text: Bile is secreted by the liver, enters the upper small intestine by way of the bile duct, and is absorbed in the small intestine. Bile has an important role in fat digestion, emulsifying fat as the first stage in its digestion. Bypassing the major site of bile acid reabsorption in the small intestine therefore further reduces fat and fat-soluble vitamin absorption. As a result, huge amounts of fatty acids, which are normally absorbed in the small intestine, enter the colon, where they cause irritation of the colon wall and the secretion of excessive volumes of water and electrolytes, especially sodium and potassium, leading to diarrhea. This diarrhea is the major patient complaint and has characterized jejunoileal bypass in the minds of patient and physician alike since the procedure was introduced.

entity_name: Bile

text: Bile

text: is secreted by the

entity_name: Liver

text: liver

text: , enters the upper small intestine by way of the

entity_name: Bile duct

text: bile duct

text: , and is absorbed in the small intestine. Bile has an important role in fat digestion, emulsifying fat as the first stage in its digestion. Bypassing the major site of

entity_name: Bile acid

text: bile acid

text: reabsorption in the small intestine therefore further reduces fat and fat-soluble vitamin absorption. As a result, huge amounts of

entity_name: Fatty acid

text: fatty acid

text: s, which are normally absorbed in the small intestine, enter the colon, where they cause irritation of the colon wall and the secretion of excessive volumes of water and electrolytes, especially sodium and potassium, leading to

entity_name: Diarrhea

text: diarrhea

text: . This diarrhea is the major patient complaint and has characterized jejunoileal bypass in the minds of patient and physician alike since the procedure was introduced.

method: UNH-qee

text: Flatulence or farting works much like burping, but helps the body pass gas through the anus instead of the mouth. Bacteria present in the intestinal tract cause gas to be expelled from the anus. They produce the gas as food is digested and moved from the small intestine. This gas builds up and causes swelling or bloating in the abdominal area before it is released.

entity_name: Flatulence

text: Flatulence

text: or farting works much like burping, but helps the body pass gas through the anus instead of the mouth. Bacteria present in the intestinal tract cause gas to be expelled from the anus. They produce the gas as food is digested and moved from the

entity_name: Small intestine

text: small intestine

text: . This gas builds up and causes swelling or bloating in the abdominal area before it is released.

method: UNH-ecn

text: The Stomach is a British short horror film that was written and directed by Ben Steiner. The film had its world premiere on 21 September 2014 at Fantastic Fest, where it won "Best Horror Short". A full-length version of The Stomach is currently in planning.

text: The Stomach is a British short horror film that was written and directed by Ben Steiner. The film had its world premiere on 21 September 2014 at

entity_name: Fantastic Fest

text: Fantastic Fest

text: , where it won "Best Horror Short". A full-length version of The Stomach is currently in planning.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: At eliminations, contestants must vote strategically to stay in the game and eliminate another contestant by a majority vote. If the vote is a tie (a "hung vote"), the couple or contestant with the lowest percentage weight loss will be eliminated. In the case of an elimination with more than two couples or contestants and there is a hung vote, the couple or contestant with the lowest percentage weight loss out of those having equal highest votes is eliminated.

text: P. triqueter never leaves its tube. The action of cilia creates currents which circulate down the length of the tube. Respiration occurs when dissolved oxygen enters through the surface of the body and through the extended branchial crown. This tube worm is a filter feeder and cilia on the branchial filaments waft particles towards the central mouth. The particles are not sorted and any that are too large are removed from the mouth opening by the tip of a filament. There is a complete digestive system and like other polychaetes, P. triqueter excretes with the help of fully developed nephridia.

text: P. triqueter never leaves its tube. The action of

entity_name: Cilium

text: cilia

text: creates currents which circulate down the length of the tube. Respiration occurs when dissolved

entity_name: Oxygen

text: oxygen

text: enters through the surface of the body and through the extended branchial crown. This tube worm is a

entity_name: Filter feeder

text: filter feeder

text: and cilia on the branchial filaments waft particles towards the central mouth. The particles are not sorted and any that are too large are removed from the mouth opening by the tip of a filament. There is a complete digestive system and like other polychaetes, P. triqueter excretes with the help of fully developed

entity_name: Nephridium

text: nephridia

text: Among the areas that concentrate lines of research developed at the UFMG Schoolof Medicine, we can find Infectious and Parasite Diseases; Medical and ComparedPathology; Epidemiology, Health Service Management and Worker’s Health, InternalMedicine, Gynecology, Fetal Medicine and Obstetrics; Experimental Surgery, Surgeryof the Digestive System, and Neurosurgery; Ophthalmology; Neurosciences; Child andAdolescent Health; and Microbiology of the Digestive System.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: Muscles and nerves that control the digestive process may be affected by PD, so it is common to experience constipation and gastroparesis (food remaining in the stomach for a longer period of time than normal). A balanced diet is recommended to help improve digestion. Diet should include high-fiber foods and plenty of water. Levodopa and proteins use the same transportation system in the intestine and the blood–brain barrier, competing between them for access. When taken together, the consequences of such competition is a reduced effectiveness of the drug. Therefore, when levodopa is introduced, excessive proteins are discouraged, while in advanced stages, additional intake of low-protein products such as bread or pasta is recommended for similar reasons. To minimize interaction with proteins, levodopa is recommended to be taken 30 minutes before meals. At the same time, regimens for PD restrict proteins during breakfast and lunch and are usually taken at dinner. As the disease advances, dysphagia may appear. In such cases, specific measures include the use of thickening agents for liquid intake, special postures when eating, and gastrostomy in the worst cases.

text: Muscles and nerves that control the digestive process may be affected by PD, so it is common to experience

entity_name: Constipation

text: constipation

text: and

entity_name: Gastroparesis

text: gastroparesis

text: (food remaining in the stomach for a longer period of time than normal). A balanced diet is recommended to help improve digestion. Diet should include high-

entity_name: Dietary fiber

text: fiber

text: foods and plenty of water. Levodopa and proteins use the same transportation system in the intestine and the blood–brain barrier, competing between them for access. When taken together, the consequences of such competition is a reduced effectiveness of the drug. Therefore, when levodopa is introduced, excessive

entity_name: Protein (nutrient)

text: proteins

text: are discouraged, while in advanced stages, additional intake of low-protein products such as bread or pasta is recommended for similar reasons. To minimize interaction with proteins, levodopa is recommended to be taken 30 minutes before meals. At the same time, regimens for PD restrict proteins during breakfast and lunch and are usually taken at dinner. As the disease advances,

entity_name: Dysphagia

text: dysphagia

text: may appear. In such cases, specific measures include the use of

entity_name: Thickening agent

text: thickening agent

text: s for liquid intake, special postures when eating, and

entity_name: Gastrostomy

text: gastrostomy

text: in the worst cases.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system has been said to promote a "rest and digest" response, promotes calming of the nerves return to regular function, and enhancing digestion. Functions of nerves within the parasympathetic nervous system include:

text: The mouth contains saliva, which prevents foreign organisms from getting into the body orally. Furthermore, the mouth also contains lysozyme, an enzyme found in tears and the saliva. This enzyme breaks down cell walls of invading microorganisms.

text: The mouth contains

entity_name: Saliva

text: saliva

text: , which prevents foreign organisms from getting into the body orally. Furthermore, the mouth also contains

entity_name: Lysozyme

text: lysozyme

text: , an enzyme found in tears and the saliva. This enzyme breaks down cell walls of invading microorganisms.

text: The main purpose of the gastrointestinal tract is to digest and absorb nutrients (fat, carbohydrate, protein, micronutrients (vitamins and trace minerals), water, and electrolytes. Digestion involves both mechanical and enzymatic breakdown of food. Mechanical processes include chewing, gastric churning, and the to-and-fro mixing in the small intestine. Enzymatic hydrolysis is initiated by intraluminal processes requiring gastric, pancreatic, and biliary secretions. The final products of digestion are absorbed through the intestinal epithelial cells.

text: The main purpose of the

entity_name: Gastrointestinal tract

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: is to

entity_name: Digestion

text: digest

text: and

text: absorb

text: nutrients (

entity_name: Fat

text: fat

entity_name: Carbohydrate

text: carbohydrate

entity_name: Protein

text: protein

text: , micronutrients (

entity_name: Vitamin

text: vitamin

text: s and

entity_name: Mineral (nutrient)

text: trace minerals

text: ), water, and

entity_name: Electrolyte

text: electrolytes

text: Digestion

text: involves both mechanical and

entity_name: Enzyme

text: enzymatic

text: breakdown of food. Mechanical processes include chewing, gastric churning, and the to-and-fro mixing in the

text: small intestine

text: . Enzymatic hydrolysis is initiated by intraluminal processes requiring gastric, pancreatic, and biliary secretions. The final products of digestion are absorbed through the

entity_name: Intestinal epithelium

text: intestinal epithelial

text: cells.

text: The esophagus may be affected by gastric reflux, cancer, prominent dilated blood vessels called varices that can bleed heavily, tears, constrictions, and disorders of motility. Diseases may cause difficulty swallowing (dysphagia), painful swallowing (odynophagia), chest pain, or cause no symptoms at all. Clinical investigations include X-rays when swallowing barium, endoscopy, and CT scans. Surgically, the esophagus is very difficult to access.

text: The esophagus may be affected by

entity_name: Gastroesophageal reflux disease

text: gastric reflux

entity_name: Esophageal cancer

text: cancer

text: , prominent dilated blood vessels called

entity_name: Esophageal varices

text: varices

text: that can bleed heavily,

entity_name: Mallory–Weiss syndrome

text: tears

text: , constrictions, and disorders of motility. Diseases may cause difficulty swallowing (

text: dysphagia

text: ), painful swallowing (

entity_name: Odynophagia

text: odynophagia

entity_name: Chest pain

text: chest pain

text: , or cause no symptoms at all. Clinical investigations include

entity_name: Upper gastrointestinal series

text: X-rays

text: when swallowing

entity_name: Barium sulfate

text: barium

entity_name: Endoscopy

text: endoscopy

text: , and

entity_name: CT scan

text: CT scan

text: s. Surgically, the esophagus is very difficult to access.

text: During digestion, food is stored in the liquid present in the stomach. The food that is not digested travels to the large intestine and colon in liquid form. These organs begin to absorb the water turning the food into a more solid form. Different viruses or bacteria can increase the amount of liquid that is secreted and moves too quickly through the digestive tract for the water to be absorbed. Diarrhea comes in two types: acute diarrhea and chronic diarrhea. The acute diagnosis can last for a few days up to a week of time. Chronic diarrhea lasts for several days or longer periods of time lasting a few weeks. The difference in diagnosis will help determine the cause of the illness.

text: During

text: digestion

text: , food is stored in the liquid present in the stomach. The food that is not digested travels to the large intestine and colon in liquid form. These organs begin to absorb the water turning the food into a more solid form. Different

entity_name: Virus

text: viruses

text: or

entity_name: Bacteria

text: bacteria

text: can increase the amount of liquid that is secreted and moves too quickly through the digestive tract for the water to be absorbed. Diarrhea comes in two types: acute diarrhea and chronic diarrhea. The acute diagnosis can last for a few days up to a week of time. Chronic diarrhea lasts for several days or longer periods of time lasting a few weeks. The difference in diagnosis will help determine the cause of the illness.

text: An adrenergic nerve fibre is a neuron for which the neurotransmitter is either adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenaline or dopamine. These neurotransmitters are released at a location known as the synapse, which is a junction point between the axon of one nerve cell and the dendrite of another. The neurotransmitters are first released from the axon and then bind to the receptor site on the dendrite. Adrenergic nerve terminals are found in the secondary neurons of the sympathetic nervous system, one of two deviations of the autonomic nervous system which is responsible for your fight-or-flight response. This system increases heart rate, slows digestion, dilates pupils, and also controls the secretion of apocrine sweat glands in the dermal layer of skin, in addition to other responses.

text: An adrenergic nerve fibre is a

entity_name: Neuron

text: neuron

text: for which the

entity_name: Neurotransmitter

text: neurotransmitter

text: is either

entity_name: Epinephrine

text: adrenaline

text: (epinephrine), noradrenaline or dopamine. These neurotransmitters are released at a location known as the

entity_name: Synapse

text: synapse

text: , which is a junction point between the

entity_name: Axon

text: axon

text: of one nerve cell and the

entity_name: Dendrite

text: dendrite

text: of another. The neurotransmitters are first released from the axon and then bind to the receptor site on the dendrite. Adrenergic nerve terminals are found in the secondary neurons of the

entity_name: Sympathetic nervous system

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , one of two deviations of the

entity_name: Autonomic nervous system

text: autonomic nervous system

text: which is responsible for your

entity_name: Fight-or-flight response

text: fight-or-flight response

text: . This system increases

entity_name: Heart rate

text: heart rate

text: , slows

text: digestion

text: , dilates pupils, and also controls the secretion of apocrine sweat glands in the dermal layer of skin, in addition to other responses.

text: Located at the anterior part of the worm is the funnel-shaped mouth that is connected to the pharynx, followed by the esophagus that is smaller in diameter compared to the pharynx. About one tenth of the entire length of the worm, the esophagus then divides into intestinal crura, which extends further posteriorly. The cruca is divided into pouches, which extend between vitellaria. Vitallaria are glands that secrete yolk around the egg. This digestive pathway is observed to be continuous throughout the entire worm. Food particles were observed to be passing back and forth along these pathways in vivo.

text: Located at the anterior part of the worm is the funnel-shaped mouth that is connected to the

entity_name: Pharynx

text: pharynx

text: , followed by the

entity_name: Esophagus

text: esophagus

text: that is smaller in diameter compared to the pharynx. About one tenth of the entire length of the worm, the esophagus then divides into intestinal crura, which extends further posteriorly. The cruca is divided into pouches, which extend between vitellaria. Vitallaria are glands that secrete yolk around the egg. This digestive pathway is observed to be continuous throughout the entire worm. Food particles were observed to be passing back and forth along these pathways in vivo.

text: A mouth bar is a bar in a river that is typically created in the middle of a channel in a river delta. It is created by a positive feedback between mid-channel deposition and flow divergence. As the flow diverges near the ocean, sediment settles out in the channel and creates an incipient mouth bar. As flow is routed around the incipient bar, additional sediment is deposited on the incipient bar. This continued process results in the formation of a full-fledged mouth bar, which causes the channel to bifurcate. This continued process leads to the characteristic fractal tree pattern found in some prograding river-dominated deltas.

text: A mouth bar is a

entity_name: Bar (river morphology)

text: bar

text: in a

entity_name: River

text: river

text: that is typically created in the middle of a

entity_name: Channel (geography)

text: channel

text: in a

entity_name: River delta

text: river delta

text: . It is created by a

entity_name: Positive feedback

text: positive feedback

text: between mid-channel

entity_name: Deposition (geology)

text: deposition

text: and flow divergence. As the flow diverges near the

entity_name: Ocean

text: ocean

entity_name: Sediment

text: sediment

text: settles out in the channel and creates an incipient mouth bar. As flow is routed around the incipient bar, additional sediment is deposited on the incipient bar. This continued process results in the formation of a full-fledged mouth bar, which causes the channel to

entity_name: River bifurcation

text: bifurcate

text: . This continued process leads to the characteristic

entity_name: Fractal

text: fractal tree

text: pattern found in some

entity_name: Progradation

text: prograding

text: river-dominated deltas.

text: Slack-ma-Girdle is most often found in orchards in Devon, where it probably originated, though it was also planted in southern Somerset, Dorset and elsewhere. The apple's unusual name, like that of several other cider apples, has been suggested as referring to the drink's effect on the digestive system.

text: Slack-ma-Girdle is most often found in orchards in

entity_name: Devon

text: Devon

text: , where it probably originated, though it was also planted in southern

entity_name: Somerset

text: Somerset

entity_name: Dorset

text: Dorset

text: and elsewhere. The apple's unusual name, like that of several other cider apples, has been suggested as referring to the drink's effect on the digestive system.

text: Sponges are some of Earth’s oldest and most ubiquitous animals. The appearance of sponge spicule fossils date back to the Precambrian Era around 580 million years ago. An assemblage of these fossils were found in the Doushanto formation in Southern China. Some circular impressions from the Ediacaran Hills in Southern Australia are also reported to be sponges. They are one of the only lineages of metazoans from this era that continue to survive, and remain relatively unchanged.Sponges are such successful organisms due to their simple, yet effective morphology. They do not possess mouths or any digestive, nervous or circulatory systems. Instead they are filter feeders, which means that they obtain food through nutrients in the water. They have pores, called ostia, that water travels through to a chamber called the spongocoel, and exits through a chamber called the osculum. Through this water filtration system, they obtain nutrients that are needed for their survival. Specifically, they intracellularly digest bacteria, micro-algae or colloids

entity_name: Sponge

text: Sponges

text: are some of Earth’s oldest and most ubiquitous animals. The appearance of sponge spicule fossils date back to the Precambrian Era around 580 million years ago. An assemblage of these fossils were found in the Doushanto formation in Southern China. Some circular impressions from the Ediacaran Hills in Southern Australia are also reported to be sponges. They are one of the only lineages of metazoans from this era that continue to survive, and remain relatively unchanged.Sponges are such successful organisms due to their simple, yet effective

entity_name: Morphology (biology)

text: morphology

text: . They do not possess mouths or any digestive, nervous or circulatory systems. Instead they are

text: filter feeders

text: , which means that they obtain food through nutrients in the water. They have pores, called

text: ostia

text: , that water travels through to a chamber called the

entity_name: Spongocoel

text: spongocoel

text: , and exits through a chamber called the

text: osculum

text: . Through this water filtration system, they obtain nutrients that are needed for their survival. Specifically, they intracellularly digest bacteria, micro-algae or colloids

text: An esophageal food bolus obstruction (or steakhouse syndrome) is a medical emergency caused by the obstruction of the esophagus by an ingested foreign body.  It is usually associated with diseases that narrow the lumen of the esophagus, such as eosinophilic esophagitis, Schatzki rings, peptic strictures, webs, or cancers of the esophagus; rarely it can be seen in disorders of the movement of the esophagus, such as nutcracker esophagus.  While some esophageal food boli can pass by themselves or with the assistance of medications, some require the use of endoscopy to push the obstructing food into the stomach, or remove it from the esophagus.

text: An esophageal food

text: bolus

text: obstruction (or steakhouse syndrome) is a medical emergency caused by the obstruction of the

text: esophagus

text: by an ingested

text: foreign body

text: .  It is usually associated with diseases that narrow the

text: lumen

text: of the esophagus, such as

text: eosinophilic esophagitis

text: Schatzki ring

text: s, peptic

text: stricture

text: s, webs, or

text: cancers of the esophagus

text: ; rarely it can be seen in disorders of the movement of the esophagus, such as

text: nutcracker esophagus

text: .  While some esophageal food boli can pass by themselves or with the assistance of medications, some require the use of

text: endoscopy

text: to push the obstructing food into the stomach, or

text: remove

text: it from the esophagus.

text: Charcoal may be activated to increase its effectiveness as a filter. Activated charcoal readily adsorbs a wide range of organic compounds dissolved or suspended in gases and liquids. In certain industrial processes, such as the purification of sucrose from cane sugar, impurities cause an undesirable color, which can be removed with activated charcoal.It is also used to absorb odors and toxins in gases, such as air. Charcoal filters are also used in some types of gas masks. The medical use of activated charcoal is mainly the absorption of poisons. Activated charcoal is available without a prescription, so it is used for a variety of health-related applications. For example, it is often used to reduce discomfort and embarrassment due to excessive gas (flatulence) in the digestive tract.

text: Charcoal may be activated to increase its effectiveness as a filter.

text: Activated charcoal

text: readily

text: adsorbs

text: a wide range of organic compounds dissolved or suspended in gases and liquids. In certain industrial processes, such as the purification of sucrose from cane sugar, impurities cause an undesirable color, which can be removed with activated charcoal.It is also used to absorb

text: odor

text: s and toxins in gases, such as air. Charcoal filters are also used in some types of

text: gas mask

text: s. The medical use of activated charcoal is mainly the

text: absorption

text: of

text: poisons

text: . Activated charcoal is available without a prescription, so it is used for a variety of health-related applications. For example, it is often used to reduce discomfort and embarrassment due to excessive gas (

text: flatulence

text: ) in the digestive tract.

text: Enterocytes, or intestinal absorptive cells, are simple columnar epithelial cells found in the small intestine. A glycocalyx surface coat contains digestive enzymes. Microvilli on the apical surface increase surface area for the digestion and transport of molecules from the intestinal lumen. The cells also have a secretory role.

text: Enterocytes, or intestinal absorptive cells, are

text: simple columnar

text: epithelial cells

text: found in the

text: small intestine

text: . A

text: glycocalyx

text: surface coat contains digestive enzymes.

text: Microvilli

text: on the apical surface increase surface area for the digestion and transport of molecules from the intestinal

text: lumen

text: . The cells also have a secretory role.

text: The company Indian Rare Earths Limited (IREL) has developed a process to extract uranium from the Western and Eastern coastal dune sands of India. After pre-processing with high-intensity magnetic separators and fine grinding, the mineral sands (known as monazite), are digested with caustic soda at about 120C and water. The hydroxide concentrate is further digested with concentrated hydrochloric acid to solubilise all hydroxides to form a feed solution composed of chlorides of uranium and other rare earth elements including thorium. The solution is subjected to liquid–liquid extraction with dual solvent systems to produce uranyl chloride and thorium oxalate. The crude uranyl chloride solution is subsequently refined to nuclear grade ammonium diuranate by a purification process involving precipitation and solvent extraction in a nitrate media.

text: The company

text: Indian Rare Earths Limited

text: (IREL) has developed a process to extract uranium from the Western and Eastern coastal dune sands of

text: India

text: . After pre-processing with

text: high-intensity magnetic separator

text: s and fine grinding, the mineral

text: sand

text: s (known as

text: monazite

text: ), are digested with

text: caustic soda

text: at about 120C and water. The hydroxide concentrate is further digested with concentrated

text: hydrochloric acid

text: to solubilise all hydroxides to form a feed solution composed of chlorides of uranium and other

text: rare earth element

text: s including

text: thorium

text: . The solution is subjected to

text: liquid–liquid extraction

text: with dual solvent systems to produce uranyl chloride and

text: thorium oxalate

text: . The crude uranyl chloride solution is subsequently refined to nuclear grade

text: ammonium diuranate

text: by a purification process involving

text: precipitation

text: and

text: solvent extraction

text: in a nitrate media.

text: Many reef fish are toxic. Toxic fish are fish which contain strong toxins in their bodies. There is a distinction between poisonous fish and venomous fish. Both types of fish contain strong toxins, but the difference is in the way the toxin is delivered. Venomous fish deliver their toxins (called venom) by biting, stinging, or stabbing, causing an envenomation. Venomous fish don't necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, since the venom is often destroyed in the digestive system. By contrast, poisonous fish contain strong toxins which are not destroyed by the digestive system. This makes them poisonous to eat.

text: Many reef fish are toxic. Toxic fish are fish which contain strong

text: toxin

text: s in their bodies. There is a distinction between

text: poisonous fish

text: and

text: venomous fish

text: . Both types of fish contain strong toxins, but the difference is in the way the toxin is delivered. Venomous fish deliver their toxins (called

text: venom

text: ) by biting, stinging, or stabbing, causing an

text: envenomation

text: . Venomous fish don't necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, since the venom is often destroyed in the digestive system. By contrast, poisonous fish contain strong toxins which are not destroyed by the digestive system. This makes them poisonous to eat.

text: The maximum published length of a Western Atlantic seabream is , though they usually grow to about . The heaviest was recorded to weigh . Western Atlantic seabream have nine spines on their dorsal fins, and 10–11 soft rays. On their anal fins, they have only three spines, but the same number of rays. The large intestine of the Western Atlantic seabream makes up roughly 90% of the length of its entire digestive tract. Males and females can be distinguished by the color of their pelvic fins: in males, the fin is partially or totally dark, while in females it is an orange color.

text: The maximum published length of a Western Atlantic seabream is , though they usually grow to about . The heaviest was recorded to weigh . Western Atlantic seabream have nine

text: spines

text: on their

text: dorsal fin

text: s, and 10–11 soft rays. On their

text: anal fin

text: s, they have only three spines, but the same number of rays. The

text: large intestine

text: of the Western Atlantic seabream makes up roughly 90% of the length of its entire

text: digestive tract

text: Male

text: s and

text: female

text: s can be distinguished by the color of their

text: pelvic fins

text: : in males, the fin is partially or totally dark, while in females it is an orange color.

text: Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a common disease in western countries. In the United States, 7% of the population experiences heartburn daily and 44% at least once a month. Heartburn occurs when esophageal mucosa is exposed to the acidic gastric content, but the complaint of heartburn is not always a reliable guide to the presence of acid reflux in the esophagus. Further, only half of the patients with increased esophageal acid exposure will have esophagitis.  Therefore, the diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) on the basis of symptoms or endoscopic findings is problematic.

text: Gastroesophageal reflux disease

text: (GERD) is a common disease in western countries. In the

text: United States

text: , 7% of the population experiences

text: heartburn

text: daily and 44% at least once a month.

text: Heartburn

text: occurs when esophageal mucosa is exposed to the acidic gastric content, but the complaint of

text: heartburn

text: is not always a reliable guide to the presence of acid reflux in the esophagus. Further, only half of the patients with increased esophageal acid exposure will have

text: esophagitis

text: .  Therefore, the diagnosis of

text: gastroesophageal reflux disease

text: (GERD) on the basis of symptoms or endoscopic findings is problematic.

text: The pancreas is a major organ functioning as an accessory digestive gland in the digestive system. It is both an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland. The endocrine part secretes insulin when the blood sugar becomes high; insulin moves glucose from the blood into the muscles and other tissues for use as energy. The endocrine part releases glucagon when the blood sugar is low; glucagon allows stored sugar to be broken down into glucose by the liver in order to re–balance the sugar levels. The pancreas produces and releases important digestive enzymes in the pancreatic juice that it delivers to the duodenum. The pancreas lies below and at the back of the stomach. It connects to the duodenum via the pancreatic duct which it joins near to the bile duct's connection where both the bile and pancreatic juice can act on the chyme that is released from the stomach into the duodenum. Aqueous pancreatic secretions from pancreatic duct cells contain bicarbonate ions which are alkaline and help with the bile to neutralise the acidic chyme that is churned out by the stomach.

text: The

text: pancreas

text: is a major organ functioning as an accessory digestive gland in the digestive system. It is both an

text: endocrine gland

text: and an

text: exocrine gland

text: . The endocrine part secretes

text: insulin

text: when the

text: blood sugar

text: becomes high; insulin moves glucose from the blood into the muscles and other tissues for use as energy. The endocrine part releases

text: glucagon

text: when the blood sugar is low; glucagon allows stored sugar to be broken down into

text: glucose

text: by the liver in order to re–balance the sugar levels. The pancreas produces and releases important digestive enzymes in the

text: pancreatic juice

text: that it delivers to the duodenum. The pancreas lies below and at the back of the stomach. It connects to the duodenum via the

text: pancreatic duct

text: which it joins near to the bile duct's connection where both the bile and pancreatic juice can act on the

text: chyme

text: that is released from the stomach into the duodenum. Aqueous pancreatic secretions from

text: pancreatic duct cell

text: s contain

text: bicarbonate

text: ions which are alkaline and help with the bile to neutralise the acidic chyme that is churned out by the stomach.

text: Hemosuccus pancreaticus, also known as pseudohematobilia or Wirsungorrhage, is a rare cause of hemorrhage in the gastrointestinal tract. It is caused by a bleeding source in the pancreas, pancreatic duct, or structures adjacent to the pancreas, such as the splenic artery, that bleed into the pancreatic duct. Patients with hemosuccus may develop symptoms of gastrointestinal hemorrhage, such as blood in the stools, maroon stools, or melena. They may also develop abdominal pain. Hemosuccus pancreaticus is associated with pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer and aneurysms of the splenic artery. Angiography may be used to diagnose hemosuccus pancreaticus, where the celiac axis is injected to determine the blood vessel that is bleeding. Concomitant embolization of the end vessel may terminate the hemorrhage. Alternatively, a distal pancreatectomy may be required to stop the hemorrhage.

text: Hemosuccus pancreaticus

text: , also known as

text: pseudohematobilia

text: or

text: Wirsungorrhage

text: , is a rare cause of

text: hemorrhage

text: in the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . It is caused by a bleeding source in the pancreas, pancreatic duct, or structures adjacent to the pancreas, such as the

text: splenic artery

text: , that bleed into the pancreatic duct. Patients with hemosuccus may develop symptoms of gastrointestinal hemorrhage, such as blood in the stools, maroon stools, or

text: melena

text: . They may also develop abdominal pain. Hemosuccus pancreaticus is associated with

text: pancreatitis

text: pancreatic cancer

text: and

text: aneurysm

text: s of the

text: splenic artery

text: Angiography

text: may be used to diagnose hemosuccus pancreaticus, where the

text: celiac axis

text: is injected to determine the blood vessel that is bleeding. Concomitant

text: embolization

text: of the end vessel may terminate the hemorrhage. Alternatively, a

text: distal pancreatectomy

text: may be required to stop the hemorrhage.

text: Egg allergy is a type of food allergy. It is a hypersensitivity to dietary substances from the yolk or whites of eggs, causing an overreaction of the immune system.

text: Egg allergy is a type of

text: food allergy

text: . It is a

text: hypersensitivity

text: to

text: diet

text: ary substances from the yolk or whites of

text: eggs

text: , causing an overreaction of the

text: immune system

text: Adverse reactions to food can be due to several mechanisms. Correct identification of the type of reaction in an individual is important, as different approaches to management may be required. The area of food allergies and intolerances has been controversial and is currently a topic that is heavily researched. It has been characterised in the past by lack of universal acceptance of definitions, diagnosis and treatment.

text: Quantee (or kwati in Newari) is a mixed bean sprout soup served at the Janai Purnima or Raksha Bhandan festival. Ricebean is one of nine beans prescribed for this recipe. The festival marks the end of the monsoon where people by traditional perception (and probably also in reality) have been weak, undernourished and subject to diseases.  In this respect, quantee is said “to make one strong” and to purify the stomach as the mixed bean sprouts are hard to digest and so cleans the stomach. In addition, eating quantee is said to kill a certain type of mosquito (Löwdin, 1998).

text: Quantee

text: (or

text: kwati

text: in

text: Newari

text: ) is a mixed bean sprout soup served at the

text: Janai Purnima

text: or

text: Raksha Bhandan

text: festival. Ricebean is one of nine beans prescribed for this recipe. The festival marks the end of the monsoon where people by traditional perception (and probably also in reality) have been weak, undernourished and subject to diseases.  In this respect, quantee is said “to make one strong” and to purify the stomach as the mixed bean sprouts are hard to digest and so cleans the stomach. In addition, eating quantee is said to kill a certain type of mosquito (Löwdin, 1998).

text: Latest wins fertilizer were obtained a few days ago, as the system 'digestive' of Biocompost takes eight weeks to complete the decomposition of food waste in the compound of earthy appearance that the processor tries to sell to farmers. Ensure that there is no risks to crops. In short, each bag an average of ten kilos, 4.40 have become compost, 800 grams have been destined for recycling and the remaining 4.80 kilos, have been concentrated to reduce its volume and minimize the cost to transport to landfill.

text: Latest wins

text: fertilizer

text: were obtained a few days ago, as the system 'digestive' of Biocompost takes eight weeks to complete the decomposition of food waste in the compound of earthy appearance that the processor tries to sell to farmers. Ensure that there is no risks to crops. In short, each bag an average of ten kilos, 4.40 have become compost, 800 grams have been destined for recycling and the remaining 4.80 kilos, have been concentrated to reduce its volume and minimize the cost to transport to landfill.

text: The chewed plant material collects in the large cecum, a secondary chamber between the large and small intestine containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. The pellets are about 56% bacteria by dry weight, largely accounting for the pellets being 24.4% protein on average. The soft feces form here and contain up to five times the vitamins of hard feces. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the rabbit and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables rabbits to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. This process serves the same purpose within the rabbit as rumination does in cattle and sheep.

text: The chewed plant material collects in the large cecum, a secondary chamber between the large and small intestine containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. The pellets are about 56% bacteria by dry weight, largely accounting for the pellets being 24.4% protein on average. The soft feces form here and contain up to five times the vitamins of hard feces. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the rabbit and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables rabbits to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. This process serves the same purpose within the rabbit as

text: rumination

text: does in cattle and sheep.

text: Arsenic trioxide is readily absorbed by the digestive system: toxic effects are also well known upon inhalation or upon skin contact. Elimination is rapid at first (half-life of 1–2 days), by methylation to monomethylarsonic acid and dimethylarsonic acid, and excretion in the urine, but a certain amount (30–40% in the case of repeated exposure) is incorporated into the bones, muscles, skin, hair and nails (all tissues rich in keratin) and eliminated over a period of weeks or months.

text: Arsenic trioxide is readily absorbed by the digestive system: toxic effects are also well known upon inhalation or upon skin contact. Elimination is rapid at first (half-life of 1–2 days), by methylation to monomethylarsonic acid and dimethylarsonic acid, and excretion in the urine, but a certain amount (30–40% in the case of repeated exposure) is incorporated into the bones, muscles, skin, hair and nails (all tissues rich in

text: keratin

text: ) and eliminated over a period of weeks or months.

text: The esophagus carries food to the stomach. The esophagus enters the stomach at an acute angle, creating a one-way valve, with a powerful sphincter mechanism at the gastroesophageal junction, which is why horses cannot vomit.  The esophagus is also the area of the digestive tract where horses may suffer from choke. (see Illnesses related to improper feeding below)

text: The

text: esophagus

text: carries food to the stomach. The esophagus enters the stomach at an acute angle, creating a one-way valve, with a powerful

text: sphincter

text: mechanism at the gastroesophageal junction, which is why horses cannot vomit.  The esophagus is also the area of the digestive tract where horses may suffer from

text: choke

text: . (see

text: Illnesses related to improper feeding

text: below)

text: In 2013, Harvest Power began operations of three anaerobic digesters in North America. First, in Reedy Creek Improvement District of Orlando, Florida, food waste from Walt Disney World was an early input. As of September 2015, the facility was accepting 100 tons of food waste daily. The biogas produced by the facility fuels a 7-megawatt combined heat and power plant helping reduce waste going to landfills and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Second, in British Columbia, the company opened the largest commercial scale high-solids anaerobic digester in North America that processes food scraps mixed with yard trimmings from the lower mainland. The facility recycles food waste that the regional government Metro Vancouver ultimately banned from landfills in January 2015. Third, in London, Ontario, the company opened a food waste digester to serve food waste processors, supermarkets, restaurants, and other commercial generators.

text: In 2013, Harvest Power began operations of three

text: anaerobic digester

text: s in North America. First, in

text: Reedy Creek Improvement District

text: of

text: Orlando

text: , Florida, food waste from

text: Walt Disney World

text: was an early input. As of September 2015, the facility was accepting 100 tons of food waste daily. The

text: biogas

text: produced by the facility fuels a 7-

text: megawatt

text: combined heat and power

text: plant helping reduce waste going to landfills and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Second, in

text: British Columbia

text: , the company opened the largest commercial scale high-solids

text: anaerobic digester

text: in North America that processes food scraps mixed with yard trimmings from the

text: lower mainland

text: . The facility recycles food waste that the regional government

text: Metro Vancouver

text: ultimately banned from landfills in January 2015. Third, in

text: London, Ontario

text: , the company opened a food waste digester to serve food waste processors, supermarkets, restaurants, and other commercial generators.

text: The best method for diagnosing food allergy is to be assessed by an allergist. The allergist will review the patient's history and the symptoms or reactions that have been noted after food ingestion. If the allergist feels the symptoms or reactions are consistent with food allergy, he/she will perform allergy tests. Additional diagnostic tools for evaluation of eosinophilic or non-IgE mediated reactions include endoscopy, colonoscopy, and biopsy.

text: The best method for diagnosing food allergy is to be assessed by an allergist. The allergist will review the patient's history and the symptoms or reactions that have been noted after food ingestion. If the allergist feels the symptoms or reactions are consistent with food allergy, he/she will perform allergy tests. Additional diagnostic tools for evaluation of eosinophilic or non-IgE mediated reactions include

text: endoscopy

text: colonoscopy

text: , and

text: biopsy

text: Hesketh-Prichard died from sepsis on 14 June 1922, at the ancestral home of his wife at Gorhambury, Hertfordshire, England. His obituarists ascribed this to an obscure form of blood poisoning brought on by gassing in the trenches during his war service. However, his ailments, including fatigue, heart–digestive–neurological disorders, appendicitis, cognitive problems, depression, anxiety — are today recognised as differential symptoms of malaria. Left untreated they sometimes lead to organ failure and death.

text: Hesketh-Prichard died from

text: sepsis

text: on 14 June 1922, at

text: the ancestral home of his wife

text: at Gorhambury,

text: Hertfordshire

text: , England. His obituarists ascribed this to an obscure form of

text: blood poisoning

text: brought on by gassing in the trenches during his war service. However, his ailments, including

text: fatigue

text: heart

text: digestive

text: neurological

text: disorders,

text: appendicitis

text: cognitive

text: problems, depression,

text: anxiety

text: — are today recognised as differential symptoms of

text: malaria

text: . Left untreated they sometimes lead to organ failure and death.

text: It may be formed by reaction of the elements. Metal phosphides have been used as rodenticides. A mixture of food and calcium phosphide is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic gas phosphine. This method of vermin control has possible use in places where rodents immune to many of the common poisons have appeared. Other pesticides similar to calcium phosphide are zinc phosphide and aluminium phosphide.

text: It may be formed by reaction of the elements. Metal phosphides have been used as

text: rodenticides

text: . A mixture of food and calcium phosphide is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic gas

text: phosphine

text: . This method of vermin control has possible use in places where rodents immune to many of the common poisons have appeared. Other pesticides similar to calcium phosphide are

text: zinc phosphide

text: and

text: aluminium phosphide

text: Raghunandana authored 28 Smriti digests on civil law and rituals, collectively known as Astavimsati-tattva. The English scholars compared Raghunandana's digests to the Comyns' Digest, and called him the "Comyns of India".

text: Raghunandana authored 28

text: Smriti

text: digests on civil law and rituals, collectively known as Astavimsati-tattva. The English scholars compared Raghunandana's digests to the

text: Comyns' Digest

text: , and called him the "

text: Comyns

text: of India".

text: In most vertebrates, the stomach is located between the esophagus and the small intestine. It secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid to aid in food digestion. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach into the duodenum where peristalsis takes over to move this through the rest of the intestines.

text: In most vertebrates, the stomach is located between the

text: esophagus

text: and the

text: small intestine

text: . It secretes

text: digestive enzyme

text: s and

text: gastric acid

text: to aid in food digestion. The

text: pyloric sphincter

text: controls the passage of partially digested food (

text: chyme

text: ) from the stomach into the

text: duodenum

text: where

text: peristalsis

text: takes over to move this through the rest of the intestines.

text: EcoRI digestion produces "sticky" ends,

text: EcoRI

text: digestion produces

text: "sticky" ends

text: The embryology of the human digestive system and the body cavities concerns the epithelium of the digestive system and the parenchyma of its derivatives, which originate from the endoderm. Connective tissue, muscular components, and peritoneal components originate in the mesoderm. Different regions of the gut tube such as the esophagus, stomach, duodenum, etc. are specified by a retinoic acid  gradient that causes transcription factors unique to each region to be expressed. Differentiation of the gut and its derivatives depends upon reciprocal interactions between the gut endoderm and its surrounding mesoderm. Hox genes in the mesoderm are induced by a Hedgehog signaling pathway secreted by gut endoderm and regulate the craniocaudal organization of the gut and its derivatives. The gut system extends from the oropharyngeal membrane to the cloacal membrane and is divided into the foregut, midgut, and hindgut.

text: The embryology of the human digestive system and the body cavities concerns the epithelium of the

text: digestive system

text: and the

text: parenchyma

text: of its derivatives, which originate from the endoderm. Connective tissue, muscular components, and

text: peritoneal

text: components originate in the

text: mesoderm

text: . Different regions of the

text: gut tube

text: such as the

text: esophagus

text: , stomach,

text: duodenum

text: , etc. are specified by a retinoic acid  gradient that causes

text: transcription factor

text: s unique to each region to be expressed. Differentiation of the gut and its derivatives depends upon reciprocal interactions between the gut

text: endoderm

text: and its surrounding mesoderm.

text: Hox genes

text: in the mesoderm are induced by a

text: Hedgehog signaling pathway

text: secreted by gut endoderm and regulate the craniocaudal organization of the gut and its derivatives. The gut system extends from the

text: oropharyngeal

text: membrane to the

text: cloacal

text: membrane and is divided into the

text: foregut

text: midgut

text: , and

text: hindgut

text: Food allergies usually have a fast onset (from seconds to one hour) and may include:

text: Mouthing is an essential element of cued speech and simultaneous sign and speech, both for the direct instruction of oral language and to disambiguate cases where there is not a one-to-one correspondence between sign and speech. However, mouthing does not always reflect the corresponding spoken word; when signing 'thick' in Auslan, for example, the mouthing is equivalent to spoken fahth.

text: Mouthing is an essential element of

text: cued speech

text: and simultaneous sign and speech, both for the direct instruction of oral language and to disambiguate cases where there is not a one-to-one correspondence between sign and speech. However, mouthing does not always reflect the corresponding spoken word; when signing 'thick' in

text: Auslan

text: , for example, the mouthing is equivalent to spoken fahth.

text: As amphipathic molecules with hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, conjugated bile salts sit at the lipid/water interface and, at the right concentration, form micelles. The added solubility of conjugated bile salts aids in their function by preventing passive re-absorption in the small intestine. As a result, the concentration of bile acids/salts in the small intestine is high enough to form micelles and solubilize lipids. "Critical micellar concentration" refers to both an intrinsic property of the bile acid itself and amount of bile acid necessary to function in the spontaneous and dynamic formation of micelles. Bile acid-containing micelles aid lipases to digest lipids and bring them near the intestinal brush border membrane, which results in fat absorption.

text: As

text: amphipathic

text: molecules with

text: hydrophobic

text: and

text: hydrophilic

text: regions, conjugated bile salts sit at the lipid/water interface and, at the right concentration, form

text: micelles

text: . The added solubility of conjugated bile salts aids in their function by preventing passive re-absorption in the small intestine. As a result, the concentration of bile acids/salts in the small intestine is high enough to form micelles and solubilize lipids. "Critical micellar concentration" refers to both an intrinsic property of the bile acid itself and amount of bile acid necessary to function in the spontaneous and dynamic formation of micelles. Bile acid-containing micelles aid

text: lipases

text: to digest lipids and bring them near the intestinal

text: brush border

text: membrane, which results in fat absorption.

text: Autoimmune gastrointestinal dysmotility (AGID) is an autoimmune disease autonomic neuropathy affecting the gastrointestinal organs and digestive system of the body. Dysmotility is when the strength or coordination of the esophagus, stomach or intestines muscles do not work as they should.

text: Autoimmune gastrointestinal dysmotility (AGID) is an

text: autoimmune disease

text: autonomic neuropathy

text: affecting the

text: gastrointestinal

text: organs and

text: digestive system

text: of the body. Dysmotility is when the strength or coordination of the

text: esophagus

text: stomach

text: or

text: intestines

text: muscles

text: do not work as they should.

text: Saliva functions initially in the digestive system to moisten and soften food into the formation of a bolus. The bolus is further helped by the lubrication provided by the saliva in its passage from the mouth into the esophagus. Also of importance is the presence in saliva of the digestive enzymes amylase and lipase. Amylase starts to work on the starch in carbohydrates, breaking it down into the simple sugars of maltose and dextrose that can be further broken down in the small intestine. Saliva in the mouth can account for 30% of this initial starch digestion. Lipase starts to work on breaking down fats. Lipase is further produced in the pancreas where it is released to continue this digestion of fats. The presence of salivary lipase is of prime importance in young babies whose pancreatic lipase has yet to be developed.

text: Saliva

text: functions initially in the digestive system to moisten and soften food into the formation of a

text: bolus

text: . The bolus is further helped by the lubrication provided by the saliva in its passage from the mouth into the esophagus. Also of importance is the presence in saliva of the digestive enzymes

text: amylase

text: and

text: lipase

text: . Amylase starts to work on the

text: starch

text: in

text: carbohydrate

text: s, breaking it down into the simple

text: sugars

text: of

text: maltose

text: and

text: dextrose

text: that can be further broken down in the small intestine. Saliva in the mouth can account for 30% of this initial starch digestion. Lipase starts to work on breaking down

text: fat

text: s. Lipase is further produced in the

text: pancreas

text: where it is released to continue this digestion of fats. The presence of salivary lipase is of prime importance in young babies whose pancreatic lipase has yet to be developed.

text: Digestive system: The mouth opening lies ventrally between the labial tentacles. The paired anterior pedal glands discharge ventral to the mouth opening to the exterior. The oral tube is long and not ciliated. Paired oral tube glands are flanking the oral tube and discharge in its anterior part. The muscular pharynx is bulbous and narrows to the posterior; it contains the hook-shaped radula. The upper ramus is longer than the lower one. The radula formula could not be examined. Jaws are absent. The long, ciliated oesophagus emerges posterodorsally from the pharynx and is flanked by longitudinal muscles. One pair of large salivary glands discharges into the oesophagus via narrow salivary gland ducts directly behind the pharynx.

text: Digestive system

text: : The mouth opening lies ventrally between the labial

text: tentacle

text: s. The paired anterior

text: pedal glands

text: discharge ventral to the mouth opening to the exterior. The oral tube is long and not ciliated. Paired oral tube glands are flanking the oral tube and discharge in its anterior part. The muscular

text: pharynx

text: is bulbous and narrows to the posterior; it contains the hook-shaped

text: radula

text: . The upper ramus is longer than the lower one. The radula formula could not be examined. Jaws are absent. The long, ciliated oesophagus emerges posterodorsally from the pharynx and is flanked by longitudinal muscles. One pair of large

text: salivary gland

text: s discharges into the oesophagus via narrow salivary gland ducts directly behind the pharynx.

text: The organisms enter through the digestive tract and must be ingested in large numbers to cause disease in healthy adults. An infection can only begin after living salmonellae (not merely Salmonella-produced toxins) reach the gastrointestinal tract. Some of the microorganisms are killed in the stomach, while the surviving ones enter the small intestine and multiply in tissues. Gastric acidity is responsible for the destruction of the majority of ingested bacteria, but Salmonella has evolved a degree of tolerance to acidic environments that allows a subset of ingested bacteria to survive. Bacterial colonies may also become trapped in mucus produced in the oesophagus. By the end of the incubation period, the nearby host cells are poisoned by endotoxins released from the dead salmonellae. The local response to the endotoxins is enteritis and gastrointestinal disorder.

text: The organisms enter through the digestive tract and must be ingested in large numbers to cause disease in healthy adults. An infection can only begin after living salmonellae (not merely Salmonella-produced toxins) reach the gastrointestinal tract. Some of the microorganisms are killed in the stomach, while the surviving ones enter the small intestine and multiply in tissues. Gastric acidity is responsible for the destruction of the majority of ingested bacteria, but Salmonella has evolved a degree of tolerance to acidic environments that allows a subset of ingested bacteria to survive. Bacterial colonies may also become trapped in mucus produced in the oesophagus. By the end of the incubation period, the nearby host cells are poisoned by

text: endotoxins

text: released from the dead salmonellae. The local response to the endotoxins is enteritis and gastrointestinal disorder.

text: In general medicine, enteral nutrition or drug administration (Greek enteros , "intestine") is feeding or drug administration by the digestion process of a gastrointestinal (GI) tract, such as the human gastrointestinal tract. This contrasts with parenteral nutrition or drug administration (Greek para, "besides" + enteros), which occurs from routes outside the GI tract, such as intravenous routes. Generally, drugs are given by two general methods: enteral and parenteral administration. Enteral administration involves the esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines (i.e., the gastrointestinal tract). Methods of administration include oral, sublingual (dissolving the drug under the tongue), and rectal. Parenteral routes do not involve the gastrointestinal tract. In pharmacology, the route of drug administration is important because it affects drug metabolism, drug clearance, and thus dosage.

text: In general medicine, enteral nutrition or drug administration (

text: Greek

text: enteros , "intestine") is

text: feeding

text: or

text: drug administration

text: by the

text: digestion

text: process of a gastrointestinal (GI) tract, such as the

text: human gastrointestinal tract

text: . This contrasts with

text: parenteral

text: nutrition or drug administration (Greek para, "besides" + enteros), which occurs from routes outside the GI tract, such as

text: intravenous

text: routes. Generally, drugs are given by two general methods: enteral and parenteral administration. Enteral administration involves the esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines (i.e., the gastrointestinal tract). Methods of administration include oral, sublingual (dissolving the drug under the tongue), and rectal. Parenteral routes do not involve the gastrointestinal tract. In

text: pharmacology

text: , the route of drug administration is important because it affects

text: drug metabolism

text: drug clearance

text: , and thus

text: dosage

text: For a hash function for which L is the number of bits in the message digest, finding a message that corresponds to a given message digest can always be done using a brute force search in approximately 2 evaluations. This is called a preimage attack and may or may not be practical depending on L and the particular computing environment. The second criterion, finding two different messages that produce the same message digest, namely a collision, requires on average only about  evaluations using a birthday attack. For the latter reason the strength of a hash function is usually compared to a symmetric cipher of half the message digest length. Thus SHA-1 was originally thought to have 80-bit strength.

text: For a hash function for which L is the number of bits in the message digest, finding a message that corresponds to a given message digest can always be done using a brute force search in approximately 2 evaluations. This is called a

text: preimage attack

text: and may or may not be practical depending on L and the particular computing environment. The second criterion, finding two different messages that produce the same message digest, namely a collision, requires on average only about  evaluations using a

text: birthday attack

text: . For the latter reason the strength of a hash function is usually compared to a symmetric cipher of half the message digest length. Thus SHA-1 was originally thought to have 80-bit strength.

text: Another key characteristic that allows Himalayan tahr to be successful as an invasive species is their digestive tract. Their digestive system allows them to consume a wide variety of vegetation ranging from easy-to-digest leaves/grasses to woody shrubs and other “tough” vegetation not as easily digested by other species. This flexibility in diet not only allows Himalayan tahr to have a competitive advantage for resource use in their environment among other species, but it also allows them to be less hindered by abiotic disruptions and other natural disasters. In other words, their ability to digest a large range of vegetation allows the Himalayan tahr to have a bigger fundamental niche, and as a result, increases their success as an invasive species.

text: Another key characteristic that allows Himalayan tahr to be successful as an invasive species is their digestive tract. Their

text: digestive system

text: allows them to consume a wide variety of vegetation ranging from easy-to-digest leaves/grasses to woody shrubs and other “tough” vegetation not as easily digested by other species. This flexibility in diet not only allows Himalayan tahr to have a competitive advantage for resource use in their environment among other species, but it also allows them to be less hindered by abiotic disruptions and other natural disasters. In other words, their ability to digest a large range of vegetation allows the Himalayan tahr to have a bigger

text: fundamental niche

text: , and as a result, increases their success as an invasive species.

text: Some people, managed for years for IBS, may have non-celiac gluten sensitivity (NCGS). Gastrointestinal symptoms of IBS are clinically indistinguishable from those of NCGS, but the presence of any of the following non-intestinal manifestations suggest a possible NCGS: headache or migraine, "foggy mind", chronic fatigue, fibromyalgia, joint and muscle pain, leg or arm numbness, tingling of the extremities, dermatitis (eczema or skin rash), atopic disorders, allergy to one or more inhalants, foods or metals (such as mites, graminaceae, parietaria, cat or dog hair, shellfish, or nickel), depression, anxiety, anemia, iron-deficiency anemia, folate deficiency, asthma, rhinitis, eating disorders, neuropsychiatric disorders (such as schizophrenia, autism, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) or autoimmune diseases. An improvement with a gluten-free diet of immune-mediated symptoms, including autoimmune diseases, once having reasonably ruled out coeliac disease and wheat allergy, is another way to realize a differential diagnosis.

text: Some people, managed for years for IBS, may have

text: non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: (NCGS). Gastrointestinal symptoms of IBS are clinically indistinguishable from those of NCGS, but the presence of any of the following non-intestinal manifestations suggest a possible NCGS:

text: headache

text: or

text: migraine

text: , "foggy mind",

text: chronic fatigue

text: fibromyalgia

text: , joint and muscle pain, leg or arm

text: numbness

text: tingling

text: of the extremities, dermatitis (

text: eczema

text: or

text: skin rash

text: atopic disorders

text: allergy

text: to one or more inhalants, foods or metals (such as

text: mite

text: s,

text: graminaceae

text: parietaria

text: , cat or dog hair,

text: shellfish

text: , or

text: nickel

text: depression

text: anxiety

text: anemia

text: iron-deficiency anemia

text: folate deficiency

text: asthma

text: rhinitis

text: eating disorder

text: s,

text: neuropsychiatric disorder

text: s (such as

text: schizophrenia

text: autism

text: peripheral neuropathy

text: ataxia

entity_name: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

text: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

text: ) or

text: autoimmune disease

text: s. An improvement with a

text: gluten-free diet

text: of immune-mediated symptoms, including autoimmune diseases, once having reasonably ruled out

text: coeliac disease

text: and

text: wheat allergy

text: , is another way to realize a differential diagnosis.

text: The digestive system of this species is unique. There is a distinctive bump along the great curvature in the stomach. It is considered to be a bilocular stomach, that aids in digesting plant-based diets. It allows adaptation to a variety of food sources. The digestive system of L.sikapusi, especially the stomach structure is very similar to Onychomys. The stomach of L.sikapusi does not show insectivorous diet anatomical arrangements. It is thought to aid the young to absorb large amount of milk in their stomach during period of growth. The stomach of L.sikapusi lacks pyloric glands. Their large stomach allows for heavy mixing of bolus after eating.Their stomach also maintains a relatively high pH range so the enzyme salivary amylase may continue to digest carbohydrates, starch, and glycogen from the food consumed. When there is inadequate water intake due to dry climates in the environment, these rodents produce concentrated urine and dry fecal matter to retain water so they may keep themselves hydrated.

text: The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous. For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The speed of metabolism, the metabolic rate, influences how much food an organism will require, and also affects how it is able to obtain that food.

text: The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find

text: nutritious

text: and which

text: poison

text: ous. For example, some

text: prokaryote

text: s use

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The speed of metabolism, the

text: metabolic rate

text: , influences how much food an organism will require, and also affects how it is able to obtain that food.

text: The most common food allergens account for about 90% of all allergic reactions; in adults they include shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and egg. In children, they include milk, eggs, peanuts, and tree nuts. Six to 8% of children under the age of three have food allergies and nearly 4% of adults have food allergies.

text: Medical foods for management of gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) impairment provide an amino acid-based diet in its most easily digestible (elemental) form to aid in poor nutrient absorption due to digestive disease, malabsorption, severe food allergies, or other conditions in which the GI tract is severely compromised.

text: Medical foods for management of

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: (GI tract) impairment provide an amino acid-based diet in its most easily digestible (elemental) form to aid in poor nutrient absorption due to

text: digestive disease

text: malabsorption

text: , severe

text: food allergies

text: , or other conditions in which the GI tract is severely compromised.

text: An insect uses its digestive system to extract nutrients and other substances from the food it consumes. Most of this food is ingested in the form of macromolecules and other complex substances like proteins, polysaccharides, fats, and nucleic acids. These macromolecules must be broken down by catabolic reactions into smaller molecules like amino acids and simple sugars before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion. The main structure of an insect's digestive system is a long enclosed tube called the alimentary canal, which runs lengthwise through the body. The alimentary canal directs food in one direction: from the mouth to the anus. It has three sections, each of which performs a different process of digestion. In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax, adjacent to the foregut. The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into the foregut, midgut and hindgut.

text: An insect uses its digestive system to extract nutrients and other substances from the food it consumes. Most of this food is ingested in the form of

text: macromolecule

text: s and other complex substances like

text: protein

text: s,

text: polysaccharide

text: s,

text: fat

text: s, and

text: nucleic acid

text: s. These macromolecules must be broken down by

text: catabolic reaction

text: s into smaller molecules like

text: amino acid

text: s and

text: simple sugar

text: s before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion. The main structure of an insect's digestive system is a long enclosed tube called the

text: alimentary canal

text: , which runs lengthwise through the body. The alimentary canal directs food in one direction: from the

text: mouth

text: to the

text: anus

text: . It has three sections, each of which performs a different process of digestion. In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax, adjacent to the foregut. The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into the

text: foregut

text: midgut

text: and

text: hindgut

text: The pharynx is a part of the conducting zone of the respiratory system and also a part of the digestive system. It is the part of the throat immediately behind the nasal cavity at the back of the mouth and above the esophagus and larynx. The pharynx is made up of three parts. The lower two parts–the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx are involved in the digestive system. The laryngopharynx connects to the esophagus and it serves as a passageway for both air and food. Air enters the larynx anteriorly but anything swallowed has priority and the passage of air is temporarily blocked. The pharynx is innervated by the pharyngeal plexus of the vagus nerve. Muscles in the pharynx push the food into the esophagus. The pharynx joins the esophagus at the oesophageal inlet which is located behind the cricoid cartilage.

