective varnish. The total mass is 7.53 kg.The satellite was inserted into an 832 km Sun-synchronous orbit, with an inclination of 98.85º. The satellite was spinning at a spin period of 5.6 seconds  around the axis normal to its orbit plane, allowing laser light to be reflected in short bursts because only half of the satellite is covered in a reflective coating. Being the satellite made of glass, minimum in-flight slowdown of spin rate was expected, as there were no conducting parts where currents interacting with the Earth magnetic field can be induced.The expected operative life was at least 5 years, but the mission was interrupted in 2013 after a collision with space debris.

text: BLITS  (Ball Lens In The Space) is a

text: Russia

text: n satellite launched on September 17, 2009, as a secondary payload on a

text: , from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.The satellite is totally passive and spherical, and is tracked using

text: satellite laser ranging

text: by the

text: International Laser Ranging Service

text: . The purpose of the mission is experimental verification of the spherical glass

text: retroreflector

text: satellite concept as well as obtaining SLR data for solution of scientific problems in geophysics, geodynamics, and relativity . The design of BLITS is based on the optical

text: Luneburg lens

text: concept. The retroreflector is a multilayer glass sphere; it provides uniform reflection characteristics when viewed within a very wide range of angles, and can provide a cross-section sufficient for observations at low to medium orbit heights. A similar design was already tested on a smaller laser reflector carried on board of the

text: spacecraft launched on December 10, 2001.The satellite body consists of two outer hemispheres (radius 85.16 mm) made of a low-refraction-index glass and an inner ball lens (radius 53.52 mm) made of a high-refraction-index glass; the two outer hemispheres and the inner ball are glued together, and one of the outer hemispheres is externally coated with a reflective coating, covered with a protective varnish. The total mass is 7.53 kg.The satellite was inserted into an 832 km

text: Sun-synchronous orbit

text: , with an inclination of 98.85º. The satellite was spinning at a spin period of 5.6 seconds  around the axis normal to its orbit plane, allowing laser light to be reflected in short bursts because only half of the satellite is covered in a reflective coating. Being the satellite made of glass, minimum in-flight slowdown of spin rate was expected, as there were no conducting parts where currents interacting with the Earth magnetic field can be induced.The expected operative life was at least 5 years, but the mission was interrupted in 2013 after a collision with

text: space debris

text: Polar is a cylindrical satellite of 2.4 meters in diameter and 1.8 meters in height built by the "Astro Space" division of Martin Marietta. WIND is a stabilized satellite rotation at a speed of 10 rpm about its axis which is maintained perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. A platform that serves as support for certain instruments (including imaging) require that their field of view is fixed is fixed to the top of the satellite and rotates in the opposite direction. Satellite walls are covered with solar cells that provide 440 watts of electricity including 186 W are used by the scientific instruments. The satellite has a mass of 1297 kg, including 269 kg of propellant and 264 kg payload. It is designed for a minimum lifetime of 2 years. Scientific data are stored on a digital recorder with a capacity of 1.3 gigabits and transmitted at a rate between 56 and 512 kb. Polar is the twin satellite WIND.

text: Polar is a cylindrical satellite of 2.4 meters in diameter and 1.8 meters in height built by the "Astro Space" division of Martin Marietta. WIND is a stabilized satellite rotation at a speed of 10 rpm about its axis which is maintained perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. A platform that serves as support for certain instruments (including imaging) require that their field of view is fixed is fixed to the top of the satellite and rotates in the opposite direction. Satellite walls are covered with solar cells that provide 440 watts of electricity including 186 W are used by the scientific instruments. The satellite has a mass of 1297 kg, including 269 kg of propellant and 264 kg payload. It is designed for a minimum lifetime of 2 years. Scientific data are stored on a digital recorder with a capacity of 1.3

text: gigabits

text: and transmitted at a rate between 56 and 512

text: kb

text: . Polar is the twin satellite

text: WIND

text: Currently three Argentine satellites have been launched: SAC-B, which was devoted to scientific research; SAC-A, a technological demonstration satellite, and SAC-C, the first Earth Observation Satellite of Argentina.

text: Currently three Argentine satellites have been launched:

text: SAC-B

text: , which was devoted to scientific research;

text: SAC-A

text: , a technological demonstration satellite, and

text: SAC-C

text: , the first Earth Observation Satellite of Argentina.

text: The Echo satellite was a balloon satellite launched into Earth orbit in 1960 and used for passive relay of radio communication. PAGEOS was launched in 1966 for worldwide satellite triangulation, allowing for greater precision in the calculation of different locations on the planet's surface.

text: The

text: Echo satellite

text: was a

text: balloon satellite

text: launched into Earth orbit in 1960 and used for passive relay of radio communication.

text: PAGEOS

text: was launched in 1966 for worldwide satellite triangulation, allowing for greater precision in the calculation of different locations on the planet's surface.

text: A Line Tree is a real estate term that refers to an actual tree which sits in the center line between two separate real properties or on the corner of several properties. Older deeds often refer to these trees as actual landmarks in their written descriptions, i.e.: "a northerly line extending approximately 3000 feet to the old oak...." As surveys and property deeds are updated, these line trees might remain but are often eliminated from written descriptions, to be replaced with modern metal and stone markers, or even longitudinal and latitudinal positions as determined by global positioning satellite systems.

text: A Line Tree is a

text: real estate

text: term that refers to an actual tree which sits in the center line between two separate real properties or on the corner of several properties. Older deeds often refer to these trees as actual landmarks in their written descriptions, i.e.: "a northerly line extending approximately 3000 feet to the old oak...." As surveys and property deeds are updated, these line trees might remain but are often eliminated from written descriptions, to be replaced with modern metal and stone markers, or even longitudinal and latitudinal positions as determined by

text: global positioning satellite

text: systems.

text: Dynamically positioned vessels (DPVs) are vessels which can hold a position and heading by computer-controlled operation of thrusters and propellers. In many cases this can be done sufficiently precisely to use as a platform for diving operations, but there are specific hazards associated with this mode of diving. The vessel control system monitors its position by reference systems which may include taut wire, radar surface stations (Artemis), Seabed acoustic transponders (Hydracoustic Position Reference) or Differential Global Positioning System, using satellites and a terrestrial base station. International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA) guidance requires at least three independent referencing systems of at least two different types for DPV diving operations, to minimise the risk of loss of position. The DP footprint is the scope of movement of the vessel, and it is limited for safety of the divers. Three alert levels are provided to the diving team to indicate the current capacity of the vessel to maintain position. Green indicates normal status, where diving work can be done, yellow indicates partly degraded status, where the divers would be recalled to the bell, and red indicates emergency status, where the dive would be aborted. The particular hazards of DPV diving include loss of position and thruster hazards. Special precautions are taken to prevent divers from getting into the danger zones of thrusters and propellers. These include limiting umbilical length, and other physical restraints.

text: Dynamically positioned vessel

text: s (DPVs) are vessels which can hold a position and heading by computer-controlled operation of

text: thruster

text: s and

text: propeller

text: s. In many cases this can be done sufficiently precisely to use as a platform for diving operations, but there are specific hazards associated with this mode of diving. The vessel control system monitors its position by reference systems which may include

text: taut wire

text: , radar surface stations (

text: Artemis

text: Seabed acoustic transponders

text: (Hydracoustic Position Reference) or

text: Differential Global Positioning System

text: , using satellites and a terrestrial base station.

entity_name: International Marine Contractors Association

text: International Marine Contractors Association

text: (IMCA) guidance requires at least three independent referencing systems of at least two different types for DPV diving operations, to minimise the risk of loss of position. The DP footprint is the scope of movement of the vessel, and it is limited for safety of the divers. Three alert levels are provided to the diving team to indicate the current capacity of the vessel to maintain position. Green indicates normal status, where diving work can be done, yellow indicates partly degraded status, where the divers would be recalled to the bell, and red indicates emergency status, where the dive would be aborted. The particular hazards of DPV diving include loss of position and thruster hazards. Special precautions are taken to prevent divers from getting into the danger zones of thrusters and propellers. These include limiting

text: umbilical

text: length, and other physical restraints.

text: NextBus uses Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking satellites and advanced computer modeling to track vehicles in their routes, thus providing accurate vehicle arrival information and real-time maps instead of bus schedules to passengers and managers of public transit, shuttles, and trains. The information is updated at regular intervals to account for traffic variations, breakdowns, and day-to-day problems faced by transit providers that can interrupt service.

text: NextBus uses

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) tracking satellites and advanced computer modeling to track vehicles in their routes, thus providing accurate vehicle arrival information and real-time maps instead of bus schedules to passengers and managers of public transit, shuttles, and trains. The information is updated at regular intervals to account for traffic variations, breakdowns, and day-to-day problems faced by transit providers that can interrupt service.

text: IMS-1 is an Earth observation satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit. The satellite which is the fourteenth satellite in the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite series has been built, launched and maintained by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). IMS-1 is the first satellite to use ISRO's Indian Mini Satellite bus.

text: IMS-1 is an

text: Earth observation satellite

text: in a

text: sun-synchronous orbit

text: . The satellite which is the fourteenth satellite in the

text: Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite

text: series has been built, launched and maintained by the

text: Indian Space Research Organisation

text: (ISRO). IMS-1 is the first satellite to use ISRO's

text: Indian Mini Satellite bus

text: Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) is the latest generation of U.S. polar-orbiting, non-geosynchronous, environmental satellites. JPSS will provide the global environmental data used in numerical weather prediction models for forecasts, and scientific data used for climate monitoring. JPSS will aid in fulfilling the mission of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), an agency of the Department of Commerce. Data and imagery obtained from the JPSS will increase timeliness and accuracy of public warnings and forecasts of climate and weather events, thus reducing the potential loss of human life and property and advancing the national economy. The JPSS is developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), who is responsible for operation of JPSS. Two satellites are planned for the JPSS constellation of satellites. JPSS satellites will be flown and the scientific data from JPSS will be processed by the JPSS - Common Ground System (JPSS-CGS).

text: Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) is the latest generation of U.S. polar-orbiting, non-geosynchronous, environmental satellites. JPSS will provide the global environmental data used in

text: numerical weather prediction

text: models for forecasts, and scientific data used for climate monitoring. JPSS will aid in fulfilling the mission of the

text: U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

text: , an agency of the

text: Department of Commerce

text: . Data and imagery obtained from the JPSS will increase timeliness and accuracy of public warnings and forecasts of climate and weather events, thus reducing the potential loss of human life and property and advancing the national economy. The JPSS is developed by the

text: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

text: for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), who is responsible for operation of JPSS. Two satellites are planned for the JPSS constellation of satellites. JPSS satellites will be flown and the scientific data from JPSS will be processed by the JPSS - Common Ground System (JPSS-CGS).

text: ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975. In 1980, Rohini became the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle, SLV-3. ISRO subsequently developed two other rockets: the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching satellites into polar orbits and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for placing satellites into geostationary orbits. These rockets have launched numerous communications satellites and earth observation satellites. Satellite navigation systems like GAGAN and IRNSS have been deployed. In January 2014, ISRO successfully used an indigenous cryogenic engine in a GSLV-D5 launch of the GSAT-14.

text: ISRO built India's first

text: satellite

text: Aryabhata

text: , which was

text: launched by the Soviet Union

text: on 19 April 1975. In 1980,

text: Rohini

text: became the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle,

text: . ISRO subsequently developed two other rockets: the

text: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: (PSLV) for launching satellites into

text: polar orbit

text: s and the

text: Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: (GSLV) for placing satellites into

text: geostationary orbit

text: s. These rockets have launched numerous

text: communications satellite

text: s and

text: earth observation satellite

text: s. Satellite navigation systems like

text: GAGAN

text: and

text: IRNSS

text: have been deployed. In January 2014, ISRO successfully used an

text: indigenous cryogenic engine

text: in a GSLV-D5 launch of the GSAT-14.

text: The Star 37FM rocket motor was developed and qualified for use as an apogee kick motor on FLTSATCOM.  The motor is a replacement for the Star 37E Delta, which has been discontinued.  The Nozzle assembly uses a 3D carbon-carbon throat and a carbon-phenolic exit cone.  Maximum propellant weight is 2350 pounds, while the motor has been qualified for propellant off-loading to 2257 pounds. <br>The Star 37XFP rocket motor has been qualified as the orbit insertion motor for Rockwell International's (now Boeing) Global Positioning Satellite (GPS), and as the apogee motor for the RCA SATCOM Ku-Band satellite.  The Star 37XFP motor can be used as a replacement for the Star 37F motor, which has been discontinued.

text: Conceptually, the receiver measures the TOAs (according to its own clock) of four satellite signals. From the TOAs and the TOTs, the receiver forms four time of flight (TOF) values, which are (given the speed of light) approximately equivalent to receiver-satellite range differences. The receiver then computes its three-dimensional position and clock deviation from the four TOFs.

text: Conceptually, the receiver measures the TOAs (according to its own clock) of four satellite signals. From the TOAs and the TOTs, the receiver forms four

text: time of flight

text: (TOF) values, which are (given the speed of light) approximately equivalent to receiver-satellite range differences. The receiver then computes its three-dimensional position and clock deviation from the four TOFs.

text: The systems demonstrated by Transit 3B included a digital clock to control timing signals, uploading programs into the onboard computer's memory whilst in orbit, data retention and FM encoding, and the use of phase modulation for data transmission without affecting the satellite's Doppler signal. The satellite's computer had a memory capacity of 48 bytes.

text: The systems demonstrated by Transit 3B included a digital clock to control timing signals, uploading programs into the onboard computer's memory whilst in orbit, data retention and FM encoding, and the use of

text: phase modulation

text: for data transmission without affecting the satellite's

text: Doppler signal

text: . The satellite's computer had a memory capacity of 48 bytes.

text: The satellites can communicate with each other using a 916.5 MHz, 16kbit/s radio link. Communication with the control station (a laptop computer) is done using an 868.35 MHz, 16kbit/s radio link. SPHERES satellites are able to connect to the International Space Station’s on-board Wi-Fi network for tasks that require a higher data bandwidth.

text: With the introduction of CDMA signals, the constellation will be expanded to 30 active satellites by 2025; this may require eventual deprecation of FDMA signals. The new satellites will be deployed into three additional planes, bringing the total to six planes from the current three—aided by System for Differential Correction and Monitoring (SDCM), which is a GNSS augmentation system based on a network of ground-based control stations and communication satellites Luch 5A and Luch 5B. Additional satellites may use Molniya orbit, Tundra orbit, geosynchronous orbit, or inclined orbit to offer increased regional availability, similar to Japanese QZSS system.

text: With the introduction of CDMA signals, the constellation will be expanded to 30 active satellites by 2025; this may require eventual deprecation of FDMA signals. The new satellites will be deployed into three additional planes, bringing the total to six planes from the current three—aided by

text: System for Differential Correction and Monitoring

text: (SDCM), which is a

text: GNSS augmentation system

text: based on a network of ground-based control stations and communication satellites

text: Luch 5A

text: and

text: Luch 5B

text: . Additional satellites may use

text: Molniya orbit

text: Tundra orbit

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: , or

text: inclined orbit

text: to offer increased regional availability, similar to Japanese

text: QZSS

text: system.

text: A satellite whose orbital period is equal to the rotational period of the Earth is said to be in a geosynchronous orbit. Its ground track will have a "figure eight" shape over a fixed location on the Earth, crossing the equator twice each day.  It will track eastward when it is on the part of its orbit closest to perigee, and westward when it is closest to apogee.

text: A satellite whose orbital period is equal to the rotational period of the Earth is said to be in a