text: The

text: pharynx

text: is a part of the

text: conducting zone

text: of the

text: respiratory system

text: and also a part of the digestive system. It is the part of the throat immediately behind the

text: nasal cavity

text: at the back of the mouth and above the esophagus and

text: larynx

text: . The pharynx is made up of three parts. The lower two parts–the

text: oropharynx

text: and the

text: laryngopharynx

text: are involved in the digestive system. The laryngopharynx connects to the esophagus and it serves as a passageway for both air and food. Air enters the larynx anteriorly but anything swallowed has priority and the passage of air is temporarily blocked. The pharynx is innervated by the

text: pharyngeal plexus of the vagus nerve

text: . Muscles in the pharynx push the food into the esophagus. The pharynx joins the esophagus at the oesophageal inlet which is located behind the

text: cricoid cartilage

text: The gastrointestinal tract contains thousands of different bacteria in their gut flora.

text: The gastrointestinal tract contains thousands of different

text: bacteria

text: in their

text: gut flora

text: Once the sage Agastya was invited. Agastya came to Ilvala and the sage was received with reverence and great honour. Sage Agastya with his divne power knew the intention of the hosts and wanted to put an end to this. Agastya ate the food served to him. As soon as the sage finished eating, Ilvala called,"Vatape atragacha"(Vatapi come here). Immediately, Agastya who knows what Ilvala was up to passed his right hand over his stomach and said,"Vatapi Jeernobhava"(Vatape get digested). Vatapi could not come out of Agastya's stomach and that was the end of the demon. Ilvala, was scared. He went on shouting "Vatapi atragacha" Agastya then he said,"oh,you wicked Ilvala, you wanted to kill me,but your brother Vatapi cannot come out and he is already digested". Ilvala decided to take revenge on Agastya for killing his brother and attacked Agastya. With the power of his tapas (penance), Agastya reduced Ilvala to ashes. In this way Agastya rid the world of the two terrible demons who were troubling the people and helped people live in peace.

text: Once the sage

text: Agastya

text: was invited. Agastya came to Ilvala and the sage was received with reverence and great honour. Sage Agastya with his divne power knew the intention of the hosts and wanted to put an end to this. Agastya ate the food served to him. As soon as the sage finished eating, Ilvala called,"Vatape atragacha"(Vatapi come here). Immediately, Agastya who knows what Ilvala was up to passed his right hand over his stomach and said,"Vatapi Jeernobhava"(Vatape get digested). Vatapi could not come out of Agastya's stomach and that was the end of the demon. Ilvala, was scared. He went on shouting "Vatapi atragacha" Agastya then he said,"oh,you wicked Ilvala, you wanted to kill me,but your brother Vatapi cannot come out and he is already digested". Ilvala decided to take revenge on Agastya for killing his brother and attacked Agastya. With the power of his tapas (

text: penance

text: ), Agastya reduced Ilvala to ashes. In this way Agastya rid the world of the two terrible demons who were troubling the people and helped people live in peace.

text: 2007:In 2007 the effect of the high tempo of 2006 made itself evident. Despite many victories, the season was affected by a viral attack on her stomach and digestive system. Even so, the main reason for the fatigue was simply that her body needed a break. In spite of these factors, she managed to win a lot this year too. She won many Bundesliga races, and she won the Gunn-Rita Marathon in Monte Belluna. At the second World Cup race of the year, in Offenburg, she started to notice stomach problems and her energy levels descended. She fought her way to a 3rd place. But she desperately needed restitution, and more or less terminated racing activities for the rest of the season. She travelled home, took lots of tests, and the conclusion was this virus in her digestive system. But really she was suffering the effects of having pressed her body so hard for so long. Her body simply needed a break. All athletes meet the wall once in a while, and in 2007 it happened for Gunn-Rita.In 2007 Gunn-Rita was number 2 in the first World Cup race, number 3 in the second World Cup race, and she won some Italian Cup and Bundesliga races. She tried to race more, but there was simply no more energy to be had. This was a somewhat special situation, because she was the reigning World Champion and had been dominating the sport. Suddenly disappearing like this caused various theories and rumours to abound. Still, not wanting to end up where she had been in 2000, she decided to terminate the season and focus all her attention on preparations for the season of 2008. It was simply a tough year all round.In 2007 Gunn-Rita received the Norwegian Sports Gala award for ”Female Athlete of the Year”. Thus, she has received 7 prizes from the Sports Gala. Very few athletes have received that many prizes from the Sports Gala. This was the last prize she received from the Sports Gala.

text: Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate, specifically a polysaccharide, which is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized, it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram, but in most circumstances, it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. The two subcategories are insoluble and soluble fiber. Insoluble dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible by humans, because humans do not have the required enzymes to break it down, and the human digestive system does not harbor enough of the types of microbes that can do so.  Soluble dietary fiber comprises a variety of oligosaccharides, waxes, esters, resistant starches, and other carbohydrates that dissolve or gelatinize in water. Many of these soluble fibers can be fermented or partially fermented by microbes in the human digestive system to produce short-chain fatty acids which are absorbed and therefore introduce some caloric content.

text: Dietary fiber is a

text: carbohydrate

text: , specifically a polysaccharide, which is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized, it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram, but in most circumstances, it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. The two subcategories are insoluble and soluble fiber. Insoluble dietary fiber consists mainly of

text: cellulose

text: , a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible by humans, because humans do not have the required enzymes to break it down, and the human digestive system does not harbor enough of the types of microbes that can do so.  Soluble dietary fiber comprises a variety of

text: oligosaccharides

text: waxes

text: esters

text: , resistant starches, and other carbohydrates that dissolve or gelatinize in water. Many of these soluble fibers can be fermented or partially fermented by microbes in the human digestive system to produce short-chain fatty acids which are absorbed and therefore introduce some caloric content.

text: Milk-protein allergies are most common in children. Approximately 60% of milk-protein reactions are immunoglobulin E-mediated, with the remaining usually attributable to inflammation of the colon. Some people are unable to tolerate milk from goats or sheep as well as from cows, and many are also unable to tolerate dairy products such as cheese. Roughly 10% of children with a milk allergy will have a reaction to beef. Beef contains a small amount of protein that is present in cow's milk. Lactose intolerance, a common reaction to milk, is not a form of allergy at all, but rather due to the absence of an enzyme in the digestive tract.

text: Milk-protein allergies are most common in children. Approximately 60% of milk-protein reactions are

text: immunoglobulin E

text: -mediated, with the remaining usually attributable to

text: inflammation of the colon

text: . Some people are unable to tolerate milk from goats or sheep as well as from cows, and many are also unable to tolerate

text: dairy

text: products such as cheese. Roughly 10% of children with a milk allergy will have a reaction to

text: beef

text: . Beef contains a small amount of protein that is present in cow's milk.

text: Lactose intolerance

text: , a common reaction to milk, is not a form of allergy at all, but rather due to the absence of an

text: enzyme

text: in the

text: digestive tract

text: In 1905, Hay seems to have had an episode of acute heart failure following running for a train. As a result he discovered that he had Bright's disease (hypertension with nephritis) with a dilated heart, a condition with a poor prognosis at the time. Hay started looking for ways to improve his condition. He first turned to a vegetarian diet and restricted his eating to once a day in the evening. Then he gave up coffee and a few months later he quit smoking tobacco. After three months of the new regimen his weight had dropped from 225 lbs. to 175 lbs. and he noticed improvements in his health. Motivated by this experience, Hay spent the following decade studying naturopathy, orthopathy and food combining in efforts to reduce as he termed it "the vast quantities of acid waste that result from wrong selection and combination of the daily foods". He claimed that fruits and vegetables produced alkaline 'end-products' when they were metabolized, while processed and refined foods resulted in acidic 'end-products' after digestion. His theories went on to encompass food-combining; stating that incorrect combinations of foods would cause even alkaline foods to leave a less desirable acidic digestion end-product.

text: In 1905, Hay seems to have had an episode of acute heart failure following running for a train. As a result he discovered that he had

text: Bright's disease

text: hypertension

text: with

text: nephritis

text: ) with a dilated

text: heart

text: , a condition with a poor prognosis at the time. Hay started looking for ways to improve his condition. He first turned to a vegetarian diet and restricted his eating to once a day in the evening. Then he gave up coffee and a few months later he quit smoking tobacco. After three months of the new regimen his weight had dropped from 225 lbs. to 175 lbs. and he noticed improvements in his health. Motivated by this experience, Hay spent the following decade studying

text: naturopathy

text: orthopathy

text: and food combining in efforts to reduce as he termed it "the vast quantities of acid waste that result from wrong selection and combination of the daily foods". He claimed that fruits and vegetables produced alkaline 'end-products' when they were metabolized, while processed and refined foods resulted in acidic 'end-products' after digestion. His theories went on to encompass food-combining; stating that incorrect combinations of foods would cause even alkaline foods to leave a less desirable acidic digestion end-product.

text: West’s poetry, written to "scrutinize the actual world", is characterised by the presence of both the Australian and Italian landscapes. For Barry Hill in The Weekend Australian "his poems invoke the mouthing of words, love affairs with vowels, a sense of the foreign word well digested. The mood of his Italian landscapes reminds me of the modem Italian poet Eugenio Montale, just as his two poems after Guido Cavalcanti, along with the imagist lyrics that follow, call up the figure of Ezra Pound, that passionate disciple of Italy." Later he writes, "West’s graphic power is wonderful, so that you feel, in all of his language moments, of this world."

text: The stomach lies between the esophagus and the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). It is in the left upper part of the abdominal cavity. The top of the stomach lies against the diaphragm. Lying behind the stomach is the pancreas. A large double fold of visceral peritoneum called the greater omentum hangs down from the greater curvature of the stomach.

text: The stomach lies between the

text: esophagus

text: and the

text: duodenum

text: (the first part of the

text: small intestine

text: ). It is in the

text: left upper part

text: of the

text: abdominal cavity

text: . The top of the stomach lies against the

text: diaphragm

text: . Lying behind the stomach is the

text: pancreas

text: . A large double fold of visceral

text: peritoneum

text: called the

text: greater omentum

text: hangs down from the

text: greater curvature

text: of the stomach.

text: The pseudostratified columnar epithelium of the gastrointestinal tract transitions to stratified squamous epithelium at the pectinate line. The stratified squamous epithelium gradually accumulates sebaceous and apocrine glands.

text: The pseudostratified columnar

text: epithelium

text: of the gastrointestinal tract transitions to stratified squamous epithelium at the pectinate line. The stratified squamous epithelium gradually accumulates sebaceous and apocrine glands.

text: The adult starfish develops only from the hind-part of the larva, away from the sucker. It is from this part that the arms of the adult grow, with the larval arms eventually degenerating and disappearing. The digestive system of the larva also degenerates, and is almost entirely rebuilt. A new mouth forming on the left side of the body, which eventually becomes the lower, or oral, surface of the adult. Similarly, a new anus forms on the right side, which becomes the upper, or aboral, surface.

text: Sponges do not have distinct circulatory, respiratory, digestive, and excretory systems – instead the water flow system supports all these functions. They filter food particles out of the water flowing through them. Particles larger than 50 micrometers cannot enter the ostia and pinacocytes consume them by phagocytosis (engulfing and internal digestion). Particles from 0.5 μm to 50 μm are trapped in the ostia, which taper from the outer to inner ends. These particles are consumed by pinacocytes or by archaeocytes which partially extrude themselves through the walls of the ostia. Bacteria-sized particles, below 0.5 micrometers, pass through the ostia and are caught and consumed by choanocytes. Since the smallest particles are by far the most common, choanocytes typically capture 80% of a sponge's food supply. Archaeocytes transport food packaged in vesicles from cells that directly digest food to those that do not. At least one species of sponge has internal fibers that function as tracks for use by nutrient-carrying archaeocytes, and these tracks also move inert objects.

text: Sponges do not have distinct

text: circulatory

text: respiratory

text: digestive

text: , and

text: excretory

text: systems – instead the water flow system supports all these functions. They

text: filter

text: food particles out of the water flowing through them. Particles larger than 50 micrometers cannot enter the

text: ostia

text: and

text: pinacocyte

text: s consume them by

text: phagocytosis

text: (engulfing and internal digestion). Particles from 0.5 μm to 50 μm are trapped in the ostia, which taper from the outer to inner ends. These particles are consumed by pinacocytes or by

text: archaeocyte

text: s which partially extrude themselves through the walls of the ostia. Bacteria-sized particles, below 0.5 micrometers, pass through the ostia and are caught and consumed by

text: choanocyte

text: s. Since the smallest particles are by far the most common, choanocytes typically capture 80% of a sponge's food supply. Archaeocytes transport food packaged in

text: vesicle

text: s from cells that directly digest food to those that do not. At least one species of sponge has internal fibers that function as tracks for use by nutrient-carrying archaeocytes, and these tracks also move inert objects.

text: Bile acids, such as deoxycholic acid (DOC), are anionic detergents produced by the liver to aid in digestion and absorption of fats and oils.

text: Bile acids

text: , such as

text: deoxycholic acid

text: (DOC), are anionic detergents produced by the liver to aid in digestion and absorption of fats and oils.

text: In the small intestine, the pH becomes crucial; it needs to be finely balanced in order to activate digestive enzymes. The chyme is very acidic, with a low pH, having been released from the stomach and needs to be made much more alkaline. This is achieved in the duodenum by the addition of bile from the gall bladder combined with the bicarbonate secretions from the pancreatic duct and also from secretions of bicarbonate-rich mucus from duodenal glands known as Brunner's glands. The chyme arrives in the intestines having been released from the stomach through the opening of the pyloric sphincter. The resulting alkaline fluid mix neutralises the gastric acid which would damage the lining of the intestine. The mucus component lubricates the walls of the intestine.

text: In the small intestine, the

text: pH

text: becomes crucial; it needs to be finely balanced in order to activate digestive enzymes. The chyme is very acidic, with a low pH, having been released from the stomach and needs to be made much more alkaline. This is achieved in the

text: duodenum

text: by the addition of bile from the gall bladder combined with the

text: bicarbonate

text: secretions from the pancreatic duct and also from secretions of bicarbonate-rich mucus from duodenal glands known as

text: Brunner's glands

text: . The chyme arrives in the intestines having been released from the stomach through the opening of the

text: pyloric sphincter

text: . The resulting alkaline fluid mix neutralises the gastric acid which would damage the lining of the intestine. The mucus component lubricates the walls of the intestine.

text: Biogas can be produced by anaerobic digestion with anaerobic organisms, which digest material inside a closed system, or fermentation of biodegradable materials.

text: Biogas can be produced by

text: anaerobic digestion

text: with

text: anaerobic organism

text: s, which digest material inside a closed system, or

text: fermentation

text: of biodegradable materials.

text: The small intestine is normally  in length. As the Y-connection is moved further down the gastrointestinal tract, the amount available to fully absorb nutrients is progressively reduced, traded for greater effectiveness of the operation. The Y-connection is formed much closer to the lower (distal) end of the small intestine, usually  from the lower end, causing reduced absorption (malabsorption) of food: primarily of fats and starches, but also of various minerals and the fat-soluble vitamins. The unabsorbed fats and starches pass into the large intestine, where bacterial actions may act on them to produce irritants and malodorous gases. These larger effects on nutrition are traded for a relatively modest increase in total weight loss.

text: Certain insects may have a crop or enlarged esophagus.

text: Certain insects may have a

text: crop

text: or enlarged

text: esophagus

text: Elimination is in the standard battle royal format in which a competitor must go over the top rope and hit the floor in order to be eliminated (it has never been expressly stated exactly how much of a wrestler's body must make contact with the floor for the elimination to count, unlike with the Royal Rumble, where both feet must touch the floor, meaning one foot does not count; however, it is unlikely that simply brushing one's fingers against the floor will eliminate them, so the line between "counting" and "not counting" is very blurry). This can occur both by a competitor being thrown by an opponent out of the ring or by a competitor voluntarily eliminating himself. If a wrestler falls to the floor without going over the top rope or is thrown over the top but does not fall to the floor, the competitor may re-enter the ring and continue the match.

text: Elimination is in the standard battle royal format in which a competitor must go over the top rope and hit the floor in order to be eliminated (it has never been expressly stated exactly how much of a wrestler's body must make contact with the floor for the elimination to count, unlike with the

text: Royal Rumble

text: , where both feet must touch the floor, meaning one foot does not count; however, it is unlikely that simply brushing one's fingers against the floor will eliminate them, so the line between "counting" and "not counting" is very blurry). This can occur both by a competitor being thrown by an opponent out of the ring or by a competitor voluntarily eliminating himself. If a wrestler falls to the floor without going over the top rope or is thrown over the top but does not fall to the floor, the competitor may re-enter the ring and continue the match.

text: As it can impair a person’s ability to swallow and eat, throat cancer affects the digestive system. The difficulty in swallowing can lead to a person to choke on their food in the early stages of digestion and interfere with the food’s smooth travels down into the esophagus and beyond.

text: As it can impair a person’s ability to swallow and eat, throat cancer affects the

text: digestive system

text: . The difficulty in swallowing can lead to a person to

text: choke

text: on their food in the early stages of digestion and interfere with the food’s smooth travels down into the

text: esophagus

text: and beyond.

text: The human gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus,  stomach, and intestines, and is divided into the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts. The GI tract includes all structures between the mouth and the anus, forming a continuous passageway that includes the main organs of digestion, namely, the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. In contrast, the human digestive system comprises the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, reflecting the embryological origin of each segment.

text: The human gastrointestinal tract consists of the

text: esophagus

text: stomach

text: , and intestines, and is divided into the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts. The GI tract includes all structures between the

text: mouth

text: and the

text: anus

text: , forming a continuous passageway that includes the main organs of digestion, namely, the

text: stomach

text: small intestine

text: , and

text: large intestine

text: . In contrast, the

text: human digestive system

text: comprises the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). The tract may also be divided into

text: foregut

text: midgut

text: , and

text: hindgut

text: , reflecting the

text: embryological

text: origin of each segment.

text: The concept of absorptive capacity was first defined as a firm's "ability to recognize the value of new information, assimilate it, and apply it to commercial ends" by Cohen and Levinthal. For them, absorptive capacity depends greatly on prior related knowledge and diversity of background. Therefore, they’ve put the investments a firm makes in its research and development efforts ("R&D") central to their model of development of absorptive capacity.  The absorptive capacity is seen as cumulative, meaning that it is easier for a firm to invest on a constant basis in its absorptive capacity than investing punctually. Efforts put to develop absorptive capacity in one period will make it easier to accumulate it in the next one.

text: The concept of absorptive capacity was first defined as a firm's "ability to recognize the value of new information, assimilate it, and apply it to commercial ends" by Cohen and Levinthal. For them, absorptive capacity depends greatly on prior related

text: knowledge

text: and diversity of background. Therefore, they’ve put the investments a firm makes in its research and development efforts ("R&D") central to their model of development of absorptive capacity.  The absorptive capacity is seen as cumulative, meaning that it is easier for a firm to invest on a constant basis in its absorptive capacity than investing punctually. Efforts put to develop absorptive capacity in one period will make it easier to accumulate it in the next one.

text: An earthworm's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.

text: An

text: earthworm

text: 's digestive system consists of a

text: mouth

text: pharynx

text: esophagus

text: crop

text: gizzard

text: , and

text: intestine

text: . The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By

text: peristalsis

text: , the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.

text: Food allergies are immune reactions, typically an IgE reaction caused by the release of histamine but also encompassing non-IgE immune responses. This mechanism causes allergies to typically give immediate reaction (a few minutes to a few hours) to foods.

text: Food allergies are immune reactions, typically an

text: IgE

text: reaction caused by the release of

text: histamine

text: but also encompassing non-IgE immune responses. This mechanism causes allergies to typically give immediate reaction (a few minutes to a few hours) to foods.

text: If a single photon approaches an atom which is receptive to it, the photon can be absorbed by the atom in a manner very similar to a radio wave being picked up by an aerial. At the moment of absorption the photon ceases to exist and the total energy contained within the atom increases. This increase in energy is usually described symbolically by saying that one of the outermost electrons "jumps" to a "higher orbit". This new atomic configuration is unstable and the tendency is for the electron to fall back to its lower orbit or energy level, emitting a new photon as it goes. The entire process may take no more than 1 x 10 seconds. The result is much the same as with reflective colour, but because of the process of absorption and emission, the substance emits a glow. According to Planck, the energy of each photon is given by multiplying its frequency in cycles per second by a constant (Planck’s constant, 6.626 x 10 erg seconds). It follows that the wavelength of a photon emitted from a luminescent system is directly related to the difference between the energy of the two atomic levels involved.

text: If a single

text: photon

text: approaches an

text: atom

text: which is receptive to it, the photon can be absorbed by the atom in a manner very similar to a

text: radio wave

text: being picked up by an aerial. At the moment of absorption the photon ceases to exist and the total energy contained within the atom increases. This increase in energy is usually described symbolically by saying that one of the outermost electrons "jumps" to a "higher orbit". This new atomic configuration is unstable and the tendency is for the electron to fall back to its lower orbit or energy level, emitting a new

text: photon

text: as it goes. The entire process may take no more than 1 x 10 seconds. The result is much the same as with reflective colour, but because of the process of absorption and emission, the substance emits a glow. According to

text: Planck

text: , the energy of each photon is given by multiplying its frequency in cycles per second by a constant (Planck’s constant, 6.626 x 10 erg seconds). It follows that the wavelength of a photon emitted from a luminescent system is directly related to the difference between the energy of the two atomic levels involved.

text: A parasympatholytic agent is a substance or activity that reduces the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system. (The parasympathetic nervous system is often colloquially described as the "Feed and Breed" or "Rest and Digest" portion of the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system becomes strongly engaged during or after a meal and during times when the body is at rest.)

text: A parasympatholytic agent is a substance or activity that reduces the activity of the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: . (The parasympathetic nervous system is often colloquially described as the "Feed and Breed" or "Rest and Digest" portion of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . The parasympathetic nervous system becomes strongly engaged during or after a meal and during times when the body is at rest.)

text: Reported symptoms of NCGS are similar to those of celiac disease, with most patients reporting both gastrointestinal and non-gastrointestinal symptoms. In the "classical" presentation of NCGS, gastrointestinal symptoms are similar to those of irritable bowel syndrome, and are also not distinguishable from those of wheat allergy, but there is a different interval between exposure to wheat and onset of symptoms. Wheat allergy has a fast onset (from minutes to hours) after the consumption of food containing wheat and can be anaphylaxic.

text: Reported symptoms of NCGS are similar to those of celiac disease, with most patients reporting both gastrointestinal and non-gastrointestinal symptoms. In the "classical" presentation of NCGS, gastrointestinal symptoms are similar to those of

text: irritable bowel syndrome

text: , and are also not distinguishable from those of wheat allergy, but there is a different interval between exposure to wheat and onset of symptoms. Wheat allergy has a fast onset (from minutes to hours) after the consumption of food containing wheat and can be

text: anaphylaxic

text: Dermatologists may refer a patient with a suspected food allergy for patch testing.  Foods identified by blood testing or skin prick testing may or may not overlap with foods identified by patch testing.

text: Dermatologists may refer a patient with a suspected food allergy for patch testing.  Foods identified by

text: blood testing

text: or

text: skin prick testing

text: may or may not overlap with foods identified by patch testing.

text: NOMAC is well-absorbed, with an oral bioavailability of 63%. It is 97.5 to 98% protein-bound, to albumin, and does not bind to sex hormone-binding globulin or corticosteroid-binding globulin. The drug is metabolized hepatically via hydroxylation by the enzymes CYP3A3, CYP3A4, and CYP2A6. It has six main metabolites, all of which have no or minimal progestogenic activity. The elimination half-life of NOMAC is approximately 50 hours, with a range of 30 to 80 hours. Steady-state concentrations of NOMAC are achieved after five days of repeated administration. As Zoely (2.5 mg/day NOMAC), the average circulating concentrations of NOMAC are 4.5 ng/mL at steady-state, with minimum and maximum concentrations of 3.1 ng/mL and 12.3 ng/mL, respectively. The drug is eliminated via urine and feces.

text: NOMAC is well-absorbed, with an oral

text: bioavailability

text: of 63%. It is 97.5 to 98%

text: protein-bound

text: , to

text: albumin

text: , and does not bind to

text: sex hormone-binding globulin

text: or

text: corticosteroid-binding globulin

text: . The drug is

text: metabolized

text: hepatic

text: ally via

text: hydroxylation

text: by the

text: enzyme

text: s

text: , and

text: . It has six main

text: metabolite

text: s, all of which have no or minimal progestogenic activity. The

text: elimination half-life

text: of NOMAC is approximately 50 hours, with a range of 30 to 80 hours.

text: Steady-state concentration

text: s of NOMAC are achieved after five days of repeated administration. As Zoely (2.5 mg/day NOMAC), the average circulating concentrations of NOMAC are 4.5 ng/mL at steady-state, with minimum and maximum concentrations of 3.1 ng/mL and 12.3 ng/mL, respectively. The drug is

text: eliminated

text: via

text: urine

text: and

text: feces

text: The esophagus is surrounded at the top and bottom by two muscular rings, known respectively as the upper esophageal sphincter, and the lower esophageal sphincter. These sphincters act to close the esophagus when food is not being swallowed. The esophageal sphincters are functional, but not anatomical, meaning that they act as a sphincters, but do not have distinct thickenings like other sphincters.

text: The esophagus is surrounded at the top and bottom by two muscular rings, known respectively as the upper esophageal sphincter, and the lower esophageal sphincter. These

text: sphincter

text: s act to close the esophagus when food is not being swallowed. The esophageal sphincters are functional, but not anatomical, meaning that they act as a sphincters, but do not have distinct thickenings like other sphincters.

text: Lipases in the gastrointestinal tract play a critical role in fat digestion. More than 95% of fat in food consists of triglycerides, which are categorized based on the length of fatty acids connected to glyceride backbone. The length of long-chain triglycerides prevent their absorption through the intestinal mucosa. For that reason lipases in the gastrointestinal tract must hydrolyse it to smaller molecules, free fatty acids and monoglyceride, before absorption can occur.

text: Lipases in the gastrointestinal tract play a critical role in fat digestion. More than 95% of fat in food consists of

text: triglycerides

text: , which are categorized based on the length of

text: fatty acids

text: connected to

text: glyceride

text: backbone. The length of long-chain triglycerides prevent their

text: absorption

text: through the

text: intestinal mucosa

text: . For that reason lipases in the gastrointestinal tract must

text: hydrolyse

text: it to smaller molecules,

entity_section: Esterified, free, unsaturated, conjugated

text: free fatty acids

text: and

text: monoglyceride

text: , before absorption can occur.

text: The word esophagus (British English: oesophagus), comes from the  (oisophagos) meaning gullet. It derives from two roots  (eosin) to carry and (phagos) to eat. The use of the word oesophagus, has been documented in anatomical literature since at least the time of Hippocrates, who noted that "the oesophagus ... receives the greatest amount of what we consume."  Its existence in other animals and its relationship with the stomach was documented by the Roman naturalist  Pliny the Elder (AD23–AD79), and the peristaltic contractions of the esophagus have been documented since at least the time of Galen.

text: The word esophagus (

text: British English

text: : oesophagus), comes from the  (oisophagos) meaning gullet. It derives from

entity_name: List of Greek and Latin roots in English

text: two roots

text: (eosin) to carry and (phagos) to eat. The use of the word oesophagus, has been documented in anatomical literature since at least the time of

text: Hippocrates

text: , who noted that "the oesophagus ... receives the greatest amount of what we consume."  Its existence in other animals and its relationship with the

text: stomach

text: was documented by the

text: Roman

text: naturalist

text: Pliny the Elder

text: (AD23–AD79), and the

text: peristaltic

text: contractions of the esophagus have been documented since at least the time of

text: Galen

text: The immune system extends this response to its treatments of self-antigens, softening reactions against allergens, the body, and digestive microorganisms.<ref name="Hadley 2004, Hadley 2004, pp. As the worms developed ways of triggering a beneficial immune response, humans came to rely on parasitic interaction to help regulate their immune systems. As developed countries advanced in technology, medicine, and sanitation, parasitic worms were mostly eradicated in those countries, according to Dr. Weinstock in the medical journal GUT.  Because these events took place very recently on the evolutionary timeline and humans have progressed much faster technologically than genetically, the human immune system has not yet adapted to the absence of internal worms.  This theory attempts to explain the rapid increase in allergies and asthma in the last century in the developed world, as well as the relative absence of autoimmune diseases in the developing world, where parasites are more common.

text: The immune system extends this response to its treatments of

text: self-antigens

text: , softening reactions against allergens, the body, and digestive microorganisms.<ref name="Hadley 2004, Hadley 2004, pp. As the worms developed ways of triggering a beneficial immune response, humans came to rely on parasitic interaction to help regulate their immune systems. As

text: developed countries

text: advanced in technology, medicine, and sanitation, parasitic worms were mostly eradicated in those countries, according to Dr. Weinstock in the medical journal GUT.  Because these events took place very recently on the evolutionary timeline and humans have progressed much faster technologically than genetically, the human immune system has not yet adapted to the absence of internal worms.  This theory attempts to explain the rapid increase in allergies and asthma in the last century in the developed world, as well as the relative absence of autoimmune diseases in the

text: developing world

text: , where parasites are more common.

text: In bacteria and fungi, exoenzymes play an integral role in allowing the organisms to effectively interact with their environment. Many bacteria use digestive enzymes to break down nutrients in their surroundings. Once digested, these nutrients enter the bacterium, where they are used to power cellular pathways with help from endoenzymes.

text: In

text: bacteria

text: and

text: fungi

text: , exoenzymes play an integral role in allowing the organisms to effectively interact with their environment. Many bacteria use digestive enzymes to break down nutrients in their surroundings. Once digested, these nutrients enter the bacterium, where they are used to power cellular pathways with help from

text: endoenzyme

text: s.

text: The stomach consists of three chambers. The first region is formed by a loose gland and a muscular forestomach (missing in beaked whales), which is then followed by the main stomach and the pylorus. Both are equipped with glands to help digestion. A bowel adjoins the stomachs, whose individual sections can only be distinguished histologically. The liver is large and separate from the gall bladder.

text: The stomach consists of three chambers. The first region is formed by a loose gland and a muscular forestomach (missing in beaked whales), which is then followed by the main stomach and the

text: pylorus

text: . Both are equipped with glands to help digestion. A bowel adjoins the stomachs, whose individual sections can only be distinguished

text: histologically

text: . The

text: liver

text: is large and separate from the

text: gall bladder

text: Pavlov contributed to many areas of physiology and neurological sciences. Most of his work involved research in temperament, conditioning and involuntary reflex actions.Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing The Work of the Digestive Glands in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. These experiments included surgically extracting portions of the digestive system from animals, severing nerve bundles to determine the effects, and implanting fistulas between digestive organs and an external pouch to examine the organ's contents. This research served as a base for broad research on the digestive system.

text: Pavlov contributed to many areas of physiology and neurological sciences. Most of his work involved research in

text: temperament

text: conditioning

text: and

text: involuntary reflex actions

text: .Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing The Work of the Digestive Glands in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. These experiments included surgically extracting portions of the digestive system from animals, severing nerve bundles to determine the effects, and implanting

text: fistula

text: s between digestive organs and an external pouch to examine the organ's contents. This research served as a base for broad research on the

text: digestive system

text: If unabsorbed poison is still in the digestive system, gastric lavage followed by administration of activated charcoal may be required.

text: If unabsorbed poison is still in the digestive system,

text: gastric lavage

text: followed by administration of

text: activated charcoal

text: may be required.

text: All bilaterians have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary canal. This is a tube that transfers food to the organs of digestion. In large bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, the anus, by which the animal disposes of feces (solid wastes). Some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means (for example, through the mouth).

text: All

text: bilateria

text: ns have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary canal. This is a tube that transfers food to the

text: organ

text: s of

text: digestion

text: . In large bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, the

text: anus

text: , by which the animal disposes of

text: feces

text: (solid wastes). Some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means (for example, through the mouth).

text: There are a number of different kinds of dog allergies dogs may be suffering from.  The five main allergies include food allergies, flea allergies, bacteria, contact, and atopy allergies.

text: There are a number of different kinds of dog allergies dogs may be suffering from.  The five main allergies include

text: food allergies

text: flea

text: allergies,

text: bacteria

text: , contact, and

text: atopy

text: allergies.

text: Urine diversion toilets have two compartments, one for urine and one for feces. One or both compartment may be flushed with water. A Urine-diverting dry toilet can be linked to systems which reuse excreta as a fertilizer or biofuel. Astronauts use a UDDT type of space toilet to recover potable water.

text: Urine diversion

text: toilets have two compartments, one for urine and one for feces. One or both compartment may be flushed with water. A

text: Urine-diverting dry toilet

text: can be linked to systems which

text: reuse excreta

text: as a fertilizer or

text: biofuel

text: . Astronauts use a UDDT type of

text: space toilet

text: to recover

text: potable water

text: Wisdom teeth are vestigial third molars that human ancestors used to help in grinding down plant tissue. The common postulation is that the skulls of human ancestors had larger jaws with more teeth, which were possibly used to help chew down foliage to compensate for a lack of ability to efficiently digest the cellulose that makes up a plant cell wall. As human diets changed, smaller jaws were naturally selected, yet the third molars, or "wisdom teeth", still commonly develop in human mouths. Currently, wisdom teeth have become useless and even harmful to the extent where surgical procedures are often performed to remove them.

text: Wisdom teeth

text: are vestigial third molars that human ancestors used to help in grinding down plant tissue. The common postulation is that the skulls of human ancestors had larger jaws with more teeth, which were possibly used to help chew down foliage to compensate for a lack of ability to efficiently digest the

text: cellulose

text: that makes up a plant cell wall. As human diets changed, smaller jaws were

text: naturally selected

text: , yet the third molars, or "wisdom teeth", still commonly develop in human mouths. Currently, wisdom teeth have become useless and even harmful to the extent where surgical procedures are often performed to remove them.

text: The SeHCAT test is used to investigate patients with suspected bile acid malabsorption, who usually experience chronic diarrhea, often passing watery feces 5 to 10 times each day. When ileum has been removed following surgery, or is inflamed in Crohn's disease, the 7-day SeHCAT retention usually is abnormal, and most of these patients will benefit from treatment with bile acid sequestrants. The enterohepatic circulation of bile acids is reduced in these patients with ileal abnormalities and, as the normal bile acid retention exceeds 95%, only a small degree of change is needed. Bile acid malabsorption can also be secondary to cholecystectomy, vagotomy and other disorders affecting intestinal motility or digestion such as radiation enteritis, celiac disease and small intestinal bacterial overgrowth.

text: The SeHCAT test is used to investigate patients with suspected

text: bile acid malabsorption

text: , who usually experience

text: chronic diarrhea

text: , often passing watery feces 5 to 10 times each day. When ileum has been removed following surgery, or is inflamed in

text: Crohn's disease

text: , the 7-day SeHCAT retention usually is abnormal, and most of these patients will benefit from treatment with

text: bile acid sequestrants

text: . The

text: enterohepatic circulation

text: of bile acids is reduced in these patients with ileal abnormalities and, as the normal bile acid retention exceeds 95%, only a small degree of change is needed.

text: Bile acid malabsorption

text: can also be secondary to

text: cholecystectomy

text: vagotomy

text: and other disorders affecting intestinal motility or digestion such as radiation enteritis,

text: celiac disease

text: and

text: small intestinal bacterial overgrowth

text: The term "elimination" when used in this sense differs from elimination when used in the postseason. In the postseason, a team is said to be "eliminated" when it is defeated by another team it is playing in a round of the postseason, thereby ending the team's season. But a team eliminated during the regular season continues to play the remaining games on its schedule. There may still be some value to the team in playing these games. (In both cases, elimination prevents the team from further pursuing the league championship.)

text: The term "elimination" when used in this sense differs from

text: elimination

text: when used in the postseason. In the postseason, a team is said to be "eliminated" when it is defeated by another team it is playing in a round of the postseason, thereby ending the team's season. But a team eliminated during the regular season continues to play the remaining games on its schedule. There may still be some value to the team in playing these games. (In both cases, elimination prevents the team from further pursuing the league championship.)

text: Desiccation tolerance in maturing seeds involves the accumulation of non-reducing galactosyl sucrose oligosaccharides such as stachyose and raffinose. These galactosyl sucrose oligosaccharides cause flatulence in animals and human beings  because human beings do not have the enzyme, α-galactosidase to cleave the α-galactosyl linkage. Consequently, the intact galactosyl sucrose oligosaccharide is not absorbed by the digestive tract and the bacteria in the colon use it as a substrate that results in gas formation. As a result of the relationship found between the oligosaccharides and flatulence, the Protein Advisory Group of the United Nations has recommended that the elimination of flatulence associated with the consumption of foods be one of the research priorities. However, Obendorf found that the accumulation of the flatulence-producing oligosaccharides is required for seed germinability and seed desiccation tolerance. Thus the elimination of the flatulence-producing oligosaccharides from seeds would result in a deterioration of the crop that produces them.   According to Obendorf, Breeding seed plants for quality embryos emphasizes elimination of flatulence-producing oligosaccharides. Before this effort proceeds too far, we need to determine if the flatulence-producing maturation sugars are required for desiccation tolerance and storability of seed germplasm, the threshold level required, and if biosynthesis of the stachyose series oligosaccharides and/or oligogalactocyclitols can be regulated genetically and biochemically in parallel with altered desiccation tolerance and storability of seed germplasm.

text: Desiccation tolerance in maturing seeds involves the accumulation of non-reducing galactosyl sucrose oligosaccharides such as

text: stachyose

text: and

text: raffinose

text: . These galactosyl

text: sucrose

text: oligosaccharides cause

text: flatulence

text: in animals and human beings  because human beings do not have the enzyme,

text: α-galactosidase

text: to cleave the α-galactosyl linkage. Consequently, the intact galactosyl sucrose oligosaccharide is not absorbed by the digestive tract and the bacteria in the colon use it as a substrate that results in gas formation. As a result of the relationship found between the oligosaccharides and flatulence, the Protein Advisory Group of the

text: United Nations

text: has recommended that the elimination of flatulence associated with the consumption of foods be one of the research priorities. However, Obendorf found that the accumulation of the flatulence-producing oligosaccharides is required for seed germinability and seed desiccation tolerance. Thus the elimination of the flatulence-producing oligosaccharides from seeds would result in a deterioration of the crop that produces them.   According to Obendorf, Breeding seed plants for quality embryos emphasizes elimination of flatulence-producing oligosaccharides. Before this effort proceeds too far, we need to determine if the flatulence-producing maturation sugars are required for desiccation tolerance and storability of seed germplasm, the threshold level required, and if biosynthesis of the

text: stachyose

text: series oligosaccharides and/or oligogalactocyclitols can be regulated genetically and biochemically in parallel with altered desiccation tolerance and storability of seed germplasm.

text: Chewing, in which food is mixed with saliva begins the process of digestion. This produces a bolus which can be swallowed down the esophagus and into the stomach. Here it is mixed with gastric juice until it passes into the duodenum, where it is mixed with a number of enzymes produced by the pancreas. Saliva also contains a catalytic enzyme called amylase which starts to act on food in the mouth. Another digestive enzyme called lingual lipase is secreted by some of the lingual papillae on the tongue and also from serous glands in the main salivary glands. Digestion is helped by the mastication of food by the teeth and also by the muscular actions of peristalsis and segmentation contractions.  Gastric juice in the stomach is essential for the continuation of digestion as is the production of mucus in the stomach.

text: Chewing

text: , in which food is mixed with

text: saliva

text: begins the process of digestion. This produces a

text: bolus

text: which can be swallowed down the

text: esophagus

text: and into the

text: stomach

text: . Here it is mixed with

text: gastric juice

text: until it passes into the duodenum, where it is mixed with a number of

text: enzyme

text: s produced by the

text: pancreas

text: . Saliva also contains a

text: catalytic

text: enzyme

text: called

text: amylase

text: which starts to act on food in the mouth. Another

text: digestive enzyme

text: called

text: lingual lipase

text: is secreted by some of the

text: lingual papilla

text: e on the tongue and also from

text: serous gland

text: s in the main salivary glands. Digestion is helped by the

text: mastication

text: of food by the

text: teeth

text: and also by the

text: muscular actions

text: of

text: peristalsis

text: and

text: segmentation contractions

text: Gastric juice

text: in the stomach is essential for the continuation of digestion as is the production of

text: mucus

text: in the stomach.

text: Raw fruits and vegetables are packed with an array of other protective chemicals, such as vitamins, flavonoids, and sugar alcohols. Some of those molecules help safeguard against the over-absorption of sugars in the human digestive system. Industrial food raffination depletes some of those beneficial molecules to various degrees, including almost total removal in many cases.

text: Raw fruits and vegetables are packed with an array of other protective chemicals, such as vitamins, flavonoids, and sugar alcohols. Some of those molecules help safeguard against the over-absorption of sugars in the human digestive system. Industrial food

text: raffination

text: depletes some of those beneficial molecules to various degrees, including almost total removal in many cases.

text: "Semaines, Digestive System", Analogues, Les Presses du Reel, pp. 37–48

text: Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), also known as acid reflux, is a long term condition where stomach contents come back up into the esophagus resulting in either symptoms or complications. Symptoms include the taste of acid in the back of the mouth, heartburn, bad breath, chest pain, vomiting, breathing problems, and wearing away of the teeth. Complications include esophagitis, esophageal strictures, and Barrett's esophagus.

text: Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), also known as acid reflux, is a long term condition where stomach contents come back up into the

text: esophagus

text: resulting in either symptoms or complications. Symptoms include the taste of acid in the back of the mouth,

text: heartburn

text: , bad breath,

text: chest pain

text: , vomiting, breathing problems, and wearing away of the

text: teeth

text: . Complications include

text: esophagitis

text: esophageal stricture

text: s, and

text: Barrett's esophagus

text: Henoch–Schönlein purpura is a small-vessel vasculitis in which complexes of immunoglobulin A (IgA) and complement component 3 (C3) are deposited on arterioles, capillaries, and venules. As with IgA nephropathy, serum levels of IgA are high in HSP and there are identical findings on renal biopsy; however, IgA nephropathy has a predilection for young adults while HSP is more predominant among children. Further, IgA nephropathy typically only affects the kidneys while HSP is a systemic disease. HSP involves the skin and connective tissues, scrotum, joints, gastrointestinal tract and kidneys.

text: Henoch–Schönlein purpura is a small-vessel vasculitis in which complexes of

text: immunoglobulin A

text: (IgA) and

text: complement component 3

text: (C3) are deposited on arterioles, capillaries, and venules. As with

text: IgA nephropathy

text: , serum levels of IgA are high in HSP and there are identical findings on renal biopsy; however, IgA nephropathy has a predilection for young adults while HSP is more predominant among children. Further, IgA nephropathy typically only affects the kidneys while HSP is a systemic disease. HSP involves the skin and connective tissues, scrotum, joints, gastrointestinal tract and kidneys.

text: For healthy individuals with primary lactose intolerance, it may be possible in some cases for the bacteria in the large intestine to adapt to an altered diet and break down small quantities of lactose more effectively by habitually consuming small amounts of dairy products several times a day over a period of time. This is not suitable for people who have an underlying or chronic illness which may have damaged the intestinal tract in a way which prevents the lactase enzyme from being expressed.

text: For healthy individuals with primary lactose intolerance, it may be possible in some cases for the bacteria in the large intestine to adapt to an altered diet and break down small quantities of lactose more effectively by habitually consuming small amounts of dairy products several times a day over a period of time. This is not suitable for people who have an underlying or chronic illness which may have damaged the

text: intestinal tract

text: in a way which prevents the lactase enzyme from being expressed.

text: In many individuals, bioavailability of calcium citrate is found to be equal to that of the cheaper calcium carbonate. However, alterations to the digestive tract may change how calcium is digested and absorbed. Unlike calcium carbonate, which is basic and neutralizes stomach acid, calcium citrate has no effect on stomach acid. Calcium carbonate is harder to digest than calcium citrate, and calcium carbonate carries a risk of "acid rebound" (the stomach overcompensates by producing more acid), so individuals who are sensitive to antacids or who have difficulty producing adequate stomach acid may choose calcium citrate over calcium carbonate for supplementation.  According to recent research into calcium absorption after gastric bypass surgery, calcium citrate may have improved bioavailability over calcium carbonate in Roux-en-Y gastric bypass patients who are taking calcium citrate as a dietary supplement after surgery.  This is mainly due to the changes related to where calcium absorption occurs in the digestive tract of these individuals.

text: In many individuals,

text: bioavailability

text: of calcium citrate is found to be equal to that of the cheaper

text: calcium carbonate

text: . However, alterations to the digestive tract may change how calcium is digested and absorbed. Unlike calcium carbonate, which is basic and neutralizes stomach acid, calcium citrate has no effect on stomach acid. Calcium carbonate is harder to digest than calcium citrate, and calcium carbonate carries a risk of "acid rebound" (the stomach overcompensates by producing more acid), so individuals who are sensitive to antacids or who have difficulty producing adequate stomach acid may choose calcium citrate over calcium carbonate for supplementation.  According to recent research into calcium absorption after gastric bypass surgery, calcium citrate may have improved bioavailability over calcium carbonate in Roux-en-Y gastric bypass patients who are taking calcium citrate as a dietary supplement after surgery.  This is mainly due to the changes related to where calcium absorption occurs in the digestive tract of these individuals.

text: Seating was first-come, first-served. Passengers paid an extra $10 per person per direction for priority seating, which allowed a passenger to board right after passengers with disabilities.On board, everything from food and drinks to pillows had an additional charge; once purchased, items did not need to be returned. In order to maximize revenue from these fees, Skybus attempted to strictly enforce its no outside food and drink policy. The airline required passengers dispose of food and drink before boarding the plane. Exceptions included baby formula or baby food, special food for those with a medical condition such as diabetes or severe food allergies, or those with dietary restrictions (Kosher, Halal, etc.).

text: McCarrison is credited with being the first to experimentally demonstrate the effect of deficient dietaries upon animal tissues and organs. He also carried out human experiments aimed at identifying the cause of goitre, and included himself as one of the experimental subjects. Much of McCarrison's work was pioneering. His 1921 book Studies in Deficiency Disease was considered notable at the time, being published at a time when knowledge of vitamins and their role in nutrition was crystallizing.  McCarrison himself noted that prior to publication of his studies on the pathogenesis of deficiency disease "no systemic post-mortem examination of animals fed on food deficient in vitamin B had ever been made; the histopathological effects of such food on the various systems of the body were wholly unknown; above all, its effects on the gastro-intestinal tract and the organs of digestion and assimilation, and the significance of these effects for clinical medicine, were wholly unsuspected".

text: The symptomatic (determinate) chronic stage affects the nervous system, digestive system and heart. About two-thirds of people with chronic symptoms have cardiac damage, including dilated cardiomyopathy, which causes heart rhythm abnormalities and may result in sudden death. About one-third of patients go on to develop digestive system damage, resulting in dilation of the digestive tract (megacolon and megaesophagus), accompanied by severe weight loss. Swallowing difficulties (secondary achalasia) may be the first symptom of digestive disturbances and may lead to malnutrition.

text: The symptomatic (determinate) chronic stage affects the

text: nervous system

text: digestive system

text: and

text: heart

text: . About two-thirds of people with chronic symptoms have cardiac damage, including

text: dilated cardiomyopathy

text: , which causes heart rhythm abnormalities and may result in sudden death. About one-third of patients go on to develop

text: digestive system

text: damage, resulting in dilation of the

text: digestive tract

text: megacolon

text: and

text: megaesophagus

text: ), accompanied by severe

text: weight loss

text: Swallowing

text: difficulties (secondary

text: achalasia

text: ) may be the first symptom of digestive disturbances and may lead to

text: malnutrition

text: Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products.Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple branched chains of sugar units. The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and absorb since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption. The spike in blood glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be related to some of the heart and vascular diseases which have become more frequent in recent times. Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than formerly, perhaps leading to more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not clear, however.

text: Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as

text: rice

text: noodles

text: bread

text: , and other

text: grain

text: -based products.Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple branched chains of sugar units. The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and absorb since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption. The spike in blood glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be related to some of the heart and vascular diseases which have become more frequent in recent times. Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than formerly, perhaps leading to more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not clear, however.

text: A carminative, also known as carminativum (plural carminativa), is an herb or preparation intended to either prevent formation of gas in the gastrointestinal tract or facilitate the expulsion of said gas, thereby combatting flatulence.

text: A carminative, also known as carminativum (

text: plural

text: carminativa), is an herb or preparation intended to either prevent formation of gas in the gastrointestinal tract or facilitate the expulsion of said gas, thereby combatting

text: flatulence

text: The four layers that make up the wall of the ileum are consistent with those of the gastrointestinal tract. From the inner to the outer surface, these are:

text: The four layers that make up the wall of the ileum are consistent with those of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . From the inner to the outer surface, these are:

text: In physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the way by which the energy of a photon is taken up by matter, typically the electrons of an atom. Thus, the electromagnetic energy is transformed to other forms of energy, for example, to heat. The absorption of light during wave propagation is often called attenuation. Usually, the absorption of waves does not depend on their intensity (linear absorption), although in certain conditions (usually, in optics), the medium changes its transparency dependently on the intensity of waves going through, and the Saturable absorption (or nonlinear absorption) occurs.

text: In

text: physics

text: absorption

text: of electromagnetic radiation is the way by which the

text: energy

text: of a

text: photon

text: is taken up by matter, typically the electrons of an atom. Thus, the electromagnetic energy is transformed to other forms of energy, for example, to heat. The absorption of light during

text: wave propagation

text: is often called

text: attenuation

text: . Usually, the absorption of waves does not depend on their intensity (linear absorption), although in certain conditions (usually, in

text: optics

text: ), the medium changes its transparency dependently on the intensity of waves going through, and the

text: Saturable absorption

text: (or nonlinear absorption) occurs.

text: This species exhibits particularly low tolerance for swallowing seeds. Despite their inability to digest seeds, many primates of similar size swallow large seeds, up to , and simply defecate them whole. The crab-eating macaque, though, spits seeds out if they are larger than . This decision to spit seeds is thought to be adaptive; it avoids filling the monkey’s stomach with wasteful bulky seeds that cannot be used for energy.

text: Microphallus sp. is a widespread and locally common undescribed parasite in New Zealand lakes and streams. Multilocus allozyme genotype data show that Microphallus is a single outbred species with high levels of gene flow among South Island populations. The parasite exclusively uses Potamopyrgus antipodarum as the intermediate host, and the final hosts are waterfowl. Embryonated Microphallus eggs are ingested from sediment and hatch in the snail's gut, penetrate the intestine, and migrate to the gonads and digestive gland. Following successful establishment, the parasite then undergoes asexual reproduction, replacing much of the host's reproductive tissue and digestive gland, which results in complete sterilization of the snail. The first visible parasite developmental stages (blastocercariae) are detectable after approximately 75 days post-exposure and metacercariae are common by 90 days post-exposure at 16°C in the lab. The life cycle is completed when snails containing metacercariae are consumed by waterfowl.

text: Microphallus sp. is a widespread and locally common

text: undescribed

text: parasite in New Zealand lakes and streams. Multilocus

text: allozyme

text: genotype data show that Microphallus is a single outbred species with high levels of gene flow among South Island populations. The parasite exclusively uses

text: Potamopyrgus antipodarum

text: as the intermediate host, and the final hosts are

text: waterfowl

text: . Embryonated Microphallus eggs are ingested from sediment and hatch in the

text: snail's gut

text: , penetrate the intestine, and migrate to the

text: gonads

text: and

text: digestive gland

text: . Following successful establishment, the parasite then undergoes

text: asexual reproduction

text: , replacing much of the host's reproductive tissue and digestive gland, which results in complete sterilization of the snail. The first visible parasite developmental stages (

text: blastocercariae

text: ) are detectable after approximately 75 days post-exposure and

text: metacercaria

text: e are common by 90 days post-exposure at 16°C in the lab. The life cycle is completed when snails containing metacercariae are consumed by waterfowl.

text: Everybody is gathered in Zürich, where the institute's leader explains he produced the world's biggest crap in 1960 and was so proud, he raised it as a child. Over time, it grew up into Bono, explaining why Bono can help so many people through his humanitarian work while still seeming "like such a piece of shit." Bono's father says that even though Bono faked his newest record, Bono himself is over 80 courics in weight, and thus is still bigger than Randy's old record or any other feces in the world. At that moment, Randy finally produces a bowel movement so large it lifts him several feet off the toilet seat and is estimated to weigh more than 100 courics. Randy is hailed as the new record holder, as an institute member pulls the "advertisement" Emmy image off the screen and presents it to Randy by lodging it in his feces.

text: The sperm whale has the longest intestinal system in the world, exceeding 300 m in larger specimens. Similar to ruminants the sperm whale has four stomachs.  The first secretes no gastric juices and has very thick muscular walls to crush the food (since whales cannot chew) and resist the claw and sucker attacks of swallowed squid. The second stomach is larger and is where digestion takes place. Undigested squid beaks accumulate in the second stomach – as many as 18,000 have been found in some dissected specimens. Most squid beaks are vomited by the whale, but some occasionally make it to the hindgut.  Such beaks precipitate the formation of ambergris.

text: The sperm whale has the longest intestinal system in the world, exceeding 300 m in larger specimens. Similar to

text: ruminant

text: s the sperm whale has four stomachs.  The first secretes no gastric juices and has very thick muscular walls to crush the food (since whales cannot chew) and resist the claw and sucker attacks of swallowed squid. The second stomach is larger and is where digestion takes place. Undigested squid beaks accumulate in the second stomach – as many as 18,000 have been found in some dissected specimens. Most squid beaks are vomited by the whale, but some occasionally make it to the hindgut.  Such beaks precipitate the formation of

text: ambergris

text: Located a short distance from the settlement is the Barkip Biogas power plant, the largest anaerobic digestion power plant in Scotland when completed in June 2011. It uses anaerobic digestion to produce electricity from leftover food and other organic materials. The only by-product is a high nutrient fertiliser that can be returned to the land to help produce more food. The Barkip Biogas facility was built for the utility provider Scottish & Southern Energy Generation Ltd.  It is operated by Zebec Energy, a West of Scotland company. The facility has the capacity to process up to 75,000 tonnes-a-year of residual waste and has been designed to produce up to 2.5 megawatts (MW) of renewable electricity. The plant was officially opened by the Duke of Rothesay (Prince Charles) in May 2012.

text: Located a short distance from the settlement is the Barkip Biogas power plant, the largest anaerobic digestion power plant in Scotland when completed in June 2011. It uses

text: anaerobic digestion

text: to produce electricity from leftover food and other organic materials. The only by-product is a high nutrient fertiliser that can be returned to the land to help produce more food. The Barkip Biogas facility was built for the utility provider Scottish & Southern Energy Generation Ltd.  It is operated by Zebec Energy, a West of Scotland company. The facility has the capacity to process up to 75,000 tonnes-a-year of residual waste and has been designed to produce up to 2.5 megawatts (MW) of renewable electricity. The plant was officially opened by the

text: Duke of Rothesay

text: (Prince Charles) in May 2012.

text: The large intestine houses over 700 species of bacteria that perform a variety of functions, as well as fungi, protozoa, and archaea. Species diversity varies by geography and diet. The microbes in a human distal gut often number in the vicinity of 100 trillion, and can weigh around 200 grams (0.44 pounds). This mass of mostly symbiotic microbes has recently been called the latest human organ to be "discovered" or in other words, the "forgotten organ".

text: The large intestine houses over 700 species of

text: bacteria

text: that perform a variety of functions, as well as

text: fungi

text: protozoa

text: , and

text: archaea

text: . Species diversity varies by geography and diet. The microbes in a human distal gut often number in the vicinity of 100 trillion, and can weigh around 200 grams (0.44 pounds). This mass of mostly symbiotic microbes has recently been called the latest human organ to be "discovered" or in other words, the "forgotten organ".

text: Metal phosphides have been used as a means of killing rodents and are considered single-dose fast acting rodenticides (death occurs commonly within 1–3 days after single bait ingestion). A bait consisting of food and a phosphide (usually zinc phosphide) is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic phosphine gas. This method of vermin control has possible use in places where rodents are resistant to some of the anticoagulants, particularly for control of house and field mice; zinc phosphide baits are also cheaper than most second-generation anticoagulants, so that sometimes, in the case of large infestation by rodents, their population is initially reduced by copious amounts of zinc phosphide bait applied, and the rest of population that survived the initial fast-acting poison is then eradicated by prolonged feeding on anticoagulant bait. Inversely, the individual rodents, that survived anticoagulant bait poisoning (rest population) can be eradicated by pre-baiting them with nontoxic bait for a week or two (this is important to overcome bait shyness, and to get rodents used to feeding in specific areas by specific food, especially in eradicating rats) and subsequently applying poisoned bait of the same sort as used for pre-baiting until all consumption of the bait ceases (usually within 2–4 days). These methods of alternating rodenticides with different modes of action gives actual or almost 100% eradications of the rodent population in the area, if the acceptance/palatability of baits are good (i.e., rodents feed on it readily).

text: Metal phosphides have been used as a means of killing rodents and are considered single-dose fast acting rodenticides (death occurs commonly within 1–3 days after single bait ingestion). A bait consisting of food and a phosphide (usually

text: zinc phosphide

text: ) is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic

text: phosphine

text: gas. This method of vermin control has possible use in places where rodents are resistant to some of the anticoagulants, particularly for control of house and field mice; zinc phosphide baits are also cheaper than most second-generation anticoagulants, so that sometimes, in the case of large infestation by rodents, their population is initially reduced by copious amounts of zinc phosphide bait applied, and the rest of population that survived the initial fast-acting poison is then eradicated by prolonged feeding on anticoagulant bait. Inversely, the individual rodents, that survived anticoagulant bait poisoning (rest population) can be eradicated by pre-baiting them with nontoxic bait for a week or two (this is important to overcome bait shyness, and to get rodents used to feeding in specific areas by specific food, especially in eradicating rats) and subsequently applying poisoned bait of the same sort as used for pre-baiting until all consumption of the bait ceases (usually within 2–4 days). These methods of alternating rodenticides with different modes of action gives actual or almost 100% eradications of the rodent population in the area, if the acceptance/palatability of baits are good (i.e., rodents feed on it readily).

text: An endoclip is a metallic mechanical device used in endoscopy in order to close two mucosal surfaces without the need for surgery and suturing.  Its function is similar to a suture in gross surgical applications, as it is used to join together two disjointed surfaces, but, can be applied through the channel of an endoscope under direct visualization.  Endoclips have found use in treating gastrointestinal bleeding (both in the upper and lower GI tract), in preventing bleeding after therapeutic procedures such as polypectomy, and in closing gastrointestinal perforations.  Many forms of endoclips exist of different shapes and sizes, including two and three prong devices, which can be administered using single use and reloadable systems, and may or may not open and close to facilitate placement.

text: An endoclip is a metallic mechanical device used in

text: endoscopy

text: in order to close two mucosal surfaces without the need for surgery and

text: suturing

text: .  Its function is similar to a

text: suture

text: in gross surgical applications, as it is used to join together two disjointed surfaces, but, can be applied through the channel of an endoscope under direct visualization.  Endoclips have found use in treating

text: gastrointestinal bleeding

text: (both in the

text: upper

text: and

text: lower GI tract

text: ), in preventing bleeding after therapeutic procedures such as

text: polypectomy

text: , and in closing

text: gastrointestinal perforation

text: s.  Many forms of endoclips exist of different shapes and sizes, including two and three prong devices, which can be administered using single use and reloadable systems, and may or may not open and close to facilitate placement.

text: A non-verified study from 2002 by the Progressive Medical Group claims that after testing the remedy on 52 patients, all of them had "at least minimal improvement not only in any upper gastrointestinal symptoms (probably associated with the natural digestive enzyme), but also in lower gastrointestinal symptoms and yeast-associated problems (altered cognition, craving carbohydrates, arthralgias, myalgias, allergies, etc.)." The study claims that side effects were "minimal with only rare gastrointestinal symptoms (nausea, etc.) that resolved when association with food intake was altered", and that these side effects were deemed to not be statistically significant. The study has not been reviewed by scientific peers, nor published in medical journals.  Some have questioned its usefulness due to the lack of a control group.

text: Bucephalids are trematode parasites of fish. The intermediate hosts include mollusks and at least one amphibian. One characteristic feature is an anterior rhyncus or holdfast that is separate from the digestive system. They also differ from other digeneans in the configuration of the digestive systems and genitalia.

text: Bucephalids are trematode parasites of fish. The intermediate hosts include mollusks and at least one

text: amphibian

text: . One characteristic feature is an anterior rhyncus or holdfast that is separate from the digestive system. They also differ from other digeneans in the configuration of the digestive systems and genitalia.

text: Poor absorption of vitamin B12 in the digestive tract can also cause macrocytosis.

text: In the large intestine, the passage of the digesting food in the colon is a lot slower, taking from 12 to 50 hours until it is removed by defecation. The colon mainly serves as a site for the fermentation of digestible matter by the gut flora. The time taken varies considerably between individuals. The remaining semi-solid waste is termed feces and is removed by the coordinated contractions of the intestinal walls, termed peristalsis, which propels the excreta forward to reach the rectum and exit via defecation from the anus. The wall has an outer layer of longitudinal muscles, the taeniae coli, and an inner layer of circular muscles. The circular muscle keeps the material moving forward and also prevents any back flow of waste. Also of help in the action of peristalsis is the basal electrical rhythm that determines the frequency of contractions. The taeniae coli can be seen and are responsible for the bulges (haustra) present in the colon. Most parts of the GI tract are covered with serous membranes and have a mesentery. Other more muscular parts are lined with adventitia.

text: In the

text: large intestine

text: , the passage of the digesting food in the

text: colon

text: is a lot slower, taking from 12 to 50 hours until it is removed by

text: defecation

text: . The colon mainly serves as a site for the fermentation of digestible matter by the

text: gut flora

text: . The time taken varies considerably between individuals. The remaining semi-solid waste is termed

text: feces

text: and is removed by the coordinated contractions of the intestinal walls, termed

text: peristalsis

text: , which propels the

text: excreta

text: forward to reach the

text: rectum

text: and exit via defecation from the anus. The wall has an outer layer of longitudinal muscles, the

text: taeniae coli

text: , and an inner layer of circular muscles. The circular muscle keeps the material moving forward and also prevents any back flow of waste. Also of help in the action of peristalsis is the

text: basal electrical rhythm

text: that determines the frequency of contractions. The taeniae coli can be seen and are responsible for the bulges (

text: haustra

text: ) present in the colon. Most parts of the GI tract are covered with

text: serous membrane

text: s and have a

text: mesentery

text: . Other more muscular parts are lined with

text: adventitia

text: Aside from these ambient allergens, allergic reactions can result from foods, insect stings, and reactions to medications like aspirin and antibiotics such as penicillin. Symptoms of food allergy include abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, diarrhea, itchy skin, and swelling of the skin during hives. Food allergies rarely cause respiratory (asthmatic) reactions, or rhinitis. Insect stings, antibiotics, and certain medicines produce a systemic allergic response that is also called anaphylaxis; multiple organ systems can be affected, including the digestive system, the respiratory system, and the circulatory system. Depending on the rate of severity, it can cause a skin reactions, bronchoconstriction, swelling, low blood pressure, coma, and death. This type of reaction can be triggered suddenly, or the onset can be delayed. The nature of anaphylaxis is such that the reaction can seem to be subsiding, but may recur throughout a period of time.

text: Aside from these ambient allergens, allergic reactions can result from

text: food

text: s,

text: insect stings

text: , and reactions to

text: medication

text: s like

text: aspirin

text: and

text: antibiotic

text: s such as

text: penicillin

text: . Symptoms of food allergy include

text: abdominal pain

text: bloating

text: , vomiting,

text: diarrhea

text: itch

text: y skin, and

text: swelling of the skin during hives

text: . Food allergies rarely cause

text: respiratory

text: (asthmatic) reactions, or

text: rhinitis

text: . Insect stings, antibiotics, and certain medicines produce a systemic allergic response that is also called

text: anaphylaxis

text: ; multiple organ systems can be affected, including the

text: digestive system

text: , the

text: respiratory system

text: , and the

text: circulatory system

text: . Depending on the rate of severity, it can cause a skin reactions, bronchoconstriction,

text: swelling

text: low blood pressure

text: coma

text: , and

text: death

text: . This type of reaction can be triggered suddenly, or the onset can be delayed. The nature of

text: anaphylaxis

text: is such that the reaction can seem to be subsiding, but may recur throughout a period of time.

text: Biodegradable waste can be used for composting or a resource for heat, electricity and fuel by means of incineration or anaerobic digestion. Swiss Kompogas and the Danish AIKAN process are examples of anaerobic digestion of biodegradable waste. While incineration can recover the most energy, anaerobic digestion plants retain the nutrients and compost for the soil and still recover some of the contained energy in the form of biogas. Kompogas produced 27 million Kwh of electricity and biogas in 2009. The oldest of the company's own lorries has achieved 1,000,000 kilometers driven with biogas from household waste in the last 15 years.

text: Biodegradable waste can be used for composting or a resource for heat, electricity and fuel by means of

text: incineration

text: or

text: anaerobic digestion

text: . Swiss Kompogas and the Danish AIKAN process are examples of anaerobic digestion of biodegradable waste. While incineration can recover the most energy, anaerobic digestion plants retain the nutrients and compost for the soil and still recover some of the contained energy in the form of

text: biogas

text: . Kompogas produced 27 million

text: Kwh

text: of electricity and biogas in 2009. The oldest of the company's own lorries has achieved 1,000,000 kilometers driven with biogas from household waste in the last 15 years.

text: The cotton balls can cause blockages in the digestive system. Blockage in the intestines could result in dehydration, death of the gastrointestinal tract and damage to internal organs. The diet will also result in a nutrition disorder.

text: The cotton balls can cause

text: blockages in the digestive system

text: . Blockage in the intestines could result in

text: dehydration

text: , death of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: and damage to

text: internal organs

text: . The diet will also result in a

text: nutrition disorder

text: When sieved from the water, food is swallowed and travels through the esophagus where it enters a three-chambered-stomach. The first compartment is known as the fore-stomach; this is where food gets ground up into an acidic liquid, which is then squirted into the main stomach. Like in humans, the food is mixed with hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes. Then, the partly digested food is moved into the third stomach, where it meets fat-digesting enzymes, and is then mixed with an alkaline liquid to neutralize the acid from the fore-stomach to prevent damage to the intestinal tract. Their intestinal tract is highly adapted to absorb the most nutrients from food; the walls are folded and contain copious blood vessels, allowing for a greater surface area over which digested food and water can be absorbed. Baleen whales get the water they need from their food; however, the salt content of most of their prey (invertebrates) are similar to that of seawater, whereas the salt content of a whale's blood is considerably lower (three times lower) than that of seawater. The whale kidney is adapted to excreting excess salt; however, while producing urine more concentrated than seawater, it wastes a lot of water which must be replaced.

text: When sieved from the water, food is swallowed and travels through the

text: esophagus

text: where it enters a three-chambered-stomach. The first compartment is known as the fore-stomach; this is where food gets ground up into an

text: acidic

text: liquid, which is then squirted into the main stomach. Like in humans, the food is mixed with

text: hydrochloric acid

text: and protein-digesting

text: enzyme

text: s. Then, the partly digested food is moved into the third stomach, where it meets fat-digesting enzymes, and is then mixed with an

text: alkaline

text: liquid to

text: neutralize

text: the acid from the fore-stomach to prevent damage to the

text: intestinal tract

text: . Their intestinal tract is highly adapted to absorb the most nutrients from food; the walls are folded and contain copious

text: blood vessel

text: s, allowing for a greater surface area over which digested food and water can be absorbed. Baleen whales get the water they need from their food; however, the salt content of most of their prey (

text: invertebrate

text: s) are similar to that of seawater, whereas the salt content of a whale's blood is considerably lower (three times lower) than that of seawater. The whale kidney is adapted to excreting excess salt; however, while producing

text: urine

text: more concentrated than seawater, it wastes a lot of water which must be replaced.

text: It is divided into three sections, a fundus, body and neck. The neck tapers and connects to the biliary tree via the cystic duct, which then joins the common hepatic duct to form the common bile duct. At this junction is a mucosal fold called Hartmann's pouch, where gallstones commonly get stuck. The muscular layer of the body is of smooth muscle tissue that helps the gallbladder contract, so that it can discharge its bile into the bile duct. The gallbladder needs to store bile in a natural, semi-liquid form at all times. Hydrogen ions secreted from the inner lining of the gallbladder keep the bile acidic enough to prevent hardening. To dilute the bile, water and electrolytes from the digestion system are added. Also, salts attach themselves to cholesterol molecules in the bile to keep them from crystallising. If there is too much cholesterol or bilirubin in the bile, or if the gallbladder doesn't empty properly the systems can fail. This is how gallstones form when a small piece of calcium gets coated with either cholesterol or bilirubin and the bile crystallises and forms a gallstone.  The main purpose of the gallbladder is to store and release bile, or gall. Bile is released into the small intestine in order to help in the digestion of fats by breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones. After the fat is absorbed, the bile is also absorbed and transported back to the liver for reuse.

text: It is divided into three sections, a fundus, body and neck. The neck tapers and connects to the

text: biliary tree

text: via the

text: cystic duct

text: , which then joins the

text: common hepatic duct

text: to form the

text: common bile duct

text: . At this junction is a mucosal fold called Hartmann's pouch, where

text: gallstone

text: s commonly get stuck. The

text: muscular layer

text: of the body is of smooth muscle tissue that helps the gallbladder contract, so that it can discharge its bile into the bile duct. The gallbladder needs to store bile in a natural, semi-liquid form at all times.

text: Hydrogen ions

text: secreted from the inner lining of the gallbladder keep the bile acidic enough to prevent hardening. To dilute the bile, water and

text: electrolyte

text: s from the digestion system are added. Also, salts attach themselves to cholesterol molecules in the bile to keep them from

text: crystallising

text: . If there is too much cholesterol or bilirubin in the bile, or if the gallbladder doesn't empty properly the systems can fail. This is how gallstones form when a small piece of calcium gets coated with either cholesterol or bilirubin and the bile crystallises and forms a gallstone.  The main purpose of the gallbladder is to store and release bile, or gall. Bile is released into the small intestine in order to help in the digestion of fats by breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones. After the fat is absorbed, the bile is also absorbed and transported back to the liver for reuse.

text: Researchers in Hokkaido, Japan have also discovered that NCLB reduces the quality of corn silage as animal feed. Their study showed that the digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, and gross energy was significantly lower in the inoculated silage compared to the control.  Total digestible nutrients and digestible energy were reduced by 10.5 and 10.6 percent, respectively

text: Researchers in

text: Hokkaido

text: , Japan have also discovered that NCLB reduces the quality of corn silage as animal feed. Their study showed that the digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, and gross energy was significantly lower in the inoculated silage compared to the control.  Total digestible nutrients and digestible energy were reduced by 10.5 and 10.6 percent, respectively

text: The Whipple procedure today is very similar to Whipple's original procedure. It consists of removal of the distal half of the stomach (antrectomy), the gall bladder and its cystic duct (cholecystectomy), the common bile duct (choledochectomy), the head of the pancreas, duodenum, proximal jejunum, and regional lymph nodes. Reconstruction consists of attaching the pancreas to the jejunum (pancreaticojejunostomy), attaching the hepatic duct to the jejunum (hepaticojejunostomy) to allow digestive juices and bile respectively to flow into the gastrointestinal tract, and attaching the stomach to the jejunum (gastrojejunostomy) to allow food to pass through. Whipple originally used the sequence: bile duct, pancreas and stomach, whereas presently the popular method of reconstruction is pancreas, bile duct and stomach, also known as Child's operation.

text: The Whipple procedure today is very similar to Whipple's original procedure. It consists of removal of the distal half of the stomach (

text: antrectomy

text: ), the gall bladder and its cystic duct (

text: cholecystectomy

text: ), the common bile duct (choledochectomy), the head of the pancreas, duodenum, proximal

text: jejunum

text: , and regional

text: lymph node

text: s. Reconstruction consists of attaching the pancreas to the jejunum (

text: pancreaticojejunostomy

text: ), attaching the hepatic duct to the jejunum (

text: hepaticojejunostomy

text: ) to allow

text: digestive juices

text: and

text: bile

text: respectively to flow into the gastrointestinal tract, and attaching the stomach to the jejunum (

text: gastrojejunostomy

text: ) to allow food to pass through. Whipple originally used the sequence: bile duct, pancreas and stomach, whereas presently the popular method of reconstruction is pancreas, bile duct and stomach, also known as Child's operation.

text: Absorption of the amino acids and their derivatives into which dietary protein is degraded is done by the gastrointestinal tract. The absorption rates of individual amino acids are highly dependent on the protein source; for example, the digestibilities of many amino acids in humans, the difference between soy and milk proteins and between individual milk proteins, beta-lactoglobulin and casein. For milk proteins, about 50% of the ingested protein is absorbed between the stomach and the jejunum and 90% is absorbed by the time the digested food reaches the ileum. Biological value (BV) is a measure of the proportion of absorbed protein from a food which becomes incorporated into the proteins of the organism's body.

text: Absorption of the amino acids and their

text: derivatives

text: into which dietary protein is degraded is done by the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . The absorption rates of individual amino acids are highly dependent on the protein source; for example, the digestibilities of many amino acids in humans, the difference between

text: soy

text: and milk proteins and between individual milk proteins,

text: beta-lactoglobulin

text: and casein. For milk proteins, about 50% of the ingested protein is absorbed between the stomach and the

text: jejunum

text: and 90% is absorbed by the time the digested food reaches the

text: ileum

text: . Biological value (BV) is a measure of the proportion of absorbed protein from a food which becomes incorporated into the proteins of the organism's body.

text: The digestive tract begins slightly behind the head, the mouth lying on the underside a little way from the frontmost point of the body. Here, prey can be mechanically dismembered by the mandibles with their covering of fine toothlets. Two salivary glands discharge via a common conductor into the subsequent "throat", which makes up the first part of the front intestine. The saliva that they produce contains mucus and hydrolytic enzymes, which initiate in and outside the mouth digestion. Historically, the salivary glands probably evolved from the waste-elimination organs known as nephridia, which are found homologously in the other body segments. The throat itself is very muscular, serving to absorb the partially liquified food and to pump it, via the oesophagus, which forms the rear part of the front intestine, into the central intestine. Unlike the front intestine, this is not lined with a cuticula but instead consists only of a single layer of epithelial tissue, which does not exhibit conspicuous indentation as is found in other animals. On entering the central intestine, food particles are coated with a mucus-based peritrophic membrane, which serves to protect the lining of the intestine from damage by sharp-edged particles. The intestinal epithelium secretes further digestive enzymes and absorbs the released nutrients, although the majority of digestion has already taken place externally or in the mouth. Indigestible remnants arrive in the rear intestine, or rectum, which is once again lined with a cuticula and which opens at the anus, located on the underside near to the rear end.

text: The digestive tract begins slightly behind the head, the mouth lying on the underside a little way from the frontmost point of the body. Here, prey can be mechanically dismembered by the mandibles with their covering of fine toothlets. Two

text: saliva

text: ry glands discharge via a common conductor into the subsequent "throat", which makes up the first part of the front

text: intestine

text: . The saliva that they produce contains mucus and

text: hydrolytic

text: enzyme

text: s, which initiate in and outside the mouth

text: digestion

text: . Historically, the salivary glands probably evolved from the waste-elimination organs known as nephridia, which are found homologously in the other body segments. The throat itself is very muscular, serving to absorb the partially liquified food and to pump it, via the

text: oesophagus

text: , which forms the rear part of the front intestine, into the central intestine. Unlike the front intestine, this is not lined with a cuticula but instead consists only of a single layer of epithelial tissue, which does not exhibit conspicuous indentation as is found in other animals. On entering the central intestine, food particles are coated with a mucus-based

text: peritrophic membrane

text: , which serves to protect the lining of the intestine from damage by sharp-edged particles. The intestinal epithelium secretes further digestive enzymes and absorbs the released nutrients, although the majority of digestion has already taken place externally or in the mouth. Indigestible remnants arrive in the rear intestine, or

text: rectum

text: , which is once again lined with a cuticula and which opens at the

text: anus

text: , located on the underside near to the rear end.

text: The pylorus, the lowest section of the stomach which attaches to the duodenum via the pyloric canal, contains countless glands which secrete digestive enzymes including gastrin. After an hour or two, a thick semi-liquid called chyme is produced. When the pyloric sphincter, or valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes further with digestive enzymes from the pancreas, and then passes through the small intestine, where digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon of the large intestine, where the environment is slightly acidic. Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K  produced by bacteria in the gut flora of the colon are also absorbed.

text: The

text: pylorus

text: , the lowest section of the stomach which attaches to the

text: duodenum

text: via the

text: pyloric canal

text: , contains countless glands which secrete digestive enzymes including gastrin. After an hour or two, a thick semi-liquid called

text: chyme

text: is produced. When the

text: pyloric sphincter

text: , or valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes further with digestive enzymes from the pancreas, and then passes through the small intestine, where digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon of the large intestine, where the environment is slightly acidic. Some vitamins, such as

text: biotin

text: and

text: vitamin K

text: produced by

text: bacteria

text: in the

text: gut flora

text: of the colon are also absorbed.

text: Elimination tag team matches are the same as a normal tag team match except that a wrestler who suffers a loss is eliminated from participation. The match continues until all members of one team are eliminated. WWE uses the term "Survivor Series match" to denote an eight or ten person match held during their yearly Survivor Series pay-per-view. Lucha libre wrestling promotions use the term Torneo cibernetico (cybernetic tournament) for multi-man elimination matches. Sometimes in these matches, there can be only one winner, so after the other team has been eliminated former teammates face each other in an elimination match. A further variation is where teams of four or more are composed of tag teams, and once a member of a team is eliminated their partner is also eliminated.

text: Elimination tag team matches are the same as a normal

text: tag team match

text: except that a wrestler who suffers a loss is eliminated from participation. The match continues until all members of one team are eliminated.

text: WWE

text: uses the term "Survivor Series match" to denote an eight or ten person match held during their yearly

text: Survivor Series

text: pay-per-view

text: Lucha libre

text: wrestling promotions use the term

text: Torneo cibernetico

text: (cybernetic tournament) for multi-man elimination matches. Sometimes in these matches, there can be only one winner, so after the other team has been eliminated former teammates face each other in an elimination match. A further variation is where teams of four or more are composed of

text: tag team

text: s, and once a member of a team is eliminated their partner is also eliminated.

text: A possible scenario for the progression from a fully functional cecum to the current human appendix was put forth by Charles Darwin. He suggested that the appendix was used for digesting leaves as primates. It may be a vestigial organ of ancient humans that has degraded to nearly nothing of its original purpose, or evolved to take on a new purpose over the course of evolution. The very long cecum of some herbivorous animals, such as found in the horse or the koala, appears to support this theory. The koala's cecum enables it to host bacteria that specifically help to break down cellulose. Human ancestors may have also relied upon this system when they lived on a diet rich in foliage. As people began to eat more easily digested foods, they may have become less reliant on cellulose-rich plants for energy. As the cecum became less necessary for digestion, mutations that were previously deleterious (and would have hindered evolutionary progress) were no longer important, so the mutations survived. It is suggested that these alleles became more frequent and the cecum continued to shrink. After millions of years, the once-necessary cecum degraded to be the appendix of modern humans.

text: A possible scenario for the progression from a fully functional cecum to the current human appendix was put forth by

text: Charles Darwin

text: . He suggested that the appendix was used for digesting leaves as

text: primate

text: s. It may be a vestigial organ of ancient humans that has degraded to nearly nothing of its original purpose, or evolved to take on a new purpose over the course of evolution. The very long cecum of some herbivorous animals, such as found in the

text: horse

text: or the

text: koala

text: , appears to support this theory. The koala's cecum enables it to host bacteria that specifically help to break down cellulose. Human ancestors may have also relied upon this system when they lived on a diet rich in foliage. As people began to eat more easily digested foods, they may have become less reliant on cellulose-rich plants for energy. As the cecum became less necessary for digestion, mutations that were previously deleterious (and would have hindered evolutionary progress) were no longer important, so the mutations survived. It is suggested that these

text: allele

text: s became more frequent and the cecum continued to shrink. After millions of years, the once-necessary cecum degraded to be the appendix of modern humans.

text: Digestive enzymes have problems digesting crystalline structures. Raw starch will digest poorly in the duodenum and small intestine, while bacterial degradation will take place mainly in the colon. When starch is cooked, the digestibility is increased.

text: Digestive

text: enzymes have problems digesting crystalline structures. Raw starch will digest poorly in the

text: duodenum

text: and

text: small intestine

text: , while bacterial degradation will take place mainly in the

text: colon

text: . When starch is cooked, the digestibility is increased.

text: The feces that is dropped is sure comfort.

text: The mouth, also called the oral cavity or buccal cavity, is the entranceway into the digestive system containing both primary and accessory organs of digestion.

text: The

text: mouth

text: , also called the

text: oral cavity

text: or

text: buccal cavity

text: , is the entranceway into the

text: digestive system

text: containing both primary and accessory organs of digestion.

text: Psilocybin is metabolized mostly in the liver. As it becomes converted to psilocin, it undergoes a first-pass effect, whereby its concentration is greatly reduced before it reaches the systemic circulation. Psilocin is broken down by the enzyme monoamine oxidase to produce several metabolites that can circulate in the blood plasma, including 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetaldehyde, 4-hydroxytryptophol, and 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid. Some psilocin is not broken down by enzymes and instead forms a glucuronide; this is a biochemical mechanism animals use to eliminate toxic substances by linking them with glucuronic acid, which can then be excreted in the urine. Psilocin is glucuronated by the glucuronosyltransferase enzymes UGT1A9 in the liver, and by UGT1A10 in the small intestine. Based on studies using animals, about 50% of ingested psilocybin is absorbed through the stomach and intestine. Within 24 hours, about 65% of the absorbed psilocybin is excreted into the urine, and a further 15–20% is excreted in the bile and feces. Although most of the remaining drug is eliminated in this way within 8 hours, it is still detectable in the urine after 7 days. Clinical studies show that psilocin concentrations in the plasma of adults average about 8 µg/liter within 2 hours after ingestion of a single 15 mg oral psilocybin dose; psychological effects occur with a blood plasma concentration of 4–6 µg/liter. Psilocybin is about 100 times less potent than LSD on a weight per weight basis, and the physiological effects last about half as long.

text: Psilocybin is metabolized mostly in the

text: liver

text: . As it becomes converted to psilocin, it undergoes a

text: first-pass effect

text: , whereby its concentration is greatly reduced before it reaches the

text: systemic circulation

text: . Psilocin is broken down by the enzyme

text: monoamine oxidase

text: to produce several

text: metabolite

text: s that can circulate in the blood plasma, including 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetaldehyde, 4-hydroxytryptophol, and 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid. Some psilocin is not broken down by enzymes and instead forms a

text: glucuronide

text: ; this is a biochemical mechanism animals use to eliminate toxic substances by linking them with

text: glucuronic acid

text: , which can then be excreted in the urine. Psilocin is glucuronated by the

text: glucuronosyltransferase

text: enzymes

text: in the liver, and by

text: in the small intestine. Based on

text: studies using animals

text: , about 50% of ingested psilocybin is absorbed through the stomach and intestine. Within 24 hours, about 65% of the absorbed psilocybin is

text: excreted

text: into the urine, and a further 15–20% is excreted in the

text: bile

text: and feces. Although most of the remaining drug is eliminated in this way within 8 hours, it is still detectable in the urine after 7 days. Clinical studies show that psilocin concentrations in the plasma of adults average about 8 µg/liter within 2 hours after ingestion of a single 15 mg oral psilocybin dose; psychological effects occur with a blood plasma concentration of 4–6 µg/liter. Psilocybin is about 100 times less potent than LSD on a weight per weight basis, and the physiological effects last about half as long.

text: The US agreed to turn over all of its weapons on the condition that all other countries pledge not to produce them and agree to an adequate system of inspection. The Soviets rejected this plan on the grounds that the United Nations was dominated by the United States and its allies in Western Europe, and could therefore not be trusted to exercise authority over atomic weaponry in an evenhanded manner. They proposed that America eliminate its nuclear weapons, before considering proposals for a system of controls and inspections.

text: The method of elimination is iterative.  One looks at the answers, determines that several answers are unfit, eliminates these, and repeats, until one cannot eliminate any more.  This iteration is most effectively applied when there is logical structure between the answers – that is to say, when by eliminating an answer one can eliminate several others.  In this case one can find the answers which one cannot eliminate by eliminating any other answers and test them alone – the others are eliminated as a logical consequence.  (This is the idea behind optimizations for computerized searches when the input is sorted – as, for instance, in binary search).

text: The method of elimination is

text: iterative

text: .  One looks at the answers, determines that several answers are unfit, eliminates these, and repeats, until one cannot eliminate any more.  This iteration is most effectively applied when there is

text: logic

text: al structure between the answers – that is to say, when by eliminating an answer one can eliminate several others.  In this case one can find the answers which one cannot eliminate by eliminating any other answers and test them alone – the others are eliminated as a

text: logical consequence

text: .  (This is the idea behind optimizations for computerized searches when the input is sorted – as, for instance, in

text: binary search

text: The diaphragm is an important part of the body's digestive system. The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity where most of the digestive organs are located. The suspensory muscle attaches the ascending duodenum to the diaphragm. This muscle is thought to be of help in the digestive system in that its attachment offers a wider angle to the duodenojejunal flexure for the easier passage of digesting material. The diaphragm also attaches to the bare area of the liver, which it anchors. The esophagus enters the abdomen through a hole in the diaphragm at the level of T10.

text: The

text: diaphragm

text: is an important part of the body's digestive system. The diaphragm separates the

text: thoracic cavity

text: from the

text: abdominal cavity

text: where most of the digestive organs are located. The

text: suspensory muscle

text: attaches the ascending duodenum to the diaphragm. This muscle is thought to be of help in the digestive system in that its attachment offers a wider angle to the

text: duodenojejunal flexure

text: for the easier passage of digesting material. The diaphragm also attaches to the

text: bare area of the liver

text: , which it anchors. The esophagus enters the abdomen through a

text: hole in the diaphragm

text: at the level of

text: In particular, the consumption of whole-plant foods slows digestion and allows better absorption, and a more favorable balance of essential nutrients per Calorie, resulting in better management of cell growth, maintenance, and mitosis (cell division), as well as better regulation of appetite and blood sugar . Regularly scheduled meals (every few hours) have also proven more wholesome than infrequent or haphazard ones.

text: In particular, the consumption of whole-plant foods slows digestion and allows better absorption, and a more favorable balance of essential nutrients per

text: Calorie

text: , resulting in better management of cell growth, maintenance, and

text: mitosis

text: (cell division), as well as better regulation of appetite and blood sugar . Regularly scheduled meals (every few hours) have also proven more wholesome than infrequent or haphazard ones.

text: Phenotypic plasticity  of the digestive system allows some animals to respond to changes in dietary nutrient composition, diet quality, and energy requirements.

text: Phenotypic plasticity  of the

text: digestive system

text: allows some animals to respond to changes in dietary nutrient composition, diet quality, and energy requirements.

text: Oats are the most popular grain for horses. Oats have a lower digestible energy value and higher fiber content than most other grains. They form a loose mass in the stomach that is well suited to the equine digestive system. They are also more palatable and digestible than other grains.

text: Oat

text: s are the most popular

text: grain

text: for horses. Oats have a lower digestible energy value and higher fiber content than most other grains. They form a loose mass in the stomach that is well suited to the equine digestive system. They are also more palatable and digestible than other grains.

text: The percentage of people with peanut allergies is 0.6% in the United States. In a 2008 study, self-reported incidence of peanut allergy was estimated to affect 1.4% of the population of the United States, triple the 0.4-0.6% rate found in a 1997 study. In England, an estimated 4,000 people are newly diagnosed with peanut allergy every year; 25,700 having been diagnosed with peanut allergy at some point in their lives. Peanut allergy is one of the most dangerous food allergies, and one of the least likely to be outgrown.

text: The percentage of people with peanut allergies is 0.6% in the United States. In a 2008 study,

text: self-reported

text: incidence of peanut allergy was estimated to affect 1.4% of the population of the United States, triple the 0.4-0.6% rate found in a 1997 study. In England, an estimated 4,000 people are newly diagnosed with peanut allergy every year; 25,700 having been diagnosed with peanut allergy at some point in their lives. Peanut allergy is one of the most dangerous food allergies, and one of the least likely to be outgrown.

text: Despite being in contact with faeces and pathogenic organisms, the beans contain negligible amounts of the enteric (pathogenic) organisms associated with feces. Moreover, the "cherry" or endocarp surrounding the bean is not completely digested by the luwak, and after being collected, the farmer performs thorough washing and removes the endocarp. The final roasting of the beans would, additionally, eliminate any remaining bacteria.

text: Another emotion with a bodily effect that can be measured by EGG is that of stress.  When the body is stressed and engages in the fight-or-flight response, blood flow is directed to the muscles in the arms and legs and away from the digestive system. This loss of blood flow slows the digestive system, and this slowing can be seen on the EGG. However, this response can vary from person to person and situation to situation.

text: Another emotion with a bodily effect that can be measured by EGG is that of

text: stress

text: .  When the body is stressed and engages in the

text: fight-or-flight response

text: , blood flow is directed to the muscles in the arms and legs and away from the digestive system. This loss of blood flow slows the digestive system, and this slowing can be seen on the EGG. However, this response can vary from person to person and situation to situation.

text: The device is connected at one end to the beginning of the duodenum (first portion of the small intestine from the stomach) and at the other the mid-jejunum (the secondary stage of the small intestine). A nitinol anchor secures the bag at the duodenum, ensuring the liner doesn't migrate and that the chyme (the semifluid mass of partially digested food that exits the stomach) completely enters into the liner. This prevents the partially digested food from entering the first and initial part of the secondary stage of the small intestine, mimicking the effects of the biliopancreatic portion of Roux en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery. This reduces the amount of calories absorbed and causes bile and pancreatic fluids to be redistributed later in the mid-jejunum for reduced breakdown and absorption of the chyme.

text: The device is connected at one end to the beginning of the duodenum (first portion of the small intestine from the stomach) and at the other the mid-jejunum (the secondary stage of the small intestine). A

text: nitinol

text: anchor secures the bag at the duodenum, ensuring the liner doesn't migrate and that the

text: chyme

text: (the semifluid mass of partially digested food that exits the stomach) completely enters into the liner. This prevents the partially digested food from entering the first and initial part of the secondary stage of the small intestine, mimicking the effects of the

text: biliopancreatic portion

text: of

text: Roux en-Y gastric bypass

text: (RYGB) surgery. This reduces the amount of calories absorbed and causes bile and pancreatic fluids to be redistributed later in the mid-jejunum for reduced breakdown and absorption of the chyme.

text: The Integrated Manure Utilization System "IMUS" is an anaerobic digestion technology that uses organic waste to produce biogas, which is used to produce electricity and heat. The "IMUS" system produces organic fertilizer and reusable water as bioproducts.

text: The Integrated Manure Utilization System "IMUS" is an

text: anaerobic digestion

text: technology that uses organic waste to produce

text: biogas

text: , which is used to produce

text: electricity

text: and

text: heat

text: . The "IMUS" system produces organic fertilizer and reusable water as bioproducts.

text: Certain foods have been known to worsen bloating. Poorly digested components of many foods are excreted into the large intestine where they are degraded by bacteria, producing excess gas. Depending on the undigested component, this may affect the odor and the volume of gas created.Excess dietary fiber intake is a known cause of belching, gas and bloating. Many vegetables are known to cause bloating due to high levels of fiber and undigestible sugars such as raffinose (e.g. beans, cabbage, broccoli).

text: Certain foods have been known to worsen bloating. Poorly digested components of many foods are excreted into the large intestine where they are degraded by bacteria, producing excess gas. Depending on the undigested component, this may affect the odor and the volume of gas created.Excess

text: dietary fiber

text: intake is a known cause of belching, gas and bloating. Many vegetables are known to cause bloating due to high levels of fiber and undigestible sugars such as

text: raffinose

text: (e.g. beans, cabbage, broccoli).

text: Joint intracellular and extracellular digestion In hydra and other cnidarians, the food is caught by the tentacles and ingested through the mouth into the single large digestive cavity, the gastrovascular cavity. Enzymes are secreted from the cells bordering this cavity and poured on the food for extracellular digestion. Small particles of the partially digested food are engulfed into the vacuoles of the digestive cells for intracellular digestion. Any undigested and un-absorbedfood is finally thrown out of the mouth.

text: Joint intracellular and extracellular digestion In hydra and other

text: cnidarian

text: s, the food is caught by the tentacles and ingested through the mouth into the single large digestive cavity, the

text: gastrovascular cavity

text: . Enzymes are secreted from the cells bordering this cavity and poured on the food for extracellular digestion. Small particles of the partially digested food are engulfed into the

text: vacuole

text: s of the digestive cells for

text: intracellular digestion

text: . Any undigested and un-absorbedfood is finally thrown out of the mouth.

text: Like most body psychotherapeutic schools, Biodynamics isn't recognized by the health insurance companies in the United States as a scientifically based therapeutic intervention, however, in Switzerland, Biodynamics is covered by health care insurance. The German compulsory health insurance scheme (AOK) states: "The idea of "emotional residue" which is delivered via the bowels is scientifically baseless. Also there are no scientific studies to attest to the efficacy of the therapy. (...) It is surely so that anxiety and stress have effects on the vegetative nervous system of the intestines and would express itself as changes in digestive activity. However, the idea that intestinal noises is an expression of the psychological situation of the patient cannot be established."

text: Both sexes undertake a prelaying exodus in order to build up energy reserves, this usually lasts around 28 days. A single egg is laid, if that egg is lost then the pair will not attempt another that season. After laying, the male usually undertakes the first incubation stint. Both sexes incubate the egg, in stints that can last up to 13 days. Incubation takes around 50 days. After hatching, the chick is brooded for up to six days, until it is able to thermoregulate, after which it is left alone in the nest while both parents hunt for food. It is initially fed with stomach oil, an energy rich waxy oil of digested prey created in the parent's gut; later it is fed both solids and stomach oil. Like many procellariids, wedge-tailed shearwater parents alternate long and short trips to provide food, with the parents alternating between short foraging trips (1–4 days) and long trips (about 8 days), the two parents coordinating their feeding effort. Chicks increase in size to 560 g (larger than the adults) then drop to around 430 g before fledging. Fledging occurs after 103–115 days, after which the chick is independent of the adult.

text: Both sexes undertake a prelaying exodus in order to build up energy reserves, this usually lasts around 28 days. A single egg is laid, if that egg is lost then the pair will not attempt another that season. After laying, the male usually undertakes the first incubation stint. Both sexes incubate the egg, in stints that can last up to 13 days. Incubation takes around 50 days. After hatching, the chick is brooded for up to six days, until it is able to

text: thermoregulate

text: , after which it is left alone in the nest while both parents hunt for food. It is initially fed with

text: stomach oil

text: , an energy rich waxy oil of digested prey created in the parent's gut; later it is fed both solids and stomach oil. Like many procellariids, wedge-tailed shearwater parents alternate long and short trips to provide food, with the parents alternating between short foraging trips (1–4 days) and long trips (about 8 days), the two parents coordinating their feeding effort. Chicks increase in size to 560 g (larger than the adults) then drop to around 430 g before

text: fledging

text: . Fledging occurs after 103–115 days, after which the chick is independent of the adult.

text: Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria are the two of the main types of bacteria that reside in the small intestine. Some commercial strains of these groups of bacteria are used as probiotics. Both bacterial groups may play a role in both local and systemic immunity of the intestine. Aside from providing a gut defense barrier, some strains of these two types of bacteria may secrete antimicrobial substates to inhibit the growth of pathogens.

text: Gastroenterology (MeSH heading) is the branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders.

text: Gastroenterology (

text: MeSH

text: heading) is the branch of

text: medicine

text: focused on the

text: digestive system

text: and its disorders.

text: The most important initial issue when considering the application of anaerobic digestion systems is the feedstock to the process. Almost any organic material can be processed with anaerobic digestion; however, if biogas production is the aim, the level of putrescibility is the key factor in its successful application. The more putrescible (digestible) the material, the higher the gas yields possible from the system.

text: There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish, such as sharks, sturgeons, and lungfish. Instead, the digestive part of the gut forms a spiral intestine, connecting the stomach to the rectum. In this type of gut, the intestine itself is relatively straight, but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion, sometimes for dozens of turns. This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods. In lampreys, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion. Hagfish have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which is not subdivided into different regions.

text: There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish, such as

text: shark

text: s,

text: sturgeon

text: s, and

text: lungfish

text: . Instead, the digestive part of the gut forms a spiral intestine, connecting the stomach to the rectum. In this type of gut, the intestine itself is relatively straight, but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion, sometimes for dozens of turns. This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods. In

text: lamprey

text: s, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion.

text: Hagfish

text: have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which is not subdivided into different regions.

text: Today there are many methods available such as Cytotoxic testing, MRT testing, Elisa Testing and Microarray Elisa Testing. Allergy US reviewed these methods and Microarray technology appears to be the most reliable among them. http://allergyus.com/food-intolerance-tests-in-usa/.

text: Bile is produced by the liver, and serves to eliminate cholesterol and bilirubin from the body, as well as emulsifying of fats to make them more soluble in water and aid in their digestion. Bile is formed in the liver by hepatocytes (liver cells) and excreted into the common hepatic duct. Part of the bile is stored in the gall bladder because of back pressure (exerted by the sphincter of Oddi), and may be released at the time of digestion. The gallbladder also concentrates the bile by absorbing water and dissolved salts from it. All bile reaches the duodenum (first part of the small intestine) through the common bile duct and the ampulla of Vater. The sphincter of Oddi, located at the junction of the ampulla of Vater and the duodenum, is a circular muscle that controls the release of both bile and pancreatic secretions into the digestive tract.

text: Bile is produced by the liver, and serves to eliminate

text: cholesterol

text: and

text: bilirubin

text: from the body, as well as

text: emulsifying

text: of

text: fats

text: to make them more soluble in water and aid in their digestion. Bile is formed in the liver by

text: hepatocyte

text: s (liver cells) and excreted into the

text: common hepatic duct

text: . Part of the bile is stored in the

text: gall bladder

text: because of back pressure (exerted by the

text: sphincter of Oddi

text: ), and may be released at the time of digestion. The gallbladder also concentrates the bile by absorbing water and dissolved salts from it. All bile reaches the

text: duodenum

text: (first part of the small intestine) through the

text: common bile duct

text: and the

text: ampulla of Vater

text: . The sphincter of Oddi, located at the junction of the ampulla of Vater and the duodenum, is a circular muscle that controls the release of both bile and

text: pancreatic

text: secretions

text: into the digestive tract.

text: Manipura is the home of the coeliac plexus, which innervates most of the digestive system. In chakra-based medicine, practitioners work this area to promote healthier digestion, elimination, pancreas-kidney and Adrenal function. Weak Agni (fire) in the coeliac plexus leads to incompletely digested food, thoughts and emotions, and is a source of ama (toxicity).

text: Manipura is the home of the

text: coeliac plexus

text: , which innervates most of the

text: digestive system

text: . In chakra-based medicine, practitioners work this area to promote healthier

text: digestion

text: , elimination,

text: pancreas

text: kidney

text: and

text: Adrenal function

text: . Weak Agni (fire) in the coeliac plexus leads to incompletely digested food, thoughts and emotions, and is a source of

text: ama

text: toxicity

text: In higher plants, the absorption of light continues to increase as light intensity increases, while the capacity for photosynthesis tends to saturate. Therefore there is the potential for the absorption of excess light energy by photosynthetic light harvesting systems. This excess excitation energy leads to an increase in the lifetime of singlet excited chlorophyll, increasing the chances of the formation of long-lived chlorophyll triplet states by inter-system crossing. Triplet chlorophyll is a potent photosensitiser of molecular oxygen forming singlet oxygen which can cause oxidative damage to the pigments, lipids and proteins of the photosynthetic thylakoid membrane. To counter this problem, one photoprotective mechanism is so-called non-photochemical quenching (NPQ), which relies upon the conversion and dissipation of the excess excitation energy into heat. NPQ involves conformational changes within the light harvesting proteins of photosystem (PS) II that bring about a change in pigment interactions causing the formation of energy traps. The conformational changes are stimulated by a combination of transmembrane proton gradient, the PsbS subunit of photosystem II and the enzymatic conversion of the carotenoid violaxanthin to zeaxanthin (the xanthophyll cycle).

text: In higher plants, the absorption of light continues to increase as light intensity increases, while the capacity for photosynthesis tends to saturate. Therefore there is the potential for the absorption of excess light energy by photosynthetic

text: light harvesting

text: systems. This excess excitation energy leads to an increase in the lifetime of singlet excited

text: chlorophyll

text: , increasing the chances of the formation of long-lived chlorophyll triplet states by

text: inter-system crossing

text: . Triplet chlorophyll is a potent

text: photosensitiser

text: of molecular oxygen forming

text: singlet oxygen

text: which can cause oxidative damage to the pigments, lipids and proteins of the photosynthetic

text: thylakoid membrane

text: . To counter this problem, one photoprotective mechanism is so-called non-photochemical quenching (NPQ), which relies upon the conversion and dissipation of the excess excitation energy into heat. NPQ involves conformational changes within the light harvesting proteins of photosystem (PS) II that bring about a change in pigment interactions causing the formation of energy traps. The conformational changes are stimulated by a combination of transmembrane proton gradient, the PsbS subunit of

text: photosystem II

text: and the enzymatic conversion of the carotenoid

text: violaxanthin

text: to

text: zeaxanthin

text: (the

text: xanthophyll cycle

text: Bettong digestive systems are characterized by a very large sacciform fore stomach, a tubiform fore stomach with limited sacculation, and a small hind stomach. The hind gut has a well-developed, simple cecum. Like many macropodiforms, bettongs have fore gut fermentation. Daily water intake is only about 3% of its body weight. B. lesueur seems to have renal adaptations to conserve water, which is important in its arid and semiarid habitats.

text: The Coway appear in the 1978 novel Splinter of the Mind's Eye, by Alan Dean Foster. The Coway are a fur-covered humanoid species that are native to the planet Mimban, of the Circarpous Major System. Coways live deep underground, and have a strong aversion to surface-dwellers. Coways have small eyes, but are able to see in the dark due to their infrared vision. Additionally, they are able to eat foods normally poisonous to humans because of their more tolerant digestive system. They wear simple, primitive clothing.

text: The Coway appear in the 1978 novel

text: Splinter of the Mind's Eye

text: , by

text: Alan Dean Foster

text: . The Coway are a fur-covered humanoid species that are native to the planet

text: Mimban

text: , of the

text: Circarpous Major System

text: . Coways live deep underground, and have a strong aversion to surface-dwellers. Coways have small eyes, but are able to see in the dark due to their

text: infrared

text: vision. Additionally, they are able to eat foods normally poisonous to humans because of their more tolerant digestive system. They wear simple, primitive clothing.

text: Enteropeptidase (also called enterokinase) is an enzyme produced by cells of the duodenum and involved in human and animal digestion. It is secreted from intestinal glands (the crypts of Lieberkühn) following the entry of ingested food passing from the stomach.  Enteropeptidase converts trypsinogen (a zymogen) into its active form trypsin, resulting in the subsequent activation of pancreatic digestive enzymes. Absence of enteropeptidase results in intestinal digestion impairment.

text: Enteropeptidase (also called enterokinase) is an

text: enzyme

text: produced by cells of the

text: duodenum

text: and involved in human and animal

text: digestion

text: . It is secreted from intestinal glands (the

text: crypts of Lieberkühn

text: ) following the entry of ingested food passing from the stomach.  Enteropeptidase converts

text: trypsinogen

text: (a

text: zymogen

text: ) into its active form

text: trypsin

text: , resulting in the subsequent activation of

text: pancreatic

text: digestive enzymes. Absence of enteropeptidase results in intestinal digestion impairment.

text: After the embryo passes through a trochophore-like stage during development, it then hatches as a veliger larva. The veliger larva has a shell and ciliated velum. The larva uses the ciliated velum to swim as well as to bring food to its mouth. The veliger larva feed on phytoplankton in the sea-water column. After the food is brought to the mouth by the ciliated velum, it is moved down the digestive tract to the stomach. In the stomach, food is sorted and then moved on to the digestive gland where the food is digested and the nutrients are absorbed by the epithelial cells of the digestive gland.

text: After the

text: embryo

text: passes through a

text: trochophore

text: -like stage during development, it then

text: hatches

text: as a veliger larva. The veliger larva has a shell and ciliated velum. The larva uses the ciliated velum to swim as well as to bring food to its mouth. The veliger larva feed on

text: phytoplankton

text: in the sea-water column. After the food is brought to the mouth by the ciliated velum, it is moved down the digestive tract to the

text: stomach

text: . In the stomach, food is sorted and then moved on to the digestive gland where the food is digested and the

text: nutrients

text: are absorbed by the epithelial cells of the digestive gland.

text: The authors, David Denkenberger and Joshua Pearce, claim alternate food sources could feed everyone even if the sun is blocked by catastrophes like nuclear winter, supervolcano eruption, or large asteroid/comet impact. At first this appears unlikely because malnutrition and hunger-related disease now kill 6.5 million children under five years old each year. This is because the book focuses on what is technically possible and assumes global cooperation. The solutions also address crises including abrupt climate change, super weeds, super crop pests (animals, e.g. insects), super bacteria (e.g. disrupts beneficial bacteria) and super crop pathogens. The solution using fossil fuel energy source is natural gas digesting bacteria.

text: The authors, David Denkenberger and

text: Joshua Pearce

text: , claim alternate food sources could feed everyone even if the sun is blocked by catastrophes like

text: nuclear winter

text: supervolcano

text: eruption, or large

text: asteroid

text: comet

text: impact. At first this appears unlikely because malnutrition and hunger-related disease now kill 6.5 million children under five years old each year. This is because the book focuses on what is technically possible and assumes global cooperation. The solutions also address crises including

text: abrupt climate change

text: , super weeds, super crop

text: pest

text: s (animals, e.g. insects), super

text: bacteria

text: (e.g. disrupts beneficial bacteria) and super crop

text: pathogen

text: s. The solution using fossil fuel energy source is natural gas digesting bacteria.

text: When consumed, most bacteria do not survive the acidic conditions of the human stomach. The few surviving bacteria conserve their energy and stored nutrients during the passage through the stomach by shutting down much protein production. When the surviving bacteria exit the stomach and reach the small intestine, they must propel themselves through the thick mucus that lines the small intestine to reach the intestinal walls where they can attach and thrive.

text: When consumed, most bacteria do not survive the acidic conditions of the

text: human stomach

text: . The few surviving bacteria conserve their

text: energy and stored nutrients

text: during the passage through the stomach by shutting down much protein production. When the surviving bacteria exit the stomach and reach the

text: small intestine

text: , they must propel themselves through the thick

text: mucus

text: that lines the small intestine to reach the intestinal walls where they can attach and thrive.

text: The horse’s small intestine is  long and holds . This is the major digestive organ, and where most nutrients are absorbed. It has three parts, the duodenum, jejunum and ileum.  The majority of digestion occurs in the duodenum while the majority of absorption occurs in the jejunum. Bile from the liver aids in digesting fats in the duodenum combined with enzymes from the pancreas and small intestine.  Horses do not have a gall bladder, so bile flows constantly. Most food is digested and absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine, including proteins, simple carbohydrate, fats, and vitamins A, D, . Any remaining liquids and roughage move into the large intestine.

text: The horse’s

text: small intestine

text: is  long and holds . This is the major digestive organ, and where most nutrients are absorbed. It has three parts, the

text: duodenum

text: jejunum

text: and

text: ileum

text: .  The majority of digestion occurs in the duodenum while the majority of absorption occurs in the jejunum.

text: Bile

text: from the liver aids in digesting fats in the duodenum combined with

text: enzyme

text: s from the

text: pancreas

text: and small intestine.  Horses do not have a

text: gall bladder

text: , so bile flows constantly. Most food is digested and absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine, including proteins, simple carbohydrate, fats, and vitamins A, D, . Any remaining liquids and roughage move into the large intestine.

text: Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are a number of conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to something in the environment that usually causes little or no problem in most people. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis. Symptoms may include red eyes, an itchy rash, runny nose, shortness of breath, or swelling. Food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions.

text: Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are a number of conditions caused by

text: hypersensitivity

text: of the

text: immune system

text: to something in the environment that usually causes little or no problem in most people. These diseases include

text: hay fever

text: food allergies

text: atopic dermatitis

text: allergic asthma

text: , and

text: anaphylaxis

text: . Symptoms may include

text: red eyes

text: , an itchy rash,

text: runny nose

text: shortness of breath

text: , or swelling.

text: Food intolerances

text: and

text: food poisoning

text: are separate conditions.

text: The time taken for food or other ingested objects to transit through the gastrointestinal tract varies depending on many factors, but roughly, it takes less than an hour after a meal for 50% of stomach contents to empty into the intestines while total emptying takes around 2 hours. Subsequently, 50% emptying of the small intestine takes between 1 and 2 hours. Finally, transit through the colon takes 12 to 50 hours with wide variation between individuals.

text: The spread of many diseases (e.g. soil-transmitted helminthiasis, diarrhea, schistosomiasis) and chronic malnutrition in children – which can be connected to a condition called environmental enteropathy – is directly related to exposure to human feces.

text: The spread of many diseases (e.g.

text: soil-transmitted helminthiasis

text: diarrhea

text: schistosomiasis

text: ) and chronic

text: malnutrition in children

text: – which can be connected to a condition called

text: environmental enteropathy

text: – is directly related to exposure to

text: human feces

text: The stomach of Artiodactyls is divided into four sections: the rumen, the reticulum, the omasum and the abomasum (only ruminants have a rumen). After the plant material is consumed, it is mixed with saliva in the rumen and reticulum and separates into solid and liquid material. The solids lump together to form a bolus (or cud), and is regurgitated. When the bolus enters the mouth, the fluid is squeezed out with the tongue and swallowed again. Ingested food passes to the rumen and reticulum where cellulytic microbes (bacteria, protozoa and fungi) produce cellulase, which is needed to break down the cellulose in plants. Perissodactyls, in contrast to the ruminants, store digested food that has left the stomach in an enlarged cecum, where it is fermented by bacteria. Carnivora have a simple stomach adapted to digest primarily meat, as compared to the elaborate digestive systems of herbivorous animals, which are necessary to break down tough, complex plant fibers. The caecum is either absent or short and simple, and the large intestine is not sacculated or much wider than the small intestine.

text: The stomach of

text: Artiodactyls

text: is divided into four sections: the

text: rumen

text: , the

text: reticulum

text: , the

text: omasum

text: and the

text: abomasum

text: (only

text: ruminant

text: s have a rumen). After the plant material is consumed, it is mixed with saliva in the

text: rumen

text: and

text: reticulum

text: and separates into solid and liquid material. The solids lump together to form a

text: bolus

text: (or

text: cud

text: ), and is regurgitated. When the bolus enters the mouth, the fluid is squeezed out with the tongue and swallowed again. Ingested food passes to the rumen and reticulum where cellulytic

text: microbe

text: s (

text: bacteria

text: protozoa

text: and

text: fungi

text: ) produce

text: cellulase

text: , which is needed to break down the

text: cellulose

text: in plants.

text: Perissodactyls

text: , in contrast to the ruminants, store digested food that has left the stomach in an enlarged

text: cecum

text: , where it is fermented by bacteria.

text: Carnivora

text: have a simple stomach adapted to digest primarily meat, as compared to the elaborate digestive systems of herbivorous animals, which are necessary to break down tough, complex plant fibers. The

text: caecum

text: is either absent or short and simple, and the large intestine is not

text: sacculated

text: or much wider than the small intestine.

text: The biogas produced from feces when it is contained in sewage and treated in an anaerobic digestion process could be worth as much as 9.5 billion dollars.

text: The

text: biogas

text: produced from feces when it is contained in

text: sewage

text: and treated in an

text: anaerobic digestion

text: process could be worth as much as 9.5 billion dollars.

text: The digestive system contains enormous buccal mass in size and muscular development. The pharynx (the largest part of buccal mass) is so large, occupying almost the whole length of the visceral cavity. The esophagus enters to the buccal cavity dorsally in the anterior fourth. The stomach forms a simple elongated sac.

text: The

text: digestive system

text: contains enormous buccal mass in size and muscular development. The

text: pharynx

text: (the largest part of buccal mass) is so large, occupying almost the whole length of the visceral cavity. The esophagus enters to the buccal cavity dorsally in the anterior fourth. The stomach forms a simple elongated sac.

text: The Canadian Digestive Health Foundation (French: Fondation Canadienne de la Santé Digestive) or CDHF, is a registered Canadian charity. The organization was founded in 1995 as the Canadian Digestive Disease Foundation and renamed the Canadian Digestive Health Foundation in 2001. The objectives of the Foundation are to educate the general public about digestive disease and nutrition, and to advance the science of gastroenterology by funding medical research. In February 2001, it was officially endorsed as the Foundation for the Canadian Association of Gastroenterology. Since then it has raised and invested more than $1 million to fund Canadian researchers in the field of digestive health.

text: The Canadian Digestive Health Foundation (

text: French

text: : Fondation Canadienne de la Santé Digestive) or CDHF, is a registered

text: Canadian

text: charity

text: . The organization was founded in 1995 as the Canadian Digestive Disease Foundation and renamed the Canadian Digestive Health Foundation in 2001. The objectives of the Foundation are to educate the general public about

text: digestive disease

text: and

text: nutrition

text: , and to advance the science of

text: gastroenterology

text: by funding

text: medical research

text: . In February 2001, it was officially endorsed as the Foundation for the Canadian Association of Gastroenterology. Since then it has raised and invested more than $1 million to fund Canadian researchers in the field of digestive health.