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: . Its ground track will have a "figure eight" shape over a fixed location on the Earth, crossing the equator twice each day.  It will track eastward when it is on the part of its orbit closest to

text: perigee

text: , and westward when it is closest to

text: apogee

text: The first stage of the Jarvis vehicle was designed to use two Rocketdyne F-1 engines, powered by RP-1 rocket fuel and liquid oxygen (LOX); these were the same engines used by the Saturn V's first stage. The second stage would use a single Rocketdyne J-2 LOX/liquid hydrogen (LH2) engine, while the third stage was intended to utilise eight Marquardt R-4D reaction control system thrusters, fueled by a hypergolic mix of nitrogen tetroxide and monomethylhydrazine (N2O4/MMH), to provide final boost, and to allow for the deployment of multiple payloads into different orbits. Jarvis was designed to be capable of carrying payloads of up to  in diameter; as many as six satellites could be carried on a single rocket, and it was suggested that the Global Positioning System (GPS) constellation be deployed in this manner.

text: The first stage of the Jarvis vehicle was designed to use two

text: Rocketdyne F-1

text: engines, powered by

text: rocket fuel and

text: liquid oxygen

text: (LOX); these were the same engines used by the Saturn V's first stage. The second stage would use a single

text: Rocketdyne J-2

text: LOX/

text: liquid hydrogen

text: (LH2) engine, while the third stage was intended to utilise eight

text: Marquardt R-4D

text: reaction control system

text: thrusters, fueled by a

text: hypergolic

text: mix of

text: nitrogen tetroxide

text: and

text: monomethylhydrazine

text: (N2O4/MMH), to provide final boost, and to allow for the deployment of multiple payloads into different orbits. Jarvis was designed to be capable of carrying payloads of up to  in diameter; as many as six satellites could be carried on a single rocket, and it was suggested that the

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) constellation be deployed in this manner.

text: The Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN) is a global satellite internet network with telephony using portable terminals.  The terminals are normally used to connect a laptop computer to broadband Internet in remote locations, although as long as line-of-sight to the satellite exists, the terminal can be used anywhere.  The value of BGAN terminals is that unlike other satellite Internet services which require bulky and heavy satellite dishes to connect, a BGAN terminal is about the size of a laptop and thus can be carried easily.  The network is provided by Inmarsat and uses three geostationary satellites called I-4 to provide almost global coverage.

text: The Broadband Global Area Network (BGAN) is a global

text: satellite internet

text: network with

text: telephony

text: using portable terminals.  The terminals are normally used to connect a laptop computer to broadband Internet in remote locations, although as long as

text: line-of-sight

text: to the satellite exists, the terminal can be used anywhere.  The value of BGAN terminals is that unlike other satellite Internet services which require bulky and heavy satellite dishes to connect, a BGAN terminal is about the size of a laptop and thus can be carried easily.  The network is provided by

text: Inmarsat

text: and uses three geostationary satellites called

text: to provide almost global coverage.

text: Encrypting was introduced to prevent people from receiving pay content for free, and nearly every pay channel was encrypted by the mid-to-late 1980s (this did not happen without protest, such as an incident in which a Florida satellite dealer intecepted the signal of HBO during a film telecast in 1986 to transmit a text-based message over color bars objecting to the network's decision to encrypt its feed). Satellite television also began a digital transition, well before over-the-air broadcasting did the same, to increase satellite capacity and/or reduce the size of the receiving antennas; this also made it more difficult for individuals to intercept these signals. Eventually, the industry began to cater to individuals who wanted to continue to receive satellite television (and were willing to pay for it) in two ways: by authorizing the descrambling of the original satellite feeds to the cable television operators, and with new direct broadcast satellite television services using their own satellites. These latter services, which began operating in the mid-1990s, offer programming similar to cable television.

text: Encrypting was introduced to prevent people from receiving pay content for free, and nearly every pay channel was encrypted by the mid-to-late 1980s (this did not happen without protest, such as an incident in which a

text: Florida

text: satellite dealer

entity_name: Captain Midnight broadcast signal intrusion

text: intecepted the signal of HBO

text: during a film telecast in 1986 to transmit a text-based message over

text: color bars

text: objecting to the network's decision to encrypt its feed). Satellite television also began a digital transition, well before over-the-air broadcasting did the same, to increase satellite capacity and/or reduce the size of the receiving antennas; this also made it more difficult for individuals to intercept these signals. Eventually, the industry began to cater to individuals who wanted to continue to receive satellite television (and were willing to pay for it) in two ways: by authorizing the descrambling of the original satellite feeds to the cable television operators, and with new

text: direct broadcast satellite

text: television services using their own satellites. These latter services, which began operating in the mid-1990s, offer programming similar to cable television.

text: Singer was one of the first scientists to urge the launching of earth satellites for scientific observation during the 1950s. In 1951 or 1952 he proposed the MOUSE ("Minimal Orbital Unmanned Satellite, Earth"), a  satellite that would contain Geiger counters for measuring cosmic rays, photo cells for scanning the Earth, telemetry electronics for sending data back to Earth, a magnetic data storage device, and rudimentary solar energy cells. Although MOUSE never flew, the Baltimore News Post reported in 1957 that had Singer's arguments about the need for satellites been heeded, the U.S. could have beaten Russia by launching the first earth satellite. He also proposed (along with R. C. Wentworth) that satellite measurement of ultraviolet backscatter could be used as a method to measure atmospheric ozone profiles.  This technique was later used on early weather satellites.

text: Singer was one of the first scientists to urge the launching of earth satellites for scientific observation during the 1950s. In 1951 or 1952 he proposed the MOUSE ("Minimal Orbital Unmanned Satellite, Earth"), a  satellite that would contain

text: Geiger counter

text: s for measuring

text: cosmic rays

text: , photo cells for scanning the Earth,

text: telemetry

text: electronics for sending data back to Earth, a magnetic data storage device, and rudimentary

text: solar energy cell

text: s. Although MOUSE never flew, the Baltimore News Post reported in 1957 that had Singer's arguments about the need for satellites been heeded, the U.S. could have beaten Russia by launching the first earth satellite. He also proposed (along with R. C. Wentworth) that satellite measurement of ultraviolet backscatter could be used as a method to measure atmospheric ozone profiles.  This technique was later used on early

text: weather satellite

text: s.

text: In 1977, Canada has designed the first public information network and put into operation. The public international information systems were realized by use of computer, satellite and microwave transmitter and receivers.

text: The most common use for satellites in this region is for navigation, communication, and geodetic/space environment science. The most common altitude is approximately ), which yields an orbital period of 12 hours, as used, for example, by the Global Positioning System (GPS). Other satellites in medium Earth orbit include Glonass (with an altitude of ) and Galileo (with an altitude of ) constellations. Communications satellites that cover the North and South Pole are also put in MEO.

text: The most common use for

text: satellite

text: s in this region is for

text: navigation

text: communication

text: , and

text: geodetic

text: space environment

text: science. The most common altitude is approximately ), which yields an

text: orbital period

text: of 12 hours, as used, for example, by the

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS). Other satellites in medium Earth orbit include

text: Glonass

text: (with an altitude of ) and

text: Galileo

text: (with an altitude of ) constellations. Communications satellites that cover the North and South Pole are also put in MEO.

text: The Dynamic Ionosphere CubeSat Experiment (DICE) is a scientific mission consisting of two Miniaturized Satellites DICE-1 and DICE-2 flying in formation. The satellites are an unusual 1.5U variant of the CubeSat design for microsatellites. Both satellites were launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in October 2011 atop a Delta II rocket. This was a multi-payload mission with four other CubeSats, AubieSat-1, M-Cubed, Explorer-1_Prime and RAX-2.

text: The Dynamic Ionosphere CubeSat Experiment (DICE) is a scientific mission consisting of two

text: Miniaturized Satellites

text: DICE-1 and DICE-2 flying in formation. The satellites are an unusual 1.5U variant of the

text: CubeSat

text: design for microsatellites. Both satellites were launched from

text: Vandenberg Air Force Base

text: in October 2011 atop a

text: Delta II

text: rocket

text: . This was a multi-payload mission with four other CubeSats,

text: M-Cubed

text: and

text: In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earth's Moon.

text: In the context of

text: spaceflight

text: , a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into

text: orbit

text: . Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from

text: natural satellite

text: s such as Earth's

text: Moon

text: Kosmos 156 was a meteorological satellite launch by the Soviet Union April 27, 1967. This particular satellite was one of nine Kosmos meteorological satellites that was launched between 1965 and 1969. Kosmos 156 was launched on the heels of the Kosmos 122 meteorological mission that was a huge success just the June before. This mission used the 8A92M Rocket that was used just two months before with the Kosmos 144. Kosmos 156 was launched in an orbit close to Kosmos 144 so that together the two satellites would pass over the Soviet Union every six hours. In 1969 the Kosmos 156 was scrapped for the more modern and updated Meteor (satellite).

text: Kosmos 156 was a meteorological satellite launch by the Soviet Union April 27, 1967. This particular satellite was one of nine

text: Kosmos

text: meteorological satellites that was launched between 1965 and 1969. Kosmos 156 was launched on the heels of the

text: Kosmos 122

text: meteorological mission that was a huge success just the June before. This mission used the

text: 8A92M Rocket

text: that was used just two months before with the

text: Kosmos 144

text: . Kosmos 156 was launched in an orbit close to

text: Kosmos 144

text: so that together the two satellites would pass over the Soviet Union every six hours. In 1969 the Kosmos 156 was scrapped for the more modern and updated

text: Meteor (satellite)

text: In conjunction with the satellite's spot-beam technology, a bent-pipe architecture has traditionally been employed in the network in which the satellite functions as a bridge in space, connecting two communication points on the ground. The term "bent-pipe" is used to describe the shape of the data path between sending and receiving antennas, with the satellite positioned at the point of the bend.Simply put, the satellite's role in this network arrangement is to relay signals from the end user's terminal to the ISP's gateways, and back again without processing the signal at the satellite. The satellite receives, amplifies, and redirects a carrier on a specific radio frequency through a signal path called a transponder.

text: In conjunction with the satellite's spot-beam technology, a

text: bent-pipe

text: architecture has traditionally been employed in the network in which the satellite functions as a bridge in space, connecting two communication points on the ground. The term "bent-pipe" is used to describe the shape of the data path between sending and receiving antennas, with the satellite positioned at the point of the bend.Simply put, the satellite's role in this network arrangement is to relay signals from the end user's terminal to the ISP's gateways, and back again without processing the signal at the satellite. The satellite receives, amplifies, and redirects a carrier on a specific radio frequency through a signal path called a transponder.

text: The GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle) suffered a performance shortfall during its first flight resulting in the injection of the experimental satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) of 181 x 32.051 km, inclined at 19.2 degrees, having an apogee about 4,000 km below the targeted orbit of 185 x 35.975 km. The satellite used its onboard propulsion system to raise both its apogee and its perigee to geostationary orbit as well as to decrease the orbital inclination to zero, however its propellant was depleted prior to successfully raising its orbit. The satellite used two different propellant tanks, built in Germany and India, which resulted in an unequal flow of fuel, causing the spacecraft to tilt. (The two different fuel tanks were used because they were readily available). Recovery required the use of more propellant than planned which resulted in the satellite having no propellant left to complete its final circularization maneuver. The satellite was possibly used for a few communications experiments but the original purpose of demonstrating digital TV and audio broadcasts, as well as Internet services could not be fulfilled.

text: The

text: GSLV

text: (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle) suffered a performance shortfall during its first flight resulting in the injection of the experimental satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) of 181 x 32.051 km, inclined at 19.2 degrees, having an

text: apogee

text: about 4,000 km below the targeted orbit of 185 x 35.975 km. The satellite used its onboard propulsion system to raise both its

text: apogee

text: and its

text: perigee

text: to geostationary orbit as well as to decrease the orbital inclination to zero, however its propellant was depleted prior to successfully raising its orbit. The satellite used two different propellant tanks, built in Germany and India, which resulted in an unequal flow of fuel, causing the spacecraft to tilt. (The two different fuel tanks were used because they were readily available). Recovery required the use of more propellant than planned which resulted in the satellite having no propellant left to complete its final circularization maneuver. The satellite was possibly used for a few communications experiments but the original purpose of demonstrating digital TV and audio broadcasts, as well as Internet services could not be fulfilled.

text: This is a list of notable commercial Global Positioning System (GPS) software for various device, with a specific focus on mobile phones, tablets, tablet PC's, (Android, iOS, Windows).

text: This is a list of notable commercial

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) software for various device, with a specific focus on

text: mobile phone

text: s, tablets, tablet PC's, (Android, iOS, Windows).

text: Orbcomm satellites are low Earth orbit communications satellites, operated by the United States satellite communications company Orbcomm. , 51 such satellites have orbited Earth, with 50 still continuing to do so.

text: Orbcomm satellites are

text: low Earth orbit

text: communications satellite

text: s, operated by the

text: United States

text: satellite communications company

text: Orbcomm

text: . , 51 such satellites have orbited Earth, with 50 still continuing to do so.

text: The GIOVE Mission segment operated by European Satellite Navigation Industries used the GIOVE-A/B satellites to provide experimental results based on real data to be used for risk mitigation for the IOV satellites that followed on from the testbeds. ESA organised the global network of ground stations to collect the measurements of GIOVE-A/B with the use of the GETR receivers for further systematic study. GETR receivers are supplied by Septentrio as well as the first Galileo navigation receivers to be used to test the functioning of the system at further stages of its deployment. Signal analysis of GIOVE-A/B data confirmed successful operation of all the Galileo signals with the tracking performance as expected.

text: The

text: GIOVE Mission

text: segment operated by

entity_name: European Satellite Navigation Industries

text: European Satellite Navigation Industries

text: used the

text: GIOVE-A/B

text: satellites to provide experimental results based on real data to be used for risk mitigation for the IOV satellites that followed on from the testbeds.

text: ESA

text: organised the global network of ground stations to collect the measurements of

text: GIOVE-A/B

text: with the use of the GETR receivers for further systematic study. GETR receivers are supplied by

text: Septentrio

text: as well as the first Galileo navigation receivers to be used to test the functioning of the system at further stages of its deployment. Signal analysis of

text: GIOVE-A/B

text: data confirmed successful operation of all the Galileo signals with the tracking performance as expected.

text: FT PGB is actually an upgrade kit to modernize gravity bombs with precision guidance.  The kit consists of two modules, the inertial guidance module and the satellite guidance module.  The primary guidance system is the satellite guidance module, a technology reportedly to be reverse engineered from unexploded Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) ordnance in the NATO bombing of the People's Republic of China embassy in Belgrade, according to many Chinese military enthusiasts.  A variety of satellite guidance can be used, such as GPS and GLONASS, as well as Chinese system Beidou navigation system, which will be usable in Asia-Pacific region in 2012.  When satellite guidance is not available, the inertial guidance system is used, though the two systems are generally used together, complimenting each other.

text: FT PGB is actually an upgrade kit to modernize gravity bombs with precision guidance.  The kit consists of two modules, the inertial guidance module and the satellite guidance module.  The primary guidance system is the satellite guidance module, a technology reportedly to be reverse engineered from unexploded

text: Joint Direct Attack Munition

text: (JDAM) ordnance in the

entity_name: United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade

text: NATO bombing of the People's Republic of China embassy in Belgrade

text: , according to many Chinese military enthusiasts.  A variety of satellite guidance can be used, such as

text: GPS

text: and

text: GLONASS

text: , as well as Chinese system

text: Beidou navigation system

text: , which will be usable in Asia-Pacific region in 2012.  When satellite guidance is not available, the inertial guidance system is used, though the two systems are generally used together, complimenting each other.