text: On May 14, the band were forced to cancel their headlining slot at the annual KROQ Weenie Roast as Kiedis was rushed to the hospital prior to the band appearing on stage due to severe stomach pain. Flea alongside, Smith and Klinghoffer made an announcement on the stage as they were due to appear. It is unknown whether upcoming shows would be affected as a result  Kiedis' mother Peggy posted the following morning on Facebook that "Anthony will be OK. No surgery is needed. I will keep you updated, I promise" It was confirmed that Kiedis was suffering from intestinal flu and was expected to make a full recovery soon however the band was forced to postpone their iHeartRadio album preview show on May 17, 2016 and has rescheduled it for May 26, 2016. The band returned to the stage on May 22, 2016 in Columbus, OH. According to Chad Smith, Kiedis had suffered from the stomach flu a few weeks earlier as well. In a May 20, 2016 interview with Entertainment Tonight Canada, his first since being released from the hospital, Kiedis said that his illness was brought on by an "inflammation in my guts" which he said was complicated by a recent stomach virus and existing scar tissue from previous hernia operations which required his stomach being pumped at the hospital due to his food not being able to properly digest. "That becomes an incredibly painful situation where you get a fever and pass out... Lo an behold, I'm on the mend" He went on to say "so it turned out to be a good thing, albeit painful and very sad to have to cancel a show. We don't really do that. I'd rather play deathly ill than not play at all, but in this particular instance, I was starting to go down, as in to the ground, so I got rushed to the hospital, got some help, and now I get to figure things out."

text: On May 14, the band were forced to cancel their headlining slot at the annual

text: KROQ Weenie Roast

text: as Kiedis was rushed to the hospital prior to the band appearing on stage due to severe stomach pain. Flea alongside, Smith and Klinghoffer made an announcement on the stage as they were due to appear. It is unknown whether upcoming shows would be affected as a result  Kiedis' mother Peggy posted the following morning on Facebook that "Anthony will be OK. No surgery is needed. I will keep you updated, I promise" It was confirmed that Kiedis was suffering from

text: intestinal flu

text: and was expected to make a full recovery soon however the band was forced to postpone their

text: iHeartRadio

text: album preview show on May 17, 2016 and has rescheduled it for May 26, 2016. The band returned to the stage on May 22, 2016 in

text: Columbus, OH

text: . According to

text: Chad Smith

text: , Kiedis had suffered from the stomach flu a few weeks earlier as well. In a May 20, 2016 interview with

text: Entertainment Tonight Canada

text: , his first since being released from the hospital, Kiedis said that his illness was brought on by an "inflammation in my guts" which he said was complicated by a recent stomach virus and existing scar tissue from previous hernia operations which required his stomach being pumped at the hospital due to his food not being able to properly digest. "That becomes an incredibly painful situation where you get a fever and pass out... Lo an behold, I'm on the mend" He went on to say "so it turned out to be a good thing, albeit painful and very sad to have to cancel a show. We don't really do that. I'd rather play deathly ill than not play at all, but in this particular instance, I was starting to go down, as in to the ground, so I got rushed to the hospital, got some help, and now I get to figure things out."

text: Under normal circumstances, the bolus is swallowed, and travels down the esophagus to the stomach for digestion. Once the bolus reaches the stomach, it mixes with gastric juices and becomes chyme, which then travels through the intestines for further digestion and absorption, and eventual discharge (as feces).

text: Under normal circumstances, the bolus is

text: swallowed

text: , and travels down the

text: esophagus

text: to the

text: stomach

text: for digestion. Once the bolus reaches the stomach, it mixes with gastric juices and becomes

text: chyme

text: , which then travels through the intestines for further digestion and absorption, and eventual discharge (as

text: feces

text: Alcohol absorption can be slowed by ingesting alcohol on a full stomach.<ref name=ARFs>{{cite web |url=http://www.bhs.umn.edu/alcohol-drugs/absorption-rate-factors.htm |title=Absorption Rate Factors |website=BHS.UMN.edu |archive-date=18 January 2013 |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118020512/http://www.bhs.umn.edu/alcohol-drugs/absorption-rate-factors.htm |quote=When food is ingested, the pyloric valve at the bottom of the stomach will close in order to hold food in the stomach for digestion and thus keep the alcohol from reaching the small intestine. The larger the meal and closer in time to drinking, the lower the peak of alcohol concentration; some studies indicate up to a 20% reduction in peak blood alcohol level.<br>Stress causes the stomach to empty directly into the small intestine, where alcohol is absorbed even faster.

text: In very high doses, aluminium is associated with altered function of the blood–brain barrier. A small percentage of people are allergic to aluminium and experience contact dermatitis, digestive disorders, vomiting or other symptoms upon contact or ingestion of products containing aluminium, such as antiperspirants and antacids. In those without allergies, aluminium is not as toxic as heavy metals, but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in amounts greater than 40 mg/day per kg of body mass. The use of aluminium cookware has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general, however excessive consumption of antacids containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing antiperspirants provide more significant exposure levels. Consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium enhances aluminium absorption, and maltol has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues. Aluminium increases estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in the laboratory. The estrogen-like effects of these salts have led to their classification as metalloestrogens.

text: In very high doses, aluminium is associated with altered function of the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: . A small percentage of people are

text: allergic

text: to aluminium and experience

text: contact dermatitis

text: digestive

text: disorders,

text: vomiting

text: or other symptoms upon contact or ingestion of products containing aluminium, such as

text: antiperspirant

text: s and antacids. In those without allergies, aluminium is not as toxic as

text: heavy metals

text: , but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in amounts greater than 40 mg/day per kg of

text: body mass

text: . The use of aluminium

text: cookware

text: has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general, however excessive consumption of

text: antacid

text: s containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing antiperspirants provide more significant exposure levels. Consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium enhances aluminium absorption, and

text: maltol

text: has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues. Aluminium increases

text: estrogen

text: -related

text: gene expression

text: in human

text: breast cancer

text: cells cultured in the laboratory. The estrogen-like effects of these salts have led to their classification as

text: metalloestrogen

text: s.

text: Designers and users of UDDTs should strive to keep the feces pile as dry as possible as this is the key factor in prevention of odor and flies (flies are not attracted to dry feces). During storage, the feces’ natural moisture slowly evaporates and is exhausted through the vault’s ventilation system, or is absorbed by the dry cover material. This process is called drying, dehydration or desiccation.

text: Designers and users of UDDTs should strive to keep the feces pile as dry as possible as this is the key factor in prevention of odor and flies (flies are not attracted to dry feces). During storage, the feces’ natural moisture slowly evaporates and is exhausted through the vault’s ventilation system, or is absorbed by the dry cover material. This process is called

text: drying

text: , dehydration or desiccation.

text: Application of digestate has been shown to inhibit plant diseases and induction of resistance. Digestate application has a direct effect on soil-born diseases, and an indirect effect by stimulation of biological activity.

text: Another example are the koalas. They have a special digestive system that allows them to break down tough eucalyptus leaves and remain unharmed by its poison (National Geographic).

text: Canned sardines in supermarkets may actually be sprat (such as the “brisling sardine”) or round herrings. Fish sizes vary by species. Good quality sardines should have the head and gills removed before packing. They may also be eviscerated before packing (typically the larger varieties). If not, they should be purged of undigested or partially digested food or feces by holding the live fish in a tank long enough for them to empty their digestive systems.

text: Canned sardines in supermarkets may actually be

text: sprat

text: (such as the

text: “brisling sardine”

text: ) or

text: round herrings

text: . Fish sizes vary by species. Good quality sardines should have the

text: head

text: and

text: gills

text: removed before packing. They may also be

text: eviscerated

text: before packing (typically the larger varieties). If not, they should be purged of undigested or partially digested food or

text: feces

text: by holding the live fish in a tank long enough for them to empty their digestive systems.

text: The odontophore is movable and protrusible, and the radula itself is movable over the odontophore. Through this action the radula teeth are being erected. The tip of the odontophore then scrapes the surface, while the teeth cut and scoop up the food and convey the particles through the esophagus to the digestive tract.

text: The odontophore is movable and protrusible, and the radula itself is movable over the odontophore. Through this action the radula teeth are being erected. The tip of the odontophore then scrapes the surface, while the teeth cut and scoop up the food and convey the particles through the

text: esophagus

text: to the digestive tract.

text: Protein quality is the digestibility and quantity of essential amino acids for providing the proteins in correct ratios for human consumption. There are various methods that rank the quality of different types of protein, some of which are outdated and no longer in use, or not considered as useful as they once were thought to be. The current protein ranking standard in use is the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS), which was recommended by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and became the industry standard in 1993, and FAO has recently recommended the newer Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) to supersede PDCAAS, due to the limitations of PDCAAS. The dairy industry is in favor of this, because while PDCAAS truncates all protein types that exceed the essential amino acid (EAA) requirements to 1.0, DIAAS allows a higher than 1.0 ranking, and as such, while for example both soy protein isolate and whey isolate are ranked 1.0 according to PDCAAS, in the DIAAS system, whey has a higher score than soy.

text: Protein quality is the

text: digestibility

text: and quantity of

text: essential amino acid

text: s for providing the proteins in correct ratios for human consumption. There are various methods that rank the quality of different types of

text: protein

text: , some of which are outdated and no longer in use, or not considered as useful as they once were thought to be. The current protein ranking standard in use is the

text: Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score

text: (PDCAAS), which was recommended by

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: (FAO), and became the industry standard in 1993, and FAO has recently recommended the newer

entity_name: Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score

text: Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score

text: (DIAAS) to supersede PDCAAS, due to the limitations of PDCAAS. The dairy industry is in favor of this, because while PDCAAS truncates all protein types that exceed the

text: essential amino acid

text: (EAA) requirements to 1.0, DIAAS allows a higher than 1.0 ranking, and as such, while for example both soy protein isolate and whey isolate are ranked 1.0 according to PDCAAS, in the DIAAS system, whey has a higher score than soy.

text: The List of ICD-9 codes 520–579: diseases of the digestive system is one of the ranges International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems codes.

text: The List of ICD-9 codes 520–579: diseases of the digestive system is one of the ranges

entity_name: International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems

text: International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems

text: codes.

text: It is also typically used in the digestion process of turbid water samples, sludge samples, solid samples as well as other types of unique samples which require elemental analysis via ICP-MS, ICP-OES, ICP-AES, GFAA and flame atomic absorption spectroscopy. Typically these digestions use a 50% solution of the purchased  mixed with Type 1 DI Water.

text: It is also typically used in the digestion process of turbid water samples, sludge samples, solid samples as well as other types of unique samples which require elemental analysis via

entity_name: Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

text: ICP-MS

entity_name: Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy

text: ICP-OES

text: ICP-AES

text: , GFAA and flame

text: atomic absorption spectroscopy

text: . Typically these digestions use a 50% solution of the purchased  mixed with Type 1 DI Water.

text: The esophagus is one of the upper parts of the digestive system. There are taste buds on its upper part. It begins at the back of the mouth, passing downwards through the rear part of the mediastinum, through the diaphragm, and into the stomach. In humans, the esophagus generally starts around the level of the sixth cervical vertebra behind the cricoid cartilage of the trachea, enters the diaphragm at about the level of the tenth thoracic vertebra, and ends at the cardia of the stomach, at the level of the eleventh thoracic vertebra. The esophagus is usually about 25 cm (10 in) in length.

text: The esophagus is one of the upper parts of the

text: digestive system

text: . There are

text: taste bud

text: s on its upper part. It begins at the back of the mouth, passing downwards through the rear part of the

text: mediastinum

text: , through the

text: diaphragm

text: , and into the stomach. In humans, the esophagus generally starts around the level of the sixth

text: cervical vertebra

text: behind the

text: cricoid cartilage

text: of the

text: trachea

text: , enters the diaphragm at about the level of the

text: tenth thoracic vertebra

text: , and ends at the

text: cardia

text: of the stomach, at the level of the

text: eleventh thoracic vertebra

text: . The esophagus is usually about 25 cm (10 in) in length.

text: One of the main methods of removing thallium (both radioactive and normal) from humans is to use Prussian blue, a material which absorbs thallium. Up to 20 g per day of Prussian blue is fed by mouth to the person, and it passes through their digestive system and comes out in the stool. Hemodialysis and hemoperfusion are also used to remove thallium from the blood serum. At later stage of the treatment additional potassium is used to mobilize thallium from the tissue.

text: One of the main methods of removing thallium (both radioactive and normal) from humans is to use

text: Prussian blue

text: , a material which absorbs thallium. Up to 20 g per day of Prussian blue is fed by mouth to the person, and it passes through their digestive system and comes out in the

text: stool

text: Hemodialysis

text: and

text: hemoperfusion

text: are also used to remove thallium from the blood serum. At later stage of the treatment additional potassium is used to mobilize thallium from the tissue.

text: The digestive system of the horse is somewhat delicate.  Horses are unable to regurgitate food, except from the esophagus.  Thus, if they overeat or eat something poisonous, vomiting is not an option.  They also have a long, complex large intestine and a balance of beneficial microbes in their cecum that can be upset by rapid changes in feed.  Because of these factors, they are very susceptible to colic, which is a leading cause of death in horses.  Therefore, horses require clean, high-quality feed, provided at regular intervals, and may become ill if subjected to abrupt changes in their diets. Horses are also sensitive to molds and toxins.  For this reason, they must never be fed contaminated fermentable materials such as lawn clippings.  Fermented silage or "haylage" is fed to horses in some places; however, contamination or failure of the fermentation process that allows any mold or spoilage may be toxic.

text: The

text: digestive system of the horse

text: is somewhat delicate.  Horses are unable to

text: regurgitate

text: food, except from the

text: esophagus

text: .  Thus, if they overeat or eat something poisonous,

text: vomiting

text: is not an option.  They also have a long, complex

text: large intestine

text: and a balance of beneficial microbes in their

text: cecum

text: that can be upset by rapid changes in feed.  Because of these factors, they are very susceptible to

text: colic

text: , which is a leading cause of death in horses.  Therefore, horses require clean, high-quality feed, provided at regular intervals, and may become ill if subjected to abrupt changes in their diets. Horses are also sensitive to molds and toxins.  For this reason, they must never be fed contaminated fermentable materials such as lawn clippings.  Fermented

text: silage

text: or "haylage" is fed to horses in some places; however, contamination or failure of the fermentation process that allows any mold or spoilage may be toxic.

text: A urine-diverting dry toilet (UDDT) is a type of dry toilet with urine diversion that can be used to provide safe, affordable sanitation in a variety of contexts worldwide. Through the separate collection of feces (faeces) and urine without any flush water, many advantages can be realized, such as odor-free operation and pathogen reduction by drying. While dried feces and urine harvested from UDDTs can be and routinely are used in agriculture (respectively, as a soil amender and nutrient-rich fertilizer—this practice being known as reuse of excreta in agriculture), many UDDTs installations do not make use of any sort of recovery scheme. The UDDT is an example of a technology that can be used to achieve a sustainable sanitation system. This dry excreta management system (or "dry sanitation" system) is an alternative to pit latrines and flush toilets, especially where water is scarce, a connection to a sewer system and centralized wastewater treatment plant is not feasible or desired, fertilizer and soil conditioner are needed for agriculture, or groundwater pollution should be minimized.

text: A urine-diverting dry toilet (UDDT) is a type of

text: dry toilet

text: with

text: urine diversion

text: that can be used to provide safe, affordable

text: sanitation

text: in a variety of contexts worldwide. Through the separate collection of

text: feces

text: (faeces) and

text: urine

text: without any flush water, many advantages can be realized, such as odor-free operation and pathogen reduction by drying. While dried feces and urine harvested from UDDTs can be and routinely are used in agriculture (respectively, as a soil amender and nutrient-rich fertilizer—this practice being known as

text: reuse of excreta

text: in agriculture), many UDDTs installations do not make use of any sort of recovery scheme. The UDDT is an example of a technology that can be used to achieve a

text: sustainable sanitation

text: system. This dry excreta management system (or "dry

text: sanitation

text: " system) is an alternative to

text: pit latrine

text: s and flush

text: toilet

text: s, especially where water is scarce, a connection to a

text: sewer system

text: and centralized

text: wastewater treatment plant

text: is not feasible or desired,

text: fertilizer

text: and

text: soil conditioner

text: are needed for agriculture, or

text: groundwater pollution

text: should be minimized.

text: The function of the ileum is mainly to absorb vitamin B and bile salts and whatever products of digestion were not absorbed by the jejunum. The wall itself is made up of folds, each of which has many tiny finger-like projections known as villi on its surface. In turn, the epithelial cells that line these villi possess even larger numbers of microvilli. Therefore, the ileum has an extremely large surface area both for the adsorption (attachment) of enzyme molecules and for the absorption of products of digestion. The DNES (diffuse neuroendocrine system) cells of the ileum secrete various hormones (gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin) into the blood. Cells in the lining of the ileum secrete the protease and carbohydrase enzymes responsible for the final stages of protein and carbohydrate digestion into the lumen of the intestine. These enzymes are present in the cytoplasm of the epithelial cells.

text: The function of the ileum is mainly to absorb

text: vitamin B

text: and

text: bile salts

text: and whatever products of digestion were not absorbed by the jejunum. The wall itself is made up of folds, each of which has many tiny finger-like projections known as

text: villi

text: on its surface. In turn, the epithelial cells that line these villi possess even larger numbers of

text: microvilli

text: . Therefore, the ileum has an extremely large surface area both for the

text: adsorption

text: (attachment) of

text: enzyme

text: molecules and for the

text: absorption

text: of products of

text: digestion

text: . The DNES (diffuse neuroendocrine system) cells of the ileum secrete various hormones (gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin) into the blood. Cells in the lining of the ileum secrete the

text: protease

text: and

text: carbohydrase

text: enzymes responsible for the final stages of

text: protein

text: and

text: carbohydrate

text: digestion into the

text: lumen

text: of the intestine. These enzymes are present in the

text: cytoplasm

text: of the

text: epithelial cells

text: The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "fight or flight" response, indicated by accelerated pulse and respiration rates, pupil dilation, and a general feeling of anxiety and hyper-awareness.  This is caused by the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands. the norepinephrine and epinephrine strike the beta receptors of the heart in order to feed the heart sympathetic nerve fibers to increase the strength of heart muscle contraction. as a result more blood is being circulated increasing the heart rate and respiratory rate. The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the skeletal system and muscular system in an effort to pump more blood to those areas to handle the acute stress. simultaneously the sympathetic nervous system inhibits the digestive system and the urinary system in order to optimize blood flow to the heart, lungs, and skeletal muscles. this plays a role in the alarm reaction stage. The para-sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "rest and digest" response, indicated by reduced heart and respiration rates, and more obviously by a temporary loss of consciousness if the system is fired at a rapid rate. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the digestive system and urinary system in order to send more blood to those systems to increase the process of digestion. In order to do this, it must inhibit the cardiovascular system and respiratory system in an effort to optimize blood flow to the digestive tract causing low heart and respiratory rates. parasympathetic plays no role in acute stress response (VanPutte Regan Russo 2014).

text: The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "

text: fight or flight

text: Isopods have a simple gut which lacks a midgut section; instead there are caeca connected to the back of the stomach in which absorption takes place. Food is sucked into the oesophagus, a process enhanced in the blood-sucking parasitic species, and passed by peristalsis into the stomach, where the material is processed and filtered. The structure of the stomach varies, but in many species there is a dorsal groove into which indigestible material is channelled and a ventral part connected to the caeca where intracellular digestion and absorption take place. Indigestible material passes on through the hindgut and is eliminated through the anus, which is on the pleotelson.

text: Isopods have a simple gut which lacks a midgut section; instead there are

text: caeca

text: connected to the back of the

text: stomach

text: in which absorption takes place. Food is sucked into the

text: oesophagus

text: , a process enhanced in the blood-sucking parasitic species, and passed by

text: peristalsis

text: into the stomach, where the material is processed and filtered. The structure of the stomach varies, but in many species there is a dorsal groove into which indigestible material is channelled and a ventral part connected to the caeca where intracellular digestion and absorption take place. Indigestible material passes on through the

text: hindgut

text: and is eliminated through the

text: anus

text: , which is on the pleotelson.

text: Diet management allows control and awareness of the types of nutrients entering the digestive system, and hence allows indirectly, significant control over changes in blood glucose levels. Blood glucose monitoring allows verification of these, and closer control, especially important since some symptoms of diabetes are not easy for the patient to notice without actual measurement.

text: Another anti-IgE antibody with identical antigen-binding characteristics is already on the market for allergic asthma, under the trade name Xolair (omalizumab). Omalizumab is an anti-IgE monoclonal antibody, which was placed in a development program under a tripartite partnership formed by Tanox, Novartis, and Genentech in 1996. The problem is that Xolair has not been approved for use in food allergies. One could obtain a prescription for Xolair without it being approved for use in allergies, but most health insurance will not cover it without FDA approval, meaning it could cost on the order of $1000 a month for a patient.

text: Another anti-IgE antibody with identical antigen-binding characteristics is already on the market for allergic asthma, under the trade name

text: Xolair

text: omalizumab

text: ). Omalizumab is an anti-IgE monoclonal antibody, which was placed in a development program under a tripartite partnership formed by Tanox, Novartis, and Genentech in 1996. The problem is that Xolair has not been approved for use in food allergies. One could obtain a

text: prescription

text: for Xolair without it being approved for use in allergies, but most

text: health insurance

text: will not cover it without FDA approval, meaning it could cost on the order of $1000 a month for a patient.

text: When the human feces are treated for pathogen kill and safety precautions are applied according to a multiple barrier concept as stipulated by the World Health Organization, then treated human feces can be safely used in agriculture. The approach to "close the loop" between human excreta (sanitation) and agriculture is also called ecosan (ecological sanitation). Examples of toilets types that can be used to collect and treat human feces to a safe level include urine-diversion dry toilets as well as composting toilets.

text: When the human feces are treated for pathogen kill and safety precautions are applied according to a multiple barrier concept as stipulated by the

text: World Health Organization

text: , then treated human feces can be safely

text: used in agriculture

text: . The approach to "close the loop" between human excreta (

text: sanitation

text: ) and agriculture is also called

text: ecosan

text: (ecological sanitation). Examples of toilets types that can be used to collect and treat human feces to a safe level include

text: urine-diversion dry toilets

text: as well as

text: composting toilets

text: The small intestine contains a trace amount of microorganisms due to the proximity and influence of the stomach. Gram positive cocci and rod shaped bacteria are the predominant microorganisms found in the small intestine. However, in the distal portion of the small intestine alkaline conditions support gram-positive bacteria of the Enterobacteriaceae. The bacterial flora of the small intestine aid in a wide range of intestinal functions. The bacterial flora provide regulatory signals that enable the development and utility of the gut. Overgrowth of bacteria in the small intestine can lead to intestinal failure. In addition the large intestine contains the largest bacterial ecosystem in the human body. Factors that disrupt the microorganism population of the large intestine include antibiotics, stress, and parasites.

text: A mouth assessment is performed as part of a patient's health assessment. The mouth is the beginning of the digestive system and a substantial part of the respiratory tract. Before an assessment of the mouth, patient is sometimes advised to remove any dentures. The assessment begins with a dental-health questionnaire, including questions about toothache, hoarseness, dysphagia(difficulty swallowing), altered taste or a frequent sore throat, current and previous tobacco use and alcohol consumption and any sores, lesions or bleeding of the gums.

text: A mouth assessment is performed as part of a patient's

text: health assessment

text: . The

text: mouth

text: is the beginning of the

text: digestive system

text: and a substantial part of the

text: respiratory tract

text: . Before an assessment of the mouth, patient is sometimes advised to remove any dentures. The assessment begins with a dental-health questionnaire, including questions about

text: toothache

text: hoarseness

text: dysphagia

text: (difficulty swallowing), altered taste or a frequent sore throat, current and previous tobacco use and alcohol consumption and any sores, lesions or bleeding of the gums.

text: Most mollusks have a complete digestive system with a separate mouth and anus. The mouth leads into a short esophagus which leads to a stomach. Associated with the stomach are one or more digestive glands or digestive caeca. Digestive enzymes are secreted into the lumen of these glands. Additional extracellular digestion takes place in the stomach. In cephalopods, digestion is entirely extracellular. In the most other mollusks, the terminal stages of digestion are completed intracellularly, within the tissue of the digestive glands. The absorbed nutrients enter the circulatory system for distribution throughout the body or are stored in the digestive glands for later use. Undigested waste pass through an intestine and out through the anus. Other aspects of food collection and processing have already been discussed where appropriate for each group.

text: Most

text: mollusks

text: have a complete digestive system with a separate mouth and anus. The mouth leads into a short

text: esophagus

text: which leads to a stomach. Associated with the stomach are one or more

text: digestive gland

text: s or digestive

text: caeca

text: . Digestive enzymes are secreted into the lumen of these glands. Additional extracellular digestion takes place in the stomach. In

text: cephalopod

text: s, digestion is entirely extracellular. In the most other mollusks, the terminal stages of digestion are completed intracellularly, within the tissue of the digestive glands. The absorbed nutrients enter the

text: circulatory system

text: for distribution throughout the body or are stored in the digestive glands for later use. Undigested waste pass through an intestine and out through the anus. Other aspects of food collection and processing have already been discussed where appropriate for each group.

text: Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of muscles that begins in the esophagus and continues along the wall of the stomach and the rest of the gastrointestinal tract. This initially results in the production of chyme which when fully broken down in the small intestine is absorbed as chyle into the lymphatic system. Most of the digestion of food takes place in the small intestine. Water and some minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon of the large intestine. The waste products of digestion (faeces) are defecated from the anus via the rectum.

text: Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of

text: muscle

text: s that begins in the esophagus and continues along the wall of the stomach and the rest of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . This initially results in the production of

text: chyme

text: which when fully broken down in the

text: small intestine

text: is absorbed as

text: chyle

text: into the

text: lymphatic system

text: . Most of the digestion of food takes place in the small intestine. Water and some

text: minerals

text: are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon of the

text: large intestine

text: . The waste products of digestion (

text: faeces

text: ) are

text: defecated

text: from the

text: anus

text: via the

text: rectum

text: Some marine oligochaeta (e.g., Olavius or Inanidrillus) have obligate extracellular endosymbionts that fill the entire body of their host. These marine worms are nutritionally dependent on their symbiotic chemoautotrophic bacteria lacking any digestive or excretory system (no gut, mouth, or nephridia).

text: Some marine

text: oligochaeta

text: (e.g.,

text: Olavius

text: or

text: Inanidrillus

text: ) have obligate extracellular endosymbionts that fill the entire body of their host. These marine worms are nutritionally dependent on their symbiotic

text: chemoautotroph

text: ic bacteria lacking any digestive or excretory system (no gut, mouth, or

text: nephridia

text: Different allusions are used to represent numerals in this system. It is also a unique system of numerals among Newars. This was also used in ancient period. In this system numbers are represented with universal truth. for example-to represent "1", there is one mouth and is a universal truth. So "म्हुतु-mhutu" meaning mouth is used for one. We can use any universal truth among many.This system is read from back.e.g.-12 is written as 21(ल्हा न्हाय्-lhaa nhya-hand nose)

text: The gastrointestinal tract is affected in about 70% of cases, including: anorexia, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, hepatomegaly, and splenomegaly. The liver is involved in most cases, but function tests are normal or mildly abnormal.  Granulomas (B. abortus), hepatitis (B. melitensis) and abscesses (B. suis)are seen.

text: Although uncommon in humans, some hairballs have been reported. These hairballs occur when hair strands collect in the stomach and are unable to be ejected as a result of the friction on the surface of the gastric mucosa. Hairballs are often seen in young girls as a result of trichophagia, trichotillomania, and pica. In 2003, a 3-year-old girl in Red Deer, Alberta, Canada had a grapefruit-sized hairball surgically removed from her stomach; in 2006, an 18-year-old woman from Chicago, Illinois, had a  hairball surgically removed from her stomach; and in 2014, a 9-pound hairball was removed from the stomach of an 18-year-old in Kyrgyzstan. Hairballs can be quite hazardous in humans, since hair cannot be digested or passed by the human gastrointestinal system, and (assuming it is identified) even vomiting may be ineffective at removing the hair mass. This can result in the general impairment of the digestive system.

text: Although uncommon in humans, some hairballs have been reported. These hairballs occur when hair strands collect in the stomach and are unable to be ejected as a result of the friction on the surface of the gastric mucosa. Hairballs are often seen in young girls as a result of

text: trichophagia

text: trichotillomania

text: , and

text: pica

text: . In 2003, a 3-year-old girl in

text: Red Deer, Alberta

text: , Canada had a grapefruit-sized hairball surgically removed from her stomach; in 2006, an 18-year-old woman from

text: Chicago

text: Illinois

text: , had a  hairball surgically removed from her stomach; and in 2014, a 9-pound hairball was removed from the stomach of an 18-year-old in

text: Kyrgyzstan

text: . Hairballs can be quite hazardous in humans, since hair cannot be digested or passed by the human gastrointestinal system, and (assuming it is identified) even

text: vomiting

text: may be ineffective at removing the hair mass. This can result in the general impairment of the digestive system.

text: Protease activated receptors are integral membrane proteins that are coupled to G-proteins and are activated by specific cleavage of the amino terminal sequence that exposes a new N-terminal sequence functions as a tethered ligand, which binds intramolecularly to activate the receptor. Four types of PAR receptors have been identified by molecular cloning, and classified according to the main enzyme that is able to activate it. It has been determined that a large group of proteases that cleave and activate PARs receptors including proteases from: a) the coagulation cascade, b) inflammatory cells, and c) the digestive tract. The wide distribution of PARs in a variety of cells supports the idea that they are involved in many process related with the gastrointestinal physiology. Although the proteolysis is the main mechanism for PAR activation, it is well known that a synthetic peptide (SLIGKV) that mimics the new N-terminal sequence produced after the cleavage, activates PAR-2 receptors without its proteolytic processing. In this sense, here we report that TFF3 isolated from human breast milk activates PAR-2 receptors of intestinal epithelial cells HT-29. These findings suggest that TFF3 activates intestinal epithelial cells through G-protein-coupled PAR-2, and could actively participate in the immune system of breastfed babies inducing the production of peptides related to innate defense, such as defensins and cytokines.

text: Years later, in 1994, local people of Hawaii, Maui and Oahu island in Hawaii were poisoned by food. The local residents of these islands often eat various types of algae including the red alga Gracilaria coronopifolia. After taking samples of this red alga it turned out that they contained two toxins which were identical with aplysiatoxin and debromoaplysiatoxin. Moreover, they observed parasitism of a blue-green alga on the surface of G. coronopifolia. In view of the fact that some blue-green alga like L. majuscula produce aplysiatoxin and debromoaplysiatoxin, it’s probable that they are the true origin of this food poisoning case.

text: Years later, in 1994, local people of Hawaii, Maui and Oahu island in Hawaii were poisoned by food. The local residents of these islands often eat various types of algae including the red alga

text: Gracilaria coronopifolia

text: . After taking samples of this red alga it turned out that they contained two toxins which were identical with aplysiatoxin and debromoaplysiatoxin. Moreover, they observed

text: parasitism

text: of a blue-green alga on the surface of G. coronopifolia. In view of the fact that some blue-green alga like L. majuscula produce aplysiatoxin and debromoaplysiatoxin, it’s probable that they are the true origin of this food poisoning case.

text: The narrator explains that, as a young boy, he once drew a picture of a boa constrictor digesting an elephant in its stomach; however, every adult who saw the picture would mistakenly interpret it as a drawing of a hat. Whenever the narrator would try to correct this confusion, he was ultimately advised to set aside drawing and take up a more practical or mature hobby. The narrator laments the crass materialism of contemporary society and the lack of creative understanding displayed by adults. As noted by the narrator, he could have had a great career as a painter, but this opportunity was crushed by the misunderstanding of the adults.

text: The narrator explains that, as a young boy, he once drew a picture of a

text: boa constrictor

text: digesting an

text: elephant

text: in its stomach; however, every adult who saw the picture would mistakenly interpret it as a drawing of a hat. Whenever the narrator would try to correct this confusion, he was ultimately advised to set aside drawing and take up a more practical or mature hobby. The narrator laments the crass materialism of contemporary society and the lack of creative understanding displayed by adults. As noted by the narrator, he could have had a great career as a painter, but this opportunity was crushed by the misunderstanding of the adults.

text: Cystic fibrosis is an example of an inherited disease that is caused by a mutation on a gene. The faulty gene impairs the normal movement of sodium chloride in and out of cells, which causes the mucus-secreting organs to produce abnormally thick mucus. The gene is recessive, meaning that a person must have two copies of the faulty gene for them to develop the disease. Cystic fibrosis affects the respiratory, digestive and reproductive systems, as well as the sweat glands. The mucus secreted is very thick and blocks passageways in the lungs and digestive tracts. This mucus causes problems with breathing and with the digestion and absorption of nutrients.

text: Today, poison is used for a wider variety of purposes than it used to be. For example, poison can be used to rid an unwanted infestation by pests or to kill weeds. Such chemicals, known as pesticides, have been known to be used in some form since about 2500 BC. However, the use of pesticides has increased staggeringly from 1950, and presently approximately 2.5 million tons of industrial pesticides are used each year. Other poisons can also be used to preserve foods and building material.

text: Today, poison is used for a wider variety of purposes than it used to be. For example, poison can be used to rid an unwanted infestation by pests or to kill weeds. Such chemicals, known as

text: pesticide

text: s, have been known to be used in some form since about 2500 BC. However, the use of pesticides has increased staggeringly from 1950, and presently approximately 2.5

text: million

text: tons of industrial pesticides are used each year. Other poisons can also be used to

text: preserve foods

text: and building material.

text: The DNA is first digested with a random digestion method, commonly by cutting the DNA with restriction enzymes (enzymes that cut DNA). A partial restriction digest cuts only some of the restriction sites, resulting in overlapping DNA fragment lengths. The DNA fragments are put into individual plasmid vectors and grown inside bacteria. Once in the bacteria the plasmid is copied as the bacteria divides. To determine if a useful gene is present on a particular fragment the bacterial library is screened for the desired phenotype. If the phenotype is detected then it is possible that the bacteria contains the target gene. If the gene does not have a detectable phenotype or a DNA library does not contain the correct gene, other methods can be used to isolate it. If the position of the gene can be determined using molecular markers then chromosome walking is one way to isolate the correct DNA fragment. If the gene expresses close homology to a known gene in another species, then it could be isolated by searching for genes in the library that closely match the known gene.

text: The DNA is first digested with a random digestion method, commonly by cutting the DNA with

text: restriction enzymes

text: (enzymes that cut DNA). A partial

text: restriction digest

text: cuts only some of the restriction sites, resulting in overlapping DNA fragment lengths. The DNA fragments are put into individual

text: plasmid vectors

text: and grown inside bacteria. Once in the bacteria the plasmid is copied as the

text: bacteria divides

text: . To determine if a useful gene is present on a particular fragment the bacterial library is

text: screened

text: for the desired

text: phenotype

text: . If the phenotype is detected then it is possible that the bacteria contains the target gene. If the gene does not have a detectable phenotype or a DNA library does not contain the correct gene, other methods can be used to isolate it. If the position of the gene can be determined using

text: molecular markers

text: then

text: chromosome walking

text: is one way to isolate the correct DNA fragment. If the gene expresses close

text: homology

text: to a known gene in another species, then it could be isolated by searching for genes in the library that closely match the known gene.

text: There is considerable interest in the symbiontic bacteria that at least some glossiphoniids carry in specialized compartments of the esophagus to aid in digesting their meals. Haementeria as well as Placobdelloides have Enterobacteriaceae symbionts, while Placobdella harbours peculiar and independently derived Alpha Proteobacteria.

text: There is considerable interest in the

text: symbiontic

text: bacteria

text: that at least some glossiphoniids carry in specialized compartments of the

text: esophagus

text: to aid in digesting their meals.

text: Haementeria

text: as well as

text: Placobdelloides

text: have

text: Enterobacteriaceae

text: symbionts, while

text: Placobdella

text: harbours peculiar and independently derived

text: Alpha Proteobacteria

text: The arthropod digestive system is divisible into three areas: the fore gut, mid gut, and hind gut. All free-living species exhibit a distinct and separate mouth and anus, and in all species, food must be moved through the digestive tract by muscular activity rather than cilia activity since the lumen of the fore gut and hind gut is lined with cuticle. Digestion is generally extracellular. Nutrients are distributed to the tissues through the hemal system.

text: The

text: arthropod

text: digestive system is divisible into three areas: the fore gut, mid gut, and hind gut. All free-living species exhibit a distinct and separate mouth and anus, and in all species, food must be moved through the digestive tract by muscular activity rather than

text: cilia

text: activity since the

text: lumen

text: of the fore gut and hind gut is lined with

text: cuticle

text: . Digestion is generally extracellular. Nutrients are distributed to the tissues through the hemal system.

text: The enzymes that are secreted in the stomach are called gastric enzymes. The stomach plays a major role in digestion, both in a mechanical sense by mixing and crushing the food, and also in an enzymatic sense, by digesting it. The following are enzymes, hormones or compounds produced by the stomach and their respective function:

text: The enzymes that are secreted in the

text: stomach

text: are called gastric enzymes. The stomach plays a major role in digestion, both in a mechanical sense by mixing and crushing the food, and also in an enzymatic sense, by digesting it. The following are enzymes, hormones or compounds produced by the stomach and their respective function:

text: The small intestine governs the separation of the clear from the turbid. The small intestine further digests food decomposed initially by the stomach. The clear, referring to the essence of water and grain and to the large amount of fluid, is absorbed by the spleen and distributed to the whole, body. The turbid is sent downwards to the large intestine, while the useless water is infused to the bladder. The disorders of the small intestine are attributable to failure to separate the clear from the turbid dirt the digesting process, manifesting stool and urinary disturbance, such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, scanty urine, etc.

text: The small intestine governs the separation of the clear from the

text: turbid

text: . The small intestine further digests food decomposed initially by the stomach. The clear, referring to the essence of water and grain and to the large amount of fluid, is absorbed by the spleen and distributed to the whole, body. The turbid is sent downwards to the large intestine, while the useless water is infused to the bladder. The disorders of the small intestine are attributable to failure to separate the clear from the turbid dirt the digesting process, manifesting stool and urinary disturbance, such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, scanty urine, etc.

text: Nutcracker esophagus is characterized as a motility disorder of the esophagus, meaning that it is caused by abnormal movement, or peristalsis of the esophagus. Patients with motility disorders are present with two key symptoms: either with chest pain (typically reported as non-cardiac chest pain as it is esophageal in origin), which is usually found in disorders of spasm, or with dysphagia (difficulty with swallowing). Nutcracker esophagus can present with either of these, but chest pain is the more common presentation. The chest pain is very severe and intense, and mimics cardiac chest pain. It may spread into the arm and back. The symptoms of nutcracker esophagus are intermittent, and may occur with or without food.  Rarely, patients can present with a sudden obstruction of the esophagus after eating food (termed a food bolus obstruction, or the 'steakhouse syndrome') requiring urgent treatment. The disorder does not progress to produce worsening symptoms or complications, unlike other motility disorders (such as achalasia) or anatomical abnormalities of the esophagus (such as peptic strictures or esophageal cancer). Many patients with nutcracker esophagus do not have any symptoms at all, as esophageal manometry studies done on patients without symptoms may show the same motility findings as nutcracker esophagus. Nutcracker esophagus may also be associated with the metabolic syndrome, The incidence of nutcracker esophagus in all patients is uncertain.

text: Nutcracker esophagus is characterized as a

text: motility

text: disorder of the

text: esophagus

text: , meaning that it is caused by abnormal movement, or

text: peristalsis

text: of the esophagus. Patients with motility disorders are present with two key symptoms: either with

text: chest pain

text: (typically reported as non-cardiac chest pain as it is esophageal in origin), which is usually found in disorders of spasm, or with

text: dysphagia

text: (difficulty with swallowing). Nutcracker esophagus can present with either of these, but chest pain is the more common presentation. The chest pain is very severe and intense, and mimics cardiac chest pain. It may spread into the arm and back. The symptoms of nutcracker esophagus are intermittent, and may occur with or without food.  Rarely, patients can present with a sudden obstruction of the esophagus after eating food (termed a food bolus obstruction, or the 'steakhouse syndrome') requiring urgent

text: treatment

text: . The disorder does not progress to produce worsening symptoms or complications, unlike other motility disorders (such as

text: achalasia

text: ) or anatomical abnormalities of the esophagus (such as

text: peptic strictures

text: or

text: esophageal cancer

text: ). Many patients with nutcracker esophagus do not have any symptoms at all, as esophageal manometry studies done on patients without symptoms may show the same motility findings as nutcracker esophagus. Nutcracker esophagus may also be associated with the

text: metabolic syndrome

text: , The incidence of nutcracker esophagus in all patients is uncertain.

text: Imidazolines are sympathomimetic agents, with primary effects on α adrenergic receptors and little if any effect on β adrenergic receptors. Oxymetazoline is readily absorbed orally. Effects on α receptors from systemically absorbed oxymetazoline hydrochloride may persist for up to 7 hours after a single dose. The elimination half-life in humans is 5–8 hours. It is excreted unchanged both by the kidneys (30%) and in feces (10%).

text: Imidazolines are sympathomimetic agents, with primary effects on α adrenergic receptors and little if any effect on

text: β adrenergic receptors

text: . Oxymetazoline is readily absorbed orally. Effects on α receptors from systemically absorbed oxymetazoline hydrochloride may persist for up to 7 hours after a single dose. The elimination half-life in humans is 5–8 hours. It is excreted unchanged both by the kidneys (30%) and in feces (10%).

text: A hemihydrate form of estradiol, estradiol hemihydrate, is widely used medically under a large number of brand names similarly to estradiol. In terms of activity and bioequivalence, estradiol and its hemihydrate are identical, with the only disparities being an approximate 1% difference in potency by weight (due to the presence of water molecules in the hemihydrate form of the substance) and a slower rate of release with certain formulations of the hemihydrate. This is because estradiol hemihydrate is more hydrated than anhydrous estradiol, and for this reason, is more insoluble in water in comparison, which results in slower absorption rates with specific formulations of the drug such vaginal tablets. Estradiol hemihydrate has also been shown to result in less systemic absorption as a vaginal tablet formulation relative to other topical estradiol formulations such as vaginal creams.

text: A

text: hemihydrate

text: form of estradiol, estradiol hemihydrate, is widely used medically under a large number of brand names similarly to estradiol. In terms of

text: activity

text: and

text: bioequivalence

text: , estradiol and its hemihydrate are identical, with the only disparities being an approximate 1% difference in

text: potency

text: by weight (due to the presence of

text: water

text: molecules in the hemihydrate form of the substance) and a slower rate of

text: release

text: with certain

text: formulation

text: s of the hemihydrate. This is because estradiol hemihydrate is more

text: hydrate

text: d than

text: anhydrous

text: estradiol, and for this reason, is more

text: insoluble

text: in water in comparison, which results in slower

text: absorption

text: rates with specific formulations of the drug such vaginal tablets. Estradiol hemihydrate has also been shown to result in less

text: systemic absorption

text: as a vaginal tablet formulation relative to other topical estradiol formulations such as vaginal creams.

text: Eating (also known as consuming) is the ingestion of food, typically to provide a heterotrophic organism with  energy and to allow for growth. Animals and other heterotrophs must eat in order to survive — carnivores eat other animals, herbivores eat plants, omnivores consume a mixture of both plant and animal matter, and detritivores eat detritus. Fungi digest organic matter outside of their bodies as opposed to animals that digest their food inside their bodies. For humans, eating is an activity of daily living. Some individuals may limit their amount of nutritional intake. This may be a result of a lifestyle choice, due to hunger or famine, as part of a diet or as religious fasting.

text: Eating (also known as consuming) is the

text: ingestion

text: of

text: food

text: , typically to provide a heterotrophic

text: organism

text: with

text: energy

text: and to allow for

text: growth

text: . Animals and other

text: heterotroph

text: s must eat in order to survive —

text: carnivore

text: s eat other animals,

text: herbivore

text: s eat plants,

text: omnivore

text: s consume a mixture of both plant and animal matter, and

text: detritivores

text: eat

text: detritus

text: . Fungi digest organic matter outside of their bodies as opposed to animals that digest their food inside their bodies. For humans, eating is an

text: activity of daily living

text: . Some individuals may limit their amount of nutritional intake. This may be a result of a lifestyle choice, due to

text: hunger

text: or

text: famine

text: , as part of a

text: diet

text: or as religious fasting.

text: As recommended by the World Health Organization and several other health authorities across the world, there is no need to introduce solid food to a baby’s diet until after 6 months, and by then the child’s digestive system and their fine motor skills have developed enough to allow them to self-feed. Baby-led weaning takes advantage of the natural development stages of the child.

text: As recommended by the

text: World Health Organization

text: and several other health authorities across the world, there is no need to introduce solid food to a baby’s diet until after 6 months, and by then the child’s digestive system and their

text: fine motor skill

text: s have developed enough to allow them to self-feed. Baby-led weaning takes advantage of the natural

text: development stages

text: of the child.

text: Calorie amounts found on food labels are based on the Atwater system. The accuracy of the system is disputed, despite no real proposed alternatives. For example, a 2012 study by a USDA scientist concluded that the measured energy content of a sample of almonds was 32% lower than the estimated Atwater value. Furthermore, it is known that some calories are lost in waste, without ever having been chemically converted or stored. The driving mechanism behind caloric intake is absorption, which occurs largely in the small intestine and distributes nutrients to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries by means of osmosis, diffusion and active transport. Fat, in particular is emulsified by bile produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder where it is released to the small intestine via the bile duct. A relatively lesser amount of absorption, composed primarily of water, occurs in the large intestine.

text: Calorie amounts found on food labels are based on the

text: Atwater system

text: . The accuracy of the system is disputed, despite no real proposed alternatives. For example, a 2012 study by a USDA scientist concluded that the measured energy content of a sample of almonds was 32% lower than the estimated Atwater value. Furthermore, it is known that some calories are lost in waste, without ever having been chemically converted or stored. The driving mechanism behind caloric intake is absorption, which occurs largely in the

text: small intestine

text: and distributes nutrients to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries by means of

text: osmosis

text: diffusion

text: and

text: active transport

text: . Fat, in particular is emulsified by

text: bile

text: produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder where it is released to the small intestine via the

text: bile duct

text: . A relatively lesser amount of absorption, composed primarily of water, occurs in the

text: large intestine

text: The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis and propels the food through the tract. Food in the GI tract is called a bolus (ball of food) from the mouth down to the stomach. After the stomach, the food is partially digested and semi-liquid, and is referred to as chyme. In the large intestine the remaining semi-solid substance is referred to as faeces. The circular muscle layer prevents food from travelling backward and the longitudinal layer shortens the tract.

text: The coordinated contractions of these layers is called

text: peristalsis

text: and propels the food through the tract. Food in the GI tract is called a bolus (ball of food) from the mouth down to the stomach. After the stomach, the food is partially digested and semi-liquid, and is referred to as

text: chyme

text: . In the large intestine the remaining semi-solid substance is referred to as faeces. The circular muscle layer prevents food from travelling backward and the longitudinal layer shortens the tract.

text: The gut is home to an extremely complex microbiome of healthy and unhealthy bacteria. The immune system’s primary home is in the gut; so gastrointestinal microbiota has a direct effect on the body’s immune responses. Without a regular microbiota, the body is more susceptible to infectious and non-infectious diseases. A great diversity of symbiotic bacteria is necessary for animals to have fundamental nutrients, digest certain compounds, protect against outside pathogens, and create a healthy intestinal structure. An equilibrium of symbionts and pathobionts is critical to fight off outside pathogens and avoid inflammatory bowel disease. As we understand more about the roles of microbes in the gut, researchers will be able to discover more treatments like probiotics that can fill in niches of good bacteria to increase intestinal health and improve the immune system. Heightening the robustness and diversity of bacteria flora in the gut aids in averting allergies, autoimmune disease, and cancer. There is still much to learn about the details of interactions between microbes and hosts in the gastrointestinal tract, but research on symbionts like Lactobacillus reuteri help us understand how changes in the gastrointestinal microbiome can promote health.

text: The gut is home to an extremely complex

text: microbiome

text: of healthy and unhealthy

text: bacteria

text: . The immune system’s primary home is in the gut; so gastrointestinal

text: microbiota

text: has a direct effect on the body’s immune responses. Without a regular microbiota, the body is more susceptible to infectious and non-infectious

text: diseases

text: . A great diversity of symbiotic bacteria is necessary for animals to have fundamental

text: nutrients

text: , digest certain compounds, protect against outside

text: pathogens

text: , and create a healthy intestinal structure. An equilibrium of

text: symbionts

text: and

text: pathobionts

text: is critical to fight off outside pathogens and avoid

text: inflammatory bowel disease

text: . As we understand more about the roles of

text: microbes

text: in the gut, researchers will be able to discover more treatments like

text: probiotics

text: that can fill in niches of good bacteria to increase intestinal health and improve the

text: immune system

text: . Heightening the robustness and diversity of bacteria flora in the gut aids in averting

text: allergies

text: autoimmune disease

text: , and

text: cancer

text: . There is still much to learn about the details of interactions between microbes and hosts in the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , but research on symbionts like

text: Lactobacillus reuteri

text: help us understand how changes in the gastrointestinal

text: microbiome

text: can promote health.

text: The ostrich is well adapted to hot, arid environments through specialization of excretory organs. The ostrich has an extremely long and developed colon the length of approximately  between the coprodeum and the paired caeca, which are around  long. A well developed caeca is also found and in combination with the rectum forms the microbial fermentation chambers used for carbohydrate breakdown. The catabolism of carbohydrates produces around  of water that can be used internally. The majority of their urine is stored in the coprodeum, and the faeces are separately stored in the terminal colon. The coprodeum is located ventral to the terminal rectum and urodeum (where the ureters open). Found between the terminal rectum and coprodeum is a strong sphincter. The coprodeum and cloaca are the main osmoregulatory mechanisms used for the regulation and reabsorption of ions and water, or net water conservation. As expected in a species inhabiting arid regions, dehydration causes a reduction in faecal water, or dry feces. This reduction is believed to be caused by high levels of plasma aldosterone, which leads to rectal absorption of sodium and water. Also expected is the production of hyperosmotic urine; cloacal urine has been found to be 800 mosmol/L. The U:P (urine:plasma) ratio of the ostrich is therefore greater than one. Diffusion of water to the coprodeum (where urine is stored) from plasma across the epithelium is voided. This void is believed to be caused by the thick mucosal layering of the coprodeum.

text: The ostrich is well adapted to hot, arid environments through specialization of

text: excretory

text: organs. The ostrich has an extremely long and developed

text: colon

text: the length of approximately  between the coprodeum and the paired

text: caeca

text: , which are around  long. A well developed caeca is also found and in combination with the

text: rectum

text: forms the

text: microbial fermentation

text: chambers used for

text: carbohydrate

text: breakdown. The

text: catabolism

text: of carbohydrates produces around  of water that can be used internally. The majority of their

text: urine

text: is stored in the coprodeum, and the

text: faeces

text: are separately stored in the terminal colon. The coprodeum is located ventral to the terminal rectum and urodeum (where the

text: ureters

text: open). Found between the terminal rectum and coprodeum is a strong sphincter. The coprodeum and cloaca are the main osmoregulatory mechanisms used for the regulation and reabsorption of ions and water, or net water conservation. As expected in a species inhabiting arid regions, dehydration causes a reduction in faecal water, or dry feces. This reduction is believed to be caused by high levels of plasma

text: aldosterone

text: , which leads to rectal absorption of sodium and water. Also expected is the production of

text: hyperosmotic

text: urine; cloacal urine has been found to be 800

text: mosmol

text: /L. The U:P (urine:plasma) ratio of the ostrich is therefore greater than one. Diffusion of water to the coprodeum (where urine is stored) from plasma across the

text: epithelium

text: is voided. This void is believed to be caused by the thick

text: mucosal

text: layering of the coprodeum.

text: In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:

text: In most

text: vertebrate

text: s, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:

text: Single-celled organisms as well as sponges digest their food intracellularly. Other multi-cellular organisms digest their food extracellularly, within a digestive cavity. In this case the digestive enzymes are released into a cavity that is continuous with the animal's external environment. In cnidarians and in flatworms such as planarians, the digestive cavity, called a gastrovascular cavity, has only one opening that serves as both mouth and anus. There is no specialization within this type of digestive system because every cell is exposed to all stages of food digestion.

text: Single-celled organism

text: s as well as

text: sponge

text: s digest their food intracellularly. Other

text: multi-cellular organisms

text: digest their food extracellularly, within a digestive cavity. In this case the

text: digestive enzyme

text: s are released into a cavity that is continuous with the animal's external environment. In cnidarians and in

text: flatworm

text: s such as

text: planarian

text: s, the digestive cavity, called a gastrovascular cavity, has only one opening that serves as both mouth and anus. There is no specialization within this type of digestive system because every cell is exposed to all stages of food digestion.

text: When needed, he can digest any organic substance without adverse effects. As a result, he can eat rotting or poisonous food as well as non-food stuffs (e.g., cardboard, paper, etc.). He uses this ability to recover from wounds or extreme stress.

text: In India, Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh biogas produced from the anaerobic digestion of manure in small-scale digestion facilities is called gobar gas; it is estimated that such facilities exist in over 2 million households in India, 50,000 in Bangladesh and thousands in Pakistan, particularly North Punjab, due to the thriving population of livestock. The digester is an airtight circular pit made of concrete with a pipe connection. The manure is directed to the pit, usually straight from the cattle shed. The pit is filled with a required quantity of wastewater. The gas pipe is connected to the kitchen fireplace through control valves. The combustion of this biogas has very little odour or smoke. Owing to simplicity in implementation and use of cheap raw materials in villages, it is one of the most environmentally sound energy sources for rural needs. One type of these system is the Sintex Digester. Some designs use vermiculture to further enhance the slurry produced by the biogas plant for use as compost.

text: In India, Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh biogas produced from the anaerobic digestion of

text: manure

text: in small-scale digestion facilities is called

text: gobar gas

text: ; it is estimated that such facilities exist in over 2 million households in India, 50,000 in Bangladesh and thousands in Pakistan, particularly North Punjab, due to the thriving population of livestock. The digester is an airtight circular pit made of concrete with a pipe connection. The manure is directed to the pit, usually straight from the cattle shed. The pit is filled with a required quantity of

text: wastewater

text: . The gas pipe is connected to the kitchen fireplace through control valves. The combustion of this biogas has very little odour or smoke. Owing to simplicity in implementation and use of cheap raw materials in villages, it is one of the most environmentally sound energy sources for rural needs. One type of these system is the Sintex Digester. Some designs use

text: vermiculture

text: to further enhance the slurry produced by the biogas plant for use as compost.

text: They have evolved the ability to have many reproductives in their colony, up to a hundred, which allows very large colonies. As with other members of their Termitidae family, they have lost most of their cellulose-digesting protozoa. Instead, they digest fungi, which digest the cellulose and other organic matter. As a result, the Termitidae can make use of a wide variety of foods; not only rotten wood, but also grass, seeds, dung, soil, and detritus  are all used by one species or another. In addition, some species can synthesize nitrogen compounds.

text: They have evolved the ability to have many reproductives in their colony, up to a hundred, which allows very large colonies. As with other members of their Termitidae family, they have lost most of their cellulose-digesting protozoa. Instead, they digest

text: fungi

text: , which digest the cellulose and other organic matter. As a result, the Termitidae can make use of a wide variety of foods; not only rotten wood, but also grass, seeds, dung, soil, and detritus  are all used by one species or another. In addition, some species can synthesize nitrogen compounds.

text: The 2010 WHO classification of tumors of the digestive system grades all the neuroendocrine tumors into three categories, based on their degree of cellular differentiation (from well-differentiated "NET G1" through to poorly-differentiated "NET G3"). The NCCN recommends use of the same AJCC-UICC staging system as pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Using this scheme, the stage by stage outcomes for PanNETs are dissimilar to pancreatic exocrine cancers. A different TNM system for PanNETs has been proposed by The European Neuroendocrine Tumor Society.

text: The 2010 WHO classification of tumors of the digestive system grades all the

text: neuroendocrine tumor

text: s into three categories, based on their degree of

text: cellular differentiation

text: (from well-differentiated "NET G1" through to poorly-differentiated "NET G3"). The NCCN recommends use of the same AJCC-UICC staging system as pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Using this scheme, the stage by stage outcomes for PanNETs are dissimilar to pancreatic exocrine cancers. A different TNM system for PanNETs has been proposed by The European Neuroendocrine Tumor Society.

text: Justinian's Omnem constitution fixed the duration of the legal course in the schools of Beirut and Constantinople at five years. The courses consisted of lectures and self-study using materials advanced in his Corpus Juris Civilis, namely the Institutiones (Institutes), Digesta (Digest) and Codex (Code). First-year students were lectured on the Institutes and on the first part of the Digest; second-year students were taught the greater part of the Digest, and third-year students had to learn various texts from Papinian and the leges singulares. There were no lectures during the course's fourth year but the pupils studied the remainder of the Digest. Nicknames were still given according to the year of study, but Justinian changed the name of first-year students from the frivolous Dupondii (which means "two pennies") to Iustiniani novi and dubbed fifth-year students Prolytae.At the end of the course, graduands were given certificates allowing them to work as court advocates or in the imperial civil service.

text: Justinian's Omnem constitution fixed the duration of the legal course in the schools of Beirut and Constantinople at five years. The courses consisted of lectures and self-study using materials advanced in his

text: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: , namely the

text: Institutiones

text: (Institutes),

text: Digesta

text: (Digest) and

text: Codex

text: (Code). First-year students were lectured on the Institutes and on the first part of the Digest; second-year students were taught the greater part of the Digest, and third-year students had to learn various texts from Papinian and the leges singulares. There were no lectures during the course's fourth year but the pupils studied the remainder of the Digest. Nicknames were still given according to the year of study, but Justinian changed the name of first-year students from the frivolous Dupondii (which means "two pennies") to Iustiniani novi and dubbed fifth-year students Prolytae.At the end of the course, graduands were given certificates allowing them to work as court advocates or in the imperial civil service.

text: Exudates, such as gum and sap, fruit, nectar and fungus make up the bulk of Mico's diet, but it also eats animal prey such as arthropods, young birds, small lizards and frogs. They are specialized for exploiting exudates by their elongated, chisel-like lower incisors and a wide jaw gape that allows them to gouge bark of trees that produce gums.  Their intestines also have an enlarged, complex cecum that allows them to digest gums more efficiently than most other animals.  Mico's ability to feed on exudates allows it to survive in areas where fruit is highly seasonal or not readily available.

text: Exudates, such as gum and sap, fruit, nectar and fungus make up the bulk of Mico's diet, but it also eats animal prey such as

text: arthropod

text: s, young birds, small

text: lizard

text: s and

text: frog

text: s. They are specialized for exploiting exudates by their elongated, chisel-like lower incisors and a wide jaw gape that allows them to gouge bark of trees that produce gums.  Their

text: intestine

text: s also have an enlarged, complex

text: cecum

text: that allows them to digest gums more efficiently than most other animals.  Mico's ability to feed on exudates allows it to survive in areas where fruit is highly seasonal or not readily available.

text:
- Name Tag Elimination
Name Tag Elimination is a variation of Bells of Hide and Seek. It features a similar gameplay with the original game, except that this game is a deathmatch-like game, in which any member that has its nametag ripped will be ousted. Any chances to revive is impossible unless there will have a change of rules, or the player has a chance to have additional nametags before the game. The main mission is simply eliminate each other, but sometimes will feature additional missions that required the player to eliminate each other to obtain clues or items. The last man standing  will win.
Sometimes the game will feature spies. The spy can be one of the members, the guests, or both.

text: The digestive response of Burmese pythons to such large prey has made them a model species for digestive physiology. A fasting python has a reduced stomach volume and acidity, reduced intestinal mass, and a 'normal' heart volume. After ingesting prey, the entire digestive system undergoes a massive remodelling, with rapid hypertrophy of the intestines, production of stomach acid, and a 40% increase in mass of the ventricle of the heart to fuel the digestive process.

text: The descriptors or subject headings are arranged in a hierarchy. A given descriptor may appear at several locations in the hierarchical tree. The tree locations carry systematic labels known as tree numbers, and consequently one descriptor can carry several tree numbers. For example, the descriptor "Digestive System Neoplasms" has the tree numbers C06.301 and C04.588.274; C stands for Diseases, C06 for Digestive System Diseases and C06.301 for Digestive System Neoplasms; C04 for Neoplasms, C04.588 for Neoplasms By Site, and C04.588.274 also for Digestive System Neoplasms. The tree numbers of a given descriptor are subject to change as MeSH is updated. Every descriptor also carries a unique alphanumerical ID that will not change.

text: Esophagectomy is the removal of a segment of the esophagus; as this shortens the length of the remaining esophagus, some other segment of the digestive tract is pulled up through the chest cavity and interposed.  This is usually the stomach or part of the large intestine (colon) or jejunum. Reconnection of the stomach to a shortened esophagus is called an esophagogastric anastomosis.

text: Esophagectomy is the removal of a segment of the esophagus; as this shortens the length of the remaining esophagus, some other segment of the digestive tract is pulled up through the chest cavity and interposed.  This is usually the

text: stomach

text: or part of the

text: large intestine

text: (colon) or

text: jejunum

text: . Reconnection of the stomach to a shortened esophagus is called an esophagogastric anastomosis.

text: If a product is labeled as "flavored" by a certain type of meat, the digest it contains must have been produced from tissues pertaining to the listed animal species. Chicken flavored food must be flavored with chicken digest.

text: Peach allergy or intolerance is a relatively common form of hypersensitivity to proteins contained in peaches and related fruits such as (almonds). Symptoms range from local effects (e.g. oral allergy syndrome, contact urticaria) to more severe systemic reactions, including anaphylaxis (e.g. urticaria, angioedema, gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms). Adverse reactions are related to the "freshness" of the fruit: peeled or canned fruit may be tolerated.

text: Peach

text: allergy

text: or

text: intolerance

text: is a relatively common form of hypersensitivity to

text: protein

text: s contained in peaches and related fruits such as (

text: almond

text: s). Symptoms range from local effects (e.g.

text: oral allergy syndrome

text: contact urticaria

text: ) to more severe systemic reactions, including

text: anaphylaxis

text: (e.g.

text: urticaria

text: angioedema

text: , gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms). Adverse reactions are related to the "freshness" of the fruit: peeled or canned fruit may be tolerated.

text: Many of the organisms, such as Charnia, found in Mistaken Point, were not like any organisms seen today. They had distinct bodies, however were lacking a head and digestive regions. Rather their body was organized in a very simple, fractal-like branching pattern. Every element of the body was finely branched and grew by repetitive branching. This allowed the organism to have a large surface area and maximize nutrient absorption without needing a mouth and digestive system. However, there was minimal genetic information and therefore did not have the requirements that would have allowed them to evolve more efficient feeding techniques. This means they were probably outcompeted by other organisms, and thus became extinct.

text: Many of the organisms, such as

text: Charnia

text: , found in

entity_name: Mistaken Point, Newfoundland and Labrador

text: Mistaken Point

text: , were not like any organisms seen today. They had distinct bodies, however were lacking a

text: head

text: and digestive regions. Rather their body was organized in a very simple,

text: fractal

text: -like branching pattern. Every element of the body was finely branched and grew by repetitive branching. This allowed the organism to have a large surface area and maximize nutrient absorption without needing a mouth and

text: digestive system

text: . However, there was minimal genetic information and therefore did not have the requirements that would have allowed them to evolve more efficient feeding techniques. This means they were probably outcompeted by other organisms, and thus became extinct.

text: Chemical digestion involves hydrolysis reactions that liberate the sub unit molecules – primarily monosaccharides, amino acids and fatty acids – from the food. These products of chemical digestion pass through the epithelial lining of the gut into the blood, in a process known as absorption. Any molecules in the food that are not absorbed cannot be used by the animal. These waste products are excreted, or defecated from the anus.

text: Chemical digestion involves

text: hydrolysis

text: reactions that liberate the sub unit molecules – primarily

text: monosaccharide

text: s, amino acids and fatty acids – from the food. These products of chemical digestion pass through the epithelial lining of the gut into the blood, in a process known as absorption. Any molecules in the food that are not absorbed cannot be used by the animal. These waste products are excreted, or defecated from the anus.

text: Some people have allergies or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic to most people. This occurs when a person's immune system mistakes a certain food protein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8% of children have a food allergy. The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too minute to be perceived through smell, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in extremely sensitive individuals. Common food allergens are gluten, corn, shellfish (mollusks), peanuts, and soy. Allergens frequently produce symptoms such as diarrhea, rashes, bloating, vomiting, and regurgitation. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the allergen.

text: Some people have

text: allergies

text: or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic to most people. This occurs when a person's

text: immune system

text: mistakes a certain food protein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8% of children have a food allergy. The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too minute to be perceived through smell, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in extremely sensitive individuals. Common food allergens are

text: gluten

text: corn

text: shellfish

text: (mollusks),

text: peanut

text: s, and

text: soy

text: . Allergens frequently produce symptoms such as

text: diarrhea

text: rash

text: es, bloating,

text: vomiting

text: , and

text: regurgitation

text: . The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the

text: allergen

text: The digestive system of beetles is primarily based on plants, upon which they, for the most part, feed, with mostly the anterior midgut performing digestion, although in predatory species (for example Carabidae), most digestion occurs in the crop by means of midgut enzymes. In Elateridae species, the predatory larvae defecate enzymes on their prey, with digestion being extraorally. The alimentary canal basically consists of a short, narrow pharynx, a widened expansion, the crop, and a poorly developed gizzard. After is the midgut, that varies in dimensions between species, with a large amount of cecum, with a hindgut, with varying lengths. Typically, four to six Malpighian tubules occur.

text: The

text: digestive system

text: of beetles is primarily based on plants, upon which they, for the most part, feed, with mostly the anterior

text: midgut

text: performing digestion, although in predatory species (for example

text: Carabidae

text: ), most digestion occurs in the crop by means of midgut enzymes. In

text: Elateridae

text: species, the predatory larvae defecate enzymes on their prey, with digestion being extraorally. The alimentary canal basically consists of a short, narrow

text: pharynx

text: , a widened expansion, the crop, and a poorly developed

text: gizzard

text: . After is the midgut, that varies in dimensions between species, with a large amount of

text: cecum

text: , with a hindgut, with varying lengths. Typically, four to six

text: Malpighian tubule

text: s occur.

text: Although pathogens do have the capability to cause disease, they do not always do so.  This is described as context-dependent pathogenicity.  Scientists believe that this variability comes from both genetic and environmental factors within the host.  One example of this in humans is E. coli.  Normally, this bacteria flourishes as a part of the normal, healthy microbiota in the intestines.  However, if it relocates to a different region of the digestive tract or the body, it can cause intense diarrhea.  So while E. coli is classified as a pathogen, it does not always act as such. This example can also be applied to S. aureus and other common microbial flora in humans.

text: Researchers have concluded that smaller particle-sized feed will improve digestion due to the increasing surface area for acid and enzyme digestion in the gastrointestinal tract. However, some researchers recently brought into the attention the necessity of coarse particle for poultry feed to complement the natural design and function of gastrointestinal tract (GIT).  and  discussed that the GIT retention time decreased due to lack of gizzard function that eventually gave negative impact on live performance. , compared the performance of 21 day old broilers fed with different feed particle size; 0.716 mm and 1.196 mm. They found that the subject fed with larger particle size feed showed better performance. , evaluating different corn particle sizes in the broiler feed found that the largest particle size (2.242 mm) gave better feed intake than the other particle sizes tested (0.781, 0.950, 1.042 and 1.109 mm).  however argued that the development of broiler was influenced by changing particle sizes. However variation in particle size between 0.5–1 mm usually did not have any effect on the broilers. Very fine particles (<0.5 mm) may impair the broilers performance due to presence of dust that cause respiratory problems, increase water intake, feed presence in the drinkers and increase litter moisture. , in their recent study concluded that although fine particle sizes (0.27 mm) enhanced broilers live performance, the pelleted feed did not.

text: Food poisoning has been recognized as a disease since as early as Hippocrates. The sale of rancid, contaminated, or adulterated food was commonplace until the introduction of hygiene, refrigeration, and vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria using heat, and other microbiological studies by scientists such as Louis Pasteur, contributed to the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed nations today. This was further underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig, which led to the development of modern food storage and food preservation methods. In more recent years, a greater understanding of the causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the development of more systematic approaches such as the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), which can identify and eliminate many risks.

text: Food poisoning

text: has been recognized as a disease since as early as Hippocrates. The sale of

text: rancid

text: , contaminated, or adulterated food was commonplace until the introduction of

text: hygiene

text: , refrigeration, and vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria using heat, and other

text: microbiological

text: studies by scientists such as

text: Louis Pasteur

text: , contributed to the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed nations today. This was further underpinned by the work of

text: Justus von Liebig

text: , which led to the development of modern

text: food storage

text: and

text: food preservation

text: methods. In more recent years, a greater understanding of the causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the development of more systematic approaches such as the

entity_name: Hazard analysis and critical control points

text: Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points

text: HACCP

text: ), which can identify and eliminate many risks.

text: There are so many benefits of eating fermented food. First of all, eating fermented food and drinking fermented drinks such as Shindari will improve your immune system. It will also increase beneficial bacterias in your digestive system and help you to maintain a balance of bacteria and the production of stomach acid. Moreover, it will help you to prevent severe from diseases like cancer. Fermented food is not just directly beneficial, but also indirectly benefits us by helping us absorb the nutrients we’re consuming. Traditional fermented food help the body produce acetylcholine.  It is also beneficial for people with diabetes. Fermented foods have been broken down or “pro-digested.” As a result, they do not put an extra burden on your digestion system unlike ordinary carbohydrates. Besides these benefits, there are a lot more effects that fermented food have (Helmenstine 25-28).

text: If an ideal number is not reached to begin elimination rounds, a qualification round will take place to eliminate the excess number of wrestlers. For example, 22 wrestlers may weigh-in over the ideal number of 16 wrestlers. The six wrestlers who drew the highest numbers after 16 and the six wrestlers who drew the six numbers immediately before 17 would then wrestle in six matches in the qualification round. The winners of those matches would then go on to the elimination round.

text: Many edible beans, including broad beans and soybeans, contain oligosaccharides (particularly raffinose and stachyose), a type of sugar molecule also found in cabbage. An anti-oligosaccharide enzyme is necessary to properly digest these sugar molecules. As a normal human digestive tract does not contain any anti-oligosaccharide enzymes, consumed oligosaccharides are typically digested by bacteria in the large intestine. This digestion process produces flatulence-causing gases as a byproduct. Since sugar dissolves in water, another method of reducing flatulence associated with eating beans is to drain the water in which the beans have been cooked.

text: Many edible beans, including broad beans and soybeans, contain

text: oligosaccharide

text: s (particularly

text: raffinose

text: and

text: stachyose

text: ), a type of sugar molecule also found in

text: cabbage

text: . An anti-oligosaccharide

text: enzyme

text: is necessary to properly digest these sugar molecules. As a normal human digestive tract does not contain any anti-oligosaccharide enzymes, consumed oligosaccharides are typically digested by

text: bacteria

text: in the large intestine. This digestion process produces

text: flatulence

text: -causing gases as a byproduct. Since sugar dissolves in water, another method of reducing flatulence associated with eating beans is to drain the water in which the beans have been cooked.

text: 2. Mesenteron (midgut): Digestive enzymes in this region are produced and secreted into the lumen and here nutrients are absorbed into the insect’s body. Food is enveloped by this part of the gut as it arrives from the foregut by the peritrophic membrane which is a mucopolysaccharide layer secreted from the midgut’s epithelial cells. It is thought that this membrane prevents food pathogens from contacting the epithelium and attacking the insects’ body. It also acts as a filter allowing small molecules through, but preventing large molecules and particles of food from reaching the midgut cells. After the large substances are broken down into smaller ones, digestion and consequent nutrient absorption takes place at the surface of the epithelium. Microscopic projections from the mid-gut wall, called microvilli, increase surface area and allow for maximum absorption of nutrients.

text: 2. Mesenteron (midgut): Digestive enzymes in this region are produced and secreted into the

text: lumen

text: and here nutrients are absorbed into the insect’s body. Food is enveloped by this part of the gut as it arrives from the foregut by the

text: peritrophic membrane

text: which is a

text: mucopolysaccharide

text: layer secreted from the midgut’s epithelial cells. It is thought that this membrane prevents food

text: pathogens

text: from contacting the

text: epithelium

text: and attacking the insects’ body. It also acts as a filter allowing small

text: molecules

text: through, but preventing large molecules and particles of food from reaching the midgut cells. After the large substances are broken down into smaller ones, digestion and consequent nutrient absorption takes place at the surface of the epithelium. Microscopic projections from the mid-gut wall, called

text: microvilli

text: , increase surface area and allow for maximum absorption of nutrients.

text: Primitive starfish, such as Astropecten and Luidia, swallow their prey whole, and start to digest it in their cardiac stomachs. Shell valves and other inedible materials are ejected through their mouths. The semi-digested fluid is passed into their pyloric stomachs and caeca where digestion continues and absorption ensues. In more advanced species of starfish, the cardiac stomach can be everted from the organism's body to engulf and digest food. When the prey is a clam or other bivalve, the starfish pulls with its tube feet to separate the two valves slightly, and inserts a small section of its stomach, which releases enzymes to digest the prey. The stomach and the partially digested prey are later retracted into the disc. Here the food is passed on to the pyloric stomach, which always remains inside the disc. The retraction and contraction of the cardiac stomach is activated by a neuropeptide known as NGFFYamide.

text: Primitive starfish, such as Astropecten and Luidia, swallow their

text: prey

text: whole, and start to digest it in their cardiac stomachs. Shell valves and other inedible materials are ejected through their mouths. The semi-digested fluid is passed into their pyloric stomachs and caeca where digestion continues and absorption ensues. In more advanced species of starfish, the cardiac stomach can be everted from the organism's body to engulf and digest food. When the prey is a clam or other

text: bivalve

text: , the starfish pulls with its tube feet to separate the two valves slightly, and inserts a small section of its stomach, which releases enzymes to digest the prey. The stomach and the partially digested prey are later retracted into the disc. Here the food is passed on to the pyloric stomach, which always remains inside the disc. The retraction and contraction of the cardiac stomach is activated by a

text: neuropeptide

text: known as NGFFYamide.

text: Another view is that until the Upper Paleolithic, humans were frugivores (fruit eaters) who supplemented their meals with carrion, eggs, and small prey such as baby birds and mussels, and only on rare occasions managed to kill and consume big game such as antelopes. This view is supported by studies of higher apes, particularly chimpanzees. Chimpanzees are the closest to humans genetically, sharing more than 96% of their DNA code with humans, and their digestive tract is functionally very similar to that of humans. Chimpanzees are primarily frugivores, but they could and would consume and digest animal flesh, given the opportunity. In general, their actual diet in the wild is about 95% plant-based, with the remaining 5% filled with insects, eggs, and baby animals. In some ecosystems, however, chimpanzees are predatory, forming parties to hunt monkeys. Some comparative studies of human and higher primate digestive tracts do suggest that humans have evolved to obtain greater amounts of calories from sources such as animal foods, allowing them to shrink the size of the gastrointestinal tract relative to body mass and to increase the brain mass instead.

text: Another view is that until the Upper Paleolithic, humans were

text: frugivore

text: s (fruit eaters) who supplemented their meals with carrion, eggs, and small prey such as baby birds and

text: mussel

text: s, and only on rare occasions managed to kill and consume big game such as

text: antelope

text: s. This view is supported by studies of higher apes, particularly

text: chimpanzee

text: s. Chimpanzees are the closest to humans genetically, sharing more than 96% of their DNA code with humans, and their digestive tract is functionally very similar to that of humans. Chimpanzees are primarily

text: frugivore

text: s, but they could and would consume and digest animal flesh, given the opportunity. In general, their actual diet in the wild is about 95% plant-based, with the remaining 5% filled with insects, eggs, and baby animals. In some ecosystems, however, chimpanzees are predatory, forming parties to hunt monkeys. Some comparative studies of human and higher primate digestive tracts do suggest that humans have evolved to obtain greater amounts of calories from sources such as animal foods, allowing them to shrink the size of the gastrointestinal tract relative to body mass and to increase the brain mass instead.

text: Paracorynactis hoplites polyps will continually move their tentacles in an effort to detect prey. When an acrosphere comes in contact with suitable prey, it will immediately stick unto the prey's skin while firing its stinging cells (nematocysts). The polyp then extends itself towards the prey, bringing all the other remaining acrospheres towards the prey until it is trapped. The body can extend to five times its normal length when doing this. The polyp will then slowly pull the prey towards its mouth and digest it. Once the soft tissues are dissolved, the undigested pieces of the prey (e.g. spines) are regurgitated.

text: Paracorynactis hoplites polyps will continually move their tentacles in an effort to detect prey. When an acrosphere comes in contact with suitable prey, it will immediately stick unto the prey's skin while firing its stinging cells (

text: nematocyst

text: s). The polyp then extends itself towards the prey, bringing all the other remaining acrospheres towards the prey until it is trapped. The body can extend to five times its normal length when doing this. The polyp will then slowly pull the prey towards its mouth and digest it. Once the soft tissues are dissolved, the undigested pieces of the prey (e.g. spines) are regurgitated.

text: The digestive system consists of the mouth including the tongue and teeth, esophagus, stomach, (gastrointestinal tract, small and large intestines, and rectum), as well as the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands. It converts food into small, nutritional, non-toxic molecules for distribution and absorption into the body.

text: The

text: digestive system

text: consists of the

text: mouth

text: including the

text: tongue

text: and

text: teeth

text: esophagus

text: stomach

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: small

text: and

text: large intestine

text: s, and

text: rectum

text: ), as well as the

text: liver

text: pancreas

text: gallbladder

text: , and

text: salivary gland

text: s. It converts food into small, nutritional, non-toxic

text: molecule

text: s for distribution and absorption into the body.

text: A more developed method, Advanced Magnetic Marker Monitoring, uses the magnetic capsule, a segmented capsule held together by magnetic forces. The magnetic capsule delivers drugs to any targeted location in the gastrointestinal tract.

text: A more developed method, Advanced Magnetic Marker Monitoring, uses the magnetic capsule, a segmented capsule held together by magnetic forces. The magnetic capsule delivers drugs to any targeted location in the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: Magenbrot is a small, sweet glazed biscuit that shares many similarities with a gingerbread cookie. The name of the dish directly translates to "stomach-bread" as it is believed to help improve digestion. This recipe originated in Germany and is usually sold in Christmas markets all over Europe. It is known by many names including , Gewürzkuchen, or Kräuterbrot.

text: Magenbrot is a small, sweet

text: glazed

text: biscuit

text: that shares many similarities with a

text: gingerbread

text: cookie. The name of the dish directly translates to "stomach-bread" as it is believed to help improve digestion. This recipe originated in Germany and is usually sold in

text: Christmas market

text: s all over Europe. It is known by many names including , Gewürzkuchen, or Kräuterbrot.

text: Trypsin () is a serine protease from the PA clan superfamily, found in the digestive system of many vertebrates, where it hydrolyses proteins. Trypsin is formed in the small intestine when its proenzyme form, the trypsinogen produced by the pancreas, is activated. Trypsin cleaves peptide chains mainly at the carboxyl side of the amino acids lysine or arginine, except when either is followed by proline. It is used for numerous biotechnological processes. The process is commonly referred to as trypsin proteolysis or trypsinisation, and proteins that have been digested/treated with trypsin are said to have been trypsinized.

text: Trypsin () is a

text: serine protease

text: from the

text: PA clan

text: superfamily, found in the

text: digestive system

text: of many

text: vertebrates

text: , where it

text: hydrolyses

text: protein

text: s. Trypsin is formed in the

text: small intestine

text: when its

text: proenzyme

text: form, the

text: trypsinogen

text: produced by the

text: pancreas

text: , is activated. Trypsin cleaves

text: peptide

text: chains mainly at the

text: carboxyl

text: side of the

text: amino acids

text: lysine

text: or

text: arginine

text: , except when either is followed by

text: proline

text: . It is used for numerous

text: biotechnological

text: processes. The process is commonly referred to as trypsin

text: proteolysis

text: or

text: trypsinisation

text: , and proteins that have been digested/treated with trypsin are said to have been trypsinized.

text: A more advanced systems design is able to limit the odor issues considerably, and it is also able to raise the total energy and resource output by integrating in-vessel composting with anaerobic digestion. In this approach batches of organic material are first subjected to anaerobic digestion and then later in the same bioreactor the process is switched to composting through the use of forced aeration

text: A more advanced systems design is able to limit the odor issues considerably, and it is also able to raise the total energy and resource output by integrating in-vessel composting with

text: anaerobic digestion

text: . In this approach batches of organic material are first subjected to anaerobic digestion and then later in the same bioreactor the process is switched to composting through the use of forced aeration

text: Steapsin belongs to the class of digestive enzymes called lipases found in the pancreatic juice that catalyzes the hydrolysis of triglycerides (main constituent in vegetable oils and animal fat) to fatty acids and glycerol. When food travels through the oral cavity and down the esophagus into the stomach, enzymes such as pepsin are released where it cleaves large proteins into smaller peptide fragments so further digestion and absorption can occur in the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. Fats are minimally digested in the stomach by gastric lipases but most digestion occurs in the small intestine.

text: Steapsin belongs to the class of digestive enzymes called

text: lipases

text: found in the pancreatic juice that catalyzes the hydrolysis of triglycerides (main constituent in vegetable oils and animal fat) to fatty acids and glycerol. When food travels through the oral cavity and down the esophagus into the stomach,

text: enzymes

text: such as

text: pepsin

text: are released where it cleaves large proteins into smaller

text: peptide

text: fragments so further digestion and absorption can occur in the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. Fats are minimally digested in the stomach by gastric lipases but most digestion occurs in the small intestine.

text: The encysted metacercaria of P. skrjabini tend to have a round and circular shape with a cyst wall that consists of a fragile outer later and thicker middle and inner layers.  Excysted metacercariae of P. skrjabini have an oral sucker and a ventral sucker measuring 80-120 µm and 120-60 µm in diameter, respectively.  The morphological characteristics of adult worms of P. skrjabini are an elongated body with scattered, singularly arranged cuticular spines, branched testes and ovaries, and a ventral sucker that is larger than the oral sucker.  Due to the presence of both ovaries and testes in P. skrjabini parasites, they are hermaphroditic.  An esophagus and truncated pharnyx make up the adult digestive system.

text: Absorption is the process by which a photon is absorbed by the atom, causing an electron to jump from a lower energy level to a higher one. The process is described by the Einstein coefficient

text: Phytolacca is a genus of perennial plants native to North America, South America, East Asia and New Zealand. Some members of the genus are known as pokeweeds or similar names such as pokebush, pokeberry, pokeroot or poke sallet. Other names for species of Phytolacca include inkberry and ombú. The generic name is derived from the Greek word φυτόν (phyton), meaning "plant," and the Latin word lacca, a red dye. Phytolaccatoxin and phytolaccigenin are present in many species which are poisonous to mammals if not cooked properly. However, the berries are eaten by birds, which are not affected by the toxin because the small seeds with very hard outer shells remain intact in the digestive system and are eliminated whole.

text: Phytolacca is a

text: genus

text: of

text: perennial plant

text: s native to

text: North America

text: South America

text: East Asia

text: and

text: New Zealand

text: . Some members of the genus are known as pokeweeds or similar names such as pokebush, pokeberry, pokeroot or poke sallet. Other names for species of Phytolacca include inkberry and ombú. The generic name is derived from the

text: Greek

text: word φυτόν (phyton), meaning "plant," and the

text: Latin

text: word

text: lac

text: ca, a red

text: dye

text: Phytolaccatoxin

text: and

text: phytolaccigenin

text: are present in many species which are poisonous to

text: mammal

text: s if not cooked properly. However, the berries are eaten by

text: bird

text: s, which are not affected by the

text: toxin

text: because the small

text: seed

text: s with very hard outer shells remain intact in the digestive system and are eliminated whole.

text: Infection of the host is by the larvae, not the eggs. While A. duodenale can be ingested, the usual method of infection is through the skin; this is commonly caused by walking barefoot through areas contaminated with fecal matter. The larvae are able to penetrate the skin of the foot, and once inside the body, they migrate through the vascular system to the lungs, and from there up the trachea, and are swallowed. They then pass down the esophagus and enter the digestive system, finishing their journey in the intestine, where the larvae mature into adult worms.

text: Infection of the host is by the larvae, not the eggs. While A. duodenale can be ingested, the usual method of infection is through the skin; this is commonly caused by walking

text: barefoot

text: through areas contaminated with fecal matter. The larvae are able to penetrate the skin of the foot, and once inside the body, they migrate through the

text: vascular system

text: to the

text: lung

text: s, and from there up the

text: trachea

text: , and are swallowed. They then pass down the

text: esophagus

text: and enter the digestive system, finishing their journey in the

text: intestine

text: , where the larvae mature into adult worms.

text: During a thunderstorm (literally caused by angels bowling), Homer tells a scary story to his children, and a homing pigeon named Raymond Bird by his owner flies through Bart's window and breaks his wing. Unable to give him back to his owner (due to his laziness to get it back), Lisa reveals that she has ornithophobia so it is up to Bart to nurse the bird back to health with her instructions. As the bird regains his health, Bart bonds with Raymond. He finds out that the pigeon can be used to send messages between people, which leads everybody to enjoy their time with the pigeon, minus a disgusted Lisa (the only time that she even tries to get contact with the pigeon only reinforces her phobia, since Raymond regurgitates on Lisa's arm). The exhausted bird, however, gets eaten by Santa's Little Helper, and Homer and Bart's attempt to retrieve Raymond from Helper's mouth backfires when the little bird falls back into the dog's mouth and slips into his stomach twice, (the first time where Bart tries to get the bird out) where he's instantly digested.

text: During a thunderstorm (literally caused by angels

text: bowling

text: Homer

text: tells a scary story to his children, and a homing pigeon named Raymond Bird by his owner flies through

text: Bart

text: 's window and breaks his wing. Unable to give him back to his owner (due to his laziness to get it back),

text: Lisa

text: reveals that she has

text: ornithophobia

text: so it is up to Bart to nurse the bird back to health with her instructions. As the bird regains his health, Bart bonds with Raymond. He finds out that the pigeon can be used to send messages between people, which leads everybody to enjoy their time with the pigeon, minus a disgusted Lisa (the only time that she even tries to get contact with the pigeon only reinforces her phobia, since Raymond regurgitates on Lisa's arm). The exhausted bird, however, gets eaten by

text: Santa's Little Helper

text: , and Homer and Bart's attempt to retrieve Raymond from Helper's mouth backfires when the little bird falls back into the dog's mouth and slips into his stomach twice, (the first time where Bart tries to get the bird out) where he's instantly digested.

text: Mouth has gained a lot of weight since Season 8. He and Millie have their own morning talk show where Millie proclaims that Mouth is 'fat'. This encourages Mouth to lose weight. He then decides that he would rather present sports so gives Skills his main role in the talkshow and presents the sports segment. Dan gives Mouth $500,000 of his estate when he dies and Mouth uses this to start a sports scholarship in memory of Jimmy Edwards and Keith Scott. In the final time jump, Millicent is shown to be pregnant and Mouth and Millicent are married.

text: Feces or faeces are the solid or semisolid metabolic waste from an animal's digestive tract, discharged through the anus or cloaca during a process called defecation. Urine and feces together are called excreta.

text: Feces

text: or

text: faeces are the solid or semisolid

text: metabolic waste

text: from an

text: animal

text: 's

text: digestive tract

text: , discharged through the

text: anus

text: or

text: cloaca

text: during a process called

text: defecation

text: Urine

text: and feces together are called

text: excreta

text: Hedgehogs usually react to stress with temporary digestive disorders that include vomiting and green feces.

text: Hedgehogs usually react to

text: stress

text: with temporary digestive

text: disorders

text: that include

text: vomiting

text: and green

text: feces

text: There are two key processes: mesophilic and thermophilic digestion which is dependent on temperature. In experimental work at University of Alaska Fairbanks, a 1000-litre digester using psychrophiles harvested from "mud from a frozen lake in Alaska" has produced 200–300 liters of methane per day, about 20%–30% of the output from digesters in warmer climates.

text: There are two key processes:

text: mesophilic

text: and

text: thermophilic

text: digestion which is dependent on temperature. In experimental work at

text: University of Alaska Fairbanks

text: , a 1000-litre digester using

text: psychrophiles

text: harvested from "mud from a frozen lake in Alaska" has produced 200–300 liters of methane per day, about 20%–30% of the output from digesters in warmer climates.

text: As each team is eliminated from the original bracket, they proceed to the "Challenger's Bracket" for the second chance. By the end of the competition, this system produces a champion from each bracket. The two championship teams face off in the final round to determine the first and second place winners.

text: The head contains two digestive glands and the small lobate stomach that they empty into. This is connected to a long intestine, which terminates in a short rectum, with the anus located on the telson. The haemocoel of anostracans is pumped by a long, tubular heart, which runs through most of the animal's length. A series of slits allow haemocoel into the heart, which is then pumped out of the anterior opening by peristalsis. The nervous system consists of two nerve cords which run the length of the body, with two ganglia and two transverse commissures in most of the body segments.

text: The head contains two digestive glands and the small lobate

text: stomach

text: that they empty into. This is connected to a long

text: intestine

text: , which terminates in a short

text: rectum

text: , with the

text: anus

text: located on the

text: telson

text: . The

text: haemocoel

text: of anostracans is pumped by a long, tubular

text: heart

text: , which runs through most of the animal's length. A series of slits allow haemocoel into the heart, which is then pumped out of the anterior opening by

text: peristalsis

text: . The nervous system consists of two nerve cords which run the length of the body, with two

text: ganglia

text: and two transverse

text: commissure

text: s in most of the body segments.

text: An exoenzyme, or extracellular enzyme, is an enzyme that is secreted by a cell and functions outside of that cell. Exoenzymes are produced by both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and have been shown to be a crucial component of many biological processes.  Most often these enzymes are involved in the breakdown of larger macromolecules.  The breakdown of these larger macromolecules is critical for allowing their constituents to pass through the cell membrane and enter into the cell. For humans and other complex organisms, this process is best characterized by the digestive system which breaks down solid food  via exoenzymes. The small molecules, generated by the exoenzyme activity,  enter into cells and are utilized for various cellular functions. Bacteria and fungi also produce exoenzymes to digest nutrients in their environment, and these organisms can be used to conduct laboratory assays to identify the presence and function of such exoenzymes. Some pathogenic species also use exoenzymes as virulence factors to assist in the spread of these disease causing microorganisms. In addition to the integral roles in biological systems, different classes of microbial exoenzymes have been used by humans since pre-historic times for such diverse purposes as food production, biofuels, textile production and in the paper industry.  Another important role that microbial exoenzymes serve is in the natural ecology and bioremediation of terrestrial and marine environments.

text: An exoenzyme, or extracellular enzyme, is an

text: enzyme

text: that is secreted by a

text: cell

text: and functions

text: outside of that cell

text: . Exoenzymes are produced by both

text: prokaryotic

text: and

text: eukaryotic

text: cells and have been shown to be a crucial component of many

text: biological processes

text: .  Most often these enzymes are involved in the breakdown of larger

text: macromolecules

text: .  The breakdown of these larger macromolecules is critical for allowing their constituents to pass through the

text: cell membrane

text: and enter into the cell. For

text: humans

text: and other complex organisms, this process is best characterized by the

text: digestive system

text: which breaks down solid

text: food

text: via exoenzymes. The small molecules, generated by the exoenzyme activity,  enter into cells and are utilized for various cellular functions.

text: Bacteria

text: and

text: fungi

text: also produce exoenzymes to

text: digest

text: nutrients

text: in their

text: environment

text: , and these organisms can be used to conduct laboratory

text: assays

text: to identify the presence and function of such exoenzymes. Some

text: pathogenic

text: species also use exoenzymes as

text: virulence factors

text: to assist in the spread of these

text: disease

text: causing microorganisms. In addition to the integral roles in biological systems, different classes of

text: microbial

text: exoenzymes have been used by humans since

text: pre-historic

text: times for such diverse purposes as

text: food production

text: biofuel

text: s,

text: textile production

text: and in the

text: paper industry

text: .  Another important role that microbial exoenzymes serve is in the natural ecology and

text: bioremediation

text: of

text: terrestrial

text: and

text: marine

text: environments.

text: The equivalence of yogurts is supported by Berthold Koletzko from the University of Munich, Metabolic Diseases and Nutrition, Munich, Germany in case of diarrhoea advises parents to give their children yogurt with living bacteria. It does not necessarily need to be Actimel, but may also be other yogurts.  A measurable health benefit linked to the presence of live Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii sp. Bulgaricus in yogurt was reported by Koletzko and colleagues in 2005. In this review Koletzko and colleagues say that it was clearly demonstrated that yogurt containing viable bacteria improves lactose digestion and eliminates symptoms of lactose intolerance, and clearly fulfill the current concept of probiotics.

text: The equivalence of yogurts is supported by Berthold Koletzko from the

text: University of Munich

text: , Metabolic Diseases and Nutrition, Munich, Germany in case of diarrhoea advises parents to give their children yogurt with living bacteria. It does not necessarily need to be Actimel, but may also be other yogurts.  A measurable health benefit linked to the presence of live

text: Streptococcus thermophilus

text: and Lactobacillus delbrueckii sp. Bulgaricus in yogurt was reported by Koletzko and colleagues in 2005. In this review Koletzko and colleagues say that it was clearly demonstrated that yogurt containing viable bacteria improves lactose digestion and eliminates symptoms of

text: lactose intolerance

text: , and clearly fulfill the current concept of probiotics.

text: Alpacas will chew their food in a figure eight motion, swallow the food, and then pass it into one of the stomach's chambers. The first and second chambers (called C1 and C2) are where the fermentation process begins digestion. The alpaca will further absorb nutrients and water in the first part of the third chamber. The end of the third chamber (called C3) is where the stomach secretes acids to digest food, and is the likely place where an alpaca will have ulcers, if stressed. The alpaca digestive system is very sensitive and must be kept healthy and balanced.

text: Autogenic training restores the balance between the activity of the sympathetic (flight or fight) and the parasympathetic (rest and digest) branches of the autonomic nervous system. This has important health benefits, as the parasympathetic activity promotes digestion and bowel movements, lowers the blood pressure, slows the heart rate, and promotes the functions of the immune system.

text: Autogenic training restores the balance between the activity of the

text: sympathetic

text: (flight or fight) and the

text: parasympathetic

text: (rest and digest) branches of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . This has important health benefits, as the parasympathetic activity promotes

text: digestion

text: and bowel movements, lowers the

text: blood pressure

text: , slows the

text: heart rate

text: , and promotes the functions of the

text: immune system

text: This ligament is an important anatomical landmark of the duodenojejunal flexure, separating the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts. For example, bloody vomit or melena, black tarry stools, usually indicate a gastrointestinal bleed from a location in the upper gastrointestinal tract. In contrast, hematochezia, bright red blood or clots in the stool, usually indicates gastrointestinal bleeding from the lower part of the gastrointestinal tract. It is an especially important landmark to note when looking at the bowel for the presence of malrotation of the gut, a syndrome often suspected in young children when they have episodes of recurrent vomiting. Visualising a normal location of the ligament of Treitz in radiological images is critical in ruling out malrotation of the gut in a child;  it is abnormally located when malrotation is present.

text: This ligament is an important

text: anatomical

text: landmark of the duodenojejunal flexure, separating the

text: upper

text: and

text: lower gastrointestinal tract

text: s. For example,

text: bloody vomit

text: or

text: melena

text: , black tarry stools, usually indicate a gastrointestinal bleed from a location in the upper gastrointestinal tract. In contrast,

text: hematochezia

text: , bright red blood or clots in the stool, usually indicates gastrointestinal bleeding from the lower part of the gastrointestinal tract. It is an especially important landmark to note when looking at the bowel for the presence of

text: malrotation of the gut

text: , a syndrome often suspected in young children when they have episodes of recurrent vomiting. Visualising a normal location of the ligament of Treitz in radiological images is critical in ruling out malrotation of the gut in a child;  it is abnormally located when malrotation is present.

text: In the UK the Publicly Available Specification (called PAS110) governs the definition of digestate derived from the anaerobic digestion of source-segregated biodegradable materials. The specification ensures all digested materials are of consistent quality and fit for purpose. If a biogas plant meets the standard, its digestate will be regarded as having been fully recovered and to have ceased to be waste, and it can be sold with the name “Bio- fertiliser”.

text: In the UK the

text: Publicly Available Specification

text: (called PAS110) governs the definition of digestate derived from the anaerobic digestion of source-segregated biodegradable materials. The specification ensures all digested materials are of consistent quality and fit for purpose. If a biogas plant meets the standard, its digestate will be regarded as having been fully recovered and to have ceased to be waste, and it can be sold with the name “Bio- fertiliser”.

text: Taste in the gustatory system allows humans to distinguish between safe and harmful food. Digestive enzymes in saliva begin to dissolve food into base chemicals that are washed over the papillae and detected as tastes by the taste buds. The tongue is covered with thousands of small bumps called papillae, which are visible to the naked eye.  Within each papilla are hundreds of taste buds. The exception to this are the filiform papillae that do not contain taste buds. There are between 2000 and 5000 taste buds that are located on the back and front of the tongue.  Others are located on the roof, sides and back of the mouth, and in the throat. Each taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste receptor cells.

text: Taste in the gustatory system allows humans to distinguish between safe and harmful food.

text: Digestive enzyme

text: s in saliva begin to dissolve food into base chemicals that are washed over the papillae and detected as tastes by the taste buds. The tongue is covered with thousands of small bumps called

text: papillae

text: , which are visible to the naked eye.  Within each papilla are hundreds of taste buds. The exception to this are the

text: filiform papillae

text: that do not contain taste buds. There are between 2000 and 5000 taste buds that are located on the back and front of the tongue.  Others are located on the roof, sides and back of the mouth, and in the throat. Each taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste receptor cells.

text: Chang, M.-Y., Boulden, J., Valenzano, M.C., Soler, A.P., Muller, A.J., Mullin, J.M. and Prendergast, G.C. (2012). Bin1 attenuation suppresses inflammatory colitis by enforcing intestinal barrier function. Digest. Dis. Sci. 57, 1813-1821. doi: 10.1007/s10620-012-2147-y

text: Barium sulfate is mainly used in the imaging of the digestive system. The substance exists as a water-insoluble white powder that is made into a slurry with water and administered directly into the gastrointestinal tract.

text: Barium sulfate

text: is mainly used in the imaging of the digestive system. The substance exists as a water-insoluble white powder that is made into a slurry with water and administered directly into the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: Two medical review articles conclude that "NAET has to be the most unsubstantiated allergy treatment proposed to date" and that "there have been no studies supporting the use of these techniques". The Teuber and Porch-Curren review cautions that "there is the potential for an anaphylactic reaction if a patient with severe food allergies seeks such a therapy and tests themselves by oral challenge away from a physician's office after completing the NAET sessions successfully". The Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy has advised against using NAET to treat allergies, criticizing its "lack of scientific rationale" and describing it as a "potentially dangerous technique".

text: MunchPak is a subscription-based delivery service that was founded by Michael Beletz and Andrew Hawel based out of Glendale, Arizona. The packages generally contain snack-type foods, and it delivers them to several countries, including the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, India, Japan, and more. Beletz stated that he wanted to include snacks in the packages that people may not have tried before and expand their tastes. Subscribers can choose to receive packages on weeks, and can be canceled at any time. While the service does not cater to people with allergies, it does allow participants to mark that they do not want to receive nuts with their packages, and advises that participants read the ingredients carefully if they do have allergies.

text: MunchPak is a subscription-based delivery service that was founded by Michael Beletz and Andrew Hawel based out of

text: Glendale, Arizona

text: . The packages generally contain snack-type foods, and it delivers them to several countries, including the

text: United States

text: Canada

text: , the

text: United Kingdom

text: Australia

text: India

text: Japan

text: , and more. Beletz stated that he wanted to include snacks in the packages that people may not have tried before and expand their tastes. Subscribers can choose to receive packages on weeks, and can be canceled at any time. While the service does not cater to people with allergies, it does allow participants to mark that they do not want to receive nuts with their packages, and advises that participants read the ingredients carefully if they do have allergies.

text: When a liquid solvent absorbs a gas mixture or part of it, a mass of gas moves into the liquid. For example, water may absorb oxygen from the air. This mass transfer takes place at the interface between the liquid and the gas, at a rate depending on both the gas and the liquid. This type of absorption depends on the solubility of gases, the pressure and the temperature. The rate and amount of absorption also depend on the surface area of the interface and its duration in time. For example, when the water is finely divided and mixed with air, as may happen in a waterfall or a strong ocean surf, the water absorbs more oxygen.

text: A batch system is the simplest form of digestion. Biomass is added to the reactor at the start of the process in a batch and is sealed for the duration of the process. Batch reactors suffer from odour issues that can be a severe problem when they are emptied. Typically biogas production will be formed with a normal distribution pattern over time. The operator can use this fact to determine when they believe the process of digestion of the organic matter has completed. As the batch digestion is simple and requires less equipment and lower levels of design work it is typically a cheaper form of digestion.                              In continuous digestion processes organic matter is constantly added (continuous complete mixed)or added in stages to the reactor (continuous plug flow; first in – first out). Here the end products are constantly or periodically removed, resulting in constant production of biogas. A single or multiple digesters in sequence may be used. Examples of this form of anaerobic digestion include continuous stirred-tank reactors (CSTRs), low anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), Expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) and Internal circulation reactors (IC).TemperatureThere are two conventional operational temperature levels for  anaerobic digesters, which are determined by the species of methanogens in the digesters:•	Mesophilic which takes place optimally around 30-38 °C or at ambient temperatures between 20-45 °C where mesophiles are the primary microorganisms present.•	Thermophilic which takes place around 49-57 °C at elevated temperatures up to 70 °C where thermophiles are the primary microorganisms present.

text: A batch system is the simplest form of digestion. Biomass is added to the reactor at the start of the process in a batch and is sealed for the duration of the process. Batch reactors suffer from odour issues that can be a severe problem when they are emptied. Typically biogas production will be formed with a normal distribution pattern over time. The operator can use this fact to determine when they believe the process of digestion of the organic matter has completed. As the batch digestion is simple and requires less equipment and lower levels of design work it is typically a cheaper form of digestion.                              In continuous digestion processes organic matter is constantly added (continuous complete mixed)or added in stages to the reactor (continuous plug flow; first in – first out). Here the end products are constantly or periodically removed, resulting in constant production of biogas. A single or multiple digesters in sequence may be used. Examples of this form of anaerobic digestion include continuous stirred-tank reactors (CSTRs), low anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), Expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) and Internal circulation reactors (IC).TemperatureThere are two conventional operational temperature levels for  anaerobic digesters, which are determined by the species of

text: methanogens

text: in the digesters:•

text: Mesophilic

text: which takes place optimally around 30-38 °C or at ambient temperatures between 20-45 °C where

text: mesophiles

text: are the primary

text: microorganisms

text: present.•

text: Thermophilic

text: which takes place around 49-57 °C at elevated temperatures up to 70 °C where

text: thermophiles

text: are the primary

text: microorganisms

text: present.

text: Digestion of starch begins with the action of salivary alpha-amylase/ptyalin, although its activity is slight in comparison with that of pancreatic amylase in the small intestine. Amylase hydrolyzes starch to alpha-dextrin, which are then digested by gluco-amylase (alpha-dextrinases) to maltose and maltotriose. The products of digestion of alpha-amylase and alpha-dextrinase, along with dietary disaccharides are hydrolyzed to their corresponding monosaccharides by enzymes (maltase, isomaltase, sucrase and lactase) present in the brush border of the small intestine. In the typical Western diet, digestion and absorption of carbohydrates is fast and takes place usually in the upper small intestine. However, when the diet contains carbohydrates not easily digestible, digestion and absorption take place mainly in the ileal portion of the intestine.

text: Digestion

text: of

text: starch

text: begins with the action of

text: saliva

text: ry

text: alpha-amylase

text: ptyalin

text: , although its activity is slight in comparison with that of

text: pancreatic amylase

text: in the small intestine. Amylase hydrolyzes starch to alpha-

text: dextrin

text: , which are then digested by gluco-

text: amylase

text: (alpha-dextrinases) to

text: maltose

text: and

text: maltotriose

text: . The products of digestion of alpha-

text: amylase

text: and alpha-

text: dextrinase

text: , along with dietary

text: disaccharide

text: s are hydrolyzed to their corresponding

text: monosaccharide

text: s by

text: enzyme

text: s (

text: maltase

text: isomaltase

text: sucrase

text: and

text: lactase

text: ) present in the

text: brush border

text: of the small intestine. In the typical

text: Western diet

text: , digestion and absorption of carbohydrates is fast and takes place usually in the

text: upper small intestine

text: . However, when the diet contains carbohydrates not easily digestible, digestion and absorption take place mainly in the

text: ileal

text: portion of the intestine.

text: The ideology behind foie gras production is the ability that some waterfowl have to expand their esophagus and to gain weight, particularly in the liver, in preparation for migration. Unlike many birds, geese and ducks lack a crop.  In the wild, esophageal dilation allows them to swallow large foodstuffs, such as a whole fish, for later digestion. Wild geese may consume 300 grams of protein and another 800 grams of grasses per day. Farmed geese allowed to graze on carrots adapt to eating 100 grams of protein, but may consume up to 2500 grams of the carrots per day.  The increasing amount of feed given prior to force-feeding and during the force-feeding itself cause expansion of the lower part of the esophagus.

text: The ideology behind foie gras production is the ability that some

text: waterfowl

text: have to expand their esophagus and to gain weight, particularly in the liver, in preparation for migration. Unlike many birds, geese and ducks lack a

text: crop

text: .  In the wild, esophageal dilation allows them to swallow large foodstuffs, such as a whole fish, for later digestion. Wild geese may consume 300 grams of protein and another 800 grams of grasses per day. Farmed geese allowed to graze on carrots adapt to eating 100 grams of protein, but may consume up to 2500 grams of the carrots per day.  The increasing amount of feed given prior to force-feeding and during the force-feeding itself cause expansion of the lower part of the esophagus.

text: Disorders of the stomach are very common and induce a significant amount of morbidity and suffering in the population. Data from hospitals indicate that more than 25% of the population suffers from some type of chronic stomach disorder including abdominal pain and indigestion. These symptoms occur for long periods and cause prolonged suffering, time off work and a poor quality of life. Moreover, visits to doctors, expense of investigations and treatment result in many days lost from work and a colossal cost to the financial system.

text: Disorders of the stomach are very common and induce a significant amount of morbidity and suffering in the population. Data from hospitals indicate that more than 25% of the population suffers from some type of chronic stomach disorder including

text: abdominal pain

text: and

text: indigestion

text: . These symptoms occur for long periods and cause prolonged suffering, time off work and a poor quality of life. Moreover, visits to doctors, expense of investigations and treatment result in many days lost from work and a colossal cost to the financial system.

text: The American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) defines soluble fiber as “the edible parts of plants or similar carbohydrates resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine”. Dietary fiber consists of many plant components including oligosaccharides. For a dietary substrate to be classified as a fiber, it must be resistant to digestion and absorption in upper GI tract, and cause a bulking effect in defecation. IMO is considered a dietary fiber for the following reasons: it consists of glucose units linked together (mostly) by digestion-resistant linkages; it has a prebiotic effect; it retains moisture, producing a bulking effect and helping to move the stool forward.

text: Writer's Digest Short Story Contest is an annual short story award presented by Writer's Digest.

text: Writer's Digest Short Story Contest is an annual short story award presented by

text: Writer's Digest

text: The small intestine is found in all tetrapods and also in teleosts, although its form and length vary enormously between species. In teleosts, it is relatively short, typically around one and a half times the length of the fish's body. It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca, small pouch-like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food. There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts, with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epitheliu

text: The small intestine is found in all

text: tetrapod

text: s and also in

text: teleost

text: s, although its form and length vary enormously between species. In teleosts, it is relatively short, typically around one and a half times the length of the fish's body. It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca, small pouch-like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food. There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts, with the boundary between the small intestine and the

text: rectum

text: being marked only by the end of the digestive epitheliu

text: Through the combination of the Martindale's Directory and Hubbell's Legal Directory, the first edition of the Martindale-Hubbell Law Directory was produced in 1931 as a two-volume set. Volume I consisted of: other than lawyers listings, lawyers in America (complete list of the Bar of the USA), lawyers of the Dominion of Canada and the Colony of Newfoundland (complete list of the Bar), selected list of foreign lawyers, list of patent attorneys and a biographical section.   Volume II contained the Law Digests, which included a topical index, Digests of the Laws of the States, Territories and Possessions of the USA, Digests of the Laws of Canada, Digests of the Laws of 40 Foreign Countries, United States Patent, Tax and Trademark Law Digest, Court Calendars and Uniform Acts, approved and recommended for adoption by the National Conference on Uniform State Laws and Proceedings. The Preface to the Law Digest commmenced with the words:

text: Through the combination of the Martindale's Directory and Hubbell's Legal Directory, the first edition of the Martindale-Hubbell Law Directory was produced in 1931 as a two-volume set. Volume I consisted of: other than lawyers listings, lawyers in America (complete list of the Bar of the USA), lawyers of the

text: Dominion of Canada

text: and the

text: Colony of Newfoundland

text: (complete list of the Bar), selected list of foreign lawyers, list of

text: patent attorneys

text: and a biographical section.   Volume II contained the Law Digests, which included a topical index, Digests of the Laws of the States, Territories and Possessions of the USA, Digests of the Laws of Canada, Digests of the Laws of 40 Foreign Countries, United States Patent, Tax and Trademark Law Digest, Court Calendars and

text: Uniform Acts

text: , approved and recommended for adoption by the National Conference on Uniform State Laws and Proceedings. The Preface to the Law Digest commmenced with the words:

text: Biliary dyskinesia is a disorder of some component of biliary part of the digestive system in which bile physically can not move normally in the proper direction through the tubular biliary tract. It most commonly involves abnormal biliary tract peristalsis muscular coordination within the gallbladder in response to dietary stimulation of that organ to squirt the liquid bile through the common bile duct into the duodenum. Ineffective peristaltic contraction of that structure produces postprandial (after meals) right upper abdominal pain (cholecystodynia) and almost no other problem. When the dyskinesia is localized at the biliary outlet into the duodenum just as increased tonus of that outlet sphincter of Oddi, the backed-up bile can cause pancreatic injury with abdominal pain more toward the upper left side. In general, biliary dyskinesia is the disturbance in the coordination of peristaltic contraction of the biliary ducts, and/or reduction in the speed of emptying of the biliary tree into the duodenum.

text: Biliary dyskinesia is a disorder of some component of biliary part of the digestive system in which

text: bile

text: physically can not move normally in the proper direction through the tubular biliary tract. It most commonly involves abnormal biliary tract

text: peristalsis

text: muscular coordination within the gallbladder in response to dietary stimulation of that organ to squirt the liquid bile through the common bile duct into the duodenum. Ineffective peristaltic contraction of that structure produces

text: postprandial

text: (after meals) right upper abdominal pain (cholecystodynia) and almost no other problem. When the dyskinesia is localized at the biliary outlet into the duodenum just as increased

text: tonus

text: of that outlet

text: sphincter of Oddi

text: , the backed-up bile can cause pancreatic injury with abdominal pain more toward the upper left side. In general, biliary dyskinesia is the disturbance in the coordination of peristaltic contraction of the

text: biliary duct

text: s, and/or reduction in the speed of emptying of the

text: biliary tree

text: into the duodenum.

text: Wheat allergy is an allergy which typically presents itself as a food allergy, but can also be a contact allergy resulting from occupational exposure to wheat. Like all allergies, wheat allergy involves immunoglobulin E and mast cell response.  Typically the allergy is limited to the seed storage proteins of wheat, some reactions are restricted to wheat proteins, while others can react across many varieties of seeds and other plant tissues. Wheat allergy may be a misnomer since there are many allergenic components in wheat, for example serine protease inhibitors, glutelins and prolamins and different responses are often attributed to different proteins. Twenty-seven potential wheat allergens have been successfully identified. The most severe response is exercise/aspirin induced anaphylaxis attributed to one omega gliadin that is a relative of the protein that causes celiac disease. Other more common symptoms include nausea, urticaria, atopy. Gluten sensitivity is not usually classified as a wheat allergy.

text: Wheat allergy is an allergy which typically presents itself as a

text: food allergy

text: , but can also be a

text: contact allergy

text: resulting from occupational exposure to

text: wheat

text: . Like all allergies, wheat allergy involves

text: immunoglobulin E

text: and

text: mast cell

text: response.  Typically the allergy is limited to the seed storage proteins of wheat, some reactions are restricted to wheat proteins, while others can react across many varieties of seeds and other plant tissues. Wheat allergy may be a misnomer since there are many allergenic components in wheat, for example

text: serine protease

text: inhibitors,

text: glutelin

text: s and

text: prolamin

text: s and different responses are often attributed to different proteins. Twenty-seven potential wheat

text: allergen

text: s have been successfully identified. The most severe response is exercise/aspirin induced

text: anaphylaxis

text: attributed to one omega

text: gliadin

text: that is a relative of the protein that causes

text: celiac disease

text: . Other more common symptoms include nausea,

text: urticaria

text: atopy

text: Gluten sensitivity

text: is not usually classified as a wheat allergy.

text: Artificial digestion is a laboratory technique that reduces digestible material for analytical purposes.  Naturally occurring digestive agents such as pepsin and hydrochloric acid are typically used to accomplish artificial digestion.

text: Artificial digestion is a laboratory technique that reduces

text: digestible

text: material for analytical purposes.  Naturally occurring digestive agents such as

text: pepsin

text: and

text: hydrochloric acid

text: are typically used to accomplish artificial digestion.

text: As bacteria conduct fermentation in the rumen, they consume about 10% of the carbon, 60% of the phosphorus, and 80% of the nitrogen that the ruminant ingests. To reclaim these nutrients, the ruminant then digests the bacteria in the abomasum. The enzyme lysozyme has adapted to facilitate digestion of bacteria in the ruminant abomasum. Pancreatic ribonuclease also degrades bacterial RNA in the ruminant small intestine as a source of nitrogen.

text: As bacteria conduct fermentation in the rumen, they consume about 10% of the carbon, 60% of the phosphorus, and 80% of the nitrogen that the ruminant ingests. To reclaim these nutrients, the ruminant then digests the bacteria in the

text: abomasum

text: . The enzyme

text: lysozyme

text: has adapted to facilitate digestion of bacteria in the ruminant abomasum.

text: Pancreatic ribonuclease

text: also degrades bacterial RNA in the ruminant small intestine as a source of nitrogen.

text: It helps in passing the gas,which is blocked in your intestine. It creates space for fresh air in the body to create maximum utilization of the bodily resources. This improves the digestion system and helps have good motion.