text: Cruz rejects the scientific consensus on climate change. He has said that "the scientific evidence doesn't support global warming." He has also stated: "They call anyone who questions the science who even points to the satellite data – they call you a, quote, 'denier.' Denier is not the language of science. Denier is the language of religion. It is heretic. You are a blasphemer. It's treated as a theology. But it's about power and money. At the end of the day, it's not complicated. This is liberal politicians who want government power." In March 2015, he said that some people are "global warming alarmists" and, citing satellite temperature measurements, said that there had been no significant warming in 18 years.

text: Cruz rejects the

text: scientific consensus on climate change

text: . He has said that "the scientific evidence doesn't support

text: global warming

text: ." He has also stated: "They call anyone who questions the science who even points to the satellite data – they call you a, quote, 'denier.' Denier is not the language of science. Denier is the language of religion. It is heretic. You are a blasphemer. It's treated as a theology. But it's about power and money. At the end of the day, it's not complicated. This is liberal politicians who want government power." In March 2015, he said that some people are "global warming alarmists" and, citing

text: satellite temperature measurements

text: , said that there had been no significant warming in 18 years.

text: USA-192, also known as GPS IIR-16(M), GPS IIRM-3 and GPS SVN-58, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the third of eight Block IIRM satellites to be launched, and the sixteenth of twenty one Block IIR satellites overall. It was built by Lockheed Martin, using the AS-4000 satellite bus.

text: USA-192, also known as GPS IIR-16(M), GPS IIRM-3 and GPS SVN-58, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the third of eight

text: Block IIRM

text: satellites to be launched, and the sixteenth of twenty one

text: Block IIR

text: satellites overall. It was built by

text: Lockheed Martin

text: , using the

text: satellite bus

text: Soon after, he traveled to Switzerland, where the director of the Zürich Observatory offered him a position. He arrived in Zürich on January 9, 1957. By April, he was a full-time researcher at the institute for solar physics. Besides his research, he taught celestial navigation and time measurement to college students. He started learning English and became part of the international scientific community. His results on computing satellite orbits earned him an invitation to Cincinnati, Ohio. Soon he became one of the most respected authorities on the topic. He got a new offer for a position at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts. This was the primary institute for processing the orbital data of U.S. satellites. The work he started in Cambridge in 1959 led to his greatest successes. He had access to computers, which he needed to carry out much more precise computations than previously. The pace of the work was intense. He and his collaborators published one paper after another and extended their work to the geodesic applications of satellites.

text: Soon after, he traveled to Switzerland, where the director of the Zürich Observatory offered him a position. He arrived in

text: Zürich

text: on January 9, 1957. By April, he was a full-time researcher at the institute for solar physics. Besides his research, he taught celestial navigation and time measurement to college students. He started learning English and became part of the international scientific community. His results on computing satellite orbits earned him an invitation to

text: Cincinnati, Ohio

text: . Soon he became one of the most respected authorities on the topic. He got a new offer for a position at the

text: Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

text: in

text: Cambridge, Massachusetts

text: . This was the primary institute for processing the orbital data of U.S. satellites. The work he started in Cambridge in 1959 led to his greatest successes. He had access to computers, which he needed to carry out much more precise computations than previously. The pace of the work was intense. He and his collaborators published one paper after another and extended their work to the geodesic applications of satellites.

text: For some scientific satellites "achieving orbit" is enough, but vehicles carrying men or payloads that must be placed in precise positions, such as geosynchronous satellites, require improved trajectory position and velocity measurement systems.

text: A few published works by scientists on the subject of space exploration or space weapons tangentially discuss 2001: A Space Odyssey and assume at least some of the orbiting satellites are space weapons. Indeed, details worked out with input from space industry experts, such as the structure on the first satellite that Pietrobon refers to as a "conning tower", match the original concept sketch drawn for the nuclear bomb platform.Modelers label them in diverse ways. On the one hand, the 2001 exhibit (given in that year) at the Tech Museum in San Jose and now online (for a subscription) referred merely to "satellites", while a special modelling exhibition at the exhibition hall at Porte de Versailles in Paris also held in 2001 (called 2001 l'odyssée des maquettes (2001: A Modeler's Odyssey)) overtly described their reconstructions of the first satellite as the "US Orbiting Weapons Platform".Some, but not all, space model manufacturers or amateur model builders refer to these entities as bombs.

text: Scientific research satellites provide meteorological information, land survey data (e.g. remote sensing), Amateur (HAM) Radio, and other different scientific research applications such as earth science, marine science, and atmospheric research.

text: These orbits are conceptually similar to Molniya orbits, which have the same inclination but half the period (about 12 hours). The only current known users of Tundra orbits are Sirius Satellite Radio and the EKS satellite. The EKS satellite is part of a Russian early warning constellation for missile launches, while Sirius operates a constellation of three satellites used for satellite radio.  The RAAN and mean anomaly of each satellite is offset by 120 degrees so that when one satellite moves out of position, another has passed perigee and is ready to take over.

text: These orbits are conceptually similar to

text: Molniya orbit

text: s, which have the same inclination but half the period (about 12 hours). The only current known users of Tundra orbits are

text: Sirius Satellite Radio

text: and the

text: EKS

text: satellite. The EKS satellite is part of a Russian early warning constellation for missile launches, while Sirius operates a

text: constellation

text: of three satellites used for

text: satellite radio

text: .  The

text: RAAN

text: and

text: mean anomaly

text: of each satellite is offset by 120 degrees so that when one satellite moves out of position, another has passed perigee and is ready to take over.

text: The 1802 was used in many spacecraft and space experiment projects and modules. The Galileo spacecraft used multiple (~20) 1802 microprocessors.  The 1802 has often been incorrectly claimed to have been used in the earlier Viking and Voyager spacecraft, but it was not available at the time those spacecraft were being designed, and primary sources describe the Viking and Voyager computers as having architectures very dissimilar to the 1802, and not being microprocessor-based.  The 1802 has been widely used in Earth-orbiting satellites (AMSAT's Phase 3-D, various OSCAR satellites, UoSAT-C, and MAGSAT) mainly for their primary computer, but since the 1990s its use as a low complexity flight control and telecom systems computer has dominated. The two-chip 1801 predecessor to the 1802 was used in earlier AMSAT satellites. The 1802 has also been verified from NASA source documentation to have been used in the Hubble Space Telescope, Magellan Venus probe, and Ulysses spacecraft. It was also used in MASCOT (MIT Astronomical Spectrometer/Camera for Optical Telescopes), a traveling instrument deployed on many telescopes in the early 1980s. At least one of the 57 experiments aboard NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) space experiment module (launched and retrieved by Space Shuttles), the Thermal Control Surfaces Experiment (TCSE), used the 1802. An 1802-based security device, the Electronic Fill Device, was used in conjunction with the U.S. Space Shuttle's Secure Communications System, as a ground-based Encryption/Decryption system to load top secret mission keys on several Shuttle and ground computer systems before launch.

text: The 1802 was used in many spacecraft and space experiment projects and modules. The

text: Galileo spacecraft

text: used multiple (~20) 1802 microprocessors.  The 1802 has often been incorrectly claimed to have been used in the earlier

text: Viking

text: and

text: Voyager

text: spacecraft, but it was not available at the time those spacecraft were being designed, and primary sources describe the Viking and Voyager computers as having architectures very dissimilar to the 1802, and not being microprocessor-based.  The 1802 has been widely used in Earth-orbiting

text: satellite

text: s (AMSAT's Phase 3-D, various OSCAR satellites, UoSAT-C, and

text: MAGSAT

text: ) mainly for their primary computer, but since the 1990s its use as a low complexity flight control and telecom systems computer has dominated. The two-chip 1801 predecessor to the 1802 was used in earlier AMSAT satellites. The 1802 has also been verified from NASA source documentation to have been used in the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: Magellan

text: Venus probe, and

text: Ulysses

text: spacecraft. It was also used in MASCOT (MIT Astronomical Spectrometer/Camera for Optical Telescopes), a traveling instrument deployed on many telescopes in the early 1980s. At least one of the 57 experiments aboard NASA's

text: Long Duration Exposure Facility

text: (LDEF) space experiment module (launched and retrieved by Space Shuttles), the Thermal Control Surfaces Experiment (TCSE), used the 1802. An 1802-based security device, the Electronic Fill Device, was used in conjunction with the U.S.

text: Space Shuttle

text: 's Secure Communications System, as a ground-based Encryption/Decryption system to load top secret mission keys on several Shuttle and ground computer systems before launch.

text: The AFSCN maintains a number of tracking stations, which are used to track (primarily) US government agency & military satellites, as well as receive and process telemetry and send commands to these satellites. Said facilities are intended to support all Department of Defense satellites.  Most tracking stations are operated by operational detachments of the 21st Space Operations Squadron (21 SOPS) and 23d Space Operations Squadron. Many scientific and research satellites are supported as well.

text: The AFSCN maintains a number of tracking stations, which are used to track (primarily) US government agency & military satellites, as well as receive and process telemetry and send commands to these satellites. Said facilities are intended to support all

text: Department of Defense

text: satellites.  Most tracking stations are operated by operational detachments of the

text: 21st Space Operations Squadron

text: (21 SOPS) and

text: 23d Space Operations Squadron

text: . Many scientific and research satellites are supported as well.

text: Satellites in geostationary orbit must all occupy a single ring above the equator, approximately 35,800 km into space. The requirement to space these satellites apart means that there is a limited number of orbital "slots" available, thus only a limited number of satellites can be placed in geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing access to the same orbital slots (countries at the same longitude but differing latitudes). These disputes are addressed through the ITU allocation mechanism. Countries located at the Earth's equator have also asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory, notably in 1976, when many countries located at the Earth's equator created the Bogota Declaration, in which they asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory.

text: Satellites in

text: geostationary orbit

text: must all occupy a single ring above the equator, approximately 35,800 km into space. The requirement to space these satellites apart means that there is a limited number of orbital "slots" available, thus only a limited number of satellites can be placed in geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing access to the same orbital slots (countries at the same

text: longitude

text: but differing

text: latitudes

text: ). These disputes are addressed through the

text: ITU

text: allocation mechanism. Countries located at the Earth's equator have also asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory, notably in 1976, when many countries located at the Earth's equator created the

text: Bogota Declaration

text: , in which they asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory.

text: The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based global navigation satellite system that provides reliable, three-dimensional positioning, navigation, and timing services to worldwide users on a continuous basis in all weather, day and night, anywhere on or near the Earth. 24 satellites orbit around the Earth twice a day, transmitting signaled information to GPS receivers that take this information and use triangulation to calculate the user's exact location. Ultimately, the GPS is the descendant of the United States Navy's Timation satellite program and the United States Air Force's 621-B satellite program. The invention of GPS was a collaborative and team effort. The basic architecture of GPS was devised in less than a month in 1972 by Colonel Bradford Parkinson, Mel Birnbaum, Bob Rennard, and Jim Spilker. However, Richard Easton, a son of Roger Easton who was the head of the U.S. Navy's Timation program, claims that his father invented GPS and filed U.S. patent #3,789,409 in 1974. Other names listed by Richard Easton are James Buisson, Thomas McCaskill, Don Lynch, Charles Bartholomew, Randolph Zwirn and, "an important outsider," Robert Kern. Ivan Getting, while working at Raytheon, envisioned a satellite system similar to MOSAIC, a railroad mobile ballistic missile guidance system, but working more like LORAN. The GPS program was approved in December 1973, the first GPS satellite was launched in 1978, and by August 1993, 24 GPS satellites were in orbit. Initial operational capability was established in December of that same year while in February 1994, the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) declared GPS ready for use.

text: The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based

text: global navigation satellite system

text: that provides reliable,

text: three-dimensional

text: positioning, navigation, and timing services to worldwide users on a continuous basis in all weather, day and night, anywhere on or near the Earth. 24 satellites orbit around the Earth twice a day, transmitting signaled information to

text: GPS receivers

text: that take this information and use triangulation to calculate the user's exact location. Ultimately, the GPS is the descendant of the United States Navy's

text: Timation

text: satellite program and the United States Air Force's 621-B satellite program. The invention of GPS was a collaborative and team effort. The basic architecture of GPS was devised in less than a month in 1972 by Colonel

text: Bradford Parkinson

text: , Mel Birnbaum, Bob Rennard, and Jim Spilker. However, Richard Easton, a son of

text: Roger Easton

text: who was the head of the U.S. Navy's Timation program, claims that his father invented GPS and filed U.S. patent #3,789,409 in 1974. Other names listed by Richard Easton are James Buisson, Thomas McCaskill, Don Lynch, Charles Bartholomew, Randolph Zwirn and, "an important outsider," Robert Kern.

text: Ivan Getting

text: , while working at

text: Raytheon

text: , envisioned a satellite system similar to MOSAIC, a railroad mobile ballistic missile guidance system, but working more like

text: LORAN

text: . The GPS program was approved in December 1973, the first GPS satellite was launched in 1978, and by August 1993, 24 GPS satellites were in orbit. Initial operational capability was established in December of that same year while in February 1994, the

text: Federal Aviation Agency

text: (FAA) declared GPS ready for use.

text: At the time of that article, computers, databases, and geographic information systems were still in their infancy and tools like the Global Positioning Systems of today were yet invented. Management database systems for business were more prevalent. Over the next 30 years, computers became more powerful, smaller, and less expensive. Relational database management systems had become commonplace in business, interrogating the computer system had become standardized with languages like SQL, and faster networks for data and information integration have become highly integrated.  In that time,geographic information systems that could run on desktop computers and could be customized for various tasks were also developed, but asseparate systems.

text: At the time of that article, computers, databases, and geographic information systems were still in their infancy and tools like the

text: Global Positioning System

text: s of today were yet invented. Management database systems for business were more prevalent. Over the next 30 years, computers became more powerful, smaller, and less expensive. Relational database management systems had become commonplace in business, interrogating the computer system had become standardized with languages like SQL, and faster networks for data and information integration have become highly integrated.  In that time,

text: geographic information system

text: s that could run on desktop computers and could be customized for various tasks were also developed, but asseparate systems.

text: EgyptSat 2 was experienced few problems since December 2014, as it lost some of the battery capacity, also on mid-April 2015, EgyptSat 2 had an attitude control issues, then a failure of the primary and backup computer of the satellite had occurred within 15 seconds of each other and no official information was released by the satellite’s operator or manufacturer.

text: European remote sensing satellite (ERS) was the European Space Agency's first Earth-observing satellite programme using a polar orbit. The first satellite was launched on 17 July 1991 into a Sun-synchronous polar orbit at an altitude of 782–785 km.

text: European

text: remote sensing

text: satellite

text: (ERS) was the

text: European Space Agency

text: 's first

text: Earth-observing satellite

text: programme using a polar orbit. The first satellite was launched on 17 July 1991 into a

text: Sun-synchronous

text: polar orbit

text: at an altitude of 782–785 km.

text: Institute of Space Technology on 21 November 2013, launched Pakistan's first Cubesat satellite, iCUBE-1, onboard Dnepr launch vehicle from Yasny launch base, Russia. Its transmitted signal can be heard on VHF band. It has a mass of 1.1 kg & has a volume of 10 cm cube, it houses several sensors to collect data for scientific purposes. iCUBE-1 is a fully autonomous satellite and is capable of maintaining its health via its on-board computer. iCUBE-1 will open up a wide range of future experiments that can be carried on Cubesat in the domain of imaging, microgravity, biology, nanotechnology, space dynamics, chemistry, space physics and various other fields. Cubesats can also provide a test bed for developing satellite constellations for specific applications.