text: A review of the literature published by the American Academy of Pediatrics published in 2012 concluded: "There is no evidence of clinically relevant differences in organic and conventional milk.  There are few, if any, nutritional differences between organic and conventional milk. There is no evidence that any differences that may exist are clinically relevant.  There is no evidence that organic milk has clinically significant higher bacterial contamination levels than does conventional milk.  There is no evidence that conventional milk contains significantly increased amounts of bovine growth hormone. Any bovine GH that might remain in conventional milk is not biologically active in humans because of structural differences and susceptibility to digestion in the stomach."

text: A review of the literature published by the

text: American Academy of Pediatrics

text: published in 2012 concluded: "There is no evidence of clinically relevant differences in organic and conventional milk.  There are few, if any, nutritional differences between organic and conventional milk. There is no evidence that any differences that may exist are clinically relevant.  There is no evidence that organic milk has clinically significant higher bacterial contamination levels than does conventional milk.  There is no evidence that conventional milk contains significantly increased amounts of bovine growth hormone. Any bovine

text: GH

text: that might remain in conventional milk is not biologically active in humans because of structural differences and susceptibility to digestion in the stomach."

text: Pancreatin reduces the absorption of iron from food in the duodenum during digestion

text: Humans first started to cultivate grains in the Neolithic period (beginning about 9500 BCE) in the Fertile Crescent in Western Asia, and it is likely that coeliac disease did not occur before this time. Aretaeus of Cappadocia, living in the second century in the same area, recorded a malabsorptive syndrome with chronic diarrhoea, causing a debilitation of the whole body. His "Cœliac Affection" (coeliac from Greek κοιλιακός koiliakos, "abdominal") gained the attention of Western medicine when Francis Adams presented a translation of Aretaeus's work at the Sydenham Society in 1856. The patient described in Aretaeus' work had stomach pain and was atrophied, pale, feeble and incapable of work. The diarrhoea manifested as loose stools that were white, malodorous and flatulent, and the disease was intractable and liable to periodic return. The problem, Aretaeus believed, was a lack of heat in the stomach necessary to digest the food and a reduced ability to distribute the digestive products throughout the body, this incomplete digestion resulting in the diarrhoea. He regarded this as an affliction of the old and more commonly affecting women, explicitly excluding children. The cause, according to Aretaeus, was sometimes either another chronic disease or even consuming "a copious draught of cold water."

text: Humans first started to cultivate grains in the

text: Neolithic

text: period (beginning about 9500 BCE) in the

text: Fertile Crescent

text: in Western Asia, and it is likely that coeliac disease did not occur before this time.

text: Aretaeus of Cappadocia

text: , living in the second century in the same area, recorded a malabsorptive syndrome with chronic diarrhoea, causing a debilitation of the whole body. His "Cœliac Affection" (coeliac from Greek κοιλιακός koiliakos, "abdominal") gained the attention of Western medicine when

text: Francis Adams

text: presented a translation of Aretaeus's work at the Sydenham Society in 1856. The patient described in Aretaeus' work had stomach pain and was atrophied, pale, feeble and incapable of work. The diarrhoea manifested as loose stools that were white, malodorous and flatulent, and the disease was intractable and liable to periodic return. The problem, Aretaeus believed, was a lack of heat in the stomach necessary to digest the food and a reduced ability to distribute the digestive products throughout the body, this incomplete digestion resulting in the diarrhoea. He regarded this as an affliction of the old and more commonly affecting women, explicitly excluding children. The cause, according to Aretaeus, was sometimes either another chronic disease or even consuming "a copious draught of cold water."

text: Small Bowel Bacterial Overgrowth Syndrome (SBBOS) or Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO) – the patient is either given a challenge dose of glucose, also known as dextrose (75-100 grams), or lactulose (10 grams). A baseline breath sample is collected, and then additional samples are collected at 15 minute or 20 minute intervals for 3–5 hours. Positive diagnosis for a lactulose SIBO breath test – typically positive if the patient produces approximately 20 ppm of hydrogen and/or methane within the first two hours (indicates bacteria in the small intestine), followed by a much larger peak (colonic response). This is also known as a biphasic pattern. Lactulose is not absorbed by the digestive system and can help determine distal end bacterial overgrowth, which means the bacteria are lower in the lower intestine.

text: Small Bowel Bacterial Overgrowth Syndrome

text: (SBBOS) or Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO) – the patient is either given a challenge dose of glucose, also known as dextrose (75-100 grams), or

text: lactulose

text: (10 grams). A baseline breath sample is collected, and then additional samples are collected at 15 minute or 20 minute intervals for 3–5 hours. Positive diagnosis for a lactulose SIBO breath test – typically positive if the patient produces approximately 20 ppm of hydrogen and/or methane within the first two hours (indicates bacteria in the small intestine), followed by a much larger peak (colonic response). This is also known as a biphasic pattern. Lactulose is not absorbed by the digestive system and can help determine distal end bacterial overgrowth, which means the bacteria are lower in the lower intestine.

text: The digestive system is also able to respond to internal stimuli. The digestive tract, or enteric nervous system alone contains millions of neurons. These neurons act as sensory receptors that can detect changes, such as food entering the small intestine, in the digestive tract. Depending on what these sensory receptors detect, certain enzymes and digestive juices from the pancreas and liver can be secreted to aid in metabolism and breakdown of food.

text: The

text: digestive system

text: is also able to respond to internal stimuli. The digestive tract, or

text: enteric nervous system

text: alone contains millions of neurons. These neurons act as sensory receptors that can detect changes, such as food entering the small intestine, in the digestive tract. Depending on what these sensory receptors detect, certain enzymes and digestive juices from the pancreas and liver can be secreted to aid in metabolism and breakdown of food.

text: The process produces primary treated blackwater, with much of the solid organic material removed from the effluent. Because liquid effluent is discharged almost immediately on entering the digester, little dissolved oxygen is consumed by the wastewater through the filtration stage. However, oxygen demand is leached into the wastewater flow through the filter as worms digest retained solids. This oxygen demand can be removed with secondary vermifilter reactors. Primary vermifilters provide a similar level of liquid effluent treatment to a septic tank, but in less time because digestion of solids by worms takes place rapidly in the aerobic environment.

text: The Center for Digestive Health and Nutrition' at Arnold Palmer Hospital is a program treating gastrointestinal (GI), liver or nutritional disorders in infants, children and young adults. The practice is home to the Aerodigestive Center, offering the only aerodigestive multidisciplinary program in Central Florida and the Pediatric Hepatology Center, providing the only multispecialty pediatric hepatology clinic in Central Florida. Arnold Palmer Hospital is also home to the Feeding Difficulties Center, the first in Central Florida and one of the largest of its kind in the state to offer an intensive outpatient treatment program addressing challenges such as food allergies, chewing or swallowing problems, digestion issues and picky eaters.

text: The bioavailability of suvorexant is at 82%. It is highly protein-bound. Food delays the time to max concentration. The primary route of elimination is through the feces, with approximately 66% of radiolabeled dose recovered in the feces compared to 23% in the urine.The elimination half-life is reported to be 12 hours.

text: The

text: bioavailability

text: of suvorexant is at 82%. It is highly

text: protein-bound

text: . Food delays the time to max concentration. The primary route of elimination is through the feces, with approximately 66% of radiolabeled dose recovered in the feces compared to 23% in the urine.The elimination

text: half-life

text: is reported to be 12 hours.

text: When a carbohydrate-rich food has been eaten before AMP has been eliminated from muscle cells, when bulk absorption starts, plenty of glucose becomes available in the blood, is taken up by muscle cells, is added to the glycogen store, but then immediately becomes liberated by the still up-regulated myophosphorylase. The resulting excess of glucose is metabolized down to lactic acid (the body cannot increase aerobic metabolism in an instant), recharging all AMP to ATP. The lactate is dumped back into blood and urine. The higher the glycemic index of the food is, the greater proportion of carbohydrates (and calories) is wasted into urine. If the person is at rest at this moment, and pays attention, a sudden increase in the breathing frequency due to lactate dumping is readily observable. If the rise in the blood lactate is particularly sharp, and the person happened to be breathing slowly, a heart palpitation may sometimes be observable. The lactic acidosis with palpitation may also occur during sleep, if stomach emptying has been delayed e.g. due to digestion requirements of the food or its high volume, and the person went to sleep before absorption has started. In this case the person will be awaken in a state of distress, with rapid breathing. Delayed stomach emptying creates especially favorable conditions for the shock lactic acidosis, because the digestive system may meanwhile still inhibit fatty acid release and oxidation. It has been experimentally demonstrated, that delayed gastric emptying prolongs the duration of the GLP-1 signal.

text: Activation of trypsin from proteolytic cleavage of trypsinogen in the pancreas can lead to a series of events that cause pancreatic self-digestion, resulting in pancreatitis.  One consequence of the autosomal recessive disease cystic fibrosis is a deficiency in transport of trypsin and other digestive enzymes from the pancreas.  This leads to the disorder termed meconium ileus. This disorder involves intestinal obstruction (ileus) due to overly thick meconium, which is normally broken down by trypsin and other proteases, then passed in feces.

text: Activation of trypsin from proteolytic cleavage of trypsinogen in the pancreas can lead to a series of events that cause pancreatic self-digestion, resulting in

text: pancreatitis

text: .  One consequence of the autosomal recessive disease

text: cystic fibrosis

text: is a deficiency in transport of trypsin and other digestive enzymes from the

text: pancreas

text: .  This leads to the disorder termed

text: meconium ileus

text: . This disorder involves intestinal obstruction (

text: ileus

text: ) due to overly thick

text: meconium

text: , which is normally broken down by trypsin and other proteases, then passed in feces.

text: The hallmark of a stone that obstructs the ureter or renal pelvis is excruciating, intermittent pain that radiates from the flank to the groin or to the inner thigh. This pain, known as renal colic, is often described as one of the strongest pain sensations known. Renal colic caused by kidney stones is commonly accompanied by urinary urgency, restlessness, hematuria, sweating, nausea, and vomiting. It typically comes in waves lasting 20 to 60 minutes caused by peristaltic contractions of the ureter as it attempts to expel the stone. The embryological link between the urinary tract, the genital system, and the gastrointestinal tract is the basis of the radiation of pain to the gonads, as well as the nausea and vomiting that are also common in urolithiasis. Postrenal azotemia and hydronephrosis can be observed following the obstruction of urine flow through one or both ureters. Pain in the lower left quadrant can sometimes be confused with diverticulitis because the sigmoid colon overlaps the ureter and the exact location of the pain may be difficult to isolate due to the close proximity of these two structures.

text: The hallmark of a stone that obstructs the ureter or renal pelvis is excruciating, intermittent pain that radiates from the flank to the groin or to the inner thigh. This pain, known as

text: renal colic

text: , is often described as one of the strongest pain sensations known. Renal colic caused by kidney stones is commonly accompanied by

text: urinary urgency

text: , restlessness,

text: hematuria

text: , sweating, nausea, and vomiting. It typically comes in waves lasting 20 to 60 minutes caused by

text: peristaltic

text: contractions of the ureter as it attempts to expel the stone. The

text: embryological

text: link between the urinary tract, the

text: genital system

text: , and the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: is the basis of the radiation of pain to the

text: gonads

text: , as well as the nausea and vomiting that are also common in

text: urolithiasis

text: Postrenal azotemia

text: and hydronephrosis can be observed following the obstruction of urine flow through one or both ureters. Pain in the lower left quadrant can sometimes be confused with

text: diverticulitis

text: because the sigmoid colon overlaps the ureter and the exact location of the pain may be difficult to isolate due to the close proximity of these two structures.

text: Sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (ZS-9) is an investigational selective oral sorbent that binds potassium in the gastrointestinal tract in exchange for sodium and hydrogen ions.

text: Sodium zirconium cyclosilicate

text: (ZS-9) is an

text: investigational

text: selective oral

text: sorbent

text: that binds

text: potassium

text: in the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: in exchange for sodium and hydrogen ions.

text: Gordon’s early career focused on the development of cell lineages within the gastrointestinal tract.  His laboratory initially combined the use of transgenic mouse models and biochemical approaches to elucidate the mechanisms of gut epithelial development along the duodenal-colonic and crypt-villus axes.  Early studies also provided important insight into biochemical properties of lipid handling and transport in the digestive system. Dr. Gordon and colleagues later combined laser capture microdissection, and functional genomics to characterize specified cell populations within the gastrointestinal tract, including multipotent stem cells.

text: Gordon’s early career focused on the development of cell lineages within the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: .  His laboratory initially combined the use of transgenic mouse models and biochemical approaches to elucidate the mechanisms of gut epithelial development along the duodenal-colonic and crypt-villus axes.  Early studies also provided important insight into biochemical properties of lipid handling and transport in the digestive system. Dr. Gordon and colleagues later combined

text: laser capture microdissection

text: , and

text: functional genomics

text: to characterize specified cell populations within the gastrointestinal tract, including

text: multipotent stem cells

text: The stool of a person with a lower gastrointestinal bleed is a good (but not infallible) indication of where the bleeding is occurring. Black tarry appearing stools medically referred to as melena usually indicates blood that has been in the GI tract for at least 8 hours.  Melena is four-times more likely to come from an upper gastrointestinal bleed than from the lower GI tract; however, it can also occur in either the duodenum and jejunum, and occasionally the portions of the small intestine and proximal colon. Bright red stool, called hematochezia, is the sign of a fast moving active GI bleed. The bright red or Maroon color is due to the short time taken from the site of the bleed and the exiting at the anus. The presence of hematochezia is six-times greater in a LGIB than with a UGIB.

text: The

text: stool

text: of a person with a lower gastrointestinal bleed is a good (but not infallible) indication of where the bleeding is occurring. Black tarry appearing stools medically referred to as

text: melena

text: usually indicates blood that has been in the GI tract for at least 8 hours.  Melena is four-times more likely to come from an upper gastrointestinal bleed than from the lower GI tract; however, it can also occur in either the duodenum and jejunum, and occasionally the portions of the

text: small intestine

text: and

text: proximal colon

text: . Bright red stool, called

text: hematochezia

text: , is the sign of a fast moving active GI bleed. The bright red or Maroon color is due to the short time taken from the site of the bleed and the exiting at the anus. The presence of hematochezia is six-times greater in a LGIB than with a UGIB.

text: She was nominated in 1999 for a Soap Opera Digest Award at the Soap Opera Digest Awards/15th Soap Opera Digest Awards for Outstanding Villainess in Sunset Beach (1997).

text: She was nominated in 1999 for a Soap Opera Digest Award at the

text: Soap Opera Digest Awards

text: 15th Soap Opera Digest Awards

text: for Outstanding Villainess in

text: Sunset Beach

text: The lifecycle begins with either the gravid proglottids or free eggs (embryophores) with  oncospheres (also known as hexacanth embryos) being passed in the feces, which can last for days to months in the environment.  Sometimes, these segments will still be motile upon excretion—they either empty themselves of their eggs within a matter of minutes, or in some species, retain them as a cluster and await the arrival of a suitable intermediate vertebrate host.  The intermediate host (cattle, pigs, rodents, etc., depending on the species) must then ingest the eggs or proglottids. If the host is a correct one for the particular species, the embriophores then hatch, and the  hexacanth embryos invade the wall of the small intestine of the intermediate host to travel to the striated muscles to develop into cysticerci larvae. Here they grow, cavitate, and differentiate into the second larval form shaped like a bladder (and erroneously believed until the middle of the 19th century to be a separate parasite, the bladderworm) which is infectious to the definitive host when an invaginated protoscolex is completely developed.  To continue the process, the definitive host must eat the uncooked meat of the intermediate host. Once in the small intestine of the definitive host, the bladder is digested away, the scolex embeds itself into the intestinal wall, and the neck begins to bud off segments to form the strobila.  New eggs usually appear in the feces of the definitive host within 6 to 9 weeks, and the cycle repeats itself.

text: The

text: lifecycle

text: begins with either the

text: gravid proglottid

text: s or free eggs (

text: embryophore

text: s) with

text: oncosphere

text: s (also known as

text: hexacanth

text: embryos) being passed in the

text: feces

text: , which can last for days to months in the environment.  Sometimes, these segments will still be motile upon excretion—they either empty themselves of their eggs within a matter of minutes, or in some species, retain them as a cluster and await the arrival of a suitable intermediate vertebrate host.  The intermediate host (cattle, pigs, rodents, etc., depending on the species) must then ingest the eggs or proglottids. If the host is a correct one for the particular species, the

text: embriophore

text: s then hatch, and the

text: hexacanth

text: embryos invade the wall of the

text: small intestine

text: of the intermediate host to travel to the

text: striated muscle

text: s to develop into

text: cysticerci

text: larvae. Here they grow, cavitate, and differentiate into the second larval form shaped like a bladder (and erroneously believed until the middle of the 19th century to be a separate parasite, the bladderworm) which is infectious to the definitive host when an invaginated proto

text: scolex

text: is completely developed.  To continue the process, the definitive host must eat the uncooked meat of the intermediate host. Once in the small intestine of the definitive host, the bladder is digested away, the scolex embeds itself into the intestinal wall, and the neck begins to bud off segments to form the

text: strobila

text: .  New eggs usually appear in the feces of the definitive host within 6 to 9 weeks, and the cycle repeats itself.

text: Sham feeding is any procedure that mimics normal food consumption but where food and drink are not actually digested or absorbed. It is generally used in experiments studying hunger, eating or digestion, and is a predominant method used in studying binge eating disorder. In animal research it often involves inserting a tube into either the oesophagus or stomach, that leaks out anything that has been swallowed. Animals who are sham fed in this manner eat and swallow almost continually without becoming satiated. Chewing gum can also be considered sham feeding, as whilst very-little or no nutrients are being absorbed into the body, the process of chewing still stimulates digestive system nerves which trigger the release of gastrointestinal hormones, and also increase the production of both saliva and pancreatic secretions. In human studies a process known as modified sham feeding (MSF) is typically used, which involves smelling, tasting and chewing food, then spitting it out when it would normally be swallowed.

text: Sham feeding is any procedure that mimics normal food consumption but where food and drink are not actually digested or absorbed. It is generally used in experiments studying hunger, eating or digestion, and is a predominant method used in studying

text: binge eating disorder

text: . In

text: animal research

text: it often involves inserting a tube into either the

text: oesophagus

text: or stomach, that leaks out anything that has been swallowed. Animals who are sham fed in this manner eat and swallow almost continually without becoming satiated.

text: Chewing gum

text: can also be considered sham feeding, as whilst very-little or no nutrients are being absorbed into the body, the process of chewing still stimulates digestive system nerves which trigger the release of gastrointestinal hormones, and also increase the production of both saliva and pancreatic secretions. In human studies a process known as modified sham feeding (MSF) is typically used, which involves smelling, tasting and chewing food, then spitting it out when it would normally be swallowed.

text: The anus (from Latin anus meaning "ring", "circle") is an opening at the opposite end of an animal's digestive tract from the mouth. Its function is to control the expulsion of feces, unwanted semi-solid matter produced during digestion, which, depending on the type of animal, may include: matter which the animal cannot digest, such as bones; food material after all the nutrients have been extracted, for example cellulose or lignin; ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; and dead or excess gut bacteria and other endosymbionts.

text: The anus (from

text: Latin

text: anus

text: meaning "ring", "circle") is an opening at the opposite end of an animal's

text: digestive tract

text: from the mouth. Its function is to control the expulsion of

text: feces

text: , unwanted semi-solid matter produced during digestion, which, depending on the type of animal, may include: matter which the animal cannot digest, such as

text: bones

text: ; food material after all the nutrients have been extracted, for example

text: cellulose

text: or

text: lignin

text: ; ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; and dead or excess

text: gut bacteria

text: and other

text: endosymbiont

text: s.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system (usually abbreviated PSNS, not PNS, to avoid confusion with the peripheral nervous system [PNS]) is one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the sympathetic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. The parasympathetic system is responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed" activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation (tears), urination, digestion and defecation. Its action is described as being complementary to that of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for stimulating activities associated with the fight-or-flight response.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system (usually abbreviated PSNS, not PNS, to avoid confusion with the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: [PNS]) is one of the two divisions of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , the other being the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: . The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. The parasympathetic system is responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed" activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including

text: sexual arousal

text: salivation

text: lacrimation

text: (tears),

text: urination

text: digestion

text: and

text: defecation

text: . Its action is described as being complementary to that of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , which is responsible for stimulating activities associated with the

text: fight-or-flight response

text: Diagnoses of wheat allergy may deserve special consideration.  Omega-5 gliadin, the most potent wheat allergen, cannot be detected in whole wheat preparations; it must be extracted and partially digested (similar to how it degrades in the intestine) to reach full activity. Other studies show that digestion of wheat proteins to about 10 amino acids can increase the allergic response 10 fold. Certain allergy tests may not be suitable to detect all wheat allergies, resulting in cryptic allergies.  Because many of the symptoms associated with wheat allergies, such as sacroiliitis, eczema and asthma, may be related or unrelated to a wheat allergy, medical deduction can be an effective way of determining the cause. If symptoms are alleviated by immunosuppressant drugs, such as Prednisone, an allergy-related cause is likely.  If multiple symptoms associated with wheat allergies are present in the absence of immunosuppressants then a wheat allergy is probable.

text: Diagnoses of wheat allergy may deserve special consideration.  Omega-5 gliadin, the most potent wheat allergen, cannot be detected in whole wheat preparations; it must be extracted and partially digested (similar to how it degrades in the intestine) to reach full activity. Other studies show that digestion of wheat proteins to about 10 amino acids can increase the allergic response 10 fold. Certain allergy tests may not be suitable to detect all wheat allergies, resulting in cryptic allergies.  Because many of the symptoms associated with wheat allergies, such as

text: sacroiliitis

text: eczema

text: and

text: asthma

text: , may be related or unrelated to a wheat allergy, medical deduction can be an effective way of determining the cause. If symptoms are alleviated by

text: immunosuppressant

text: drugs, such as Prednisone, an allergy-related cause is likely.  If multiple symptoms associated with wheat allergies are present in the absence of immunosuppressants then a wheat allergy is probable.

text: Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge" on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).

text: Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and

text: peristalsis

text: . Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge" on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).

text: In 2004 they completed their first methane digester system, which uses biogas produced from cow manure to supply the majority of their plant’s electrical needs. They have claimed they are working on a second digester, which would enable a completely renewable energy-powered plant.

text: In 2004 they completed their first

text: methane digester

text: system, which uses

text: biogas

text: produced from cow manure to supply the majority of their plant’s electrical needs. They have claimed they are working on a second digester, which would enable a completely renewable energy-powered plant.

text: The descending colon is the part of the large intestine from the splenic flexure to the beginning of the sigmoid colon. The function of the descending colon in the digestive system is to store the remains of digested food that will be emptied into the rectum.

text: The descending colon is the part of the

text: large intestine

text: from the

text: splenic flexure

text: to the beginning of the

text: sigmoid colon

text: . The function of the descending colon in the

text: digestive system

text: is to store the remains of digested food that will be emptied into the

text: rectum

text: From the late 1960s on, several comic book publishers put out "comics digests," usually about  Gold Key Comics produced three digest titles that lasted until the mid-1970s: Golden Comics Digest, Mystery Comics Digest, and Walt Disney Comics Digest. DC Comics produced several in the early 1980s (including DC Special Blue Ribbon Digest and The Best of DC), and Harvey Comics also published a few during the same time (including Richie Rich Digest Magazine). Archie Comics has published numerous comics digests since the 1970s, and in the 2000s Marvel Comics has produced a number of digests, primarily for reprint editions.

text: From the late 1960s on, several

text: comic book

text: publishers put out "comics digests," usually about

text: Gold Key Comics

text: produced three digest titles that lasted until the mid-1970s:

text: Golden Comics Digest

text: Mystery Comics Digest

text: , and

text: Walt Disney Comics Digest

text: DC Comics

text: produced several in the early 1980s (including DC Special Blue Ribbon Digest and The Best of DC), and

text: Harvey Comics

text: also published a few during the same time (including

text: Richie Rich Digest

text: Magazine).

text: Archie Comics

text: has published numerous comics digests since the 1970s, and in the 2000s

text: Marvel Comics

text: has produced a number of

text: digests

text: , primarily for reprint editions.

text: The American Association of Cereal Chemists has defined soluble fiber this way:"the edible parts of plants or similar carbohydrates resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine."  In this definition:

text: The

text: American Association of Cereal Chemists

text: has defined soluble fiber this way:"the edible parts of plants or similar carbohydrates resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine."  In this definition:

text: Therapeutic endoscopy is the medical term for an endoscopic procedure during which treatment is carried out via the endoscope. This contrasts with diagnostic endoscopy, where the aim of the procedure is purely to visualise a part of the gastrointestinal, respiratory or urinary tract in order to aid diagnosis. In practice, a procedure which starts as a diagnostic endoscopy may become a therapeutic endoscopy depending on the findings, such as in cases of upper gastrointestinal bleeding, or the finding of polyps during colonoscopy.

text: Therapeutic endoscopy is the medical term for an endoscopic procedure during which treatment is carried out via the endoscope. This contrasts with

text: diagnostic endoscopy

text: , where the aim of the procedure is purely to visualise a part of the

text: gastrointestinal

text: respiratory

text: or

text: urinary tract

text: in order to aid

text: diagnosis

text: . In practice, a procedure which starts as a diagnostic endoscopy may become a therapeutic endoscopy depending on the findings, such as in cases of upper

text: gastrointestinal bleeding

text: , or the finding of

text: polyp

text: s during

text: colonoscopy

text: Cholecystokinin (CCK or CCK-PZ; from Greek chole, "bile"; cysto, "sac"; kinin, "move"; hence, move the bile-sac (gallbladder)) is a peptide hormone of the gastrointestinal system responsible for stimulating the digestion of fat and protein. Cholecystokinin, previously called pancreozymin, is synthesized and secreted by enteroendocrine cells in the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine. Its presence causes the release of digestive enzymes and bile from the pancreas and gallbladder, respectively, and also acts as a hunger suppressant.

text: Cholecystokinin (CCK or CCK-PZ; from

text: Greek

text: chole, "bile"; cysto, "sac"; kinin, "move"; hence, move the bile-sac (

text: gallbladder

text: )) is a

text: peptide hormone

text: of the

text: gastrointestinal system

text: responsible for stimulating the

text: digestion

text: of

text: fat

text: and

text: protein

text: . Cholecystokinin, previously called pancreozymin, is synthesized and secreted by

text: enteroendocrine cell

text: s in the

text: duodenum

text: , the first segment of the

text: small intestine

text: . Its presence causes the release of

text: digestive enzymes

text: and

text: bile

text: from the

text: pancreas

text: and

text: gallbladder

text: , respectively, and also acts as a

text: hunger suppressant

text: Prevention mostly involves eliminating kissing bugs and avoiding their bites. Other preventative efforts include screening blood used for transfusions. A vaccine has not been developed as of 2013. Early infections are treatable with the medication benznidazole or nifurtimox. Medication nearly always results in a cure if given early, but becomes less effective the longer a person has had Chagas disease. When used in chronic disease, medication may delay or prevent the development of end–stage symptoms. Benznidazole and nifurtimox cause temporary side effects in up to 40% of people including skin disorders, brain toxicity, and digestive system irritation.

text: Prevention mostly involves eliminating kissing bugs and avoiding their bites. Other preventative efforts include screening blood used for transfusions. A vaccine has not been developed as of 2013. Early infections are treatable with the medication

text: benznidazole

text: or

text: nifurtimox

text: . Medication nearly always results in a cure if given early, but becomes less effective the longer a person has had Chagas disease. When used in chronic disease, medication may delay or prevent the development of end–stage symptoms. Benznidazole and nifurtimox cause temporary side effects in up to 40% of people including skin disorders, brain toxicity, and digestive system irritation.

text: Sesame seeds and sesame oil are a serious allergen to some people, including infants. In Australia, the occurrence of allergy to sesame seed was estimated to be 0.42% among all children, while in the United Kingdom, the allergic reaction was found to affect 0.04% of adults. The occurrence of allergy to sesame in patients with some form of food allergy was found to be much higher than in the general population, ranging from 0.5% in Switzerland to 8.5% in Australia. In other words, allergy to sesame affects a small percentage of overall human population, but sesame allergy is high in people who already show symptoms of allergy to other foods.

text: Sesame seeds and sesame oil are a serious allergen to some people, including infants. In Australia, the occurrence of allergy to sesame seed was estimated to be 0.42% among all children, while in the United Kingdom, the allergic reaction was found to affect 0.04% of adults. The occurrence of allergy to sesame in patients with some form of

text: food allergy

text: was found to be much higher than in the general population, ranging from 0.5% in Switzerland to 8.5% in Australia. In other words, allergy to sesame affects a small percentage of overall human population, but sesame allergy is high in people who already show symptoms of allergy to other foods.

text: With regular intake the absorption rate varies between 70 and 95%. However, the degree of absorption decreases as intake increases. At high intake (1.25 g), fractional human absorption of ascorbic acid may be as low as 33%; at low intake (<200 mg) the absorption rate can reach up to 98%.

text: Related species are used in the cuisines of Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal, Thailand, and the Konkani and Toba Batak peoples. In Bhutan, this pepper is known as thingye and is used liberally in preparation of soups, gruels, and phaag sha paa (pork slices). In Nepal, timur is used in the popular foods momo, thukpa, chow mein, chicken chilli, and other meat dishes. It is also widely used in homemade pickles. People take timur as a medicine, as well for stomach or digestion problems, in a preparation with cloves of garlic and mountain salt with warm water.

text: Related species are used in the cuisines of

text: Tibet

text: Bhutan

text: Nepal

text: Thailand

text: , and the

text: Konkani

text: and

text: Toba Batak

text: peoples. In Bhutan, this pepper is known as thingye and is used liberally in preparation of soups, gruels, and phaag sha paa (pork slices). In Nepal, timur is used in the popular foods

text: momo

text: thukpa

text: chow mein

text: , chicken chilli, and other meat dishes. It is also widely used in homemade pickles. People take timur as a medicine, as well for stomach or digestion problems, in a preparation with cloves of garlic and mountain salt with warm water.

text: Flu vaccination may lead to side effects such as runny nose and sore throat, which can last for up to several days. Egg allergy may also be a concern, since flu vaccines are typically made using eggs; however, research into egg-allergy and influenza vaccination has led some advisory groups to recommend vaccine for those with mild allergies and monitored vaccination for those with severe. A large study of nearly 800 children in the UK with egg allergy, including over 250 with previous anaphylactic reactions had zero systemic allergic reactions when given the live attenuated flu vaccine. On January 17, 2013, the U.S. FDA approved Flublok, a faster-turnaround influenza vaccine which is the first grown in insect cells instead of eggs. Since eggs are not used in its production it avoids the problem with egg allergies.

text: Flu vaccination may lead to side effects such as runny nose and sore throat, which can last for up to several days.

text: Egg allergy

text: may also be a concern, since flu vaccines are typically made using eggs; however, research into egg-allergy and influenza vaccination has led some advisory groups to recommend vaccine for those with mild allergies and monitored vaccination for those with severe. A large study of nearly 800 children in the UK with egg allergy, including over 250 with previous

text: anaphylactic

text: reactions had zero systemic allergic reactions when given the live

text: attenuated

text: flu vaccine. On January 17, 2013, the U.S. FDA approved

text: Flublok

text: , a faster-turnaround influenza vaccine which is the first grown in insect cells instead of eggs. Since eggs are not used in its production it avoids the problem with egg allergies.

text: With this type of surgery, a reservoir, or pouch, is created out of approximately two feet of the ascending colon and a portion of the ileum (a part of the small intestine).  The ureters are surgically removed from the bladder and repositioned to drain into this new pouch.  The end of the segment of small intestine is brought out through a small opening in the abdominal wall called a stoma.  Since a segment including the large and small intestines is utilized, also included in this new system is the ileal-cecal valve.  This is a one-way valve located between the small and large intestines.  This valve normally prevents the passage of bacteria and digested matter from re-entering the small intestine.  Originally, it was thought that removing the ileal-cecal valve from the digestive tract would likely result in diarrhea, but this has not shown to be the case.  After a period of several weeks, the body adjusts to the absence of this valve (from the digestive tract) by absorbing more liquids and nutrients.  Importantly, this valve, in its new capacity, will now effectively prevent the escape of urine from the stoma.   The passage of the conduit through the abdominal wall allows the rectus abdominis muscle to aid with continence.

text: With this type of surgery, a reservoir, or pouch, is created out of approximately two feet of the

text: ascending colon

text: and a portion of the

text: ileum

text: (a part of the

text: small intestine

text: ).  The

text: ureter

text: s are surgically removed from the bladder and repositioned to drain into this new pouch.  The end of the segment of small intestine is brought out through a small opening in the

text: abdominal wall

text: called a

text: stoma

text: .  Since a segment including the large and small intestines is utilized, also included in this new system is the ileal-cecal valve.  This is a one-way valve located between the small and large intestines.  This valve normally prevents the passage of bacteria and digested matter from re-entering the small intestine.  Originally, it was thought that removing the ileal-cecal valve from the digestive tract would likely result in diarrhea, but this has not shown to be the case.  After a period of several weeks, the body adjusts to the absence of this valve (from the digestive tract) by absorbing more liquids and nutrients.  Importantly, this valve, in its new capacity, will now effectively prevent the escape of urine from the stoma.   The passage of the conduit through the abdominal wall allows the rectus abdominis muscle to aid with continence.

text: Smooth muscle tissue is found in parts of the body where it conveys action without conscious intent. The majority of this type of muscle tissue is found in the Digestive and Urinary systems where it acts by propelling forward food, chyme, and feces in the former and urine in the latter. Other places smooth muscle can be found are within the uterus, where it helps facilitate birth, and the eye, where the pupillary sphincter controls pupil size.

text: Smooth muscle tissue

text: is found in parts of the body where it conveys action without conscious intent. The majority of this type of muscle tissue is found in the Digestive and Urinary systems where it acts by propelling forward food,

text: chyme

text: , and feces in the former and urine in the latter. Other places smooth muscle can be found are within the uterus, where it helps facilitate birth, and the eye, where the pupillary sphincter controls pupil size.

text: The required degree of treatment for the collected dried feces depends entirely on whether this product will be reused in agriculture. If it is not reused, but only buried, then no further treatment is required. The dried feces are in almost all cases not entirely sanitized when removed from a vault of the UDDT, so careful handling is obligatory. In scenarios wherein excreta is to be reused in agriculture, a secondary treatment of fecal matter and storage of urine is advisable to ensure adequate sanitization. Fecal material from single vault UDDTs must always be post-treated, even if just via prolonged storage. Fecal material from double vaults has typically passed a certain storage time and is therefore already more sanitized. However, a secondary form of treatment is optional but recommended for household systems and required for large-scale systems.

text: Toxins are natural substances, or substances produced by living organisms, in contrast to toxic substances from chemicals, which are toxicants.  Living organisms producing or using toxins do so as either venoms or poisons. Venoms are toxins, or more commonly, collections of varying toxins, that are used actively against prey or predators, most commonly to subdue, kill and digest prey, or dissuade predators.  Poisons of natural origin, that is containing toxins and used by living organisms, are passive and generally used for defence.  A predator attempting to molest or eat a poisonous animal, plant or mushroom will suffer adverse effects from the toxins in the poison, varying from mild discomfort to rapid death.  Particularly food poisons, but also for a few venoms, the component toxins are not produced by the deploying animal/plant, but are made by micro-organisms and concentrated and used by the deploying animal/plant.  A good example is tetrodotoxin, used by a variety of poisonous animals and by a few venomous animals.

text: Toxins are natural substances, or substances produced by

text: living organism

text: s, in contrast to toxic substances from

text: chemical

text: s, which are

text: toxicant

text: s.  Living organisms producing or using toxins do so as either venoms or poisons. Venoms are toxins, or more commonly, collections of varying toxins, that are used actively against

text: prey

text: or

text: predator

text: s, most commonly to subdue, kill and digest prey, or dissuade predators.  Poisons of natural origin, that is containing toxins and used by living organisms, are passive and generally used for defence.  A predator attempting to molest or eat a poisonous

text: animal

text: plant

text: or

text: mushroom

text: will suffer adverse effects from the toxins in the poison, varying from mild discomfort to rapid death.  Particularly

text: food poisons

text: , but also for a few venoms, the component toxins are not produced by the deploying animal/plant, but are made by

text: micro-organism

text: s and concentrated and used by the deploying animal/plant.  A good example is

text: tetrodotoxin

text: , used by a variety of poisonous animals and by a few venomous animals.

text: From 2003 onwards, the publication adopted a database-driven website. Older articles previously found only inside plain text files became immediately accessible, and the new system also allowed articles to be published more frequently and directly to the website. The e-mail digest returned to its original monthly schedule, gathering up the articles published on the website during that month. More than 100 issues of the e-mail digest were published until 2011, containing over 20 megabytes of text.

text: From 2003 onwards, the publication adopted a

text: database

text: -driven website. Older articles previously found only inside plain text files became immediately accessible, and the new system also allowed articles to be published more frequently and directly to the website. The e-mail digest returned to its original monthly schedule, gathering up the articles published on the website during that month. More than 100 issues of the e-mail digest were published until 2011, containing over 20

text: megabyte

text: s of text.

text: In the uterus, the fetus is dependent on a high-carbohydrate diet, and lingual as well as gastric lipases are present in the fetus from 26 weeks of gestation on.  After birth, fat in mother's milk or a milk substitute becomes the major source of nutrition. Absorptive rates of dietary fat are much lower in neonates than in adults, 65-80% as compared to >95% respectively, which can be attributed to low pancreatic lipase activity. Furthermore, milk fat is not a good substrate for pancreatic lipase. This fact, in combination with the bile salt deficiency and low pH throughout the gastrointestinal tract of the neonate, demands that lingual lipase be the main enzyme catalyzing the hydrolysis of dietary fat. This enzyme activity has been seen as early as 26 weeks gestational age, with ability to hydrolyze dietary fats variable according to digestive tract maturity.

text: In the

text: uterus

text: , the

text: fetus

text: is dependent on a high-

text: carbohydrate

text: diet, and lingual as well as gastric lipases are present in the fetus from 26 weeks of gestation on.  After birth, fat in mother's milk or a

text: milk substitute

text: becomes the major source of nutrition. Absorptive rates of dietary fat are much lower in neonates than in adults, 65-80% as compared to >95% respectively, which can be attributed to low pancreatic lipase activity. Furthermore, milk fat is not a good substrate for pancreatic lipase. This fact, in combination with the bile salt deficiency and low pH throughout the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: of the neonate, demands that lingual lipase be the main enzyme catalyzing the hydrolysis of dietary fat. This enzyme activity has been seen as early as 26 weeks

text: gestational age

text: , with ability to hydrolyze dietary fats variable according to digestive tract maturity.

text: The residence time in a digester varies with the amount and type of feed material, and with the configuration of the digestion system. In a typical two-stage mesophilic digestion, residence time varies between 15 and 40 days, while for a single-stage thermophilic digestion, residence times is normally faster and takes around 14 days. The plug-flow nature of some of these systems will mean the full degradation of the material may not have been realised in this timescale. In this event, digestate exiting the system will be darker in colour and will typically have more odour.

text: In some species the first part of the stomach forms a muscular gizzard lined with chitinous teeth that crush armored prey such as diatoms. Wave-like peristaltic contractions move the food through the stomach for digestion. The final section of the stomach is lined with cilia (minute hairs) that compress undigested solids, which then pass through the intestine and out through the anus.

text: In some species the first part of the stomach forms a muscular

text: gizzard

text: lined with

text: chitin

text: ous teeth that crush armored prey such as

text: diatom

text: s. Wave-like

text: peristaltic

text: contractions move the food through the stomach for digestion. The final section of the stomach is lined with

text: cilia

text: (minute hairs) that compress undigested solids, which then pass through the

text: intestine

text: and out through the

text: anus

text: The digestive tract can mostly be traced, either because the intestines are still present or by the presence of food items. The position of the oesophagus is indicated by a five millimetre long series of small food particles. Below the ninth dorsal vertebra the location of the stomach is shown by a cluster of bones of prey animals, the organ itself likely having been dissolved by its own stomach acid shortly after death. The rather backward position of the cluster suggests the stomach was dual in structure, with a forward enzyme-secreting proventriculus preceding a muscular gizzard. Gastroliths have not been reported.

text: The

text: digestive tract

text: can mostly be traced, either because the intestines are still present or by the presence of food items. The position of the

text: oesophagus

text: is indicated by a five millimetre long series of small food particles. Below the ninth dorsal vertebra the location of the stomach is shown by a cluster of bones of prey animals, the organ itself likely having been dissolved by its own

text: stomach acid

text: shortly after death. The rather backward position of the cluster suggests the stomach was dual in structure, with a forward

text: enzyme

text: -secreting

text: proventriculus

text: preceding a muscular

text: gizzard

text: Gastroliths

text: have not been reported.

text: Grass is the guinea pig's natural diet. Their molars are particularly suited for grinding plant matter, and grow continuously throughout the animal's life. Most grass-eating mammals are quite large and have a long digestive tract; while guinea pigs have much longer colons than most rodents, they must also supplement their diet by coprophagy, the eating of their own feces. However, they do not consume all their feces indiscriminately, but produce special soft pellets, called cecotropes, which recycle B vitamins, fiber, and bacteria required for proper digestion. The cecotropes (or caecal pellets) are eaten directly from the anus, unless the guinea pig is pregnant or obese. They share this behaviour with rabbits. In geriatric boars or sows (the condition is rarer in young ones), the muscles which allow the softer pellets to be expelled from the anus for consumption can become weak. This creates a condition known as anal impaction, which prevents the boar from redigesting cecotropes, though harder pellets may pass through the impacted mass. The condition may be temporarily alleviated by carefully expelling the impacted feces.

text: Grass

text: is the guinea pig's natural diet. Their

text: molars

text: are particularly suited for grinding plant matter, and grow continuously throughout the animal's life. Most grass-eating mammals are quite large and have a long digestive tract; while guinea pigs have much longer

text: colons

text: than most rodents, they must also supplement their diet by

text: coprophagy

text: , the eating of their own feces. However, they do not consume all their feces indiscriminately, but produce special soft pellets, called

text: cecotrope

text: s, which recycle

text: B vitamins

text: , fiber, and bacteria required for proper digestion. The cecotropes (or caecal pellets) are eaten directly from the anus, unless the guinea pig is pregnant or obese. They share this behaviour with

text: rabbit

text: s. In geriatric boars or sows (the condition is rarer in young ones), the muscles which allow the softer pellets to be expelled from the anus for consumption can become weak. This creates a condition known as anal impaction, which prevents the boar from redigesting cecotropes, though harder pellets may pass through the impacted mass. The condition may be temporarily alleviated by carefully expelling the impacted feces.

text: Humans and other monogastric animals (pigs and poultry) do not possess the α-GAL enzyme to break down RFOs and these oligosaccharides pass undigested through the stomach and upper intestine. In the lower intestine, they are fermented by gas-producing bacteria that do possess the α-GAL enzyme and make carbon dioxide, methane or hydrogen—leading to the flatulence commonly associated with eating beans and other vegetables. α-GAL is present in digestive aids such as the product Beano.

text: Humans and other

text: monogastric

text: animals (

text: pig

text: s and

text: poultry

text: ) do not possess the α-GAL enzyme to break down RFOs and these oligosaccharides pass undigested through the stomach and upper intestine. In the lower intestine, they are

text: fermented

text: by gas-producing

text: bacteria

text: that do possess the α-GAL enzyme and make

text: carbon dioxide

text: methane

text: or

text: hydrogen

text: —leading to the

text: flatulence

text: commonly associated with eating beans and other vegetables. α-GAL is present in digestive aids such as the product

text: Beano

text: X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) is used to study the coordination structure of atoms in materials and molecules. The synchrotron beam energy is tuned through the absorption edge of an element of interest, and modulations in the absorption are measured. Photoelectron transitions cause modulations near the absorption edge, and analysis of these modulations (called the X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) or near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS)) reveals information about the chemical state and local symmetry of that element. At incident beam energies which are much higher than the absorption edge, photoelectron scattering causes "ringing" modulations called the extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS). Fourier transformation of the EXAFS regime yields the bond lengths and number of the surrounding the absorbing atom; it is therefore useful for studying liquids and amorphous materials as well as sparse species such as impurities. A related technique, X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD), uses circularly polarized X-rays to measure the magnetic properties of an element.

text: X-ray absorption spectroscopy

text: (XAS) is used to study the coordination structure of atoms in materials and molecules. The synchrotron beam energy is tuned through the absorption edge of an element of interest, and modulations in the absorption are measured.

text: Photoelectron

text: transitions cause modulations near the absorption edge, and analysis of these modulations (called the

text: X-ray absorption near-edge structure

text: (XANES) or

text: near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure

text: (NEXAFS)) reveals information about the

text: chemical state

text: and local symmetry of that element. At incident beam energies which are much higher than the absorption edge, photoelectron scattering causes "ringing" modulations called the

entity_name: Extended X-ray absorption fine structure

text: extended X-ray absorption fine structure

text: (EXAFS).

text: Fourier transformation

text: of the EXAFS regime yields the bond lengths and number of the surrounding the absorbing atom; it is therefore useful for studying liquids and

text: amorphous

text: materials as well as sparse species such as impurities. A related technique,

text: X-ray magnetic circular dichroism

text: (XMCD), uses circularly polarized X-rays to measure the magnetic properties of an element.

text: Similar hypotheses have been posited for the rise of food and other allergies.

text: Absorption is a disposition or personality trait in which a person becomes absorbed in his or her mental imagery, particularly fantasy. The original research on absorption was by American psychologist Auke Tellegen. Roche reports that fantasy proneness and absorption are highly correlated. Fantasizers become absorbed within their vivid and realistic mental imagery.

text: Absorption

text: is a disposition or personality trait in which a person becomes absorbed in his or her mental imagery, particularly fantasy. The original research on absorption was by American psychologist Auke Tellegen. Roche reports that fantasy proneness and absorption are highly correlated. Fantasizers become absorbed within their vivid and realistic mental imagery.

text: G-CSF– gabapentin– Gail model– gallium nitrate– gallium scan– gamma irradiation– gamma knife– gamma ray– ganciclovir– ganglioside– gastrectomy– gastric atrophy– gastrinoma– gastroenterologist– gastroesophageal junction– gastroesophageal reflux disease– gastrointestinal– gastrointestinal stromal tumor– gastrointestinal tract– gastroscope– gastroscopy– gefitinib– geldanamycin analog– GEM 231– gemcitabine– gemtuzumab ozogamicin– gene expression profiling– gene therapy– gene transfer– gene-modified– genetic analysis– genetic counseling– genetic deletion– genetic markers– genetic susceptibility– genetic testing– genistein– genitourinary system– genome– germ cell– germ cell tumor– German Commission E– germinoma– germline mutation– Gerota's capsule– Gerota's fascia– gestational trophoblastic disease– gestational trophoblastic neoplasia– gestational trophoblastic tumor– GI14721– giant cell fibroblastoma– gimatecan– GIST– Gleason score– Gleevec– Gliadel Wafer– glial cell– glial tumor– glioblastoma– glioblastoma multiforme– glioma– gliosarcoma– glossectomy– glucagon– glucagonoma– glucocorticoid– gluconeogenesis– glufosfamide– glutamine– glutathione– glutathione S-transferase– glycinamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase inhibitor– glycolysis– glycopeptide– glycoprotein– glycoprotein 100– glycosaminoglycan– GM-CSF– GM2-KLH vaccine– GnRH– gonadotropin-releasing hormone– gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist– Gonzalez regimen– Gorlin syndrome– goserelin– gossypol– gp100– gp209-2M– GPX-100– grade IV astrocytoma– graft-versus-host disease– graft-versus-tumor– granisetron– granulocyte– granulocyte colony-stimulating factor– granulocytic sarcoma– granulocytopenia– granulosa cell tumor– GTI-2040– GVHD– GW572016– GW786034– gynecologic– gynecologic cancer– gynecologic oncologist

text: G-CSF

text: gabapentin

text: Gail model

text: gallium nitrate

text: gallium scan

text: gamma irradiation

text: gamma knife

text: gamma ray

text: ganciclovir

text: ganglioside

text: gastrectomy

text: gastric atrophy

text: gastrinoma

text: gastroenterologist

text: gastroesophageal junction

text: gastroesophageal reflux disease

text: gastrointestinal

text: gastrointestinal stromal tumor

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: gastroscope

text: gastroscopy

text: gefitinib

text: geldanamycin analog

text: GEM 231

text: gemcitabine

text: gemtuzumab ozogamicin

text: gene expression profiling

text: gene therapy

text: gene transfer

text: gene-modified

text: genetic analysis

text: genetic counseling

text: genetic deletion

text: genetic markers

text: genetic susceptibility

text: genetic testing

text: genistein

text: genitourinary system

text: genome

text: germ cell

text: germ cell tumor

text: German Commission E

text: germinoma

text: germline mutation

text: Gerota's capsule

text: Gerota's fascia

text: gestational trophoblastic disease

text: gestational trophoblastic neoplasia

text: gestational trophoblastic tumor

text: giant cell fibroblastoma

text: gimatecan

text: GIST

text: Gleason score

text: Gleevec

text: Gliadel Wafer

text: glial cell

text: glial tumor

text: glioblastoma

text: glioblastoma multiforme

text: glioma

text: gliosarcoma

text: glossectomy

text: glucagon

text: glucagonoma

text: glucocorticoid

text: gluconeogenesis

text: glufosfamide

text: glutamine

text: glutathione

text: glutathione S-transferase

text: glycinamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase inhibitor

text: glycolysis

text: glycopeptide

text: glycoprotein

text: glycoprotein 100

text: glycosaminoglycan

entity_name: Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor

text: GM-CSF

text: GM2-KLH vaccine

text: GnRH

text: gonadotropin-releasing hormone

text: gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist

text: Gonzalez regimen

text: Gorlin syndrome

text: goserelin

text: gossypol

text: grade IV astrocytoma

text: graft-versus-host disease

text: graft-versus-tumor

text: granisetron

text: granulocyte

text: granulocyte colony-stimulating factor

text: granulocytic sarcoma

text: granulocytopenia

text: granulosa cell tumor

text: GVHD

text: gynecologic

text: gynecologic cancer

text: gynecologic oncologist

text: On July 29, Garfield met with his Cabinet for the only time during his illness; the members were under strict instruction from the doctors not to discuss anything upsetting. Garfield became increasingly ill over a period of several weeks due to infection, which caused his heart to weaken. He remained bedridden in the White House with fevers and extreme pains. Garfield's weight dropped from over two hundred pounds (90.7 kilograms) to 135 pounds (61.2 kilograms) as his inability to keep down and digest food took its toll. Because of his inability to digest food, nutrient enemas were given in an attempt to extend his life. Blood poisoning and infection set in and for a brief period the President suffered from hallucinations. Pus-filled abscesses spread all over Garfield's body as the infections raged.

text: On July 29, Garfield met with his Cabinet for the only time during his illness; the members were under strict instruction from the doctors not to discuss anything upsetting. Garfield became increasingly ill over a period of several weeks due to infection, which caused his heart to weaken. He remained bedridden in the White House with fevers and extreme pains. Garfield's weight dropped from over two hundred pounds (90.7 kilograms) to 135 pounds (61.2 kilograms) as his inability to keep down and digest food took its toll. Because of his inability to digest food,

text: nutrient enema

text: s were given in an attempt to extend his life.

text: Blood poisoning

text: and infection set in and for a brief period the President suffered from hallucinations. Pus-filled abscesses spread all over Garfield's body as the infections raged.

text: The bacteria break down some of the fiber for their own nourishment and create acetate, propionate, and butyrate as waste products, which in turn are used by the cell lining of the colon for nourishment. No protein is made available. In humans, perhaps 10% of the undigested carbohydrate thus becomes available, though this may vary with diet; in other animals, including other apes and primates, who have proportionally larger colons, more is made available, thus permitting a higher portion of plant material in the diet.  The large intestine produces no digestive enzymes — chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine. The pH in the colon varies between 5.5 and 7 (slightly acidic to neutral).

text: The bacteria break down some of the

text: fiber

text: for their own nourishment and create

text: acetate

text: propionate

text: , and

text: butyrate

text: as waste products, which in turn are used by the cell lining of the colon for nourishment. No protein is made available. In humans, perhaps 10% of the undigested carbohydrate thus becomes available, though this may vary with diet; in other animals, including other apes and primates, who have proportionally larger colons, more is made available, thus permitting a higher portion of plant material in the diet.  The large intestine produces no digestive

text: enzyme

text: s —

text: chemical digestion

text: is completed in the

text: small intestine

text: before the chyme reaches the large intestine. The

text: pH

text: in the colon varies between 5.5 and 7 (slightly

text: acid

text: ic to neutral).

text: Gas in the gastrointestinal tract has only two sources. It is either swallowed air or is produced by bacteria that normally inhabit the intestines, primarily the colon.

text: The white-tailed deer is a ruminant, which means it has a four-chambered stomach. Each chamber has a different and specific function that allows the deer to eat a variety of different foods, digesting it at a later time in a safe area of cover. The stomach hosts a complex set of microbes that change as the deer's diet changes through the seasons. If the microbes necessary for digestion of a particular food (e.g., hay) are absent, it will not be digested.

text: The white-tailed deer is a

text: ruminant

text: , which means it has a four-chambered stomach. Each chamber has a different and specific function that allows the deer to eat a variety of different foods, digesting it at a later time in a safe area of cover. The stomach hosts a complex set of microbes that change as the deer's diet changes through the seasons. If the microbes necessary for digestion of a particular food (e.g., hay) are absent, it will not be digested.

text: In Larry Niven's Destiny's Road, the title planet's indigenous life is based upon right-handed proteins. When human colonists arrive from Earth via a generation ship, extreme measures are taken to permit the colony's survival. A peninsula is sterilized with a lander's fusion drive, creating the titular "road" out of fused bedrock. The area is then reseeded with Earth life to provide the colonists with food. Though the soil lacks potassium due to other factors, necessitating supplements that produce a hydraulic empire common to Niven's fiction, the colony otherwise prospers. Native viruses and bacteria cannot infect colonists, resulting in longer lifespans. Sealife quickly recovers, and is consumed by the colonists as a "diet" food, as their digestive systems cannot metabolize it into fat.

text: In

text: Larry Niven

text: 's

text: Destiny's Road

text: , the title planet's indigenous life is based upon

text: right-handed protein

text: s. When human colonists arrive from Earth via a

text: generation ship

text: , extreme measures are taken to permit the colony's survival. A peninsula is sterilized with a lander's

text: fusion

text: drive, creating the titular "road" out of fused bedrock. The area is then reseeded with Earth life to provide the colonists with food. Though the soil lacks

text: potassium

text: due to other factors, necessitating supplements that produce a

text: hydraulic empire

text: common to Niven's fiction, the colony otherwise prospers. Native viruses and bacteria cannot infect colonists, resulting in longer lifespans. Sealife quickly recovers, and is consumed by the colonists as a "diet" food, as their digestive systems cannot metabolize it into fat.

text: Before the Industrial Revolution, candy was often considered a form of medicine, either used to calm the digestive system or cool a sore throat. In the Middle Ages candy appeared on the tables of only the most wealthy at first. At that time, it began as a combination of spices and sugar that was used as an aid to digestive problems. Digestive problems were very common during this time due to the constant consumption of food that was neither fresh nor well balanced. Banquet hosts would typically serve these types of 'candies' at banquets for their guests. One of these candies, sometimes called chamber spice, was made with cloves, ginger, aniseed, juniper berries, almonds and pine kernels dipped in melted sugar.

text: Before the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: , candy was often considered a form of medicine, either used to calm the digestive system or cool a sore throat. In the Middle Ages candy appeared on the tables of only the most wealthy at first. At that time, it began as a combination of spices and sugar that was used as an aid to digestive problems. Digestive problems were very common during this time due to the constant consumption of food that was neither fresh nor well balanced. Banquet hosts would typically serve these types of 'candies' at banquets for their guests. One of these candies, sometimes called chamber spice, was made with

text: cloves

text: , ginger,

text: aniseed

text: juniper berries

text: , almonds and

text: pine kernels

text: dipped in melted sugar.

text: Another advantage of nationalization is that it eliminates the moral hazard inherent in private ownership of systemically important financial institutions.   Systemically important financial institutions are likely to receive government bailouts in the event of failure.   Unless these bailouts are structured as a government takeover, and losses are imposed on bondholders and shareholders, investors have incentives to take extreme risks, to capture the upside during boom times, and to impose losses on taxpayers in times of crisis.   Permanent nationalization eliminates this dynamic by concentrating the full upside and downside with taxpayers.  Permanent nationalization therefore may lead to lower and more rational risk levels in the financial system.

text: Another advantage of nationalization is that it eliminates the

text: moral hazard

text: inherent in private ownership of systemically important financial institutions.   Systemically important financial institutions are likely to receive government bailouts in the event of failure.   Unless these bailouts are structured as a government takeover, and losses are imposed on bondholders and shareholders, investors have incentives to take extreme risks, to capture the upside during boom times, and to impose losses on taxpayers in times of crisis.   Permanent nationalization eliminates this dynamic by concentrating the full upside and downside with taxpayers.  Permanent nationalization therefore may lead to lower and more rational risk levels in the financial system.

text: Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.

text: Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most

text: fungi

text: still rely on it. In this process,

text: enzyme

text: s are

text: secreted

text: into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products

text: diffuse

text: back to the organism.

text: Animal

text: s have a tube (

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: ) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.