text: Institute of Space Technology on 21 November 2013, launched Pakistan's first

text: Cubesat satellite

text: , onboard

text: Dnepr launch vehicle

text: from

text: Yasny launch base

text: Russia

text: . Its transmitted signal can be heard on VHF band. It has a mass of 1.1 kg & has a volume of 10 cm cube, it houses several sensors to collect data for scientific purposes. iCUBE-1 is a fully autonomous satellite and is capable of maintaining its health via its on-board computer. iCUBE-1 will open up a wide range of future experiments that can be carried on Cubesat in the domain of

text: imaging

text: microgravity

text: biology

text: nanotechnology

text: , space dynamics,

text: chemistry

text: space physics

text: and various other fields. Cubesats can also provide a test bed for developing satellite constellations for specific applications.

text: In addition, software was also distributed through print media, fan magazines and books.  The prevalent language for distribution was the Spectrum's BASIC dialect Sinclair BASIC.  The reader would type the software into the computer by hand, run it, and save it to tape for later use.  The software distributed in this way was in general simpler and slower than its assembly language counterparts, and lacked graphics.  But soon, magazines were printing long lists of checksummed hexadecimal digits with machine code games or tools.  There was a vibrant scientific community built around such software, ranging from satellite dish alignment programs to school classroom scheduling programs.

text: In addition, software was also distributed through print media, fan magazines and books.  The prevalent language for distribution was the Spectrum's BASIC dialect

text: Sinclair BASIC

text: .  The reader would type the software into the computer by hand, run it, and save it to tape for later use.  The software distributed in this way was in general simpler and slower than its

text: assembly language

text: counterparts, and lacked graphics.  But soon, magazines were printing long lists of

text: checksum

text: med

text: hexadecimal

text: digits with machine code games or tools.  There was a vibrant scientific community built around such software, ranging from

text: satellite dish

text: alignment programs to school classroom scheduling programs.

text: The satellite television industry developed first in the US from the cable television industry as communication satellites were being used to distribute television programming to remote cable television headends. Home Box Office (HBO), Turner Broadcasting System (TBS), and Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN, later The Family Channel) were among the first to use satellite television to deliver programming. Taylor Howard of San Andreas, California became the first person to receive C-band satellite signals with his home-built system in 1976.

text: The satellite television industry developed first in the US from the

text: cable television

text: industry as communication satellites were being used to distribute television programming to remote

text: cable television headend

text: s.

text: Home Box Office

text: (HBO),

text: Turner Broadcasting System

text: (TBS), and

text: Christian Broadcasting Network

text: (CBN, later

text: The Family Channel

text: ) were among the first to use satellite television to deliver programming.

text: Taylor Howard

text: of

text: San Andreas

text: California

text: became the first person to receive C-band satellite signals with his home-built system in 1976.

text: Lone Satellite Guides use a computer satellite link to keep in contact.

text: The term chronometer was coined by Jeremy Thacker of Beverley, England in 1714, referring to his invention of a clock ensconced in a vacuum chamber. The term chronometer is also used to describe a marine chronometer used for celestial navigation and determination of longitude.  The marine chronometer was invented by John Harrison in 1730. This was the first of a series of chronometers that enabled accurate marine navigation. From then on, an accurate chronometer was essential to deep sea marine or air navigation out of sight of land. Early in the Twentieth Century the advent of radiotelegraphy time signals supplemented the onboard marine chronometer for marine and air navigation, and various radio navigation systems were invented, developed, and implemented during and following the Second World War (e.g., Gee, Sonne a.k.a. Consol, LORAN(-A and -C), Decca Navigator System and Omega Navigation System) that significantly reduced the need for positioning using the onboard marine chronometer. These culminated in the development and implementation of global satellite navigation systems (GSN-GPS) in the last half of the 20th century. The marine chronometer is no longer used as the primary means for navigation at sea, although it is still required as a backup, since radio systems and their associated electronics can fail for a variety of reasons.

text: The term chronometer was coined by

text: Jeremy Thacker

text: of

text: Beverley

text: , England in 1714, referring to his invention of a clock ensconced in a vacuum chamber. The term chronometer is also used to describe a

text: marine chronometer

text: used for

text: celestial navigation

text: and determination of longitude.  The marine chronometer was invented by

text: John Harrison

text: in 1730. This was the first of a series of chronometers that enabled accurate marine navigation. From then on, an accurate chronometer was essential to deep sea marine or air navigation out of sight of land. Early in the Twentieth Century the advent of radiotelegraphy time signals supplemented the onboard marine chronometer for marine and air navigation, and various radio navigation systems were invented, developed, and implemented during and following the

text: Second World War

text: (e.g.,

text: Gee

text: Sonne

text: a.k.a.

text: Consol

text: LORAN

text: (-A and -C),

text: Decca Navigator System

text: and

text: Omega Navigation System

text: ) that significantly reduced the need for positioning using the onboard marine chronometer. These culminated in the development and implementation of global satellite navigation systems (GSN-

text: GPS

text: ) in the last half of the 20th century. The marine chronometer is no longer used as the primary means for navigation at sea, although it is still required as a backup, since radio systems and their associated electronics can fail for a variety of reasons.

text: Spheres stands for Synchronized Position Hold, Engage, Reorient, Experimental Satellites.  These satellites are about the size of a bowling ball and are in the experimental phase at Nasa.  Each Sphere is self-contained with its own power, propulsion, computers, and navigation equipment.  The Spheres are designed to be used inside a space station to test how well the spheres can follow a set of detailed flight instructions.  While inside a space station three spheres will be given a set of instructions such as an autonomous rendezvous and docking maneuver.  The results from the sphere testing will be applied to satellite servicing, vehicle assembly, and future space craft that will be designed to fly in a formation.

text: USA-262, also known as GPS IIF-10, GPS SVN-72 and NAVSTAR 74, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the tenth of twelve Block IIF satellites to be launched.

text: USA-262, also known as GPS IIF-10, GPS SVN-72 and NAVSTAR 74, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the tenth of twelve

text: Block IIF

text: satellites to be launched.

text: To control the E-sail element's interaction with both the plasma surrounding the Earth and the effect it has on the spacecraft's spinning speed, two nanotechnology electron emitters/guns are on board. The electron emitters are connected to the E-sail element which it loads positively to 500 volts by shooting out electrons. The positive ions in the plasma were intended to push the E-sail element and influence the satellite's rotation speed. The effect of the plasma on the E-sail was to be measured by the change in said rotation speed.  The tether was also intended to de-orbit the satellite y use as a plasma-brake to demonstrate a possibility for returning small satellites from orbit. A color CMOS camera is also on board that is capable of making RAW-format pictures with VGA-resolution. This camera is used to acquire images of Earth and to monitor deployment of the Heytether.

text: To control the E-sail element's interaction with both the plasma surrounding the Earth and the effect it has on the spacecraft's spinning speed, two nanotechnology

text: electron emitters/guns

text: are on board. The electron emitters are connected to the E-sail element which it loads positively to 500 volts by shooting out electrons. The positive ions in the plasma were intended to push the E-sail element and influence the satellite's rotation speed. The effect of the plasma on the E-sail was to be measured by the change in said rotation speed.  The tether was also intended to de-orbit the satellite y use as a plasma-brake to demonstrate a possibility for returning small satellites from orbit. A color

text: CMOS

text: camera is also on board that is capable of making RAW-format pictures with VGA-resolution. This camera is used to acquire images of Earth and to monitor deployment of the Heytether.

text: For more information of the concept of global satellite navigation systems, see GNSS and GNSS positioning calculation.

text: For more information of the concept of global satellite navigation systems, see

text: GNSS

text: and

text: GNSS positioning calculation

text: Several countries now have space programs; from related technology ventures to full-fledged space programs with launch facilities. There are many scientific and commercial satellites in use today, with thousands of satellites in orbit, and several countries have plans to send humans into space.

text: Several countries now have space programs; from related technology ventures to full-fledged space programs with launch facilities. There are many scientific and commercial satellites in use today, with thousands of

text: satellite

text: s in orbit, and several countries have plans to send humans into space.

text: The Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership or Suomi NPP, previously known as the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System Preparatory Project (NPP) and NPP-Bridge, is a weather satellite operated by the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Originally intended as a pathfinder for the NPOESS programme, which was to have replaced NOAA's Polar Operational Environmental Satellites and the U.S. Air Force's Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, Suomi was launched in 2011 after the cancellation of NPOESS to serve as a gapfiller between the POES satellites and the Joint Polar Satellite System which will replace them. Its instruments provide climate measurements that continue prior observations by NASA's Earth Observing System.

text: The Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership or Suomi NPP, previously known as the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System Preparatory Project (NPP) and NPP-Bridge, is a

text: weather satellite

text: operated by the

text: United States

text: . Originally intended as a pathfinder for the

text: NPOESS

text: programme, which was to have replaced NOAA's

entity_name: Polar Operational Environmental Satellites

text: Polar Operational Environmental Satellites

text: and the

text: U.S. Air Force

text: 's

text: , Suomi was launched in 2011 after the cancellation of NPOESS to serve as a gapfiller between the POES satellites and the

text: Joint Polar Satellite System

text: which will replace them. Its instruments provide climate measurements that continue prior observations by

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Earth Observing System

text: USA-177, also known as GPS IIR-11 and GPS SVN-59, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the eleventh Block IIR GPS satellite to be launched, out of thirteen in the original configuration, and twenty one overall. It was built by Lockheed Martin, using the AS-4000 satellite bus.

text: USA-177, also known as GPS IIR-11 and GPS SVN-59, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the eleventh

text: Block IIR

text: overall

text: . It was built by

text: Lockheed Martin

text: , using the

text: satellite bus

text: A satellite is said to occupy an inclined orbit around the Earth if the orbit exhibits an angle other than zero degrees with the equatorial plane. This angle is called the orbit's inclination. A planet is said to have an inclined orbit around the Sun if it has an angle other than zero to the plane of the ecliptic.

text: A satellite is said to occupy an inclined orbit around the

text: Earth

text: if the orbit exhibits an angle other than zero degrees with the

text: equatorial plane

text: . This angle is called the

text: orbit

text: 's

text: inclination

text: . A planet is said to have an inclined orbit around the

text: Sun

text: if it has an angle other than zero to the

text: plane of the ecliptic

text: The LARES satellite may also be used for measurements in the fields of geodynamics and satellite geodesy.

text: The LARES satellite may also be used for measurements in the fields of

text: geodynamics

text: and

text: satellite geodesy

text: Interactive, computerised maps are commercially available, allowing users to zoom in or zoom out (respectively meaning to increase or decrease the scale), sometimes by replacing one map with another of different scale, centered where possible on the same point.  In-car global navigation satellite systems are computerised maps with route-planning and advice facilities which monitor the user's position with the help of satellites. From the computer scientist's point of view, zooming in entails one or a combination of:

text: Interactive, computerised maps are commercially available, allowing users to zoom in or zoom out (respectively meaning to increase or decrease the scale), sometimes by replacing one map with another of different scale, centered where possible on the same point.  In-car

text: global navigation satellite system

text: s are computerised maps with route-planning and advice facilities which monitor the user's position with the help of satellites. From the computer scientist's point of view, zooming in entails one or a combination of:

text: Shipboard computer systems consists of a cluster of linux (CentOS) servers capable of up to 20 Terabytes of available and expandable cruise data storage in RAID6 configuration.  The cluster provides email, intranet, NAS, DHCP, proxy, SAMBA, Active Directory, data processing, and data procurement services.  Internet is provided using a combination of UNOLS-designed proprietary satellite system (C-Band), shore cellular network (3G, 4G/LTE), and/or Inmarsat FleetBroadBand (L-Band).  In addition to the cluster, there's a wide array of data acquisition computers hooked up to a modular display array.  All live processed data from the ship's standard set of acquisition systems is displayed on the array, and provide live feedback of the ship's underway data.  There are repeating displays in the main lab, and hydro lab that shows MET and navigation data.

text: Shipboard computer systems consists of a cluster of linux (CentOS) servers capable of up to 20 Terabytes of available and expandable cruise data storage in RAID6 configuration.  The cluster provides email, intranet, NAS, DHCP, proxy, SAMBA, Active Directory, data processing, and data procurement services.  Internet is provided using a combination of

text: UNOLS

text: -designed proprietary satellite system (C-Band), shore cellular network (3G, 4G/LTE), and/or Inmarsat FleetBroadBand (L-Band).  In addition to the cluster, there's a wide array of data acquisition computers hooked up to a modular display array.  All live processed data from the ship's standard set of acquisition systems is displayed on the array, and provide live feedback of the ship's underway data.  There are repeating displays in the main lab, and hydro lab that shows MET and navigation data.

text: The Transit system was made obsolete by the Global Positioning System (GPS), and ceased navigation service in 1996. Improvements in electronics allowed GPS receivers to effectively take several fixes at once, greatly reducing the complexity of deducing a position. GPS uses many more satellites than were used with Transit, allowing the system to be used continuously, while Transit provided a fix only every hour or more.

text: The Transit system was made obsolete by the

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS), and ceased navigation service in 1996. Improvements in electronics allowed GPS receivers to effectively take several fixes at once, greatly reducing the complexity of deducing a position. GPS uses many more satellites than were used with Transit, allowing the system to be used continuously, while Transit provided a fix only every hour or more.

text: USA-260, also known as GPS IIF-9, GPS SVN-71 and NAVSTAR 73, is an American Satellite navigation which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the ninth of twelve Block IIF satellites to be launched.

text: USA-260, also known as GPS IIF-9, GPS SVN-71 and NAVSTAR 73, is an

text: American

text: Satellite navigation

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the ninth of twelve

text: Block IIF

text: satellites to be launched.

text: Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation satellites transmit electronic ephemeris data consisting of health and exact location data. A GPS receiver can use the transmissions from multiple such satellites to calculate its own location using trilateration.

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) navigation satellites transmit electronic ephemeris data consisting of health and exact location data. A GPS receiver can use the transmissions from multiple such satellites to calculate its own location using

text: trilateration

text: Unlike GPS or other global navigation satellite systems, local positioning systems don't provide global coverage. Instead, they use (a set of) beacons which have a limited range, hence requiring the user to be near these. Beacons include cellular base stations, Wi-Fi access points, and radio broadcast towers.

text: Unlike

text: GPS

text: or other

text: global navigation satellite system

text: s, local positioning systems don't provide global coverage. Instead, they use (a set of) beacons which have a limited range, hence requiring the user to be near these. Beacons include

text: cellular

text: base station

text: s,

text: Wi-Fi

text: access points, and radio

text: broadcast tower

text: s.

text: Polar orbits are often used for earth-mapping, earth observation, capturing the earth as time passes from one point, reconnaissance satellites, as well as for some weather satellites. The Iridium satellite constellation also uses a polar orbit to provide telecommunications services. The disadvantage to this orbit is that no one spot on the Earth's surface can be sensed continuously from a satellite in a polar orbit.

text: Polar orbits are often used for earth-mapping,

text: earth observation

text: , capturing the earth as time passes from one point,

text: reconnaissance satellite

text: s, as well as for some

text: weather satellite

text: s. The

text: Iridium satellite constellation

text: also uses a polar orbit to provide telecommunications services. The disadvantage to this orbit is that no one spot on the Earth's surface can be sensed continuously from a satellite in a polar orbit.

text: The Squarial (a portmanteau of the words square and aerial) is a satellite antenna used for reception of the now defunct British Satellite Broadcasting television service. The Squarial was a flat plate satellite antenna, built to be unobtrusive and unique. BSB were counting on the form factor of the antenna to clearly differentiate themselves from their competitors at the time. At the time of development, satellite installations usually required an 80 cm dish in order to receive a clear signal from the transmitting satellite. The smaller antenna was BSB's unique selling point and was heavily advertised in order to attract customers to their service.

text: The Squarial (a

text: portmanteau

text: of the words

text: square

text: and

text: aerial

text: ) is a satellite antenna used for reception of the now defunct

text: British Satellite Broadcasting

text: television service. The Squarial was a flat plate satellite antenna, built to be unobtrusive and unique. BSB were counting on the form factor of the antenna to clearly differentiate themselves from their competitors at the time. At the time of development, satellite installations usually required an 80 cm dish in order to receive a clear signal from the transmitting satellite. The smaller antenna was BSB's unique selling point and was heavily advertised in order to attract customers to their service.

text: GOES-I was launched aboard a Martin Marietta Atlas I rocket, flying from Launch Complex 36B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. The launch occurred at 06:04 GMT on 13 April 1994, and placed the satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit. It was then raised into geostationary orbit by means of an R-4D-11 apogee motor. During the first burn of the apogee motor, an unusually high temperature was detected in one of the flanges upon which a thruster was mounted, however later analysis, based on satellites using similar thruster systems, demonstrated that it was still acceptable. During the third burn, a malfunction of the computer controlling the attitude control system caused several manoeuvring thrusters to fire. This resulted in the burn being aborted.

text: GOES-I was launched aboard a

text: Martin Marietta

text: Atlas I

text: rocket, flying from

text: Launch Complex 36B

text: at the

text: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

text: . The launch occurred at 06:04 GMT on 13 April 1994, and placed the satellite into a

text: geosynchronous transfer orbit

text: . It was then raised into

text: geostationary orbit

text: by means of an

text: apogee motor

text: . During the first burn of the apogee motor, an unusually high temperature was detected in one of the

text: flange

text: s upon which a thruster was mounted, however later analysis, based on satellites using similar thruster systems, demonstrated that it was still acceptable. During the third burn, a malfunction of the computer controlling the attitude control system caused several manoeuvring thrusters to fire. This resulted in the burn being aborted.

text: Global navigation satellite systems are dedicated radio positioning services, which can locate a receiver to within a few meters.  The most prominent system, GPS, consists of a constellation of 31 satellites (as of December 2013) in high, 12-hour circular orbits, distributed in six planes with 55° inclinations.  The principle of location is based on trilateration.  Each satellite transmits a precise ephemeris with information on its own position and a message containing the exact time of transmission.  The receiver compares this time of transmission with its own clock at the time of reception and multiplies the difference by the speed of light to obtain a "pseudorange."  Four pseudoranges are needed to obtain the precise time and the receiver's position within a few meters.  More sophisticated methods, such as real-time kinematic (RTK) can yield positions to within a few millimeters.

text: Global navigation satellite systems are dedicated radio positioning services, which can locate a receiver to within a few meters.  The most prominent system,

text: GPS

text: , consists of a constellation of 31 satellites (as of December 2013) in high, 12-hour circular orbits, distributed in six planes with 55°

text: inclinations

text: .  The principle of location is based on

text: trilateration

text: .  Each satellite transmits a precise

text: ephemeris

text: with information on its own position and a message containing the exact time of transmission.  The receiver compares this time of transmission with its own clock at the time of reception and multiplies the difference by the speed of light to obtain a "

text: pseudorange

text: ."  Four pseudoranges are needed to obtain the precise time and the receiver's position within a few meters.  More sophisticated methods, such as

text: real-time kinematic

text: (RTK) can yield positions to within a few millimeters.

text: The Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship states, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most potent scientific tools of the Twentieth Century. The achievement of a satellite craft would produce repercussions comparable to the explosion of the atomic bomb..."

text: The Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship states, "A satellite vehicle with appropriate instrumentation can be expected to be one of the most potent

text: scientific

text: tool

text: s of the Twentieth Century. The achievement of a satellite craft would produce repercussions comparable to the explosion of the

text: atomic bomb

text: Sirius Satellite Radio uses HEO orbits to keep two satellites positioned above North America while another satellite quickly sweeps through the southern part of its 24-hour orbit. The longitude above which the satellites dwell at apogee in the small loop remains relatively constant as the earth rotates. The three separate orbits are spaced equally around the Earth, but share a common ground track.

text: Sirius Satellite Radio

text: uses HEO orbits to keep two satellites positioned above

text: North America

text: while another satellite quickly sweeps through the southern part of its 24-hour orbit. The

text: longitude

text: above which the satellites dwell at apogee in the small loop remains relatively constant as the earth rotates. The three separate orbits are spaced equally around the Earth, but share a common

text: ground track

text: The third system used an on-board experimental Global Positioning System (GPS) demonstration receiver to precisely determine the satellite's position continuously by analyzing the signals received from the U.S Air Force's GPS constellation of Earth orbiting satellites. TOPEX/Poseidon was the first mission to demonstrate that the Global Positioning System could be used to determine a spacecraft's exact location and track it in orbit. Knowing the satellite's precise position to within 2 centimeters (less than 1 inch) in altitude was a key component in making accurate ocean height measurements possible.

text: The primary scientific instruments on the Ørsted satellite are:

text: At the time of her commissioning, Blue Ridge had the distinction of carrying the world's most sophisticated electronics suite. It was said to be some thirty percent larger than that of the  which had been the most complex. Blue Ridge was armed with a "main battery" of computers, communications gear, and other electronic facilities to fulfill her mission as a command ship. An extremely refined communications system was also an integral part of the ship's radical new design. Through an automated patch panel and computer controlled switching matrix her crew could utilize any combination of communication equipment desired. The clean topside area is the result of careful design intended to minimize the ship's interference with her own communications system. US Navy long range communications were heavily reliant on High frequency radio systems in the 1970s and have evolved to predominately satellite communications in the 2000s. This is illustrated by the long wire antennas and the directional HF yagi or log-periodic antenna initially installed on Blue Ridge and later removed and replaced with a number of satellite communications antennas.

text: At the time of her commissioning, Blue Ridge had the distinction of carrying the world's most sophisticated electronics suite. It was said to be some thirty percent larger than that of the  which had been the most complex. Blue Ridge was armed with a "main battery" of computers, communications gear, and other electronic facilities to fulfill her mission as a command ship. An extremely refined communications system was also an integral part of the ship's radical new design. Through an automated patch panel and computer controlled switching matrix her crew could utilize any combination of communication equipment desired. The clean topside area is the result of careful design intended to minimize the ship's interference with her own communications system. US Navy long range communications were heavily reliant on

text: High frequency

text: radio systems in the 1970s and have evolved to predominately satellite communications in the 2000s. This is illustrated by the long wire antennas and the directional HF

text: yagi

text: or

text: log-periodic antenna

text: initially installed on Blue Ridge and later removed and replaced with a number of satellite communications antennas.

text: The satellites in the FY-1 series are polar-orbiting sun-synchronous orbits. The satellites in the FY-2 series are in geosynchronous orbit.

text: The satellites in the FY-1 series are polar-orbiting

text: sun-synchronous orbit

text: s. The satellites in the FY-2 series are in geosynchronous orbit.

text: On the other hand, the Remote Sensing Malaysia is equipped with computer system for satellite data image processing, geographic information system and global positioning system, satellite ground receiving station for real time data acquisition, microwave remote sensing laboratory (anechoic chamber, mobile scatterometer), remote sensing digital photographic laboratory and remote sensing data archiving and retrieval centre.

text: On the other hand, the Remote Sensing Malaysia is equipped with

text: computer system

text: for satellite data

text: image processing

text: geographic information system

text: and

text: global positioning system

text: , satellite ground receiving station for real time

text: data acquisition

text: , microwave remote sensing laboratory (

text: anechoic chamber

text: , mobile scatterometer), remote sensing digital photographic laboratory and remote sensing data archiving and retrieval centre.

text: USA-190, also known as GPS IIR-15(M), GPS IIRM-2 and GPS SVN-52, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the second of eight Block IIRM satellites to be launched, and the fifteenth of twenty one Block IIR satellites overall. It was built by Lockheed Martin, using the AS-4000 satellite bus.

text: USA-190, also known as GPS IIR-15(M), GPS IIRM-2 and GPS SVN-52, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the second of eight

text: Block IIRM

text: satellites to be launched, and the fifteenth of twenty one

text: Block IIR

text: satellites overall. It was built by

text: Lockheed Martin

text: , using the

text: satellite bus

text: GLONASS (, ; Глобальная навигационная спутниковая система; transliteration ), or "Global Navigation Satellite System", is a space-based satellite navigation system operating in the radionavigation-satellite service and used by the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces. It provides an alternative to GPS and is the second alternative navigational system in operation with global coverage and of comparable precision.

text: GLONASS (, ; Глобальная навигационная спутниковая система; transliteration ), or "Global Navigation Satellite System", is a space-based

text: satellite navigation system

text: operating in the

text: radionavigation-satellite service

text: and used by the

text: Russian Aerospace Defence Forces

text: . It provides an alternative to

text: GPS

text: and is the second alternative navigational system in operation with global coverage and of comparable precision.

text: Finally, the two assault Trevelyan's satellite base, where Natalya is able to prevent the rogue satellite Mischa from sending an electromagnetic pulse to destroy London. Natalya breaks into the computer room and resets the satellite's course to cause a burn up over the Atlantic Ocean. She destroys the GoldenEye satellite and commandeers a helicopter to pick up Bond and herself by using the gun Bond gave her. Natalya saves Bond right after he defeats Trevelyan. She and Bond leave in the helicopter and get dropped off a distance away. Jack Wade was waiting for the two. He picks them up in the helicopter, ending the movie.

text: Finally, the two assault Trevelyan's satellite base, where Natalya is able to prevent the rogue satellite Mischa from sending an

text: electromagnetic pulse

text: to destroy

text: London

text: . Natalya breaks into the computer room and resets the satellite's course to cause a burn up over the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: . She destroys the GoldenEye satellite and commandeers a helicopter to pick up Bond and herself by using the gun Bond gave her. Natalya saves Bond right after he defeats Trevelyan. She and Bond leave in the helicopter and get dropped off a distance away.

text: Jack Wade

text: was waiting for the two. He picks them up in the helicopter, ending the movie.

text: Orbiting Geophysical Observatory (OGO) refers to the six satellites launched by the United States that were in use from September 1964 to 1972, designed to study the Earth's magnetosphere. The satellites successfully studied the interactions between the Earth and the Sun, despite a number of technical problems. Each satellite had 20 to 25 instruments. OGO 1, OGO 3, and OGO 5 were in equatorial orbits; OGO 2, OGO 4, and OGO 6 were in lower polar orbits.

text: Orbiting Geophysical Observatory (OGO) refers to the six

text: satellite

text: s launched by the United States that were in use from September 1964 to 1972, designed to study the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: magnetosphere

text: . The satellites successfully studied the interactions between the

text: Earth

text: and the

text: Sun

text: , despite a number of technical problems. Each satellite had 20 to 25 instruments. OGO 1, OGO 3, and OGO 5 were in

text: equatorial orbit

text: s; OGO 2, OGO 4, and OGO 6 were in lower

text: polar orbit

text: s.

text: Orbital was a provider of small- to medium-class satellites. Since the company's founding in 1982, Orbital has delivered 150 spacecraft to commercial, military and civil customers worldwide. To date, these spacecraft have amassed well over 1000 years of on-orbit operations.The Communications & Imaging Satellites developed by Orbital are smaller and more affordable. The Geosynchronous orbit (GEO) communications satellites provide commercial satellite services such as direct-to-home digital television, business data transmission, cable program distribution and wireless communications. In addition, Orbital also provides constellations of Low Earth orbitcommunications satellites such as the 35-satellite ORBCOMM data communications network, and the 81 spacecrafts (integration and test) for the IridiumNEXT constellation. Earth imagery and high resolution digital imaging satellites such as the OrbView series are also developed and manufactured by Orbital.

text: Orbital was a provider of small- to medium-class satellites. Since the company's founding in 1982, Orbital has delivered 150 spacecraft to commercial, military and civil customers worldwide. To date, these spacecraft have amassed well over 1000 years of on-orbit operations.The Communications & Imaging Satellites developed by Orbital are smaller and more affordable. The

text: Geosynchronous orbit

text: (GEO) communications satellites provide commercial satellite services such as direct-to-home digital television, business data transmission, cable program distribution and wireless communications. In addition, Orbital also provides constellations of

text: Low Earth orbit

text: communications satellites such as the 35-satellite ORBCOMM data communications network, and the 81 spacecrafts (integration and test) for the

text: IridiumNEXT

text: constellation. Earth imagery and high resolution digital imaging satellites such as the

text: OrbView series

text: are also developed and manufactured by Orbital.

text: When satellites reach the end of their mission, satellite operators have the option of de-orbiting the satellite, leaving the satellite in its current orbit or moving the satellite to a graveyard orbit. Historically, due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions, satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited. One example of this practice is the satellite Vanguard 1. Launched in 1958, Vanguard 1, the 4th manmade satellite put in Geocentric orbit, was still in orbit as of August 2009.

text: When satellites reach the end of their mission, satellite operators have the option of de-orbiting the satellite, leaving the satellite in its current orbit or moving the satellite to a

text: graveyard orbit

text: . Historically, due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions, satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited. One example of this practice is the satellite

text: Vanguard 1

text: . Launched in 1958,

text: Vanguard 1

text: , the 4th manmade satellite put in Geocentric orbit, was still in orbit as of August 2009.

text: The Rand Corporation, Air Force and CIA had long pursued the idea of a Reconnaissance Satellite. Such a program  was under way, Weapon System 117L, which was top secret compartmented. One problem with a reconnaissance was a matter of legality, was there "freedom of space" or did a nation's airspace end when space is entered? The National Security Council backed the IGY satellite as it would make good cover for WS117L and set a precedent of freedom of space peaceful civilian satellite. At the same time the NSC stressed that the IGY satellite must not interfere with military programs.  " The Army's Redstone-based proposal would likely be first ready for a first satellite launch. Its connection with German-born scientist Wernher von Braun, however, was a public-relations risk. In any case, the Atlas and Redstone ballistic missiles were top-priority military projects, which were not to be slowed by pursuing a secondary space launch mission. Milton Rosen's Vanguard was a project at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), which was regarded more as a scientific than a military organization. Rosen and Richard Porter (IGY satellite chief and head of the American Rocket Society) both lobbied for the Vanguard and against using the Altas or von Braun's rockets. They emphasized the non-military goals of the satellite program. Besides the public-relations aspect, a non-military satellite was considered important, because a discussion of whether overflights of foreign countries by satellites were legal or illegal was to be avoided.

text: The Rand Corporation, Air Force and CIA had long pursued the idea of a Reconnaissance Satellite. Such a program  was under way, Weapon System 117L, which was top secret compartmented. One problem with a reconnaissance was a matter of legality, was there "freedom of space" or did a nation's airspace end when space is entered? The National Security Council backed the IGY satellite as it would make good cover for WS117L and set a precedent of freedom of space peaceful civilian satellite. At the same time the NSC stressed that the IGY satellite must not interfere with military programs.  " The Army's Redstone-based proposal would likely be first ready for a first satellite launch. Its connection with German-born scientist

text: Wernher von Braun

text: , however, was a public-relations risk. In any case, the Atlas and Redstone ballistic missiles were top-priority military projects, which were not to be slowed by pursuing a secondary space launch mission.

text: Milton Rosen

text: 's Vanguard was a project at the

text: Naval Research Laboratory

text: (NRL), which was regarded more as a scientific than a military organization. Rosen and Richard Porter (IGY satellite chief and head of the American Rocket Society) both lobbied for the Vanguard and against using the Altas or von Braun's rockets. They emphasized the non-military goals of the satellite program. Besides the public-relations aspect, a non-military satellite was considered important, because a discussion of whether overflights of foreign countries by satellites were legal or illegal was to be avoided.

text: As part of the 1957–58 International Geophysical Year, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union proposed to launch a scientific satellite. Although von Braun had proposed in 1954 that the OML could place a satellite in Earth orbit, the Naval Research Laboratory, using its Vanguard rocket, was given this assignment.