text: In most cases, motoring dynamometers are symmetrical; a 300 kW AC dynamometer can absorb 300 kW as well as motor at 300 kW. This is an uncommon requirement in engine testing and development. Sometimes, a more cost-effective solution is to attach a larger absorption dynamometer with a smaller motoring dynamometer. Alternatively, a larger absorption dynamometer and a simple AC or DC motor may be used in a similar manner, with the electric motor only providing motoring power when required (and no absorption). The (cheaper) absorption dynamometer is sized for the maximum required absorption, whereas the motoring dynamometer is sized for motoring. A typical size ratio for common emission test cycles and most engine development is approximately 3:1. Torque measurement is somewhat complicated since there are two machines in tandem - an inline torque transducer is the preferred method of torque measurement in this case. An eddy-current or waterbrake dynamometer, with electronic control combined with a variable frequency drive and AC induction motor, is a commonly used configuration of this type. Disadvantages include requiring a second set of test cell services (electrical power and cooling), and a slightly more complicated control system. Attention must be paid to the transition between motoring and braking in terms of control stability.

text: Pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland, in that it functions to produce endocrinic hormones released into the circulatory system (such as insulin, and glucagon), to control glucose metabolism, and also to secrete digestive/exocrinic pancreatic juice, which is secreted eventually via the pancreatic duct into duodenum. Digestive or exocrine function of pancreas is as significant to the maintenance of health as its endocrine function.

text: Pancreas is both an

text: endocrine

text: and an exocrine gland, in that it functions to produce endocrinic hormones released into the circulatory system (such as

text: insulin

text: , and

text: glucagon

text: ), to control glucose metabolism, and also to secrete digestive/exocrinic pancreatic juice, which is secreted eventually via the pancreatic duct into duodenum. Digestive or exocrine function of pancreas is as significant to the maintenance of health as its endocrine function.

text: Digestion occurs in the intestine, with the caecum producing further digestive enzymes. An additional tube, called the siphon, runs beside much of the intestine, opening into it at both ends. It may be involved in resorption of water from food.

text: Digestion occurs in the intestine, with the caecum producing further digestive

text: enzyme

text: s. An additional tube, called the siphon, runs beside much of the intestine, opening into it at both ends. It may be involved in resorption of water from food.

text: Wood's early scholarship laid the foundation for his future scientific endeavors, beginning with an initial focus on DNA. While attending the Medical College of Virginia, Wood researched isolating a DNA nuclear matrix of HeLa cells using a poly(dT) template. He and his colleagues discovered that HeLa cell primase in these cells is in a bound form and they determined the presence of multiple forms of polymerase α. Wood further studied DNA, in the form of nucleoids, while in his clinical residency in Obstetrics and Gynecology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.  The properties of two types of "subnuclear systems" (preparations of non-DNased-digested nuclei vs. DNased-digested nuclei) were differentiated along with their respective ability to retain elongation in response to increasing concentrations of salt.

text: Wood's early scholarship laid the foundation for his future scientific endeavors, beginning with an initial focus on

text: DNA

text: . While attending the

text: Medical College of Virginia

text: , Wood researched isolating a DNA

text: nuclear matrix

text: of

text: HeLa cells

text: using a poly(dT) template. He and his colleagues discovered that HeLa cell primase in these cells is in a bound form and they determined the presence of multiple forms of polymerase α. Wood further studied DNA, in the form of nucleoids, while in his clinical residency in

text: Obstetrics and Gynecology

text: at the

entity_name: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

text: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

text: .  The properties of two types of "subnuclear systems" (preparations of non-DNased-digested

text: nuclei

text: vs. DNased-digested nuclei) were differentiated along with their respective ability to retain elongation in response to increasing concentrations of salt.

text: Ironwort has been traditionally used to aid digestion, strengthen the immune system and suppress common cold, the flu and other viruses, allergies and shortness of breath, sinus congestion, even pain and mild anxiety.

text: Ironwort has been traditionally used to aid digestion, strengthen the

text: immune system

text: and suppress

text: common cold

text: , the

text: flu

text: and other viruses,

text: allergies

text: and

text: shortness of breath

text: , sinus congestion, even pain and mild anxiety.

text: Bird Watcher's Digest is a bimonthly birding magazine that has been in publication since 1978. Bird Watcher's Digest was the first consumer bird watching magazine, and is the only family-owned and operated bird watching magazine.

text: Bird Watcher's Digest is a

text: bimonthly

text: birding

text: magazine that has been in publication since 1978. Bird Watcher's Digest was the first consumer bird watching magazine, and is the only family-owned and operated bird watching magazine.

text: Manure can also have environmental benefit as a renewable energy source, in digester systems yielding biogas for heating and/or electricity generation. Manure biogas operations can be found in Asia,  Europe, North America, and elsewhere.  The US EPA estimates that as of July 2010, 157 manure digester systems for biogas energy were in operation on commercial-scale US livestock facilities. System cost is substantial, relative to US energy values, which may be a deterrent to more widespread use, although additional factors, such as odor control and carbon credits, may improve benefit /cost ratios.

text: The reason this analysis is possible at all is due to the digestive system not being entirely efficient, in the sense that not everything that passes through the digestive system is destroyed. Not all of the surviving material is recognizable, but some of it is. Generally, this material is the best indicator archaeologists can use to determine ancient diets, as no other part of the archaeological record is so direct an indicator.

text: Hetacillin was removed from the market for human use when the discovery was made that it is actually cleaved in the gastrointestinal tract to formaldehyde and had no advantages over ampicillin.

text: In the digestive system, the anterior region of the foregut has been modified to form a pharyngeal  sucking pump as they need it for the food they eat, which are for the most part liquids. An esophagus follows and leads to the posterior of the pharynx and in some species forms a form of crop. The midgut is short and straight, with the hindgut being longer and coiled. Ancestors of lepidopteran species, stemming from Hymenoptera, had midgut ceca, although this is lost in current butterflies and moths. Instead, all the digestive enzymes, other than initial digestion, are immobilized at the surface of the midgut cells. In larvae, long-necked and stalked goblet cells are found in the anterior and posterior midgut regions, respectively. In insects, the goblet cells excrete positive potassium ions, which are absorbed from leaves ingested by the larvae. Most butterflies and moths display the usual digestive cycle, but species with different diets require adaptations to meet these new demands.

text: In the

text: digestive system

text: , the anterior region of the foregut has been modified to form a pharyngeal  sucking pump as they need it for the food they eat, which are for the most part liquids. An

text: esophagus

text: follows and leads to the posterior of the pharynx and in some species forms a form of crop. The midgut is short and straight, with the hindgut being longer and coiled. Ancestors of lepidopteran species, stemming from

text: Hymenoptera

text: , had midgut ceca, although this is lost in current butterflies and moths. Instead, all the digestive enzymes, other than initial digestion, are immobilized at the surface of the midgut cells. In larvae, long-necked and stalked

text: goblet cell

text: s are found in the anterior and posterior midgut regions, respectively. In insects, the goblet cells excrete positive

text: potassium

text: ions, which are absorbed from leaves ingested by the larvae. Most butterflies and moths display the usual digestive cycle, but species with different diets require adaptations to meet these new demands.

text: Every organism requires energy to be active. However, to obtain energy from its outside environment, cells must not only retrieve molecules from their surroundings but also break them down. This process is known as intracellular digestion. In its broadest sense, intracellular digestion is the breakdown of substances within the cytoplasm of a cell. In detail, a phagocyte's duty is obtaining food particles and digesting it in a vacuole. For example, following phagocytosis, the ingested particle (or phagosome) fuses with a lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes to form a phagolysosome; the pathogens or food particles within the phagosome are then digested by the lysosome's enzymes.

text: Every organism requires energy to be active. However, to obtain energy from its outside environment, cells must not only retrieve molecules from their surroundings but also break them down. This process is known as intracellular digestion. In its broadest sense, intracellular digestion is the breakdown of substances within the

text: cytoplasm

text: of a

text: cell

text: . In detail, a phagocyte's duty is obtaining food particles and digesting it in a vacuole. For example, following

text: phagocytosis

text: , the ingested particle (or phagosome) fuses with a

text: lysosome

text: containing hydrolytic enzymes to form a

text: phagolysosome

text: ; the pathogens or food particles within the phagosome are then digested by the lysosome's enzymes.

text: Physical absorption or non-reactive absorption is made between two phases of matter: a liquid absorbs a gas, or a solid absorbs a liquid.

text: There was noticeable relationship between the piercing of young girls' earlobes and following development of allergy. In the view of Professor Ewa Czarnobilska, the manager of the research team, the primary reason for the allergies connected to earrings is the presence of nickel, which is a common component of the alloys used in jewelry production. The symptom seen is generally eczema, and is often misdiagnosed as a food allergy, for instance to milk.  The specific mechanism in allergies caused by earrings is the contact of nickel ions with the Lymphatic system.

text: There was noticeable relationship between the piercing of young girls' earlobes and following development of allergy. In the view of Professor Ewa Czarnobilska, the manager of the research team, the primary reason for the allergies connected to earrings is the presence of

text: nickel

text: , which is a common component of the alloys used in jewelry production. The symptom seen is generally

text: eczema

text: , and is often misdiagnosed as a

text: food allergy

text: , for instance to milk.  The specific mechanism in allergies caused by earrings is the contact of nickel ions with the

text: Lymphatic system

text: They have large brains, and almost no digestive system.  They are feathered, and have a hole in their head that is used for 'data transfer', and getting nourishment.  They have a single large eye.  It was shown in the book that they can remain in the 'nest', and look out, acting like human eyes, in that they provide a 'live feed' of information.

text: Anecdotal evidence suggests that food allergies and intolerances may have a role in exacerbating CP/CPPS, perhaps through mast cell mediated mechanisms.  There is also some evidence of an association between urologic pain syndromes, such as IC/BPS and CP/CPPS, with non-celiac gluten sensitivity in some patients. Patients may therefore find an elimination diet helpful in lessening symptoms by identifying problem foods. Studies are lacking in this area.

text: Anecdotal evidence suggests that

text: food allergies

text: and

text: intolerances

text: may have a role in exacerbating

entity_name: Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome

text: CP/CPPS

text: , perhaps through mast cell mediated mechanisms.  There is also some evidence of an association between urologic pain syndromes, such as IC/BPS and CP/CPPS, with

text: non-celiac gluten sensitivity

text: in some patients. Patients may therefore find an

text: elimination diet

text: helpful in lessening symptoms by identifying problem foods. Studies are lacking in this area.

text: At the same time that protein is being digested, mechanical churning occurs through the action of peristalsis, waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes. Gastric lipase secreted by the chief cells in the fundic glands in the gastric mucosa of the stomach, is an acidic lipase, in contrast with the alkaline pancreatic lipase. This breaks down fats to some degree though is not as efficient as the pancreatic lipase.

text: At the same time that protein is being digested, mechanical churning occurs through the action of

text: peristalsis

text: , waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the

text: digestive enzymes

text: Gastric lipase

text: secreted by the chief cells in the

text: fundic glands

text: in the

text: gastric mucosa

text: of the stomach, is an acidic lipase, in contrast with the alkaline pancreatic lipase. This breaks down fats to some degree though is not as efficient as the pancreatic lipase.

text: A fecal sac (also spelled faecal sac) is a mucous membrane, generally white or clear with a dark end, that surrounds the feces of some species of nestling birds. It allows parent birds to more easily remove fecal material from the nest. The nestling usually produces a fecal sac within seconds of being fed; if not, a waiting adult may prod around the youngster's cloaca to stimulate excretion.  Young birds of some species adopt specific postures or engage in specific behaviors to signal that they are producing fecal sacs. For example, nestling curve-billed thrashers raise their posteriors in the air, while young cactus wrens shake their bodies. Other species deposit the sacs on the rim of the nest, where they are likely to be seen (and removed) by parent birds.

text: A fecal sac (also spelled faecal sac) is a mucous membrane, generally white or clear with a dark end, that surrounds the

text: feces

text: of some species of

text: nestling

text: bird

text: s. It allows parent birds to more easily remove

text: fecal material

text: from the

text: nest

text: . The nestling usually produces a fecal sac within seconds of being fed; if not, a waiting adult may prod around the youngster's

text: cloaca

text: to stimulate

text: excretion

text: .  Young birds of some species adopt specific postures or engage in specific behaviors to signal that they are producing fecal sacs. For example, nestling

text: curve-billed thrasher

text: s raise their posteriors in the air, while young

text: cactus wren

text: s shake their bodies. Other species deposit the sacs on the rim of the nest, where they are likely to be seen (and removed) by parent birds.

text: Some parts of the digestive system are also part of the excretory system.

text: Some parts of the digestive system are also part of the

text: excretory system

text: Chef instructor Mary Schaefer has a website with her husband called allergychefs.com that addresses the issue of cooking for people with food allergies.

text: According to Walker, the number one affliction underlying almost every ailment is constipation, stating that constipation is "the primary cause of nearly every disturbance of the human system." This was, in his view, because the blood vessels lining the colon collect nutrients missed by the small intestine. In his book Pure and Simple Natural Weight Control, Walker stated: "If the feces in the colon have putrefied and fermented, any nutritional elements present in it would pass into the bloodstream as polluted products. What would otherwise be nutritional instead generates toxemia, a condition in which the blood contains poisonous products which are produced by the growth of pathogenic or disease-producing bacteria."  Pimples can be an indication of the presence of toxaemia. Walker maintained that the Standard American Diet causes the colon to be filled with toxins that strain the eliminative channels and, ultimately, the immune system.

text: According to Walker, the number one affliction underlying almost every ailment is

text: constipation

text: , stating that constipation is "the primary cause of nearly every disturbance of the human system." This was, in his view, because the blood vessels lining the colon collect nutrients missed by the small intestine. In his book Pure and Simple Natural Weight Control, Walker stated: "If the feces in the colon have putrefied and fermented, any nutritional elements present in it would pass into the bloodstream as polluted products. What would otherwise be nutritional instead generates

text: toxemia

text: , a condition in which the blood contains poisonous products which are produced by the growth of pathogenic or disease-producing bacteria."  Pimples can be an indication of the presence of toxaemia. Walker maintained that the

text: Standard American Diet

text: causes the colon to be filled with toxins that strain the eliminative channels and, ultimately, the immune system.

text: The stomach is an important organ in the body. It plays a vital role in digestion of foods, releases various enzymes and also protects the lower intestine from harmful organisms. The stomach connects to the esophagus above and to the small intestine below. It is intricately related to the pancreas, spleen and liver. The stomach does vary in size but its J shape is constant. The stomach lies in the upper part of the abdomen just below the left rib cage.

text: The

text: stomach

text: is an important

text: organ

text: in the body. It plays a vital role in

text: digestion

text: of foods, releases various

text: enzyme

text: s and also protects the lower intestine from harmful organisms. The stomach connects to the

text: esophagus

text: above and to the

text: small intestine

text: below. It is intricately related to the

text: pancreas

text: spleen

text: and

text: liver

text: . The stomach does vary in size but its J shape is constant. The stomach lies in the upper part of the

text: abdomen

text: just below the left

text: rib cage

text: In season 4, Mouth tries to become friends with Rachel again. Mouth and Gigi, his sophomore colleague start a relationship, but break up because Gigi doesn't want to not see him anymore after he leaves High School. They both commentate on the state championship and the games before. They celebrate with their friends. Mid-season Mouth meets clean-teen Shelly Simon. During a lesson, they kiss and Mouth loved her. However, being a clean-teen meant that Shelly couldn't. One night they sleep together but then Shelly leaves Mouth because she could not do it. On prom night, Mouth goes to the prom with Brooke, after they both end up without dates. However Rachel gatecrashes the prom and Mouth leaves with her to go to the airport. Mouth is ready to say goodbye but Rachel persuades him to go with her.

text: In human digestion, proteins in food are broken down into smaller peptide chains by digestive enzymes such as pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase, and into amino acids by various enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, aminopeptidase, and dipeptidase. It is necessary to break down proteins into small peptides (tripeptides and dipeptides) and amino acids so they can be absorbed by the intestines, and the absorbed tripeptides and dipeptides are also further broken into amino acids intracellularly before they enter the bloodstream. Different enzymes have different specificity for their substrate; trypsin, for example, cleaves the peptide bond after a positively charged residue (arginine and lysine); chymotrypsin cleaves the bond after an aromatic residue (phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan); elastase cleaves the bond after a small non-polar residue such as alanine or glycine.

text: In human

text: digestion

text: , proteins in food are broken down into smaller peptide chains by

text: digestive enzymes

text: such as

text: pepsin

text: trypsin

text: chymotrypsin

text: , and

text: elastase

text: , and into amino acids by various enzymes such as

text: carboxypeptidase

text: aminopeptidase

text: , and

text: dipeptidase

text: . It is necessary to break down proteins into small peptides (tripeptides and dipeptides) and amino acids so they can be absorbed by the intestines, and the absorbed tripeptides and dipeptides are also further broken into amino acids intracellularly before they enter the bloodstream. Different enzymes have different specificity for their substrate; trypsin, for example, cleaves the peptide bond after a positively charged residue (

text: arginine

text: and

text: lysine

text: ); chymotrypsin cleaves the bond after an aromatic residue (

text: phenylalanine

text: tyrosine

text: , and

text: tryptophan

text: ); elastase cleaves the bond after a small non-polar residue such as alanine or glycine.

text: Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.

text: Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble

text: food

text: molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery

text: blood plasma

text: . In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the

text: small intestine

text: into the

text: blood stream

text: . Digestion is a form of

text: catabolism

text: that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion,

text: enzyme

text: s break down food into the small molecules the body can use.

text: The objective of digestion is to reduce sludge quantity, increase sludge dryness and stabilization of sludge. Furthermore, it provides valuation in green energy by producing biogas. The condition for digestion depends on the quantity and nature of sludge.

text: The objective of digestion is to reduce sludge quantity, increase sludge dryness and stabilization of sludge. Furthermore, it provides valuation in green energy by producing

text: biogas

text: . The condition for digestion depends on the quantity and nature of sludge.

text: Aonchotheca forresteri is a small, narrow-bodied worm. It is narrowest at the front and increases in width to about three fourths of its length. The cuticle, the surface layer, is smooth. Females are 13.8 to 19.4 mm long, averaging 16.9 mm, which makes them substantially longer than female A. putorii, and 55 to 70 (average 62) μm wide. The eggs are smooth, lacking the elaborate pattern on the surface seen in A. putorii, and are 53 to 58 (54) μm long and 21 to 24 (21) μm broad. The esophagus, the frontmost part of the digestive system, is 2.9 to 3.9 (3.6) mm long and is lined by 36 to 45 (40) cells known as stichocytes. The vulva is located 66 to 105 (83) μm behind the end of the esophagus and the anus is near the end of the worm, which is rounded.

text: Aonchotheca forresteri is a small, narrow-bodied worm. It is narrowest at the front and increases in width to about three fourths of its length. The

text: cuticle

text: , the surface layer, is smooth. Females are 13.8 to 19.4 mm long, averaging 16.9 mm, which makes them substantially longer than female A. putorii, and 55 to 70 (average 62) μm wide. The eggs are smooth, lacking the elaborate pattern on the surface seen in A. putorii, and are 53 to 58 (54) μm long and 21 to 24 (21) μm broad. The

text: esophagus

text: , the frontmost part of the digestive system, is 2.9 to 3.9 (3.6) mm long and is lined by 36 to 45 (40) cells known as

text: stichocyte

text: s. The

text: vulva

text: is located 66 to 105 (83) μm behind the end of the esophagus and the

text: anus

text: is near the end of the worm, which is rounded.

text: Low solids (wet) digesters can transport material through the system using standard pumps that require significantly lower energy input. Low solids digesters require a larger amount of land than high solids due to the increased volumes associated with the increased liquid-to-feedstock ratio of the digesters. There are benefits associated with operation in a liquid environment, as it enables more thorough circulation of materials and contact between the bacteria and their food. This enables the bacteria to more readily access the substances on which they are feeding, and increases the rate of gas production.

text: The intestinal epithelium has a complex anatomical structure which facilitates motility and coordinated digestive, absorptive, immunological and neuroendocrine functions.

text: The intestinal epithelium has a complex anatomical structure which facilitates

text: motility

text: and coordinated digestive, absorptive, immunological and neuroendocrine functions.

text: Stains used in chromoendoscopy have three major mechanisms. Absorptive stains have an affinity for particular mucosal elements, and include Lugol's iodine, methylene blue, toluidine blue and crystal violet (gentian violet) . Lugol's iodine specifically stains non-keratinized squamous epithelium, and consequently is useful for identifying squamous tissue, squamous dysplasia and squamous cell carcinomas. Methylene blue stains absorptive epithelium and is useful for identifying abnormality in the small intestine and colon. Barrett's esophagus involves change in the mucosa of the esophagus into a tissue that includes glands (intestinal metaplasia), and as a result, can be identified with methylene blue staining. Also, methylene blue has been used to identify dysplasia in patients with ulcerative colitis. Toluidine blue stains nuclei of malignant cells blue, and is used in oral and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Crystal violet is absorbed into intestinal and neoplastic cells and is used to identify Barrett's esophagus and colonic neoplasms.

text: Stains used in chromoendoscopy have three major mechanisms. Absorptive stains have an affinity for particular mucosal elements, and include

text: Lugol's iodine

text: methylene blue

text: toluidine blue

text: and

text: crystal violet

text: (gentian violet) . Lugol's iodine specifically stains non-

text: keratin

text: ized

text: squamous

text: epithelium

text: , and consequently is useful for identifying squamous tissue, squamous

text: dysplasia

text: and

text: squamous cell carcinoma

text: s. Methylene blue stains absorptive

text: epithelium

text: and is useful for identifying abnormality in the

text: small intestine

text: and

text: colon

text: Barrett's esophagus

text: involves change in the mucosa of the

text: esophagus

text: into a tissue that includes glands (

text: intestinal metaplasia

text: ), and as a result, can be identified with

text: methylene blue

text: staining. Also, methylene blue has been used to identify

text: dysplasia

text: in patients with

text: ulcerative colitis

text: . Toluidine blue stains nuclei of malignant cells blue, and is used in oral and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Crystal violet is absorbed into intestinal and neoplastic cells and is used to identify Barrett's esophagus and colonic neoplasms.

text: If there is impairment of any of the many steps involved in the complex process of nutrient digestion and absorption, intestinal malabsorption may ensue. If the abnormality involves a single step in the absorptive process, as in primary lactase deficiency, or if the disease process is limited to the very proximal small intestine selective malabsorption of only a single nutrient may occur. However, generalized malabsorption of multiple dietary nutrients develops when the disease process is extensive, thus disturbing several digestive and absorptive processes, as occurs in coeliac disease with extensive involvement of the small intestine.

text: If there is impairment of any of the many steps involved in the complex process of nutrient digestion and absorption, intestinal malabsorption may ensue. If the abnormality involves a single step in the absorptive process, as in primary

text: lactase deficiency

text: , or if the disease process is limited to the very proximal small intestine selective malabsorption of only a single nutrient may occur. However, generalized malabsorption of multiple dietary nutrients develops when the disease process is extensive, thus disturbing several digestive and absorptive processes, as occurs in

text: coeliac disease

text: with extensive involvement of the

text: small intestine

text: Adjustable gastric bands hold between 4 and 12 cc of saline solution, depending on their design. When the band is inflated with saline solution, it places pressure around the outside of the stomach. This decreases the size of the passage between the pouch created from the upper part of the stomach and the lower stomach and further restricts the movement of food. Over the course of several visits to the doctor, the band is filled until the optimal restriction has been achieved – neither so loose that hunger is not controlled, nor so tight that food cannot move through the digestive system. The number of adjustments required is an individual experience and cannot be accurately predicted.

text: Adjustable gastric bands hold between 4 and 12 cc of

text: saline solution

text: , depending on their design. When the band is inflated with saline solution, it places pressure around the outside of the stomach. This decreases the size of the passage between the pouch created from the upper part of the stomach and the lower stomach and further restricts the movement of food. Over the course of several visits to the doctor, the band is filled until the optimal restriction has been achieved – neither so loose that hunger is not controlled, nor so tight that food cannot move through the digestive system. The number of adjustments required is an individual experience and cannot be accurately predicted.

text: Fluoroscopy and angiography are special applications of X-ray imaging, in which a fluorescent screen and image intensifier tube is connected to a closed-circuit television system. This allows real-time imaging of structures in motion or augmented with a radiocontrast agent. Radiocontrast agents are usually administered by swallowing or injecting into the body of the patient to delineate anatomy and functioning of the blood vessels, the genitourinary system, or the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). Two radiocontrast agents are presently in common use. Barium sulfate (BaSO) is given orally or rectally for evaluation of the GI tract. Iodine, in multiple proprietary forms, is given by oral, rectal, intra-arterial or intravenous routes. These radiocontrast agents strongly absorb or scatter X-rays, and in conjunction with the real-time imaging, allow demonstration of dynamic processes, such as peristalsis in the digestive tract or blood flow in arteries and veins. Iodine contrast may also be concentrated in abnormal areas more or less than in normal tissues and make abnormalities (tumors, cysts, inflammation) more conspicuous. Additionally, in specific circumstances, air can be used as a contrast agent for the gastrointestinal system and carbon dioxide can be used as a contrast agent in the venous system; in these cases, the contrast agent attenuates the X-ray radiation less than the surrounding tissues.

text: Fluoroscopy and

text: angiography

text: are special applications of

text: X-ray

text: imaging, in which a fluorescent screen and image intensifier tube is connected to a closed-circuit television system. This allows real-time imaging of structures in motion or augmented with a

text: radiocontrast

text: agent. Radiocontrast agents are usually administered by swallowing or injecting into the body of the patient to delineate anatomy and functioning of the blood vessels, the

text: genitourinary system

text: , or the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: (GI tract). Two radiocontrast agents are presently in common use. Barium sulfate (BaSO) is given orally or rectally for evaluation of the GI tract. Iodine, in multiple proprietary forms, is given by oral, rectal, intra-arterial or intravenous routes. These radiocontrast agents strongly absorb or scatter X-rays, and in conjunction with the real-time imaging, allow demonstration of dynamic processes, such as

text: peristalsis

text: in the digestive tract or blood flow in arteries and veins. Iodine contrast may also be concentrated in abnormal areas more or less than in normal tissues and make abnormalities (tumors, cysts, inflammation) more conspicuous. Additionally, in specific circumstances, air can be used as a contrast agent for the gastrointestinal system and carbon dioxide can be used as a contrast agent in the venous system; in these cases, the contrast agent attenuates the X-ray radiation less than the surrounding tissues.

text: Mouthing often originates from oralist education, where sign and speech are used together. Thus mouthing may preserve an often abbreviated rendition of the spoken translation of a sign. In educated Ugandan Sign Language, for example, where both English and Ganda are influential, the word for , Av", is accompanied by the mouthed syllable nyo, from Ganda nnyo 'very', and , jO*[5]v", is accompanied by vu, from Ganda onvuma. Similarly, the USL sign , t55bf, is mouthed fsh, an abbreviation of English finish, and , }HxU, is mouthed df.

text: Mouthing often originates from oralist education, where sign and speech are used together. Thus mouthing may preserve an often abbreviated rendition of the spoken translation of a sign. In educated

text: Ugandan Sign Language

text: , for example, where both English and

text: Ganda

text: are influential, the word for ,

text: Av"

text: , is accompanied by the mouthed syllable nyo, from Ganda nnyo 'very', and , jO*[5]v", is accompanied by vu, from Ganda onvuma. Similarly, the USL sign , t55bf, is mouthed fsh, an abbreviation of English finish, and , }HxU, is mouthed df.

text: These birds feed mainly on vegetation—buds, catkins, leaves, and twigs—which typically accounts for over 95% of adults' food by weight.  Thus, their diets vary greatly with the seasons.  Hatchlings eat mostly insects and other invertebrates, gradually reducing their proportion of animal food to adult levels. Several of the forest-living species are notable for eating large quantities of conifer needles, which most other vertebrates refuse.  To digest vegetable food, grouse have big crops and gizzards, eat grit to break up food, and have long intestines with well-developed caeca in which symbiotic bacteria digest cellulose.

text: These birds feed mainly on vegetation—buds,

text: catkin

text: s, leaves, and twigs—which typically accounts for over 95% of adults' food by weight.  Thus, their diets vary greatly with the seasons.  Hatchlings eat mostly insects and other

text: invertebrate

text: s, gradually reducing their proportion of animal food to adult levels. Several of the forest-living species are notable for eating large quantities of

text: conifer

text: needles, which most other

text: vertebrate

text: s refuse.  To digest vegetable food, grouse have big

text: crop

text: s and

text: gizzard

text: s, eat grit to break up food, and have long

text: intestine

text: s with well-developed

text: caeca

text: in which

text: symbiotic

text: bacteria digest

text: cellulose

text: Cathepsin E is a protease found in animals, as well as various other organisms, that belongs to the aspartic protease group. In humans it is encoded by the CTSE gene located at 1q32 on chromosome 1. It is an intracellular non-lysosomal glycoprotein that is mainly found in the skin and in immune cells. The protein is an aspartyl protease that functions as a disulfide-linked homodimer, and has an oligosaccharide chain of the high-mannose type. It is a member of the peptidase A1 family, and therefore observes specificity similar to that of Pepsin A and Cathepsin D. Cathepsin E is an intracellular enzyme and does not appear to be involved in dietary protein digestion. It is found at highest abundance on the stomach’s epithelial mucus producing cell surfaces. It is the first aspartic protease present in the fetal stomach and is found in more than half of gastric cancers, leading to it appearing to be an oncofetal antigen. Transcript variants utilizing alternative polyadenylation signals and two transcript variants encoding different isoforms exist for this gene.

text: Cathepsin E is a

text: protease

text: found in animals, as well as various other organisms, that belongs to the

text: aspartic protease

text: group. In humans it is encoded by the CTSE

text: gene

text: located at 1q32 on

text: chromosome

text: 1. It is an

text: intracellular

text: non-lysosomal

text: glycoprotein

text: that is mainly found in the skin and in immune cells. The protein is an aspartyl protease that functions as a disulfide-linked homodimer, and has an oligosaccharide chain of the high-mannose type. It is a member of the peptidase A1 family, and therefore observes specificity similar to that of

text: Pepsin A

text: and

text: Cathepsin D

text: . Cathepsin E is an intracellular enzyme and does not appear to be involved in dietary protein digestion. It is found at highest abundance on the stomach’s epithelial mucus producing cell surfaces. It is the first aspartic protease present in the fetal stomach and is found in more than half of gastric cancers, leading to it appearing to be an

text: oncofetal antigen

text: . Transcript variants utilizing alternative

text: polyadenylation

text: signals and two transcript variants encoding different

text: isoforms

text: exist for this gene.

text: The Van region has a large Kurdish population, and the Van cat has been referred to as the "Kurdish cat" or "Kurdish Van cat", and made a symbol of Kurdistan in Kurdish nationalist circles. Some media sources reported that Turkish soldiers poisoned about 200 Van cats. These claims ultimately seem to have come from an animal rescue group called SOS Van Cats Rescue Action, a spokesperson for which stated: "The cats are Kurdish, and the Turkish authorities are unable to digest this."  Van University's Van cat breeding project responded: "That the Turkish army would be able to find 200 Van cats, let alone poison them, is utter nonsense".

text: The Van region has a large Kurdish population, and the Van cat has been referred to as the "Kurdish cat" or "Kurdish Van cat", and made a symbol of

text: Kurdistan

text: in Kurdish nationalist circles. Some media sources reported that Turkish soldiers poisoned about 200 Van cats. These claims ultimately seem to have come from an

text: animal rescue group

text: called SOS Van Cats Rescue Action, a spokesperson for which stated: "The cats are Kurdish, and the Turkish authorities are unable to digest this."  Van University's Van cat breeding project responded: "That the Turkish army would be able to find 200 Van cats, let alone poison them, is utter nonsense".

text: Before a meal, the stomach would preferably be "opened" with an apéritif (from Latin aperire, "to open") that was preferably of a hot and dry nature: confections made from sugar- or honey-coated spices like ginger, caraway and seeds of anise, fennel or cumin, wine and sweetened fortified milk drinks. As the stomach had been opened, it should then be "closed" at the end of the meal with the help of a digestive, most commonly a dragée, which during the Middle Ages consisted of lumps of spiced sugar, or hypocras, a wine flavoured with fragrant spices, along with aged cheese. A meal would ideally begin with easily digestible fruit, such as apples. It would then be followed by vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage, purslane, herbs, moist fruits, light meats, such as chicken or goat kid, with potages and broths. After that came the "heavy" meats, such as pork and beef, as well as vegetables and nuts, including pears and chestnuts, both considered difficult to digest. It was popular, and recommended by medical expertise, to finish the meal with aged cheese and various digestives.

text: Before a meal, the stomach would preferably be "opened" with an

text: apéritif

text: (from

text: Latin

text: aperire, "to open") that was preferably of a hot and dry nature:

text: confection

text: s made from

text: sugar

text: - or

text: honey

text: -coated spices like

text: ginger

text: caraway

text: and seeds of

text: anise

text: fennel

text: or

text: cumin

text: , wine and sweetened fortified milk drinks. As the stomach had been opened, it should then be "closed" at the end of the meal with the help of a digestive, most commonly a

text: dragée

text: , which during the Middle Ages consisted of lumps of spiced sugar, or

text: hypocras

text: , a wine flavoured with fragrant spices, along with aged cheese. A meal would ideally begin with easily digestible fruit, such as apples. It would then be followed by vegetables such as

text: lettuce

text: cabbage

text: purslane

text: , herbs, moist fruits, light meats, such as chicken or

text: goat kid

text: , with

text: potage

text: s and

text: broth

text: s. After that came the "heavy" meats, such as

text: pork

text: and

text: beef

text: , as well as vegetables and nuts, including pears and chestnuts, both considered difficult to digest. It was popular, and recommended by medical expertise, to finish the meal with aged cheese and various digestives.

text: A gastrointestinal carcinoid tumor is a rare, slow-growing form of cancer that affects certain cells in the lining of the stomach and intestines. The cells it affects make hormones that regulate the production of digestive juices and muscles that move food through the stomach and intestines. This kind of cancer usually occurs in the appendix, small intestine, or rectum. Its presence is associated with an increased risk of cancers affecting the other parts of the digestive system. It is usually treated with surgery.

text: A

text: gastrointestinal carcinoid tumor

text: is a rare, slow-growing form of cancer that affects certain cells in the lining of the stomach and intestines. The cells it affects make hormones that regulate the production of digestive juices and muscles that move food through the stomach and intestines. This kind of cancer usually occurs in the appendix, small intestine, or rectum. Its presence is associated with an increased risk of cancers affecting the other parts of the digestive system. It is usually treated with surgery.

text: Fire is also known as Agni and is the fourth element. It is also eternal and perishable. The essential character of fire is to generate heat. According to Hindu Mythology, Agni is one of the Eight guardians who guards our universe and is known as Asta-dik-palakas. In Indian mythology there are mentions of various types of fires. The four important ones are fire of the earth, fire of the sky, fire of the stomach, which can mean hunger or digestive power, and the fire we commonly use.

text: Fire is also known as Agni and is the fourth element. It is also eternal and perishable. The essential character of fire is to generate

text: heat

text: . According to Hindu Mythology, Agni is one of the Eight guardians who guards our universe and is known as Asta-dik-palakas. In Indian mythology there are mentions of various types of fires. The four important ones are fire of the earth, fire of the sky, fire of the stomach, which can mean hunger or digestive power, and the fire we commonly use.

text: This article is primarily about the human gastrointestinal tract. The information about its processes is directly applicable to most placental mammals. A major exception to this is the digestive process in ruminants – notably cows. In invertebrates such as worms, the term "large intestine" is often used to describe the entire gastrointestinal tract.

text: This article is primarily about the

text: human gastrointestinal tract

text: . The information about its processes is directly applicable to most placental mammals. A major exception to this is the digestive process in

text: ruminant

text: s – notably

text: cow

text: s. In

text: invertebrates

text: such as worms, the term "large intestine" is often used to describe the entire gastrointestinal tract.

text: This laboratory is equipped with equipment for analyzing water and sewage. Some of the sophisticated instruments are Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer, Digital Flame Photometer, B.O.D Analyser, B.O.D incubator, nephelometer, TKN instrument,Bomb Calorimeter, Ion Chromotography, C.O.D Digester, spectrophotometer, conductivity meter and jar test apparatus.

text: Part of the digestive tract is also preserved and is filled with fish remains. The shape of these remains may outline the true shape of the corresponding part of the digestive tract, most likely the colon. The presence of scales and undigested bones in the colon suggests that Platecarpus and other mosasaurs processed food quickly and did not thoroughly digest and absorb all food in the gastrointestinal tract. Coprolites from the mosasaur Globidens are also suggestive of low digestion and absorption rates as they contain masses of crushed bivalve shells.

text: Part of the digestive tract is also preserved and is filled with fish remains. The shape of these remains may outline the true shape of the corresponding part of the digestive tract, most likely the

text: colon

text: . The presence of scales and undigested bones in the colon suggests that Platecarpus and other mosasaurs processed food quickly and did not thoroughly digest and absorb all food in the gastrointestinal tract. Coprolites from the mosasaur

text: Globidens

text: are also suggestive of low digestion and absorption rates as they contain masses of crushed

text: bivalve

text: shells.

text: In the duodenum, trypsin catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds, breaking down proteins into smaller peptides.  The peptide products are then further hydrolyzed into amino acids via other proteases, rendering them available for absorption into the blood stream.  Tryptic digestion is a necessary step in protein absorption as proteins are generally too large to be absorbed through the lining of the small intestine.

text: In the

text: duodenum

text: , trypsin

text: catalyzes

text: the

text: hydrolysis

text: of

text: peptide bonds

text: , breaking down proteins into smaller peptides.  The peptide products are then further hydrolyzed into amino acids via other proteases, rendering them available for absorption into the blood stream.  Tryptic digestion is a necessary step in protein absorption as proteins are generally too large to be absorbed through the lining of the

text: small intestine

text: Anaerobic digestion can be performed as a batch process or a continuous process. In a batch system, biomass is added to the reactor at the start of the process. The reactor is then sealed for the duration of the process. In its simplest form batch processing needs inoculation with already processed material to start the anaerobic digestion. In a typical scenario, biogas production will be formed with a normal distribution pattern over time. Operators can use this fact to determine when they believe the process of digestion of the organic matter has completed. There can be severe odour issues if a batch reactor is opened and emptied before the process is well completed. A more advanced type of batch approach has limited the odour issues by integrating anaerobic digestion with in-vessel composting. In this approach inoculation takes place through the use of recirculated degasified percolate. After anaerobic digestion has completed, the biomass is kept in the reactor which is then used for in-vessel composting before it is opened  As the batch digestion is simple and requires less equipment and lower levels of design work, it is typically a cheaper form of digestion. Using more than one batch reactor at a plant can ensure constant production of biogas.

text: Anaerobic digestion can be performed as a batch process or a continuous process. In a batch system, biomass is added to the reactor at the start of the process. The reactor is then sealed for the duration of the process. In its simplest form batch processing needs

text: inoculation

text: with already processed material to start the anaerobic digestion. In a typical scenario, biogas production will be formed with a

text: normal distribution

text: pattern over time. Operators can use this fact to determine when they believe the process of digestion of the organic matter has completed. There can be severe odour issues if a batch reactor is opened and emptied before the process is well completed. A more advanced type of batch approach has limited the odour issues by integrating anaerobic digestion with

text: in-vessel composting

text: . In this approach inoculation takes place through the use of recirculated degasified percolate. After anaerobic digestion has completed, the biomass is kept in the reactor which is then used for

text: in-vessel composting

text: before it is opened  As the batch digestion is simple and requires less equipment and lower levels of design work, it is typically a cheaper form of digestion. Using more than one batch reactor at a plant can ensure constant production of biogas.

text: The cephalopod beak resembles that of a parrot. It is a tough structure made of chitin and marks the beginning of the cephalopod's digestive system. Colossal squid use their beaks for sharing and slicing prey's flesh to allow the pieces to travel the narrow esophagus.

text: The cephalopod beak resembles that of a

text: parrot

text: . It is a tough structure made of

text: chitin

text: and marks the beginning of the cephalopod's

text: digestive system

text: . Colossal squid use their beaks for sharing and slicing prey's flesh to allow the pieces to travel the narrow

text: esophagus

text: A number of limited clinical studies have been conducted in Germany that have also indicated the positive effect of brottrunk on the immune system, the skin, the digestive system and other health related issues

text: In rare circumstances, humans can develop an allergy to semen, called human seminal plasma sensitivity. It appears as a typical localized or systemic allergic response upon contact with seminal fluid. There is no one protein in semen responsible for the reaction. Symptoms can appear after first intercourse or after subsequent intercourse. A semen allergy can be distinguished from a latex allergy by determining if the symptoms disappear with use of a condom. Desensitization treatment is very often successful.

text: In rare circumstances, humans can develop an allergy to semen, called human seminal plasma sensitivity. It appears as a typical localized or systemic

text: allergic response

text: upon contact with seminal fluid. There is no one protein in semen responsible for the reaction. Symptoms can appear after first intercourse or after subsequent intercourse. A semen allergy can be distinguished from a latex allergy by determining if the symptoms disappear with use of a

text: condom

text: . Desensitization treatment is very often successful.

text: Allergies to a specific pollen are usually associated with OAS reactions to other certain foods.  For instance, an allergy to ragweed is associated with OAS reactions to banana, watermelon, cantaloupe, honeydew, zucchini, and cucumber. This does not mean that all sufferers of an allergy to ragweed will experience adverse effects from all or even any of these foods. Reactions may be associated with one type of food, with new reactions to other foods developing later. However, reaction to one or more foods in any given category does not necessarily mean a person is allergic to all foods in that group.

text: Allergies to a specific pollen are usually associated with OAS reactions to other certain foods.  For instance, an allergy to

text: ragweed

text: is associated with OAS reactions to

text: banana

text: watermelon

text: cantaloupe

text: honeydew

text: zucchini

text: , and

text: cucumber

text: . This does not mean that all sufferers of an allergy to ragweed will experience adverse effects from all or even any of these foods. Reactions may be associated with one type of food, with new reactions to other foods developing later. However, reaction to one or more foods in any given category does not necessarily mean a person is allergic to all foods in that group.

text: Reductive elimination is a common step in organometallic reaction mechanisms, and particularly in catalytic cycles. In catalytic cycles that form C-H or C-C bonds reductive elimination is often the final product-forming step.Square planar d metal complexes are often the active catalysts in C-H or C-C bond forming reactions, and reductive elimination from these species is well-understood. There are several known mechanisms for reductive elimination from square planar d complexes. In a dissociative mechanism one ligand dissociates and reductive elimination occurs from a three-coordinate intermediate. In a nondissociative mechanism reductive elimination occurs from the square planar complex itself. The ligands undergoing reductive elimination must be cis to each other or otherwise must rearrange to be cis before they can reductively eliminate. Finally, in an associative mechanism a fifth ligand associates and reductive elimination occurs between two adjacent groups on the resulting square pyramidal complex.

text: Reductive elimination is a common step in organometallic reaction mechanisms, and particularly in

text: catalytic cycle

text: s. In catalytic cycles that form C-H or C-C bonds reductive elimination is often the final product-forming step.Square planar d metal complexes are often the active catalysts in C-H or C-C bond forming reactions, and reductive elimination from these species is well-understood. There are several known mechanisms for reductive elimination from square planar d complexes. In a dissociative mechanism one ligand dissociates and reductive elimination occurs from a three-coordinate intermediate. In a nondissociative mechanism reductive elimination occurs from the square planar complex itself. The ligands undergoing reductive elimination must be cis to each other or otherwise must rearrange to be cis before they can reductively eliminate. Finally, in an associative mechanism a fifth ligand associates and reductive elimination occurs between two adjacent groups on the resulting square pyramidal complex.

text: In modern humans, the vermiform appendix is a vestige of a redundant organ that in ancestral species had digestive functions, much as it still does in extant species in which intestinal flora hydrolyze cellulose and similar indigestible plant materials. Some herbivorous animals, such as rabbits, have a terminal vermiform appendix and cecum that apparently bear patches of tissue with immune functions and may also be important in maintaining the composition of intestinal flora. It does not however seem to have much digestive function, if any, and is not present in all herbivores, even those with large caeca. As shown in the accompanying pictures however, the human appendix typically is about comparable to that of the rabbit's in size, though the caecum is reduced to a single bulge where the ileum empties into the colon. Some carnivorous animals may have appendices too, but seldom have more than vestigial caeca. In line with the possibility of vestigial organs developing new functions, some research suggests that the appendix may guard against the loss of symbiotic bacteria that aid in digestion, though that is unlikely to be a novel function, given the presence of vermiform appendices in many herbivores.Intestinal bacterial populations entrenched in the appendix may support quick re-establishment of the flora of the large intestine after an illness, poisoning, or after an antibiotic treatment depletes or otherwise causes harmful changes to the bacterial population of the colon.A 2013 study, however, refutes the idea of an inverse relationship between cecum size and appendix size and presence. It is widely present in euarchontoglires (a superorder of mammals that includes rodents and primates) and has also evolved independently in the diprotodont marsupials, monotremes, and is highly diverse in size and shape which could suggest it is not vestigial. Researchers deduce that the appendix has the ability to protect good bacteria in the gut. That way, when the gut is affected by a bout of diarrhea or other illness that cleans out the intestines, the good bacteria in the appendix can repopulate the digestive system and keep the person healthy.

text: In modern humans, the

text: vermiform appendix

text: is a vestige of a redundant organ that in ancestral species had digestive functions, much as it still does in extant species in which intestinal flora hydrolyze

text: cellulose

text: and similar indigestible plant materials. Some herbivorous animals, such as rabbits, have a terminal vermiform appendix and

text: cecum

text: that apparently bear patches of tissue with immune functions and may also be important in maintaining the composition of

text: intestinal flora

text: . It does not however seem to have much digestive function, if any, and is not present in all herbivores, even those with large caeca. As shown in the accompanying pictures however, the human appendix typically is about comparable to that of the rabbit's in size, though the caecum is reduced to a single bulge where the ileum empties into the colon. Some carnivorous animals may have appendices too, but seldom have more than vestigial caeca. In line with the possibility of vestigial organs developing new functions, some research suggests that the appendix may guard against the loss of symbiotic bacteria that aid in digestion, though that is unlikely to be a novel function, given the presence of vermiform appendices in many herbivores.Intestinal bacterial populations entrenched in the appendix may support quick re-establishment of the flora of the large intestine after an illness, poisoning, or after an antibiotic treatment depletes or otherwise causes harmful changes to the bacterial population of the colon.A 2013 study, however, refutes the idea of an inverse relationship between cecum size and appendix size and presence. It is widely present in

text: euarchontoglires

text: (a superorder of mammals that includes rodents and primates) and has also evolved

text: independently

text: in the

text: diprotodont

text: marsupials

text: monotreme

text: s, and is highly diverse in size and shape which could suggest it is not vestigial. Researchers deduce that the appendix has the ability to protect good bacteria in the gut. That way, when the gut is affected by a bout of diarrhea or other illness that cleans out the intestines, the good bacteria in the appendix can repopulate the digestive system and keep the person healthy.

text: Infection occurs when a host ingests a cyst, which usually happens during the consumption of contaminated water or food. Once the cyst is ingested, it passes through the host’s digestive system.While the cyst receives some protection from degradation by the acidic environment of the stomach through the use of its outer wall, it is likely to be destroyed at a pH lower than 5, allowing it to survive easier in the stomachs of malnourished individuals who have less stomach acid. Once the cyst reaches the small intestine, trophozoites are produced. The trophozoites then colonize the large intestine, where they live in the lumen and feed on the intestinal flora. Some trophozoites invade the wall of the colon using proteolytic enzymes and multiply, and some of them return to the lumen. In the lumen trophozoites may disintegrate or undergo encystation. Encystation is triggered by dehydration of the intestinal contents and usually occurs in the distal large intestine, but may also occur outside of the host in feces. Now in its mature cyst form, cysts are released into the environment where they can go on to infect a new host.

text: The mentioned drawbacks limit the reasonable use of automated in-gel digestion systems to the routine laboratory whereas the research laboratory with a demand to make a flexible use of the instruments of protein identification more often stays with the manual, low-throughput methods for in-gel digestion and MS analysis. This group of customers is targeted by the industry with several kit systems for in-gel digestion.

text: It occurs when insufficient fluid is absorbed by the colon. As part of the digestion process, or due to fluid intake, food is mixed with large amounts of water. Thus, digested food is essentially liquid prior to reaching the colon. The colon absorbs water, leaving the remaining material as a semisolid stool. If the colon is damaged or inflamed, however, absorption is inhibited, and watery stools result.

text: It occurs when insufficient fluid is absorbed by the colon. As part of the

text: digestion

text: process, or due to fluid intake,

text: food

text: is mixed with large amounts of water. Thus, digested food is essentially liquid prior to reaching the colon. The colon absorbs water, leaving the remaining material as a semisolid stool. If the colon is damaged or inflamed, however, absorption is inhibited, and watery stools result.

text: In human digestion, pectin binds to cholesterol in the gastrointestinal tract and slows glucose absorption by trapping carbohydrates. Pectin is thus a soluble dietary fiber.

text: In human digestion, pectin binds to cholesterol in the gastrointestinal tract and slows glucose absorption by trapping carbohydrates. Pectin is thus a soluble

text: dietary fiber

text: The term “oligosaccharide” encompasses carbohydrates that are larger than simple di- or tri-saccharides, but smaller than polysaccharides (greater than 10 units). Isomalto-oligosaccharides (IMO) are glucose oligomers with α-D-(1,6)-linkages, including isomaltose, panose, isomaltotriose, isomaltotetraose, isomaltopentaose, nigerose, kojibiose, and higher branched oligosaccharides. While human intestinal enzymes readily digest α(1,4)-glycosidic bonds, α(1,6)-linkages are not easily hydrolyzed and exhibit a digestion-resistant property. Therefore, IMO are only partially digested in the upper gastrointestinal tract.

text: The term “

text: oligosaccharide

text: ” encompasses carbohydrates that are larger than simple di- or tri-

text: saccharides

text: , but smaller than

text: polysaccharides

text: (greater than 10 units). Isomalto-oligosaccharides (IMO) are

text: glucose

text: oligomers with α-D-(1,6)-linkages, including

text: isomaltose

text: , panose, isomaltotriose, isomaltotetraose, isomaltopentaose,

text: nigerose

text: kojibiose

text: , and higher branched oligosaccharides. While human intestinal enzymes readily digest α(1,4)-

text: glycosidic bonds

text: , α(1,6)-linkages are not easily hydrolyzed and exhibit a digestion-resistant property. Therefore, IMO are only partially digested in the

text: upper gastrointestinal

text: tract.

text: Mesophilic digester or Mesophilic biodigester is a kind of biodigester that operates in temperatures between 20 °C and about 40°, typically 37 °C. This is the most used kind of biodigester in the world. More than 90% of worldwide biodigesters are of this type. Thermophilic digesters are less than 10% of digesters in the world. Mesophilic digesters are used to produce biogas, biofertilizers and sanitarization mainly in tropical countries such as India and Brazil.

text: Mesophilic digester or Mesophilic biodigester is a kind of

text: biodigester

text: that operates in temperatures between 20 °C and about 40°, typically 37 °C. This is the most used kind of

text: biodigester

text: in the world. More than 90% of worldwide biodigesters are of this type.

text: Thermophilic digester

text: s are less than 10% of

text: digesters

text: in the world. Mesophilic digesters are used to produce

text: biogas

text: biofertilizer

text: s and sanitarization mainly in tropical countries such as

text: India

text: and

text: Brazil

text: Leptasterias tenera is a small starfish with five arms and a slow growth rate. It can grow to a diameter of 16 cm.  Leptasterias tenera is an ambush predator. It remains stationary on the seabed for long periods, snaring any small crustaceans which come into contact with it, gripping them with its tube feet and pedicellariae and flexing its arms to transfer the prey to its mouth. Large items are pushed as far as they will go into the pyloric stomach but only the portion inside is digested at first.

text: Leptasterias tenera

text: is a small

text: starfish

text: with five arms and a slow growth rate. It can grow to a diameter of 16 cm.  Leptasterias tenera is an ambush predator. It remains stationary on the seabed for long periods, snaring any small crustaceans which come into contact with it, gripping them with its

text: tube feet

text: and

text: pedicellaria

text: e and flexing its arms to transfer the prey to its mouth. Large items are pushed as far as they will go into the pyloric stomach but only the portion inside is digested at first.

text: Constipation is the most common digestive complaint in the United States as per survey data. Depending on the definition employed, it occurs in 2% to 20% of the population. It is more common in women, the elderly and children. The reasons it occurs more frequently in the elderly is felt to be due to an increasing number of health problems as humans age and decreased physical activity.

text: The gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body.  Extracellular digestion takes place within this central cavity, which is lined with the gastrodermis, the internal layer of epithelium. This cavity has only one opening to the outside that functions as both a mouth and an anus: waste and undigested matter is excreted through the mouth/anus, which can be described as an incomplete gut.

text: The

text: gastrovascular cavity

text: functions as a stomach in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body.  Extracellular digestion takes place within this central cavity, which is lined with the gastrodermis, the internal layer of

text: epithelium

text: . This cavity has only one opening to the outside that functions as both a mouth and an anus: waste and undigested matter is excreted through the mouth/anus, which can be described as an incomplete

text: gut

text: A second consideration related to the feedstock is moisture content. Dryer, stackable substrates, such as food and yard waste, are suitable for digestion in tunnel-like chambers. Tunnel-style systems typically have near-zero wastewater discharge, as well, so this style of system has advantages where the discharge of digester liquids are a liability. The wetter the material, the more suitable it will be to handling with standard pumps instead of energy-intensive concrete pumps and physical means of movement. Also, the wetter the material, the more volume and area it takes up relative to the levels of gas produced. The moisture content of the target feedstock will also affect what type of system is applied to its treatment. To use a high-solids anaerobic digester for dilute feedstocks, bulking agents, such as compost, should be applied to increase the solids content of the input material. Another key consideration is the carbon:nitrogen ratio of the input material. This ratio is the balance of food a microbe requires to grow; the optimal C:N ratio is 20–30:1. Excess N can lead to ammonia inhibition of digestion.

text: The gradual loss of blood from the gastrointestinal tract, as well as chronic inflammation, often leads to anemia, and professional guidelines suggest routinely monitoring for this. Adequate disease control usually improves anemia of chronic disease, but iron deficiency may require treatment with iron supplements. Guidelines vary as to how iron should be administered. Besides other, problems include a limitation in possible daily resorption and an increased growth of intestinal bacteria. Some advise parenteral iron as first line as it works faster, has fewer gastrointestinal side effects, and is unaffected by inflammation reducing enteral absorption.

text: The gradual loss of blood from the gastrointestinal tract, as well as chronic inflammation, often leads to anemia, and professional guidelines suggest routinely monitoring for this. Adequate disease control usually improves anemia of chronic disease, but iron deficiency may require treatment with iron supplements. Guidelines vary as to how iron should be administered. Besides other, problems include a limitation in possible daily

text: resorption

text: and an increased growth of intestinal bacteria. Some advise parenteral iron as first line as it works faster, has fewer gastrointestinal side effects, and is unaffected by inflammation reducing enteral absorption.

text: The mouth cavity is tubular, with a narrow diverticulum or stomochord extending up into the proboscis. This diverticulum was once thought to be homologous with the notochord of chordates, hence the name "hemichordate" for the phylum. The mouth opens posteriorly into a pharynx with a row of gill slits along either side. The remainder of the digestive system consists of an oesophagus and intestine; there is no stomach.

text: The mouth cavity is tubular, with a narrow

text: diverticulum

text: or stomochord extending up into the proboscis. This diverticulum was once thought to be

text: homologous

text: with the

text: notochord

text: of chordates, hence the name "hemichordate" for the phylum. The mouth opens posteriorly into a

text: pharynx

text: with a row of gill slits along either side. The remainder of the digestive system consists of an

text: oesophagus

text: and

text: intestine

text: ; there is no stomach.

text: Some carnivorous plants, such as pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes, obtain nourishment from the feces of commensal animals.

text: Some carnivorous plants, such as pitcher plants of the genus

text: Nepenthes

text: , obtain nourishment from the feces of

text: commensal

text: animals.

text: In some countries, the optically pure (S)-enantiomer (dexketoprofen) is available; its trometamol salt is said to be particularly rapidly reabsorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, having a rapid onset of effects.

text: In some countries, the optically pure (S)-enantiomer (

text: dexketoprofen

text: ) is available; its

text: trometamol

text: salt is said to be particularly rapidly reabsorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, having a rapid onset of effects.

text: The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food and helping to create a food bolus. This lubricative function of saliva allows the food bolus to be passed easily from the mouth into the esophagus. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, also called ptyalin, which is capable of breaking down starch into simpler sugars such as maltose and dextrin that can be further broken down in the small intestine. Only about 30% starch digestion takes place in the mouth cavity. Salivary glands also secrete salivary lipase (a more potent form of lipase) to begin fat digestion. Salivary lipase plays a large role in fat digestion in newborn infants as their pancreatic lipase still needs some time to develop.