text: As part of the 1957–58

text: International Geophysical Year

text: , both the U.S. and the

text: Soviet Union

text: proposed to launch a scientific satellite. Although von Braun had proposed in 1954 that the OML could place a satellite in Earth orbit, the

text: Naval Research Laboratory

text: , using its

text: Vanguard rocket

text: , was given this assignment.

text: Satellites used for television signals are generally in either naturally highly elliptical (with inclination of +/−63.4 degrees and orbital period of about twelve hours, also known as Molniya orbit) or geostationary orbit  above the earth's equator.

text: Satellites used for television signals are generally in either naturally highly elliptical (with

text: inclination

text: of +/−63.4 degrees and orbital period of about twelve hours, also known as

text: Molniya orbit

text: ) or

text: geostationary orbit

text: above the earth's

text: equator

text: LAGEOS, or Laser Geodynamics Satellites, are a series of scientific research satellites designed to provide an orbiting laser ranging benchmark for geodynamical studies of the Earth. There are two LAGEOS spacecraft: LAGEOS-1 (launched in 1976), and LAGEOS-2 (launched in 1992). They use cube-corner retroreflectors made of fused silica glass. As of 2004, both LAGEOS spacecraft are still in service. Three STARSHINE satellites equipped with retroreflectors were launched beginning in 1999. The LARES satellite was launched on February 13, 2012. (See also List of passive satellites)

text: LAGEOS

text: , or Laser Geodynamics Satellites, are a series of scientific research satellites designed to provide an orbiting laser ranging benchmark for geodynamical studies of the Earth. There are two LAGEOS spacecraft: LAGEOS-1 (launched in 1976), and LAGEOS-2 (launched in 1992). They use cube-corner retroreflectors made of fused silica glass. As of 2004, both LAGEOS spacecraft are still in service. Three

text: STARSHINE

text: satellites equipped with retroreflectors were launched beginning in 1999. The

text: LARES

text: satellite was launched on February 13, 2012. (See also

text: List of passive satellites

text: The satellite raised itself into its final geostationary orbit using two liquid-fuelled R-4D-12 engines, with the satellite arriving in geostationary orbit on 21 May 1992.

text: The satellite raised itself into its final

text: geostationary orbit

text: using two liquid-fuelled

text: engines, with the satellite arriving in geostationary orbit on 21 May 1992.

text: The momentum of the laser-beam photons could directly impart a thrust on the debris sufficient to move small debris into new orbits out of the way of working satellites. NASA research in 2011 indicates that firing a laser beam at a piece of space junk could impart an impulse of  per second, and keeping the laser on the debris for a few hours per day could alter its course by  per day. One drawback is the potential for material degradation; the energy may break up the debris, adding to the problem. A similar proposal places the laser on a satellite in Sun-synchronous orbit, using a pulsed beam to push satellites into lower orbits to accelerate their reentry. A proposal to replace the laser with an Ion Beam Shepherd has been made, and other proposals use a foamy ball of aerogel or a spray of water,inflatable balloons,electrodynamic tethers,boom electroadhesion,and dedicated anti-satellite weapons.

text: The momentum of the laser-beam

text: photon

text: s could directly impart a thrust on the debris sufficient to move small debris into new orbits out of the way of working satellites. NASA research in 2011 indicates that firing a laser beam at a piece of space junk could impart an impulse of  per second, and keeping the laser on the debris for a few hours per day could alter its course by  per day. One drawback is the potential for material degradation; the energy may break up the debris, adding to the problem. A similar proposal places the laser on a satellite in

text: Sun-synchronous orbit

text: , using a pulsed beam to push satellites into lower orbits to accelerate their reentry. A proposal to replace the laser with an

text: Ion Beam Shepherd

text: has been made, and other proposals use a foamy ball of

text: aerogel

text: or a spray of water,inflatable balloons,

text: electrodynamic tether

text: s,

text: boom

text: electroadhesion

text: ,and dedicated anti-satellite weapons.

text: The radio frequency spectrum is a limited natural resource which is increasingly in demand from a large and growing number of services such as fixed, mobile, broadcasting, amateur, space research, emergency telecommunications, meteorology, global positioning systems, environmental monitoring and communication services – that ensure safety of life on land, at sea and in the skies. Un-coordinated use can lead to malfunctioning of telecommunication services. ITU-R plays a key to ensure radio communications. In its capacity as the unique global radio spectrum manager, ITU-R identifies and harmonizes spectrum for use by wireless broadband systems, ensuring that these valuable frequencies are used efficiently and without interference from other radio systems. Allocates spectrum for communications (including mobile and broadcasting), satellite communications, and spectrum for advanced aeronautical communications, global maritime issues, protect frequencies for Earth-exploration satellites to monitor resources, emergencies, meteorology and climate change. Telecom services are converging and actors in the ICT world must adapt to all- IP (all data) networks. Data usage over wireless networks is rapidly increasing as more consumers surf the web, check email, and watch video on mobile devices.   Moreover, according to Cisco, the surging growth in global mobile data traffic is projected to rise by sixty-six times by 2013, with video accounting for the lion’s share of this increase in traffic.   The evolution in data traffic foresees a future “data crunch”. In wireless services, this “data crunch” is putting further pressure on a more efficient use of spectrum. In the United States, according to FCC Chairman Julius Genachowski, "The explosive growth in mobile communications is outpacing our ability to keep up. If no proactive course is taken to update spectrum policies for the 21st century, limits will be reached. Some countries are already adapting to the impending crisis by investing in broadband and reassigning spectrum bands.   ITU is raising awareness to promote investment in broadband and keeps working to improve spectrum management worldwide. However, the argument about a looming bandwidth crunch is refutable according to some points of view. Former FCC official Uzoma Onyeije conducted a study that questions the existence of a broadband spectrum crisis, and further goes on to suggest alternatives to existing networks that would mitigate the need to reallocate spectrum. Onyeije argues that before claiming a “Spectrum Crisis” exists, carriers should leverage available marketplace solutions to appease the current infrastructure namely upgrading network technology, adopting fair use policies, migrating voice to internet protocol, leveraging consumer infrastructure, enhancing carrier Infrastructure, packet prioritization, caching, channel bonding and encouraging the development of bandwidth-sensitive applications and devices.Alternatively, the User-in-the-loop paradigm mitigates the data crunch by shaping the demand side by involving all the users, which makes expensive over-provisioning obsolete.

text: User-in-the-loop

text: paradigm mitigates the data crunch by shaping the demand side by involving all the users, which makes expensive over-provisioning obsolete.

text: The symposium on "The Scientific Uses of Earth Satellites" was held on January 26 and 27, 1956 at the University of Michigan under sponsorship of the Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research Panel, chaired by Dr. Van Allen.  33 scientific proposals were presented for inclusion in the IGY satellites. Van Allen's presentation highlighted the use of planned U.S. satellites for continuing cosmic-ray investigations. At this same time his Iowa Group began preparations for scientific research instruments to be carried by 'Rockoons' and Vanguard for the International Geophysical Year. Through "preparedness and good fortune," as he later wrote, those scientific instruments were available for incorporation in the 1958 Explorer and Pioneer IGY launches.

text: The symposium on "The Scientific Uses of Earth Satellites" was held on January 26 and 27, 1956 at the

text: University of Michigan

text: under sponsorship of the Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research Panel, chaired by Dr. Van Allen.  33 scientific proposals were presented for inclusion in the IGY satellites. Van Allen's presentation highlighted the use of planned U.S. satellites for continuing cosmic-ray investigations. At this same time his Iowa Group began preparations for scientific research instruments to be carried by '

text: Rockoon

text: s' and

text: Vanguard

text: for the International Geophysical Year. Through "preparedness and good fortune," as he later wrote, those scientific instruments were available for incorporation in the 1958

text: Explorer

text: and

text: Pioneer

text: IGY launches.

text: The facility became operational in 1984 and is primarily used to launch powerful thrust rockets and geostationary communications and weather satellites. It is notable as the site of Sino-European space cooperation, with the launch of the first of two Double Star scientific satellites in December 2003. Chinese officials have indicated interest in conducting additional international satellite launches from XSLC.

text: The facility became operational in 1984 and is primarily used to launch powerful thrust rockets and geostationary communications and weather satellites. It is notable as the site of Sino-European space cooperation, with the launch of the first of two

text: Double Star

text: scientific satellites in December 2003. Chinese officials have indicated interest in conducting additional international satellite launches from XSLC.

text: Modern top-of-the-line total stations no longer need a reflector or prism to return the light pulses used for distance measurements. They are fully robotic, and can even e-mail point data to a remote computer and connect to satellite positioning systems, such as Global Positioning System. Real time kinematic GPS systems have increased the speed of surveying, but they are still only horizontally accurate to about 20 mm and vertically to 30–40 mm.

text: Modern top-of-the-line total stations no longer need a reflector or prism to return the light pulses used for distance measurements. They are fully robotic, and can even e-mail point data to a remote computer and connect to

text: satellite positioning system

text: s, such as

text: Global Positioning System

text: Real time kinematic

text: GPS systems have increased the speed of surveying, but they are still only horizontally accurate to about 20 mm and vertically to 30–40 mm.

text: GLONASS-K is a substantial improvement of the previous generation: it is the first unpressurised GLONASS satellite with a much reduced mass ( versus  of GLONASS-M). It has an operational lifetime of 10 years, compared to the 7-year lifetime of the second generation GLONASS-M. It will transmit more navigation signals to improve the system's accuracy—including new CDMA signals in the L3 and L5 bands, which will use modulation similar to modernized GPS, Galileo, and Compass. Glonass-K consist of 26 satellites having satellite index 65-98 and widely used in Russian Military space. The new satellite's advanced equipment—made solely from Russian components—will allow the doubling of GLONASS' accuracy. As with the previous satellites, these are 3-axis stabilized, nadir pointing with dual solar arrays. The first GLONASS-K satellite was successfully launched on 26 February 2011.

text: GLONASS-K is a substantial improvement of the previous generation: it is the first unpressurised GLONASS satellite with a much reduced mass ( versus  of GLONASS-M). It has an operational lifetime of 10 years, compared to the 7-year lifetime of the second generation GLONASS-M. It will transmit more navigation signals to improve the system's accuracy—including new CDMA signals in the L3 and L5 bands, which will use modulation similar to modernized GPS, Galileo, and Compass. Glonass-K consist of 26 satellites having satellite index 65-98 and widely used in Russian Military space. The new satellite's advanced equipment—made solely from Russian components—will allow the doubling of GLONASS' accuracy. As with the previous satellites, these are 3-axis stabilized,

text: nadir

text: pointing with dual solar arrays. The first GLONASS-K satellite was successfully launched on 26 February 2011.

text: Another error lies in the orbital mechanics of the secret satellite system. The satellites are described as having an over-ground speed of 120 miles per hour, but are only 300 miles above the Earth's surface; this is physically impossible for low-orbit satellites, which need an over-ground speed of over 16,000 miles per hour (and an orbital speed of about 17,000 miles per hour) to maintain orbit.

text: - the first satellite launch support system from Antarctica; - the first to use the emerging Internet to relay data and encrypted commands from the USA to a satellite (Nimbus 7) via the continent of Antarctica; - the first realtime imaging of satellite realtime data [Images of the Total Ozone from the TOMS-EP satellite were collected in realtime by NAILS every orbit as it passes overhead.  These images were used by NSF scientists to launch scientific balloons into the Antarctic Ozone Hole.]; - the first unmanned, semi-autonomous satellite tracking and data collection system operating in Antarctica [This NAILS was programmed and could be controlled from the USA and then it would autonomously execute the program when the satellites were visible]; - the first satellite ground station in Antarctica to use a software-defined radio for its RF Receiver.

text: Gaia Movement- Gaia philosophy- Gaia theory (science)- Gaian Greens- Garbology- Garden city movement- Gas-guzzler- Genetic engineering- Genetically modified food- Genetically modified organism- Geneva Protocol- Genotoxic- Genuine Progress Indicator- George W. Bush- Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite- German nuclear energy project- Ghost net- Give-away shop- Glass Recycling- Glassphalt- Gleaning- Gley soil- Global 200- Global 2000- Global 500 Roll of Honour- Global alert- Global Atmosphere Watch- Global Biodiversity Information Facility- Global change- Global Change Research Act- Global climate- Global Climate and Energy Project- Global Climate Coalition- Global climate model- Global cooling- Global dimming- Global Earth Observing System of Systems (GEOSS)- Global Ecolabelling Network- Global economic monoculture- Global Ecovillage Network- Global Energy Network Institute- Global Environment Facility- Global Environment Outlook- Global Greens- Global Greens Charter- Global health- Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project- Global political monoculture- Global strategic petroleum reserves- Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program- Global warming- Global warming and agriculture- Global warming controversy- Global warming potential- GLOBCOVER- GLOBE Program- Glossary of climate change- Gobi Desert- Goldman Environmental Prize- Great Lakes Commission- Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory- Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal- Great Smog of 1952- Green accounting- Green Alliance- Green ban- Green belt- Green belt (United Kingdom)- Green Belt Movement- Green building- Green Building (MIT)- Green certificate- Green chemistry- Green computing- Green consumerism- Green design- Green economics- Green energy- Green fertilizer- Green Gross Domestic Product- Green lane- Green lending- Green manure- Green money- Green painting- Green politics- Green Revolution- Green roof- Green syndicalism- Green tags- Green tax shift- Green technology- Green vehicle- Green Zionism- Green Zionist Alliance- GreenFacts- Greenguard Environmental Institute- Greenhouse effect- Greenhouse gas- Greening Australia- Greening Earth Society- Greenland ice core project- Greenpeace- Greenwash- Grey goo- Greywater- Gulf War oil spill

text: Gaia Movement

text: Gaia philosophy

text: Gaia theory (science)

text: Gaian Greens

text: Garbology

text: Garden city movement

text: Gas-guzzler

text: Genetic engineering

text: Genetically modified food

text: Genetically modified organism

text: Geneva Protocol

text: Genotoxic

text: Genuine Progress Indicator

text: George W. Bush

text: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

text: German nuclear energy project

text: Ghost net

text: Give-away shop

text: Glass Recycling

text: Glassphalt

text: Gleaning

text: Gley soil

text: Global 200

text: Global 2000

text: Global 500 Roll of Honour

text: Global alert

text: Global Atmosphere Watch

entity_name: Global Biodiversity Information Facility

text: Global Biodiversity Information Facility

text: Global change

text: Global Change Research Act

text: Global climate

text: Global Climate and Energy Project

text: Global Climate Coalition

text: Global climate model

text: Global cooling

text: Global dimming

entity_name: Global Earth Observation System of Systems

text: Global Earth Observing System of Systems (GEOSS)

text: Global Ecolabelling Network

text: Global economic monoculture

text: Global Ecovillage Network

text: Global Energy Network Institute

text: Global Environment Facility

text: Global Environment Outlook

text: Global Greens

text: Global Greens Charter

text: Global health

entity_name: Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project

text: Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project

text: Global political monoculture

text: Global strategic petroleum reserves

entity_name: Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program

text: Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program

text: Global warming

text: Global warming and agriculture

text: Global warming controversy

text: Global warming potential

text: GLOBCOVER

text: GLOBE Program

text: Glossary of climate change

text: Gobi Desert

text: Goldman Environmental Prize

text: Great Lakes Commission

entity_name: Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory

text: Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory

entity_name: Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal

text: Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal

text: Great Smog of 1952

text: Green accounting

text: Green Alliance

text: Green ban

text: Green belt

text: Green belt (United Kingdom)

text: Green Belt Movement

text: Green building

text: Green Building (MIT)

text: Green certificate

text: Green chemistry

text: Green computing

text: Green consumerism

text: Green design

text: Green economics

text: Green energy

text: Green fertilizer

text: Green Gross Domestic Product

text: Green lane

text: Green lending

text: Green manure

text: Green money

text: Green painting

text: Green politics

text: Green Revolution

text: Green roof

text: Green syndicalism

entity_name: Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)

text: Green tags

text: Green tax shift

text: Green technology

text: Green vehicle

text: Green Zionism

text: Green Zionist Alliance

text: GreenFacts

text: Greenguard Environmental Institute

text: Greenhouse effect

text: Greenhouse gas

text: Greening Australia

text: Greening Earth Society

text: Greenland ice core project

text: Greenpeace

text: Greenwash

text: Grey goo

text: Greywater

text: Gulf War oil spill

text: On April 19, 2006 the satellite was delivered to DirecTV's control after successful on-orbit testing.  SPACEWAY-2 immediately started broadcasting HD locals to DirecTV customers in eight more markets:  Minneapolis, Minnesota; Sacramento and San Diego, California; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Nashville, Tennessee; Kansas City, Missouri.; Columbus, Ohio; and Birmingham, Alabama.  Satellites named DirecTV-10 (launched 2007) and DirecTV-11 (launched 2008), constructed by Boeing, also for use in high definition television, are bent-pipe K-band satellites instead of regenerative satellites, and are being used to continue the expansion of DirecTV's HD services.

text: On April 19, 2006 the satellite was delivered to DirecTV's control after successful on-orbit testing.  SPACEWAY-2 immediately started broadcasting HD locals to DirecTV customers in eight more markets:

text: Minneapolis, Minnesota

text: Sacramento

text: and

text: San Diego, California

text: Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

text: Nashville, Tennessee

text: Kansas City, Missouri

text: Columbus, Ohio

text: ; and

text: Birmingham, Alabama

text: .  Satellites named

text: (launched 2007) and

text: (launched 2008), constructed by Boeing, also for use in high definition television, are bent-pipe K-band satellites instead of regenerative satellites, and are being used to continue the expansion of DirecTV's HD services.

text: When launched by the U.S. Space Shuttle a solid propellant perigee stage (motor and carrier) would be attached to the bottom of the spacecraft. This carrier was used to mount the satellite into a cradle in the Space Shuttle cargo bay. The satellite was ejected from the space shuttle "Frisbee-style" which imparted a stabilizing spin to the satellite. The satellite was allowed to drift a safe distance from the space shuttle before the perigee motor was fired. The perigee motor provided energy (velocity) to the satellite to raise the apogee of the satellite's orbit; it is named for the location in the orbit at which it is used. The perigee motor was jettisoned after it was used. The liquid fuel apogee engines of the Intelsat VI satellites were then used to boost the perigee of the satellite and provide orbit circularization through apogee burns.

text: When launched by the U.S. Space Shuttle a solid propellant

text: perigee

text: stage (motor and carrier) would be attached to the bottom of the spacecraft. This carrier was used to mount the satellite into a cradle in the Space Shuttle cargo bay. The satellite was ejected from the space shuttle "

text: Frisbee

text: -style" which imparted a stabilizing spin to the satellite. The satellite was allowed to drift a safe distance from the space shuttle before the perigee motor was fired. The perigee motor provided energy (velocity) to the satellite to raise the apogee of the satellite's orbit; it is named for the location in the orbit at which it is used. The perigee motor was jettisoned after it was used. The liquid fuel apogee engines of the Intelsat VI satellites were then used to boost the perigee of the satellite and provide orbit circularization through apogee burns.

text: The first communications satellite placed in a geosynchronous orbit was Syncom 2, launched in 1963. However, it was in an inclined orbit, still requiring the use of moving antennas.  The first communications satellite placed in a geostationary orbit was Syncom 3.  Geostationary orbits have been in common use ever since, in particular for satellite television.

text: The first communications satellite placed in a geosynchronous orbit was

text: Syncom 2

text: , launched in 1963. However, it was in an

text: inclined orbit

text: , still requiring the use of moving antennas.  The first communications satellite placed in a geostationary orbit was

text: Syncom 3

text: .  Geostationary orbits have been in common use ever since, in particular for satellite

text: television

text: Molniya (, "Lightning") was a military communications satellite system used by the Soviet Union. The satellites were placed into highly eccentric elliptical orbits known as Molniya orbits, characterised by an inclination of +63.4 degrees and a period of around 12 hours. Such orbits allowed them to remain visible to sites in polar regions for extended periods, unlike geostationary satellites in geosynchronous orbits with a 24-hour orbital period.

text: Molniya (, "Lightning") was a

text: military

text: communications satellite

text: system used by the

text: Soviet Union

text: . The satellites were placed into highly

text: eccentric

text: elliptical orbit

text: s known as

text: Molniya orbit

text: s, characterised by an

text: inclination

text: of +63.4

text: degree

text: s and a

text: period

text: of around 12 hours. Such orbits allowed them to remain visible to sites in

text: polar

text: regions for extended periods, unlike geostationary satellites in

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: s with a 24-hour orbital period.

text: This is a list of satellites in geosynchronous orbit. These satellites are commonly used for communication purposes, such as radio and television networks, back-haul, and direct broadcast.  Traditional global navigation systems do not use geosynchronous satellites, but some SBAS navigation satellites do.  A number of weather satellites are also present in geosynchronous orbits. Not included in the list below are several more classified military geosynchronous satellites, such as PAN.

text: This is a list of satellites in

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: . These satellites are commonly used for

text: communication

text: purposes, such as

text: radio

text: and

text: television network

text: s,

text: back-haul

text: , and

text: direct broadcast

text: .  Traditional

text: global navigation

text: systems do not use geosynchronous satellites, but some

text: SBAS

text: navigation satellites do.  A number of

text: weather satellite

text: s are also present in geosynchronous orbits. Not included in the list below are several more classified military geosynchronous satellites, such as

text: PAN

text: Purpose: This satellites uses commercial off-the-shelf components to provide the basic satellites functions such as commanding, power generation & supply, and communications with the other two units of the satellites. The CubeSat will fly and Exo-Brake to orbit that is deployed once the satellite is released to demonstrate a Passive De-Orbit System for satellites.

text: Any satellites in areostationary orbit will likely suffer from increased orbital station keeping costs, because the Clarke belt of Mars lies between the orbits of the planet's two natural satellites. Phobos has a semi-major axis of 9,376 km, and Deimos has a semi-major axis of 23,463 km. The close proximity to Phobos in particular (the larger of the two moons) will cause unwanted orbital resonance effects that will gradually shift the orbit of areostationary satellites.

text: Any satellites in areostationary orbit will likely suffer from increased

text: orbital station keeping

text: costs, because the

text: Clarke belt

text: of Mars lies between the orbits of the planet's two

text: natural satellite

text: s.

text: Phobos

text: has a

text: semi-major axis

text: of 9,376 km, and

text: Deimos

text: has a semi-major axis of 23,463 km. The close proximity to Phobos in particular (the larger of the two moons) will cause unwanted

text: orbital resonance

text: effects that will gradually shift the orbit of areostationary satellites.

text: Delta-v is also required to keep satellites in orbit and is expended in propulsive orbital stationkeeping maneuvers. Since the propellant load on most satellites cannot be replenished, the amount of propellant initially loaded on a satellite may well determine its useful lifetime.

text: Delta-v is also required to keep satellites in orbit and is expended in propulsive

text: orbital stationkeeping

text: maneuvers. Since the propellant load on most satellites cannot be replenished, the amount of propellant initially loaded on a satellite may well determine its useful lifetime.

text: , 2,490 Kosmos satellites had been launched. The spacecraft do not form a single programme, but instead consist of almost all Soviet and Russian military satellites, as well as a number of scientific satellites, and spacecraft which failed during or immediately after launch, but still reached orbit. Most Soviet and subsequently Russian military satellites were given Kosmos designations. Spacecraft include optical reconnaissance satellites, communications satellites, early warning missile defence spacecraft, nuclear-powered radar reconnaissance satellites, anti-satellite weapons and their targets, navigation satellites and technology demonstrators. Some scientific spacecraft such as Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik, Bion and Meteor satellites were also given Kosmos designations.The designation is given only to satellites which are in Earth orbit. Typically, Soviet Lunar and planetary missions were initially put into a low Earth parking orbit along with an upper stage, which would later burn for around four minutes to place the spacecraft into a cislunar or a heliocentric orbit. If the engine misfired or the burn was not completed, the probes which would be left in Earth orbit would be given a Kosmos designation.Control systems for 152 spacecraft which were later assigned Kosmos designations were developed and manufactured by NPO Electropribor (Kharkiv).

text: , 2,490 Kosmos satellites had been launched. The spacecraft do not form a single programme, but instead consist of almost all Soviet and Russian military satellites, as well as a number of scientific satellites, and spacecraft which failed during or immediately after launch, but still reached orbit. Most Soviet and subsequently Russian military satellites were given Kosmos designations. Spacecraft include optical reconnaissance satellites, communications satellites, early warning missile defence spacecraft,

text: nuclear-powered

text: radar reconnaissance satellites,

text: anti-satellite weapon

text: s and their targets, navigation satellites and technology demonstrators. Some scientific spacecraft such as

text: Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik

text: Bion

text: and

text: Meteor

text: satellites were also given Kosmos designations.The designation is given only to satellites which are in Earth orbit. Typically, Soviet Lunar and planetary missions were initially put into a

text: low Earth

text: parking orbit along with an upper stage, which would later burn for around four minutes to place the spacecraft into a

text: cislunar

text: or a

text: heliocentric orbit

text: . If the engine misfired or the burn was not completed, the probes which would be left in Earth orbit would be given a Kosmos designation.Control systems for 152 spacecraft which were later assigned Kosmos designations were developed and manufactured by

text: NPO Electropribor

text: Kharkiv

text: Approved for acquisition by the Pentagon during 1991 but never realized, Brilliant Pebbles was a proposed space-based anti-ballistic system that was meant to avoid some of the problems of the earlier SDI concepts. Rather than use sophisticated large laser battle stations and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites, Brilliant Pebbles consisted of a thousand very small, intelligent orbiting satellites with kinetic warheads. The system relied on improvements of computer technology, avoided problems with overly centralized command and control and risky, expensive development of large, complicated space defense satellites.It promised to be much less expensive to develop and have less technical development risk.

text: Approved for acquisition by the Pentagon during 1991 but never realized,

text: Brilliant Pebbles

text: was a proposed space-based anti-ballistic system that was meant to avoid some of the problems of the earlier SDI concepts. Rather than use sophisticated large laser battle stations and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites, Brilliant Pebbles consisted of a thousand very small, intelligent orbiting satellites with kinetic warheads. The system relied on improvements of computer technology, avoided problems with overly centralized command and control and risky, expensive development of large, complicated space defense satellites.It promised to be much less expensive to develop and have less technical development risk.

text: Note that for satellites, orbits are decoupled from the rotation of the Earth so the orbital period is not necessarily one day, but also that errors can accumulate over multiple orbits so that accuracy is important.  For such problems, the rotation of the Earth would be immaterial unless variations with longitude are modeled.  Also, the variation in gravity with altitude becomes important, especially for highly elliptical orbits.

text: In 1995 DSI was sold to Computer Technology Associates (CTA) which was sold two years later to Orbital Sciences Corporation during the final stages of the Indostar-1 satellite integration in early 1997.  The Indostar-1 satellite design was developed from scratch by Thomas van der Heyden and Dr. George Sebestyen founder of DSI, became the first GEO LightSat, their STAR Bus platform.

text: In 1995 DSI was sold to Computer Technology Associates (CTA) which was sold two years later to

text: Orbital Sciences Corporation

text: during the final stages of the Indostar-1 satellite integration in early 1997.  The Indostar-1 satellite design was developed from scratch by Thomas van der Heyden and Dr. George Sebestyen founder of DSI, became the first GEO LightSat, their

text: STAR Bus

text: platform.

text: With contemporary space industry's economic activity and the related private spaceflight, with the manufacturing industries, that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions will require further energy development. Commercialization of space includes satellite navigation systems, satellite television and satellite radio; investments estimated to be $50.8 billion. Researchers have contemplated space-based solar power for collecting solar power in space for use on Earth. Space-based solar power only differ from solar and other similar radiant energy collection methods in that the means used to collect energy would reside on an orbiting satellite instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a diffusing and refracting atmosphere and nighttime in space.

text: With contemporary

text: space industry

text: 's economic activity and the related

text: private spaceflight

text: , with the

text: manufacturing industries

text: , that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions will require further energy development.

text: Commercialization of space

text: includes

text: satellite navigation system

text: s,

text: satellite television

text: and

text: satellite radio

text: ; investments estimated to be

text: 50.8 billion. Researchers have contemplated

text: space-based solar power

text: for collecting

text: solar power

text: in

text: space

text: for use on Earth. Space-based solar power only differ from solar and other similar radiant energy collection methods in that the means used to collect energy would reside on an

text: orbit

text: ing

text: satellite

text: instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a

text: diffusing

text: and

text: refracting

text: atmosphere

text: and nighttime in space.

text: Satellites in geosynchronous orbit may be continuously visible from a single ground station, whereas satellites in low Earth orbit only offer short-duration ground passes (although longer contacts may be made via relay satellite networks such as TDRSS). Satellite constellations, such as those of satellite navigation systems, may be designed so that a minimum subset of the constellation is always visible from any point on the Earth, thereby providing continuous coverage.

text: Satellites in

text: geosynchronous

text: orbit may be continuously visible from a single ground station, whereas satellites in

text: low Earth orbit

text: only offer short-duration ground passes (although longer contacts may be made via relay satellite networks such as

text: TDRSS

text: Satellite constellation

text: s, such as those of

text: satellite navigation

text: systems, may be designed so that a minimum subset of the constellation is always visible from any point on the Earth, thereby providing continuous

text: coverage

text: A global navigation satellite system (GNSS) provides autonomous geo-spatial positioning with global coverage. A GNSS allows small electronic receivers to determine their location such as longitude, latitude, and altitude to within a few meters using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites in outer space. Receivers on the ground with a fixed position can also be used to calculate the precise time as a reference for scientific experiments. The first such system was Transit, developed by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory under the leadership of Richard Kershner. Development of the system for the United States Navy began in 1958, and a prototype satellite,Transit 1A, was launched in September 1959. That satellite failed to reach orbit. A second satellite, Transit 1B, was successfully launched April 13, 1960 by a Thor-Ablestar rocket. The last Transit satellite launch was in August 1988.

text: A global navigation satellite system (GNSS) provides autonomous geo-spatial positioning with global coverage. A GNSS allows small electronic receivers to determine their location such as longitude, latitude, and altitude to within a few meters using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites in outer space. Receivers on the ground with a fixed position can also be used to calculate the precise time as a reference for scientific experiments. The first such system was

text: Transit

text: , developed by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory under the leadership of Richard Kershner. Development of the system for the United States Navy began in 1958, and a prototype satellite,Transit 1A, was launched in September 1959. That satellite failed to reach orbit. A second satellite, Transit 1B, was successfully launched April 13, 1960 by a Thor-Ablestar rocket. The last Transit satellite launch was in August 1988.

text: Specialized satellite earth stations are used to telecommunicate with satellites—chiefly communications satellites. Other ground stations communicate with manned space stations or unmanned space probes. A ground station that primarily receives telemetry data, or that follows a satellite not in geostationary orbit, is called a tracking station.

text: Specialized satellite earth stations are used to telecommunicate with

text: satellite

text: s—chiefly

text: communications satellite

text: s. Other ground stations communicate with manned

text: space station

text: s or unmanned

text: space probe

text: s. A ground station that primarily receives

text: telemetry

text: data, or that follows a satellite not in

text: geostationary orbit

text: , is called a tracking station.

text: The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) with an operational name of NAVIC ("sailor" or "navigator" in Sanskrit, Hindi and many other Indian languages, which also stands for NAVigation with Indian Constellation) is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system that is being set up by India, that will be used to provide accurate real-time positioning and timing services over India and the region extending to  around India. The NAVIC system will consist of a constellation of 3 satellites in Geostationary orbit (GEO), 4 satellites in Geosynchronous orbit (GSO), approximately  altitude above earth surface, and two satellites on the ground as stand-by, in addition to ground stations. The system was developed because access to foreign government-controlled global navigation satellite systems is not guaranteed in hostile situations, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 when it was dependent on the American Global Positioning System (GPS) during the Kargil War. The Indian government approved the project in May 2006.

text: The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) with an operational name of NAVIC ("sailor" or "navigator" in

text: Sanskrit

text: Hindi

text: and many other Indian languages, which also stands for NAVigation with Indian Constellation) is an autonomous regional

text: satellite navigation

text: system that is being set up by

text: India

text: , that will be used to provide accurate real-time positioning and timing services over India and the region extending to  around India. The NAVIC system will consist of a constellation of 3 satellites in

text: Geostationary orbit

text: (GEO), 4 satellites in

text: Geosynchronous orbit

text: (GSO), approximately  altitude above earth surface, and two satellites on the ground as stand-by, in addition to ground stations. The system was developed because access to foreign government-controlled

text: global navigation satellite system

text: s is not guaranteed in hostile situations, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 when it was dependent on the American

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) during the

text: Kargil War

text: . The Indian government approved the project in May 2006.

text: Satellite communications are affected by moisture and various forms of precipitation (such as rain or snow) in the signal path between end users or ground stations and the satellite being utilized.  This interference with the signal is known as rain fade. The effects are less pronounced on the lower frequency 'L' and 'C' bands, but can become quite severe on the higher frequency 'Ku' and 'Ka' band.  For satellite Internet services in tropical areas with heavy rain, use of the C band (4/6 GHz) with a circular polarisation satellite is popular. Satellite communications on the K band (19/29 GHz) can use special techniques such as large rain margins, adaptive uplink power control and reduced bit rates during precipitation.

text: Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards—so to change a satellite's orbit, the satellite must be marked unhealthy, so receivers don't use it. After the satellite maneuver, engineers track the new orbit from the ground, upload the new ephemeris, and mark the satellite healthy again.

text: WTSP is also a station of firsts: in October 1979, the station acquired "Sky 10", Tampa Bay's first television news helicopter which was the only one to broadcast live aerial coverage of the aftermath of the infamous Skyway Bridge disaster in May 1980. Another technological advance was Tampa Bay's first satellite news truck called "Star 10" which was introduced in 1984, that beamed signals from distant locations to WTSP's Gandy Boulevard studios. WTSP also acquired Tampa Bay's first Doppler weather radar called "StormSeeker" in 1980, was one of the first television stations in the country to use a computer in weather forecasting called "WeatherEye" in 1979 and was the first station in the market to provide a seven-day forecast in 1992. The station pioneered the use of satellite technology among local television stations in the United States, deploying its own satellite dish in 1979.

text: WTSP is also a station of firsts: in October 1979, the station acquired "Sky 10", Tampa Bay's first television news helicopter which was the only one to broadcast live aerial coverage of the aftermath of the infamous

text: Skyway Bridge

text: disaster in May 1980. Another technological advance was Tampa Bay's first satellite news truck called "Star 10" which was introduced in 1984, that beamed signals from distant locations to WTSP's Gandy Boulevard studios. WTSP also acquired Tampa Bay's first

text: Doppler weather radar

text: called "StormSeeker" in 1980, was one of the first television stations in the country to use a computer in weather forecasting called "WeatherEye" in 1979 and was the first station in the market to provide a seven-day forecast in 1992. The station pioneered the use of satellite technology among local television stations in the United States, deploying its own satellite dish in 1979.

text: USA-201, also known as GPS IIR-19(M), GPS IIRM-6 and GPS SVN-48, is an American navigation satellite which forms part of the Global Positioning System. It was the sixth of eight Block IIRM satellites to be launched, and the nineteenth of twenty one Block IIR satellites overall. It was built by Lockheed Martin, using the AS-4000 satellite bus.

text: USA-201, also known as GPS IIR-19(M), GPS IIRM-6 and GPS SVN-48, is an

text: American

text: navigation satellite

text: which forms part of the

text: Global Positioning System

text: . It was the sixth of eight

text: Block IIRM

text: satellites to be launched, and the nineteenth of twenty one

text: Block IIR

text: satellites overall. It was built by

text: Lockheed Martin

text: , using the

text: satellite bus

text: SES Broadband uses the Astra 3B communications satellite at the 23.5° east orbital position to handle uplinks and downlinks in both directions. A number of transponders are used for the hub-to-terminal downlink in the satellite TV downlink segment of the Ku band (10.70 GHz-12.75 GHz). The terminal-to-hub uplink to the satellite uses the uplink segment of the Ku band (14.00 GHz-14.50 GHz) and extended Ku band (13.75 GHz-14.25 GHz)

text: SES Broadband uses the

text: Astra 3B

text: communications satellite at the

text: 23.5° east

text: orbital position to handle uplinks and downlinks in both directions. A number of transponders are used for the hub-to-terminal downlink in the satellite TV downlink segment of the

text: Ku band

text: (10.70 GHz-12.75 GHz). The terminal-to-hub uplink to the satellite uses the uplink segment of the Ku band (14.00 GHz-14.50 GHz) and extended Ku band (13.75 GHz-14.25 GHz)

text: In use since 1960, the weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the Earth.  Satellites can be polar orbiting, covering the entire Earth asynchronously, or geostationary, hovering over the same spot on the equator.  Meteorological satellites see more than clouds and cloud systems.  Beginning with the Nimbus 3 satellite in 1969, temperature information through the atmospheric column began to be retrieved by satellites from the eastern Atlantic and most of the Pacific ocean, which led to significant forecast improvements.  City lights, fires, effects of pollution, auroras, sand and dust storms, snow cover, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy flows, etc., and other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites.  Other environmental satellites can detect changes in the Earth's vegetation, sea state, ocean color, and ice fields.  El Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images.  Collectively, weather satellites flown by the U.S., Europe, India, China, Russia, and Japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather watch.

text: In use since 1960, the weather satellite is a type of

text: satellite

text: that is primarily used to monitor the weather and

text: climate

text: of the Earth.  Satellites can be

text: polar orbit

text: ing, covering the entire Earth asynchronously, or

text: geostationary

text: , hovering over the same spot on the equator.  Meteorological satellites see more than clouds and cloud systems.  Beginning with the

text: Nimbus 3

text: satellite in 1969, temperature information through the atmospheric column began to be retrieved by satellites from the eastern Atlantic and most of the Pacific ocean, which led to significant forecast improvements.  City lights, fires, effects of pollution,

text: aurora

text: s, sand and dust storms, snow cover, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy flows, etc., and other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites.  Other

text: environmental satellite

text: s can detect changes in the Earth's vegetation, sea state, ocean color, and ice fields.  El Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images.  Collectively, weather satellites flown by the U.S., Europe, India, China, Russia, and Japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather watch.

text: Beginning in 1991, Qualcomm participated in the development of the Globalstar satellite system along with Loral Space & Communications. It uses a low-earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellation consisting of 44 active satellites. The system is used for voice telephony via hand-held satellite phones, asset tracking and data transfer using mobile satellite modems. The system was designed as a normal IS-95 system, and used the satellite as a "bent pipe" or "repeater" to transfer cellular signals from the handset to the terrestrial base station.  Unlike the Iridium system, which routes phone calls between satellites, the Globalstar satellite must always be able to see both the handset and the base station to establish a connection, therefore, there is no coverage over the Earth's poles where there are no satellite orbits. There is also no coverage in locations where the large Globalstar base stations are not in view (some locations in the south atlantic, for example.) Some of the Globalstar hardware is manufactured by Qualcomm. Like other satellite phone networks Globalstar went bankrupt in 1999, only to be bought up by a group of investors who are currently running the system.

text: Beginning in 1991, Qualcomm participated in the development of the

text: Globalstar

text: satellite system along with

text: Loral Space & Communications

text: . It uses a low-earth orbit (LEO)

text: satellite constellation

text: consisting of 44 active satellites. The system is used for voice telephony via hand-held

text: satellite phone

text: s, asset tracking and data transfer using mobile

text: satellite modem

text: s. The system was designed as a normal IS-95 system, and used the satellite as a "bent pipe" or "repeater" to transfer cellular signals from the handset to the terrestrial base station.  Unlike the Iridium system, which routes phone calls between satellites, the Globalstar satellite must always be able to see both the handset and the base station to establish a connection, therefore, there is no coverage over the Earth's poles where there are no satellite orbits. There is also no coverage in locations where the large Globalstar base stations are not in view (some locations in the south atlantic, for example.) Some of the Globalstar hardware is manufactured by Qualcomm. Like other satellite phone networks Globalstar went bankrupt in 1999, only to be bought up by a group of investors who are currently running the system.

text: Melicope elleryana known as the Pink Flowered Doughwood or Evodia is a species of Australian rainforest tree in the Rutaceae family.

text: Melicope elleryana known as the Pink Flowered Doughwood or Evodia is a species of

text: Australian

text: rainforest

text: tree in the

text: Rutaceae

text: family.

text: The season originally aired Tuesdays at 8:30-9:00 pm (EST) on CBS from September 27, 1960 to June 27, 1961.

text: The season originally aired Tuesdays at 8:30-9:00 pm (EST) on

text: CBS

text: from September 27, 1960 to June 27, 1961.

text: In October 2015, T.I. received backlash when he was speaking on 2016 presidential candidate Hillary Clinton: "Not to be sexist but, I can’t vote for the leader of the free world to be a woman. Just because, every other position that exists, I think a woman could do well. But the president? It’s kinda like, I just know that women make rash decisions emotionally – they make very permanent, cemented decisions – and then later, it’s kind of like it didn’t happen, or they didn’t mean for it to happen. And I sure would hate to just set off a nuke. [Other leaders] will not be able to negotiate the right kinds of foreign policy; the world ain’t ready yet. I think you might be able to [get] the Loch Ness Monster elected before you could [get a woman]." Following the reaction from social media, T.I. publicly apologized on Twitter.

text: In October 2015, T.I. received backlash when he was speaking on 2016 presidential candidate

text: Hillary Clinton

text: : "Not to be

text: sexist

text: but, I can’t vote for the leader of the free world to be a woman. Just because, every other position that exists, I think a woman could do well. But the president? It’s kinda like, I just know that women make rash decisions emotionally – they make very permanent, cemented decisions – and then later, it’s kind of like it didn’t happen, or they didn’t mean for it to happen. And I sure would hate to just set off a nuke. [Other leaders] will not be able to negotiate the right kinds of foreign policy; the world ain’t ready yet. I think you might be able to [get] the

text: Loch Ness Monster

text: elected before you could [get a woman]." Following the reaction from

text: social media

text: , T.I. publicly apologized on

text: Twitter

text: The US Air Force also periodically launched short lived satellites equipped with radio beacons of 162 MHz and 324 MHz at much lower orbits to study orbital drag.  The Transit ground tracking stations tracked these satellites as well, locating the satellites within their orbits using the same principles.  The satellite location data was used to collect orbital drag data, including variations in the upper atmosphere and the Earth's gravitational field.

text: The

text: US Air Force

text: also periodically launched short lived satellites equipped with radio beacons of 162 MHz and 324 MHz at much lower orbits to study

text: orbital drag

text: .  The Transit ground tracking stations tracked these satellites as well, locating the satellites within their orbits using the same principles.  The satellite location data was used to collect orbital drag data, including variations in the upper atmosphere and the Earth's gravitational field.

text: 11. The Underground Hunters

text: 11. The Underground Hunters

text: Chawang River Railway bridge () is a three-span railway bridge in Thailand. It is situated in Chawang District, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province on the Southern Line Railway. There are three span, length 150 metres. Crossings Chawang River.

text: Chawang River Railway bridge () is a three-span railway bridge in

text: Thailand

text: . It is situated in

text: Chawang District

text: Nakhon Si Thammarat Province

text: on the

text: Southern Line

text: Railway. There are three span, length 150 metres. Crossings

text: Chawang River

text: in a positional number system is represented as an expansion

text: Derek Whitehead played , scored seven conversions and won the Lance Todd Trophy in Warrington's 24-9 victory over Featherstone Rovers in the 1974 Challenge Cup final during the 1973–74 season at Wembley Stadium, London on Saturday 11 May 1974, in front of a crowd of 77,400, and scored two conversions in Warrington's 7-14 defeat by Widnes in the 1975 Challenge Cup final during the 1974-75 season at Wembley Stadium, London on Saturday 10 May 1975, in front of a crowd of 85,998.

text: Derek Whitehead played , scored seven

text: conversion

text: s and won the

text: Lance Todd Trophy

text: in

text: Warrington

text: 's 24-9 victory over

text: Featherstone Rovers

text: in the

text: Challenge Cup

text: final during the

entity_name: 1973–74 Northern Rugby Football League season

text: 1973–74 season

text: at

text: Wembley Stadium

text: London

text: on Saturday 11 May 1974, in front of a crowd of 77,400, and scored two

text: conversion

text: s in

text: Warrington

text: 's 7-14 defeat by

text: Widnes

text: in the

text: Challenge Cup

text: final during the

entity_name: 1974–75 Northern Rugby Football League season

text: 1974-75 season

text: at

text: Wembley Stadium

text: London

text: on Saturday 10 May 1975, in front of a crowd of 85,998.

text: The Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (NTNF) and NDRE started negotiating a satellite ground station in Tromsø in 1965. It and Kongsfjord Telemetry Station in Ny-Ålesund were to be used by the European Space Research Organization for their low-Earth orbit satellites starting with ESRO-2. The agreement was approved by the Parliament of Norway in mid 1966. Part of the reason for the Norwegian support was the opportunity of training Norwegians in pulse-code modulation and digital computing. The agreement involved that NDRE was to supply a minicomputer for Tromsø.

text: The

entity_name: Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

text: Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

text: (NTNF) and NDRE started negotiating a satellite ground station in

text: Tromsø

text: in 1965. It and

text: Kongsfjord Telemetry Station

text: in

text: Ny-Ålesund

text: were to be used by the

text: European Space Research Organization

text: for their

text: low-Earth orbit

text: satellites starting with

text: . The agreement was approved by the

text: Parliament of Norway

text: in mid 1966. Part of the reason for the Norwegian support was the opportunity of training Norwegians in

text: pulse-code modulation

text: and digital computing. The agreement involved that NDRE was to supply a minicomputer for Tromsø.

text: The name Steepletop comes from a pink, conical wildflower that grows there. The Society opened the house for tours in 2010.

text: The name Steepletop comes from a pink, conical

text: wildflower

text: that grows there. The Society opened the house for tours in 2010.

text: Orbital planes of satellites are perturbed by the non-spherical nature of the Earth's gravity. This causes the orbital plane of the satellite's orbit to slowly rotate around the Earth, depending on the angle the plane makes with the Earth's equator. For planes that are at a critical angle this can mean that the plane will track the Sun around the Earth, forming a Sun-synchronous orbit.

text: Orbital planes of satellites are perturbed by the non-spherical nature of the

text: Earth's gravity

text: . This causes the orbital plane of the satellite's orbit to slowly rotate around the Earth, depending on the angle the plane makes with the Earth's equator. For planes that are at a critical angle this can mean that the plane will track the

text: Sun

text: around the Earth, forming a

text: Sun-synchronous orbit