text: The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food and helping to create a food

text: bolus

text: . This lubricative function of saliva allows the food bolus to be passed easily from the mouth into the esophagus. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, also called ptyalin, which is capable of breaking down

text: starch

text: into simpler sugars such as maltose and dextrin that can be further broken down in the small intestine. Only about 30% starch digestion takes place in the mouth cavity. Salivary glands also secrete

text: salivary lipase

text: (a more potent form of lipase) to begin fat digestion. Salivary

text: lipase

text: plays a large role in fat digestion in newborn infants as their pancreatic lipase still needs some time to develop.

text: Resistant starch (RS) is any starch or starch digestion products that are not digested and absorbed in the stomach or small intestine and pass on to the large intestine. RS has been categorized into four types:

text: Resistant starch (RS) is any starch or starch digestion products that are not digested and absorbed in the

text: stomach

text: or

text: small intestine

text: and pass on to the

text: large intestine

text: . RS has been categorized into four types:

text: In the GeneCalling protocol, mRNAs are first isolated from a given sample and processed into fragments for analysis.  This usually involves the synthesis and subdivision of double-stranded cDNAs from polyA RNA.  Distinct sets of restriction enzymes can then be used to digest sets of the divided cDNAs and resulting fragments ligated to labelled adapters to be amplified by PCR.  PCR products are then purified and subjected to gel electrophoresis on a mounted platform employing stationary laser excitation and a multi-colour charge-coupled device imaging system.  A fluorescent label at the 5' end of one of the PCR primers allows for visualization of the PCR fragments, and the cDNAs are subjected to several isolated and identical restriction digests to generate a merged profile based on peak height and variance.  The merged digestion profiles from the cDNA preparations are then compared to locate differentially expressed fragments (such as between normal tissue and diseased or drug responsive tissue); these profiles are compared by means of various internet-ready databases such as GeneScape.

text: In the GeneCalling protocol, mRNAs are first isolated from a given sample and processed into fragments for analysis.  This usually involves the synthesis and subdivision of double-stranded

text: cDNAs

text: from

text: polyA RNA

text: .  Distinct sets of

text: restriction enzymes

text: can then be used to digest sets of the divided cDNAs and resulting fragments ligated to labelled adapters to be amplified by

text: PCR

text: .  PCR products are then purified and subjected to gel

text: electrophoresis

text: on a mounted platform employing stationary laser excitation and a multi-colour charge-coupled device imaging system.  A fluorescent label at the 5' end of one of the PCR primers allows for visualization of the PCR fragments, and the cDNAs are subjected to several isolated and identical restriction digests to generate a merged profile based on peak height and variance.  The merged digestion profiles from the cDNA preparations are then compared to locate differentially expressed fragments (such as between normal tissue and diseased or drug responsive tissue); these profiles are compared by means of various internet-ready databases such as GeneScape.

text: Horses have a relatively small stomach for their size, and this limits the amount of feed a horse can take in at one time.  The average sized horse () has a stomach with a capacity of around , and works best when it contains about . Because the stomach empties when  full, whether stomach enzymes have completed their processing of the food or not, and doing so prevents full digestion and proper utilization of feed, continuous foraging or several small feedings per day are preferable to one or two large ones.  The horse stomach consists of a non-glandular proximal region (saccus cecus), divided by a distinct border, the margo plicatus, from the glandular distal stomach.

text: Horses have a relatively small

text: stomach

text: for their size, and this limits the amount of feed a horse can take in at one time.  The average sized horse () has a stomach with a capacity of around , and works best when it contains about . Because the stomach empties when  full, whether stomach enzymes have completed their processing of the food or not, and doing so prevents full digestion and proper utilization of feed, continuous foraging or several small feedings per day are preferable to one or two large ones.  The horse stomach consists of a non-glandular proximal region (saccus cecus), divided by a distinct border, the margo plicatus, from the glandular distal stomach.

text: The stomach in the cephalothorax acts as a pump that sends the food deeper into the digestive system. The mid gut bears many digestive ceca, compartments with no other exit, that extract nutrients from the food; most are in the abdomen, which is dominated by the digestive system, but a few are found in the cephalothorax.

text: The stomach in the cephalothorax acts as a pump that sends the food deeper into the digestive system. The mid gut bears many digestive

text: ceca

text: , compartments with no other exit, that extract nutrients from the food; most are in the abdomen, which is dominated by the digestive system, but a few are found in the cephalothorax.

text: Traditional chemotherapeutic agents are cytotoxic by means of interfering with cell division (mitosis) but cancer cells vary widely in their susceptibility to these agents. To a large extent, chemotherapy can be thought of as a way to damage or stress cells, which may then lead to cell death if apoptosis is initiated. Many of the side effects of chemotherapy can be traced to damage to normal cells that divide rapidly and are thus sensitive to anti-mitotic drugs: cells in the bone marrow, digestive tract, and hair follicles. This results in the most common side-effects of chemotherapy: myelosuppression (decreased production of blood cells, hence also immunosuppression), mucositis (inflammation of the lining of the digestive tract), and alopecia (hair loss). Because of the effect on immune cells (especially lymphocytes), chemotherapy drugs often find use in a host of diseases that result from harmful overactivity of the immune system against self (so-called autoimmunity). These include Rheumatoid arthritis, Systemic lupus erythematosus, Multiple sclerosis, Vasculitis, and many others.

text: Traditional chemotherapeutic agents are

text: cytotoxic

text: by means of interfering with cell division (mitosis) but cancer cells vary widely in their susceptibility to these agents. To a large extent, chemotherapy can be thought of as a way to damage or stress cells, which may then lead to cell death if

text: apoptosis

text: is initiated. Many of the side effects of chemotherapy can be traced to damage to normal cells that divide rapidly and are thus sensitive to anti-mitotic drugs: cells in the

text: bone marrow

text: digestive tract

text: , and

text: hair follicle

text: s. This results in the most common side-effects of chemotherapy:

text: myelosuppression

text: (decreased production of blood cells, hence also

text: immunosuppression

text: mucositis

text: (inflammation of the lining of the digestive tract), and

text: alopecia

text: (hair loss). Because of the effect on immune cells (especially lymphocytes), chemotherapy drugs often find use in a host of diseases that result from harmful overactivity of the immune system against self (so-called

text: autoimmunity

text: ). These include

text: Rheumatoid arthritis

text: Systemic lupus erythematosus

text: Multiple sclerosis

text: Vasculitis

text: , and many others.

text: The hepatopancreas, digestive gland or midgut gland is an organ of the digestive tract of arthropods, molluscs and fish. It provides the functions which in mammals are provided separately by the liver and pancreas, including the production of digestive enzymes, and absorption of digested food.

text: The hepatopancreas, digestive gland or midgut gland is an organ of the

text: digestive tract

text: of

text: arthropod

text: s,

text: mollusc

text: s and

text: fish

text: . It provides the functions which in

text: mammal

text: s are provided separately by the

text: liver

text: and

text: pancreas

text: , including the production of digestive enzymes, and absorption of digested food.

text: A bowel resection or enterectomy (enter- + -ectomy) is a surgical procedure in which a part of an intestine (bowel) is removed, from either the small intestine or large intestine. Often the word enterectomy is reserved for the sense of small bowel resection, in distinction from colectomy, which covers the sense of large bowel resection. Bowel resection may be performed to treat gastrointestinal cancer, bowel necrosis, severe enteritis, diverticular disease, Crohn's disease, endometriosis, ulcerative colitis, or bowel obstruction due to scar tissue. Other reasons to perform bowel resection include traumatic injuries and to remove polyps when polypectomy is insufficient, either to prevent polyps from ever becoming cancerous or because they are causing or threatening bowel obstruction, such as in familial adenomatous polyposis, Peutz–Jeghers syndrome, or other polyposis syndromes. Some patients require ileostomy or colostomy after this procedure as alternative means of excretion. Depending on which part and how much of the intestines are removed, there may be digestive and metabolic challenges afterward, such as short bowel syndrome.

text: A bowel resection or enterectomy (

text: enter-

text: -ectomy

text: ) is a

text: surgical procedure

text: in which a part of an intestine (bowel) is removed, from either the

text: small intestine

text: or

text: large intestine

text: . Often the word enterectomy is reserved for the

text: sense

text: of small bowel resection, in distinction from

text: colectomy

text: , which covers the sense of large bowel resection. Bowel resection may be performed to treat

text: gastrointestinal cancer

text: , bowel

text: necrosis

text: , severe

text: enteritis

text: diverticular disease

text: Crohn's disease

text: endometriosis

text: ulcerative colitis

text: , or

text: bowel obstruction

text: due to

text: scar

text: tissue. Other reasons to perform bowel resection include traumatic injuries and to remove

text: polyps

text: when

text: polypectomy

text: is insufficient, either to prevent polyps from ever

text: becoming cancerous

text: or because they are causing or threatening bowel obstruction, such as in

text: familial adenomatous polyposis

text: Peutz–Jeghers syndrome

text: , or other polyposis syndromes. Some patients require

text: ileostomy

text: or

text: colostomy

text: after this procedure as alternative means of

text: excretion

text: . Depending on which part and how much of the intestines are removed, there may be

text: digestive

text: and

text: metabolic

text: challenges afterward, such as

text: short bowel syndrome

text: The small intestine begins at the duodenum, which receives food from the stomach. It is a tubular structure, usually between 6 and 7 m long. The area of the human, adult small intestinal mucosa is about 30 m. Its main function is to absorb the products of digestion (including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and vitamins) into the bloodstream. It has three major divisions:

text: The

text: small intestine

text: begins at the

text: duodenum

text: , which receives food from the

text: stomach

text: . It is a tubular structure, usually between 6 and 7 m long. The area of the human, adult small intestinal mucosa is about 30 m. Its main function is to absorb the products of digestion (including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and vitamins) into the bloodstream. It has three major divisions:

text: Gilbert's potoroo has sharp, three-toed claws that help it dig into the ground to unearth fungi. After digestion, the potoroo aids in spore distribution, as the spores germinate from its feces.

text: Gilbert's potoroo has sharp, three-toed claws that help it dig into the ground to unearth fungi. After digestion, the potoroo aids in spore distribution, as the

text: spores

text: germinate from its

text: feces

text: Lindsay (Ashley C. Williams) and Jenny (Ashlynn Yennie), two American tourists in Germany, are drugged and involuntarily detained by crazed surgeon Dr. Josef Heiter (Dieter Laser) when they seek help at his house after they get a flat tire. The women awake in a makeshift medical ward. They witness Heiter kill a kidnapped truck driver after Heiter informs him he is "not a match". Heiter secures a new male captive, Japanese tourist Katsuro (Akihiro Kitamura). The doctor explains that he is a world-renowned expert at separating Siamese twins, but dreams of making new creatures by sewing people together. He describes in detail how he will surgically connect his three victims mouth-to-anus, so that they share a single digestive system.

text: Lindsay (

text: Ashley C. Williams

text: ) and Jenny (

text: Ashlynn Yennie

text: ), two American tourists in Germany, are drugged and involuntarily detained by crazed surgeon Dr. Josef Heiter (

text: Dieter Laser

text: ) when they seek help at his house after they get a flat tire. The women awake in a makeshift medical ward. They witness Heiter kill a kidnapped truck driver after Heiter informs him he is "not a match". Heiter secures a new male captive,

text: Japanese

text: tourist Katsuro (

text: Akihiro Kitamura

text: ). The doctor explains that he is a world-renowned expert at separating

text: Siamese twins

text: , but dreams of making new creatures by sewing people together. He describes in detail how he will surgically connect his three victims mouth-to-

text: anus

text: , so that they share a single

text: digestive system

text: Unlike ruminants, horses digest food in small portions throughout the day, and can only use approximately 2.5% of their body weight in feed in any 24-hour period. They evolved to be continuously on the move while grazing, (covering up to  per day in the wild) and their stomach digests food quite rapidly. Thus, they extract more nutrition out of smaller quantities of feed. However, when horses are fed low-quality hay, they may develop an unhealthy, obese, "hay belly" due to over-consumption of "empty" calories. If their type of feed is changed dramatically, or if they are fed moldy hay or hay containing toxic plants, they can become ill; colic is the leading cause of death in horses. Contaminated hay can also lead to respiratory problems in horses. Hay can be soaked in water, sprinkled with water or subjected to steaming to reduce dust.

text: Unlike ruminants, horses digest food in small portions throughout the day, and can only use approximately 2.5% of their body weight in feed in any 24-hour period. They evolved to be continuously on the move while grazing, (covering up to  per day in the wild) and their stomach digests food quite rapidly. Thus, they extract more nutrition out of smaller quantities of feed. However, when horses are fed low-quality hay, they may develop an unhealthy, obese, "hay belly" due to over-consumption of "empty" calories. If their type of feed is changed dramatically, or if they are fed moldy hay or hay containing toxic plants, they can become ill;

text: colic

text: is the leading cause of death in horses. Contaminated hay can also lead to respiratory problems in horses. Hay can be soaked in water, sprinkled with water or subjected to steaming to reduce dust.

text: Digestive system: Careoradula perelegans is unique among other streptaxids, because it has no radula, no odontophore and no retractor muscles associated with these structures. It is the first known terrestrial mollusc and fist pulmonate gastropod without radula. Instead of this, the Careoradula perelegans has strong muscular ridges between mouth and oesophagus.

text: Digestive system

text: : Careoradula perelegans is unique among other streptaxids, because it has no

text: radula

text: , no

text: odontophore

text: and no retractor muscles associated with these structures. It is the first known terrestrial mollusc and fist

text: pulmonate

text: gastropod without radula. Instead of this, the Careoradula perelegans has strong muscular ridges between mouth and oesophagus.

text: The lysosomes also act as the waste disposal system of the cell by digesting unwanted materials in the cytoplasm, both from outside of the cell and obsolete components inside the cell. Material from the outside of the cell is taken-up through endocytosis, while material from the inside of the cell is digested through autophagy. Their sizes can be very different—the biggest ones can be more than 10 times bigger than the smallest ones. They were discovered and named by Belgian biologist Christian de Duve, who eventually received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974.

text: The lysosomes also act as the waste disposal system of the cell by digesting unwanted materials in the

text: cytoplasm

text: , both from outside of the cell and obsolete components inside the cell. Material from the outside of the cell is taken-up through

text: endocytosis

text: , while material from the inside of the cell is digested through

text: autophagy

text: . Their sizes can be very different—the biggest ones can be more than 10 times bigger than the smallest ones. They were discovered and named by Belgian biologist

text: Christian de Duve

text: , who eventually received the

text: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

text: in 1974.

text: A major overhaul published by GDW in 1987, but designed by Digest Group Publications. The game system used revised rules developed in DGP's Traveller's Digest periodical. The game was set during the Rebellion era which shattered the Imperium. Supplements and magazines produced during this era detailed the progression of the Rebellion from the initial assassination of the Emperor in 1116 to the collapse of large-scale interstellar trade in roughly 1124 (the beginning of the supplement Hard Times).

text: A major overhaul published by GDW in 1987, but designed by

text: Digest Group Publications

text: . The game system used revised rules developed in DGP's Traveller's Digest periodical. The game was set during the Rebellion era which shattered the Imperium. Supplements and magazines produced during this era detailed the progression of the Rebellion from the initial assassination of the Emperor in 1116 to the collapse of large-scale interstellar trade in roughly 1124 (the beginning of the supplement Hard Times).

text: For reasons not entirely understood, the diagnosis of food allergies has apparently become more common in Western nations recently. In the United States, food allergy affects as many as 5% of infants less than three years of age and 3% to 4% of adults. A similar prevalence is found in Canada.

text: Microbial culturomics is a new approach of biodiversity applied to human microbiota. In a study carried out by the laboratory and published in Clinical Microbiology and Infection in September 2012, this technique permit us to realise five world records:- The largest number of bacterial species isolated from a human stool (human excrement)- The largest virus isolated from a human to date- The largest bacterium isolated from a man to date- The largest number of new bacterial species found in one study (31 species).- A recent review identified that more than 30% of the cultured microbes from the gut were first found by the team- In another work published in the Nature Microbiology journal in 2016, nearly 1,000 samples from the human digestive tract (stool, stomach, small intestine and colon) were analyzed. Professor Raoult's team was able to cultivate 1,170 different bacteria present in the digestive tract, including 247 species of bacteria that are entirely new. They also found 269 bacteria that were known only in the environment so they were isolated for the first time in humans and 250 bacteria that had already been isolated in humans but never in the digestive tract. All of these new species of bacteria are available in collections of international strains (Collection of Strains of the Rickettsia Unit, and Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen).

text: Bet v I allergen is a family of protein allergens.  Allergies are hypersensitivity reactions of the immune system to specific substances called allergens (such as pollen, stings, drugs, or food) that, in most people, result in no symptoms.

text: Bet v I allergen is a

text: family

text: of protein

text: allergens

text: Allergies

text: are hypersensitivity reactions of the immune system to specific substances called allergens (such as pollen, stings, drugs, or food) that, in most people, result in no symptoms.

text: The thermic effect of food is the energy required for digestion, absorption, and disposal of ingested nutrients. Its magnitude depends on the composition of the food consumed:

text: Van Helmont wrote extensively on the subject of digestion.  In Oriatrike or Physick Refined (1662, English translation of Ortus medicinae ...), van Helmont addressed earlier ideas on the subject, such as that food was digested due to the body's internal heat.  If such was the case, van Helmont argued, how could cold-blooded animals live?  His own opinion was that digestion was aided by a chemical reagent, or "ferment", within the body, such as inside the stomach.  Harré suggests that in this way, van Helmont's idea was "very near to our modern concept of an enzyme."

text: There are a number of causes for food allergies including a built-up intolerance to beef, dairy products, chicken, corn and soy.  Dog food allergies can develop over time making it all the more important to be aware of these symptoms.  The easiest solution is to change to a different dry dog food and see if the skin problem clears up.  If this is not the answer, a visit at the veterinarian is necessary for further assistance.

text: Disintegrants expand and dissolve when wet causing the tablet to break apart in the digestive tract, releasing the active ingredients for absorption.

text: Disintegrants expand and dissolve when wet causing the tablet to break apart in the

text: digestive tract

text: , releasing the active ingredients for

text: absorption

text: Loggerheads crush prey with their large and powerful jaws. Projecting scale points on the anterior margin of the forelimbs allow manipulation of the food. These points can be used as "pseudo-claws" to tear large pieces of food in the loggerhead's mouth. The loggerhead will turn its neck sideways to consume the torn food on the scale points. Inward-pointing, mucus-covered papillae found in the fore region of the loggerhead's esophagus filter out foreign bodies, such as fish hooks. The next region of the esophagus is not papillated, with numerous mucosal folds. The digestion rate in loggerheads is temperature-dependent;  it increases as temperature increases.

text: Loggerheads crush prey with their large and powerful jaws. Projecting scale points on the anterior margin of the forelimbs allow manipulation of the food. These points can be used as "pseudo-claws" to tear large pieces of food in the loggerhead's mouth. The loggerhead will turn its neck sideways to consume the torn food on the scale points. Inward-pointing,

text: mucus

text: -covered

text: papillae

text: found in the fore region of the loggerhead's

text: esophagus

text: filter out foreign bodies, such as fish hooks. The next region of the esophagus is not papillated, with numerous mucosal folds. The digestion rate in loggerheads is temperature-dependent;  it increases as temperature increases.

text: The bdelloid digestive and reproductive systems can be found within the trunk sections of their bodies, with the stomach being the most visible of the organs. In certain genera, (Habrotrocha, Otostephanos and Scepanotrocha) the bdelloid can actually be identified by the appearance of distinct spherical pellets within the stomach, which will be released as faeces. These pellets are a distinguishing characteristic since all the other genera release faeces as loose material.

text: The bdelloid digestive and reproductive systems can be found within the trunk sections of their bodies, with the stomach being the most visible of the

text: organs

text: . In certain

text: genera

text: , (Habrotrocha, Otostephanos and Scepanotrocha) the bdelloid can actually be identified by the appearance of distinct spherical pellets within the stomach, which will be released as faeces. These pellets are a distinguishing characteristic since all the other genera release faeces as loose material.

text: Genistin is an isoflavone found in a number of dietary plants like soy and kudzu. It was first isolated in 1931 from the 90% methanol extract of a soybean meal, when it was found that hydrolysis with hydrochloric acid produced 1 mole each of genistein and glucose. Chemically it is the 7-O-beta-D-glucoside form of genistein and is the predominant form of the isoflavone naturally occurring in plants. In fact Studies in the 1970s revealed that 99% of the  isoflavonoid compounds in soy are present as their glucosides. The glucosides are converted by digestive enzymes in the digestive system to exert their biological effects. Genistin is also converted to a more familiar genistein, thus, the biological activities including antiatherosclerotic, estrogenic and anticancer effects are analogous.

text: Genistin is an

text: isoflavone

text: found in a number of dietary plants like

text: soy

text: and

text: kudzu

text: . It was first isolated in 1931 from the 90% methanol extract of a

text: soybean

text: meal, when it was found that

text: hydrolysis

text: with

text: hydrochloric acid

text: produced 1

text: mole

text: each of

text: genistein

text: and

text: glucose

text: . Chemically it is the 7-O-beta-D-

text: glucoside

text: form of

text: genistein

text: and is the predominant form of the

text: isoflavone

text: naturally occurring in plants. In fact Studies in the 1970s revealed that 99% of the

text: isoflavonoid compounds

text: in

text: soy

text: are present as their

text: glucoside

text: s. The

text: glucoside

text: s are converted by

text: digestive enzymes

text: in the

text: digestive system

text: to exert their biological effects. Genistin is also converted to a more familiar genistein, thus, the biological activities including antiatherosclerotic,

text: estrogenic

text: and

text: anticancer

text: effects are analogous.

text: The small intestine is the part of the digestive tract following the stomach and followed by the large intestine, and is where much of the digestion and absorption of food takes place. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine are not clear, and the terms anterior or proximal intestine may be used instead of duodenum. The small intestine is found in all teleosts, although its form and length vary enormously between species. In teleosts, it is relatively short, typically around one and a half times the length of the fish's body. It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca, small pouch-like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food. There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts, with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epithelium.

text: The

text: small intestine

text: is the part of the digestive tract following the stomach and followed by the

text: large intestine

text: , and is where much of the

text: digestion

text: and absorption of food takes place. In fish, the divisions of the small intestine are not clear, and the terms anterior or proximal intestine may be used instead of

text: duodenum

text: . The small intestine is found in all

text: teleost

text: rectum

text: being marked only by the end of the digestive epithelium.

text: The reason this analysis is possible at all is due to the digestive system not being entirely efficient, in the sense that not everything that passes through the digestive system is destroyed. Not all of the surviving material is recognizable, but some of it is. This material is generally the best indicator archaeologists can use to determine ancient diets, as no other part of the archaeological record is as direct an indicator.

text: If there is reason to believe that a murder or attempted murder may have been committed using poison, a forensic toxicologist is often brought in to examine pieces of evidence such as corpses and food items for poison content. In Orfila's time the primary type of poison in use was arsenic, but there were no reliable ways of testing for its presence. Orfila created new techniques and refined existing techniques in his first treatise, Traité des poisons, greatly enhancing their accuracy.

text: If there is reason to believe that a murder or attempted murder may have been committed using poison, a

text: forensic

text: toxicologist is often brought in to examine pieces of evidence such as corpses and food items for poison content. In Orfila's time the primary type of poison in use was

text: arsenic

text: , but there were no reliable ways of testing for its presence. Orfila created new techniques and refined existing techniques in his first treatise, Traité des poisons, greatly enhancing their accuracy.

text: Code signing uses public-key infrastructure to check if a file has been modified since being digitally signed by its publisher. Alternatively, a system owner or administrator can use a cryptographic hash function to compute a "fingerprint" at installation time that can help to detect subsequent unauthorized changes to on-disk code libraries. However, unsophisticated schemes check only whether the code has been modified since installation time; subversion prior to that time is not detectable. The fingerprint must be re-established each time changes are made to the system: for example, after installing security updates or a service pack. The hash function creates a message digest, a relatively short code calculated from each bit in the file using an algorithm that creates large changes in the message digest with even smaller changes to the original file. By recalculating and comparing the message digest of the installed files at regular intervals against a trusted list of message digests, changes in the system can be detected and monitored—as long as the original baseline was created before the malware was added.

text: Code signing

text: uses

text: public-key infrastructure

text: to check if a file has been modified since being

text: digitally signed

text: by its publisher. Alternatively, a system owner or administrator can use a

text: cryptographic hash function

text: to compute a "fingerprint" at installation time that can help to detect subsequent unauthorized changes to on-disk code libraries. However, unsophisticated schemes check only whether the code has been modified since installation time; subversion prior to that time is not detectable. The fingerprint must be re-established each time changes are made to the system: for example, after installing security updates or a

text: service pack

text: . The hash function creates a message digest, a relatively short code calculated from each bit in the file using an algorithm that creates large changes in the message digest with even smaller changes to the original file. By recalculating and comparing the message digest of the installed files at regular intervals against a trusted list of message digests, changes in the system can be detected and monitored—as long as the original baseline was created before the malware was added.

text: The gastrointestinal tract has a form of general histology with some differences that reflect the specialization in functional anatomy.

text: A purgative formula is recommended to remove heat in the abdominal system that causes loss of appetite and poor digestion. Moistening foods are considered to be used to treat dampening issues in the stomach while Greasy nourishments are used since most of them are difficult to digest. Ina addition, it promotes digestion and the function of the liver food materials that increase gastric activity such as reddish seed and fruits from the digestive formula.

text: When amoebae inside the bowel of an infected person are ready to leave the body, they group together and form a shell that surrounds and protects them. This group of amoebae is known as a cyst, which is then passed out of the person's body in the feces and can survive outside the body. If hygiene standards are poor — for example, if the person does not dispose of the feces hygienically — then it can contaminate the surroundings, such as nearby food and water.If another person then eats or drinks food or water that has been contaminated with feces containing the cyst, that person will also become infected with the amoebae. Amoebic dysentery is particularly common in parts of the world where human feces are used as fertilizer.After entering the person's body through the mouth, the cyst travels down into the stomach. The amoebae inside the cyst are protected from the stomach's digestive acid. From the stomach, the cyst travels to the intestines, where it breaks open and releases the amoebae, causing the infection. The amoebae can burrow into the walls of the intestines and cause small abscesses and ulcers to form. The cycle then begins again.

text: It is one of three principal proteases in the human digestive system, the other two being chymotrypsin and trypsin. During the process of digestion, these enzymes, each of which is specialized in severing links between particular types of amino acids, collaborate to break down dietary proteins into their components, i.e., peptides and amino acids, which can be readily absorbed by the small intestine. Pepsin is most efficient in cleaving peptide bonds between hydrophobic and preferably aromatic amino acids such as phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine.

text: It is one of three principal proteases in the human digestive system, the other two being

text: chymotrypsin

text: and

text: trypsin

text: . During the process of digestion, these enzymes, each of which is specialized in severing links between particular types of

text: amino acid

text: s, collaborate to break down dietary proteins into their components, i.e., peptides and amino acids, which can be readily

text: absorbed by the small intestine

text: . Pepsin is most efficient in cleaving

text: peptide bond

text: s between

text: hydrophobic

text: and preferably

text: aromatic

text: amino acids such as

text: phenylalanine

text: tryptophan

text: , and

text: tyrosine

text: Digestion can take a long time. The food moves from the mouth to a J-shaped stomach, where it is stored and initial digestion occurs. Unwanted items may never get past the stomach, and instead the shark either vomits or turns its stomachs inside out and ejects unwanted items from its mouth.

text: Males do not usually have a functional digestive system, and are therefore short-lived, often being sexually fertile at birth. They have a single testicle and sperm duct, associated with a pair of glandular structures referred to as prostates (unrelated to the vertebrate prostate). The sperm duct opens into a gonopore at the posterior end of the animal, which is usually modified to form a penis. The gonopore is homologous to the cloaca of females, but in most species has no connection to the vestigial digestive system, which lacks an anus.

text: Males do not usually have a functional digestive system, and are therefore short-lived, often being

text: sexually fertile

text: at birth. They have a single

text: testicle

text: and

text: sperm duct

text: , associated with a pair of glandular structures referred to as

text: prostate

text: s (unrelated to the vertebrate prostate). The sperm duct opens into a gonopore at the posterior end of the animal, which is usually modified to form a

text: penis

text: . The gonopore is

text: homologous

text: to the cloaca of females, but in most species has no connection to the vestigial digestive system, which lacks an

text: anus

text: Digestive system: The jaw has numerous ribs. Radula with tricuspid central tooth with square basal plate, as large as the bicuspid laterals, the marginals multicuspid.

text: Digestive system

text: : The jaw has numerous ribs.

text: Radula

text: with tricuspid central tooth with square basal plate, as large as the bicuspid laterals, the marginals multicuspid.

text: Each part of the digestive system is subject to a wide range of disorders many of which can be congenital. Mouth diseases can also be caused by pathogenic bacteria, viruses and fungi. Mouth diseases include tongue diseases and salivary gland diseases. A common gum disease in the mouth is gingivitis which is caused by bacteria in plaque. The most common viral infection of the mouth is gingivostomatitis caused by herpes simplex. Another common infection which is fungal is candidiasis commonly known as thrush which affects the mucous membranes of the mouth.

text: Each part of the digestive system is subject to a wide range of disorders many of which can be

text: congenital

text: Mouth diseases

text: can also be caused by

text: pathogen

text: ic

text: bacteria

text: virus

text: es and

text: fungi

text: . Mouth diseases include

text: tongue disease

text: s and

text: salivary gland disease

text: s. A common

text: gum

text: disease in the mouth is

text: gingivitis

text: which is caused by bacteria in

text: plaque

text: . The most common viral infection of the mouth is

text: gingivostomatitis

text: caused by

text: herpes simplex

text: . Another common infection which is

text: fungal

text: is

text: candidiasis

text: commonly known as thrush which affects the

text: mucous membrane

text: s of the mouth.

text: The biogas digester is the heart of most zero waste agriculture (ZWA) systems. It is a 3000-year-old anaerobic digestion process.

text: The

text: biogas digester

text: is the heart of most zero waste agriculture (ZWA) systems. It is a 3000-year-old anaerobic digestion process.

text: Domesticated and wild mammals are known to consume feces. In the wild they either bury or eat waste to protect their trail from predators. Mothers of certain species are known to eat the feces of their newborn young during the earliest phase after birth, presumably to eliminate cues to potential predators and to keep the den clean.

text: While polychaete marine worms on or near the sea floor are a major food source, hagfish can feed upon and often even enter and eviscerate the bodies of dead and dying/injured sea creatures much larger than themselves. They are known to devour their prey from the inside. Hagfish have the ability to absorb dissolved organic matter across the skin and gill, which may be an adaptation to a scavenging lifestyle, allowing them to maximize sporadic opportunities for feeding. From an evolutionary perspective, hagfish represent a transitory state between the generalized nutrient absorption pathways of aquatic invertebrates and the more specialized digestive systems of aquatic vertebrates.

text: While

text: polychaete

text: marine worm

text: s on or near the sea floor are a major food source, hagfish can feed upon and often even enter and eviscerate the bodies of dead and dying/injured sea creatures much larger than themselves. They are known to devour their prey from the inside. Hagfish have the ability to absorb dissolved organic matter across the skin and gill, which may be an adaptation to a scavenging lifestyle, allowing them to maximize sporadic opportunities for feeding. From an evolutionary perspective, hagfish represent a transitory state between the generalized nutrient absorption pathways of aquatic invertebrates and the more specialized digestive systems of aquatic vertebrates.

text: The gut of E. superba can often be seen shining green through the animal's transparent skin, an indication that this species feeds predominantly on phytoplankton – especially very small diatoms (20 μm), which it filters from the water with a feeding basket. The glass-like shells of the diatoms are cracked in the "gastric mill" and then digested in the hepatopancreas. The krill can also catch and eat copepods, amphipods and other small zooplankton. The gut forms a straight tube; its digestive efficiency is not very high and therefore a lot of carbon is still present in the feces.

text: The gut of E. superba can often be seen shining green through the animal's transparent skin, an indication that this species feeds predominantly on

text: phytoplankton

text: – especially very small

text: diatom

text: s (20

text: μm

text: ), which it filters from the water with a feeding basket. The glass-like shells of the

text: diatom

text: s are cracked in the "

text: gastric mill

text: " and then digested in the

text: hepatopancreas

text: . The krill can also catch and eat

text: copepod

text: s,

text: amphipod

text: s and other small

text: zooplankton

text: . The gut forms a straight tube; its digestive efficiency is not very high and therefore a lot of

text: carbon

text: is still present in the

text: feces

text: Enteroendocrine cells are specialized cells of the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas with endocrine function. They produce gastrointestinal hormones or peptides in response to various stimuli and release them into the bloodstream for systemic effect, diffuse them as local messengers, or transmit them to the enteric nervous system to activate nervous responses. Enteroendocrine cells of the intestine are the most numerous endocrine cells of the body. They constitute an enteric endocrine system as a subset of the endocrine system just as the enteric nervous system is a subset of the nervous system. In a sense they are known to act as chemoreceptors, initiating digestive actions and detecting harmful substances and initiating protective responses.  Enteroendocrine cells are located in the stomach, in the intestine and in the pancreas.

text: Enteroendocrine cells are specialized

text: cell

text: s of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: and

text: pancreas

text: with

text: endocrine

text: function. They produce

text: gastrointestinal hormone

text: s or peptides in response to various stimuli and release them into the bloodstream for systemic effect, diffuse them as

text: local messengers

text: , or transmit them to the

text: enteric nervous system

text: to activate nervous responses. Enteroendocrine cells of the intestine are the most numerous endocrine cells of the body. They constitute an enteric endocrine system as a subset of the

text: endocrine system

text: just as the

text: enteric nervous system

text: is a subset of the

text: nervous system

text: . In a sense they are known to act as

text: chemoreceptor

text: s, initiating digestive actions and detecting harmful substances and initiating protective responses.  Enteroendocrine cells are located in the stomach, in the intestine and in the pancreas.

text: The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the parasympathetic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system functions to regulate the body's unconscious actions. The sympathetic nervous system's primary process is to stimulate the body's fight-or-flight response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain homeostasis. The sympathetic nervous system is described as being complementary to the parasympathetic nervous system which stimulates the body to "rest-and-digest" or "Feed and breed".

text: The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the two main divisions of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , the other being the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: . The autonomic nervous system functions to regulate the body's unconscious actions. The sympathetic nervous system's primary process is to stimulate the body's

text: fight-or-flight response

text: . It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain

text: homeostasis

text: . The sympathetic nervous system is described as being complementary to the parasympathetic nervous system which stimulates the body to "rest-and-digest" or "Feed and breed".

text: One of the principal problems of a newborn is an iron deficiency, which will generate anemia. This is caused when the only food that the baby receives is maternal milk which does not fulfill the baby’s nutrition. There is no treatment for this in this period because iron will reach normal levels with the weaning process. The weaning process consists in transitioning from feeding the baby low density food such as maternal milk to start feeding it more complex foods such as meat, fish, or chicken. (uniped) If the weaning process is not carried out correctly or if the child rejects the transition of food the iron deficiency will generate an anemia or even create allergies to certain food. In such cases gastric pediatricians, and not regular pediatricians, should be consulted to treat the anemia because they will now how to recover the correct iron levels without causing any secondary effects in the digestive system.

text: One of the principal problems of a newborn is an iron deficiency, which will generate

text: anemia

text: . This is caused when the only food that the baby receives is maternal milk which does not fulfill the baby’s nutrition. There is no treatment for this in this period because iron will reach normal levels with the weaning process. The weaning process consists in transitioning from feeding the baby low density food such as maternal milk to start feeding it more complex foods such as meat, fish, or chicken. (uniped) If the weaning process is not carried out correctly or if the child rejects the transition of food the iron deficiency will generate an anemia or even create allergies to certain food. In such cases gastric pediatricians, and not regular pediatricians, should be consulted to treat the anemia because they will now how to recover the correct iron levels without causing any secondary effects in the digestive system.

text: Oxalobacter formigenes is an oxalate-degrading anaerobic bacterium that colonizes the large intestines of numerous vertebrates, including humans. O. formigenes and humans share a beneficial symbiosis.

text: Oxalobacter formigenes is an

text: oxalate

text: -degrading

text: anaerobic

text: bacterium

text: that colonizes the

text: large intestine

text: s of numerous

text: vertebrate

text: s, including humans. O. formigenes and humans share a beneficial

text: symbiosis

text: In the UK, McVitie's digestive is the best selling biscuit, with 80 million packs sold annually. Digestives are also popular in food preparation for making into bases for cheesecakes and similar desserts.

text: In the UK,

text: McVitie's

text: digestive is the best selling biscuit, with 80 million packs sold annually. Digestives are also popular in

text: food preparation

text: for making into bases for

text: cheesecake

text: s and similar

text: dessert

text: s.

text: TNO (gastro-) Intestinal Models (“TIM”) are model systems mimicking the digestive tract. The models are dynamic computer controlled multi-compartmental systems with adjustable parameters for the physiological conditions of the stomach and intestine. Temperature, peristalsis, bile secretion, secretion of saliva, stomach and pancreas enzymes are all fully adjustable. The TIM systems are being used to study the behavior of oral products during transit through the stomach, the small intestine and large intestine. Commonly performed studies concern the digestibility of food and food components, the bioaccessibility for absorption of pharmaceutical compounds, proteins, fat, minerals and (water- and fat-soluble) vitamins.

text: The final output from anaerobic digestion systems is water, which originates both from the moisture content of the original waste that was treated and water produced during the microbial reactions in the digestion systems. This water may be released from the dewatering of the digestate or may be implicitly separate from the digestate.

text: The Miller–Abbott tube was introduced in 1934 and was used to sample gastrointestinal fluid. It helps with diagnosing and treating by compressing the obstructive matter found in the small intestine. This roughly 3 meter (9.8 feet long) double-channel intestinal tube is with an inflatable balloon at its distal end, is used for diagnosing and treating obstructive lesions of the small intestine. The tube is inserted via a nostril and gently passed through the stomach and into the small intestine. Still largely unchanged in 2011, once this instrument weaves down the esophagus and into the stomach, the tube is capable of a handful of jobs at this point, from suctioning gastric juices for testing and irrigation to ballooning open the entryway to the small intestine, called the duodenum, for clearer radiology testing and easier removal of many intestinal blockages. The Miller-Abbott tube is named after American gastroenterologists William Osler Abbott and Thomas Grier Miller. These doctors also pioneered the surgical procedures that set the stage for easier diagnosis and removal of stomach and intestinal lesions, blockages and ulcers. With the instrument having its double-barreled design, one of the pipes, called a lumen, is responsible for pumping up a thin balloon at the tip for easy exploration into the intestines at the duodenum. The other lumen tube can then suction fluids out or pump fluids in, depending on the procedure. For radiology, a barium solution can be pumped into the duodenum to isolate potential damage and produce clear images of it. Allowing the tube to proceed into the intestines also might help dislodge identified blockages causing pain or digestive disorders. In 2011, the Miller-Abbott tube might be accompanied by another, called a laparoscope. This latter tube combines a light and camera to give physicians a three-dimensional, colored view of whatever blockage is occurring. It can also help the doctor know exactly when the Miller-Abbott tube's balloon is at the perfect location in the duodenum — a process that depends on the slow and steady peristaltic contractions of the digestive tract.

text: 2011 - Reader's Digest - Reader's Digest Trusted Brands Award (Cards)

text: In its early stages, esophageal cancer may not have any symptoms at all. When severe, esophageal cancer may eventually cause obstruction of the esophagus, making swallowing of any solid foods very difficult and causing weight loss. The progress of the cancer is staged using a system that measures how far into the esophageal wall the cancer has invaded, how many lymph nodes are affected, and whether there are any metastases in different parts of the body. Esophageal cancer is often managed with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and may also be managed by partial surgical removal of the esophagus. Inserting a stent into the esophagus, or inserting a nasogastric tube, may also be used to ensure that a person is able to digest enough food and water. , the prognosis for esophageal cancer is still poor, so palliative therapy may also be a focus of treatment.

text: In its early stages, esophageal cancer may not have any symptoms at all. When severe, esophageal cancer may eventually cause obstruction of the esophagus, making swallowing of any solid foods very difficult and causing weight loss. The progress of the cancer is

text: staged using a system

text: that measures how far into the esophageal wall the cancer has invaded, how many

text: lymph node

text: s are affected, and whether there are any

text: metastases

text: in different parts of the body. Esophageal cancer is often managed with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and may also be managed by

text: partial surgical removal of the esophagus

text: . Inserting a

text: stent

text: into the esophagus, or inserting a

text: nasogastric tube

text: , may also be used to ensure that a person is able to digest enough food and water. , the prognosis for esophageal cancer is still poor, so

text: palliative therapy

text: may also be a focus of treatment.

text: Pancreatin is a mixture of several digestive enzymes produced by the exocrine cells of the pancreas. It is composed of amylase, lipase and protease. This mixture is used to treat conditions in which pancreatic secretions are deficient, such as surgical pancreatectomy, pancreatitis and cystic fibrosis. It has been claimed to help with food allergies, celiac disease, autoimmune disease, cancer and weight loss. Pancreatin is sometimes called "pancreatic acid", although it is neither a single chemical substance nor an acid.

text: Pancreatin is a mixture of several digestive

text: enzyme

text: s produced by the

text: exocrine

text: cells of the

text: pancreas

text: . It is composed of

text: amylase

text: lipase

text: and

text: protease

text: . This mixture is used to treat conditions in which

text: pancreatic

text: secretions are deficient, such as

text: surgical pancreatectomy

text: pancreatitis

text: and

text: cystic fibrosis

text: . It has been claimed to help with food allergies, celiac disease, autoimmune disease, cancer and weight loss. Pancreatin is sometimes called "pancreatic acid", although it is neither a single chemical substance nor an acid.

text: Digestion of food is achieved through a mixture of mechanical and chemical processes. Failure to produce or secrete chemicals known as digestive enzymes can lead to failure digesting or breaking down specific components of ingested food.

text: Digestion of food is achieved through a mixture of mechanical and chemical processes. Failure to produce or secrete chemicals known as

text: digestive enzymes

text: can lead to failure digesting or breaking down specific components of ingested food.

text: Trichoplax adhaerens feeds on small algae, particularly on green algae (Chlorophyta) of the genus Chlorella, cryptomonads (Cryptophyta) of the genera Cryptomonas and Rhodomonas, and blue-green bacteria (Cyanobacteria) such as Phormidium inundatum, but also on detritus from other organisms. In feeding, one or several small pockets form around particles of nutrients on the ventral side, into which digestive enzymes are released by the gland cells; the organisms thus develop a temporary "external stomach", so to speak. The enclosed nutrients are then taken up by pinocytosis ("cell-drinking") by the ciliated cells located on the ventral surface.

text: Trichoplax adhaerens feeds on small algae, particularly on green algae (

text: Chlorophyta

text: ) of the genus

text: Chlorella

text: , cryptomonads (

text: Cryptophyta

text: ) of the genera Cryptomonas and Rhodomonas, and blue-green bacteria (

text: Cyanobacteria

text: ) such as Phormidium inundatum, but also on detritus from other organisms. In feeding, one or several small pockets form around particles of nutrients on the ventral side, into which digestive enzymes are released by the gland cells; the organisms thus develop a temporary "external stomach", so to speak. The enclosed nutrients are then taken up by

text: pinocytosis

text: ("cell-drinking") by the ciliated cells located on the ventral surface.

text: The first and largest food attack in the US is the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack. 751 individuals were poisoned in The Dalles, Oregon through the contamination of salad bars with Salmonella with the intention of affecting the 1984 Wasco County elections.

text: The first and largest food attack in the US is the

text: 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack

text: . 751 individuals were poisoned in

text: The Dalles, Oregon

text: through the contamination of salad bars with

text: Salmonella

text: with the intention of affecting the 1984

text: Wasco County

text: elections.

text: The koala has several adaptations for its eucalypt diet, which is of low nutritive value, of high toxicity, and high in dietary fibre. The animal's dentition consists of the incisors and cheek teeth (a single premolar and four molars on each jaw), which are separated by a large gap (a characteristic feature of herbivorous mammals). The incisors are used for grasping leaves, which are then passed to the premolars to be snipped at the petiole before being passed to the highly cusped molars, where they are shredded into small pieces. Koalas may also store food in their cheek pouches before it is ready to be chewed. The partially worn molars of middle-aged koalas are optimal for breaking the leaves into small particles, resulting in more efficient stomach digestion and nutrient absorption in the small intestine, which digests the eucalyptus leaves to provide most of the animal's energy. A koala sometimes regurgitates the food into the mouth to be chewed a second time.

text: The koala has several adaptations for its eucalypt diet, which is of low nutritive value, of high toxicity, and high in

text: dietary fibre

text: . The animal's

text: dentition

text: consists of the incisors and

text: cheek teeth

text: (a single premolar and four molars on each jaw), which are separated by a large gap (a characteristic feature of herbivorous mammals). The incisors are used for grasping leaves, which are then passed to the premolars to be snipped at the

text: petiole

text: before being passed to the highly

text: cusped

text: molars, where they are shredded into small pieces. Koalas may also store food in their

text: cheek pouch

text: es before it is ready to be chewed. The partially worn molars of middle-aged koalas are optimal for breaking the leaves into small particles, resulting in more efficient stomach digestion and nutrient absorption in the small intestine, which digests the eucalyptus leaves to provide most of the animal's energy. A koala sometimes

text: regurgitates

text: the food into the mouth to be chewed a second time.

text: Most critical organs are housed within the torso. In the upper chest, the heart and lungs are protected by the rib cage, and the abdomen contains most of the organs responsible for digestion: the stomach, which breaks down partially digested food via gastric acid; the  liver, which respectively produces bile necessary for digestion; the large and small intestines, which extract nutrients from food; the anus, from which fecal wastes are excreted; the rectum, which stores feces; the gallbladder, which stores and concentrates bile; the kidneys, which produce urine, the ureters, which pass it to the bladder for storage; and the urethra, which excretes urine and passes sperm through the seminal vesicles. Finally, the pelvic region houses both the male and female reproductive organs.

text: Most critical

text: organs

text: are housed within the torso. In the upper chest, the

text: heart

text: and

text: lungs

text: are protected by the

text: rib cage

text: , and the

text: abdomen

text: contains most of the organs responsible for

text: digestion

text: : the

text: stomach

text: , which breaks down partially digested food via

text: gastric acid

text: ; the

text: liver

text: , which respectively produces

text: bile

text: necessary for digestion; the

text: large

text: and

text: small intestine

text: s, which extract nutrients from food; the

text: anus

text: , from which

text: fecal wastes

text: are excreted; the

text: rectum

text: , which stores

text: feces

text: ; the

text: gallbladder

text: , which stores and concentrates bile; the

text: kidney

text: s, which produce

text: urine

text: , the

text: ureter

text: s, which pass it to the

text: bladder

text: for storage; and the

text: urethra

text: , which excretes urine and passes

text: sperm

text: through the

text: seminal vesicle

text: s. Finally, the

text: pelvic

text: region houses both the male and female

text: reproductive organs

text: Species within the Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, and pikas) produce two types of fecal pellets: hard ones, and soft ones called cecotropes. Animals in these species reingest their cecotropes, to extract further nutrients. Cecotropes derive from chewed plant material that collects in the cecum, a chamber between the large and small intestine, containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the animal and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables these animals to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. This process serves the same purpose within these animals as rumination (cud-chewing) does in cattle and sheep.

text: Species within the

text: Lagomorpha

text: rabbit

text: s,

text: hare

text: s, and

text: pika

text: s) produce two types of fecal pellets: hard ones, and soft ones called

text: cecotrope

text: s. Animals in these species reingest their cecotropes, to extract further nutrients. Cecotropes derive from chewed plant material that collects in the

text: cecum

text: , a chamber between the large and small intestine, containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the animal and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables these animals to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. This process serves the same purpose within these animals as

text: rumination

text: (cud-chewing) does in cattle and sheep.

text: Buccal administration refers to a topical route of administration by which drugs held or applied in the buccal () area (in the cheek) diffuse through the oral mucosa (tissues which line the mouth) and enter directly into the bloodstream.  Buccal administration may provide better bioavailability of some drugs and a more rapid onset of action compared to oral administration because the medication does not pass through the digestive system and thereby avoids first pass metabolism.

text: Buccal administration refers to a

text: topical

text: route of administration

text: by which

text: drug

text: s held or applied in the buccal () area (in the

text: cheek

text: ) diffuse through the

text: oral mucosa

text: tissues

text: which line the

text: mouth

text: ) and enter directly into the

text: bloodstream

text: .  Buccal administration may provide better

text: bioavailability

text: of some drugs and a more rapid

text: onset of action

text: compared to oral administration because the medication does not pass through the

text: digestive system

text: and thereby avoids

text: first pass metabolism

text: Secondary treatment can be performed at the community or household level and can include thermophilic composting where fecal material is composted at over 50 °C, prolonged storage with the duration of 1.5 to two years, chemical treatment with ammonia from urine to inactivate the pathogens, solar sanitation for further drying or heat treatment to eliminate pathogens. The most difficult pathogens to eliminate from the drying feces in the feces vaults are the helminth eggs which can cause helminth infections.

text: Secondary treatment can be performed at the community or household level and can include

text: thermophilic composting

text: where fecal material is composted at over 50 °C, prolonged storage with the duration of 1.5 to two years, chemical treatment with ammonia from urine to inactivate the pathogens,

text: solar sanitation

text: for further drying or heat treatment to eliminate pathogens. The most difficult pathogens to eliminate from the drying feces in the feces vaults are the helminth eggs which can cause helminth infections.

text: Most of Truvia's side effects are related to erythritol which is a sugar alcohol. Sugar alcohols are valuable as sweeteners since they cause little to no rise in blood glucose levels as sugar does. However, the downside to most sugar alcohols is their propensity to cause gastrointestinal side effects. Erythritol is unique in that among these compounds it has one of the most favorable nutritional profiles. Erythritol is almost as sweet as sucrose, is virtually non-caloric, and cannot be fermented by gut bacteria present in the small intestine. According to Truvia's website, up to 90% of erythritol is absorbed by the small intestine and excreted unchanged in the urine. Only a small amount of it will reach the large intestine where GI symptoms, like bloating, flatulence, and cramping usually originate. Truvia's website claims:

text: Orlistat works by inhibiting gastric and pancreatic lipases, the enzymes that break down triglycerides in the intestine. When lipase activity is blocked, triglycerides from the diet are not hydrolyzed into absorbable free fatty acids, and instead are excreted unchanged. Only trace amounts of orlistat are absorbed systemically; the primary effect is local lipase inhibition within the GI tract after an oral dose. The primary route of elimination is through the feces.

text: Orlistat works by inhibiting gastric and pancreatic

text: lipases

text: , the

text: enzyme

text: s that break down

text: triglycerides

text: in the

text: intestine

text: . When lipase activity is blocked, triglycerides from the diet are not

text: hydrolyzed

text: into absorbable free

text: fatty acid

text: s, and instead are excreted unchanged. Only trace amounts of orlistat are absorbed systemically; the primary effect is local lipase inhibition within the

text: GI tract

text: after an oral dose. The primary route of elimination is through the

text: feces

text: A food intolerance on the other hand does not activate the individual's immune response system. A food intolerance differs from a food allergy or chemical sensitivity because it generally requires a normal serving size to produce symptoms similar to an IgE immunologic response. While food intolerances may be mistaken for a food allergy, they are thought to originate in the gastrointestinal system. Food intolerances are usually caused by the individual’s inability to digest or absorb foods or food components in the intestinal tract. One common example of food intolerance is lactose intolerance.

text: A food intolerance

text: on the other hand does not activate the individual's immune response system. A food intolerance differs from a food allergy or chemical sensitivity because it generally requires a normal serving size to produce symptoms similar to an

text: IgE

text: immunologic response. While food intolerances may be mistaken for a food allergy, they are thought to originate in the gastrointestinal system. Food intolerances are usually caused by the individual’s inability to digest or absorb foods or food components in the intestinal tract. One common example of food intolerance is

text: lactose intolerance

text: On September 9, 2016, the company opened a new, state-of-the-art bakery in Jeffersonville, Indiana - the largest allergy-friendly food production facility in North America.

text: The red colour compound betanin is not broken down in the body, and in higher concentrations may temporarily cause urine and stool to assume a reddish colour; in the case of urine this is called beeturia. This effect may cause distress and concern due to the visual similarity to what appears to be blood in the stool, hematuria (blood in the urine), or hematochezia (blood passing through the anus, usually in or with stool). These deceptive appearances are completely harmless and subside once the betanin is out of the system. In the cases of reddish feces, the bright redness from betanin is in contrast to what occurs with melena (very dark or blackish feces) which often indicates that bleeding is occurring further up the digestive system, and is more likely to be a serious problem.

text: The red colour compound

text: betanin

text: is not broken down in the body, and in higher concentrations may temporarily cause urine and stool to assume a reddish colour; in the case of urine this is called

text: beeturia

text: . This effect may cause distress and concern due to the visual similarity to what appears to be

text: blood in the stool

text: hematuria

text: (blood in the urine), or

text: hematochezia

text: (blood passing through the anus, usually in or with stool). These deceptive appearances are completely harmless and subside once the betanin is out of the system. In the cases of reddish feces, the bright redness from betanin is in contrast to what occurs with

text: melena

text: (very dark or blackish feces) which often indicates that bleeding is occurring further up the digestive system, and is more likely to be a serious problem.

text: Digestive system neoplasms are tumors which affect the digestive system. Types include:

text: Digestive system neoplasms are tumors which affect the

text: digestive system

text: . Types include:

text: The stomach is tubular in shape, with multiple diverticula extending throughout the body. The stomach and its diverticula both produce digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients from the food. It extends through most of the body, and connects to a short sclerotised intestine and anus in the hind part of the abdomen.

text: The stomach is tubular in shape, with multiple

text: diverticula

text: extending throughout the body. The stomach and its diverticula both produce digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients from the food. It extends through most of the body, and connects to a short sclerotised

text: intestine

text: and

text: anus

text: in the hind part of the abdomen.

text: The stomach has three chambers. The first chamber, or forestomach, is not glandular, and opens directly into the second, fundic chamber, which is lined by digestive glands. A narrow tube runs from the second to the third, or pyloric, stomach, which is also glandular, and connects, via a sphincter, to the duodenum. Although fermentation of food material apparently occurs in the small intestine, no caecum is present.

text: The stomach has three chambers. The first chamber, or forestomach, is not glandular, and opens directly into the second, fundic chamber, which is lined by digestive glands. A narrow tube runs from the second to the third, or pyloric, stomach, which is also glandular, and connects, via a

text: sphincter

text: , to the

text: duodenum

text: . Although fermentation of food material apparently occurs in the

text: small intestine

text: , no

text: caecum

text: is present.

text: At the time of discovery, the calf was remarkably well-preserved; her eyes and trunk were intact and some fur remained on her body. Lyuba's organs and skin are in perfect condition. The mammoth was transferred to Jikei University School of Medicine in Japan for further study, including computer tomography scans. Additional scans were conducted at the GE Healthcare Institute in Waukesha, Wisconsin and at the Nondestructive Evaluation Laboratory of Ford Motor Company in Livonia, Michigan.  Lyuba is believed to have suffocated by inhaling mud as she struggled while bogged down in deep mud in the bed of a river which her herd was crossing. Following death, her body may have been colonized by lactic acid-producing bacteria, which "pickled" her, preserving the mammoth in a nearly pristine state. Her skin and organs are intact, and scientists were able to identify milk from her mother in her stomach, and fecal matter in her intestine.  The fecal matter may have been eaten by Lyuba to promote development of the intestinal microbial assemblage necessary for digestion of vegetation. Lyuba appears to have been healthy at the time of her death.  By examining Lyuba's teeth, researchers hope to gain insight into what caused Ice Age mammals, including the mammoths, to become extinct  4500-4000 years ago.

text: At the time of discovery, the calf was remarkably well-preserved; her eyes and trunk were intact and some fur remained on her body. Lyuba's organs and skin are in perfect condition. The mammoth was transferred to

text: Jikei University School of Medicine

text: in

text: Japan

text: for further study, including

text: computer tomography

text: scans. Additional scans were conducted at the GE Healthcare Institute in

text: Waukesha, Wisconsin

text: and at the Nondestructive Evaluation Laboratory of Ford Motor Company in

text: Livonia, Michigan

text: .  Lyuba is believed to have suffocated by inhaling mud as she struggled while bogged down in deep mud in the bed of a river which her herd was crossing. Following death, her body may have been colonized by lactic acid-producing bacteria, which "pickled" her, preserving the mammoth in a nearly pristine state. Her skin and organs are intact, and scientists were able to identify milk from her mother in her stomach, and fecal matter in her intestine.  The fecal matter may have been eaten by Lyuba to promote development of the intestinal microbial assemblage necessary for digestion of vegetation. Lyuba appears to have been healthy at the time of her death.  By examining Lyuba's teeth, researchers hope to gain insight into what caused Ice Age mammals, including the mammoths, to

text: become extinct

text: 4500-4000 years ago.

text: The tegument is the host-parasite interface, and metabolically active body covering performing all the vital activities such as protection, absorption and secretion. The glycocalyx is responsible for inhibition of the host digestive enzymes, absorption of cations and bile salts, and enhancement of the host amylase activity. The acidic glycosaminoglycans of the glycocalyx are specific for inhibiting a number of digestive enzymes of the host. The microtriches in cestodes, and pits and spines in trematodes increase the surface area of the teguments for enhanced absorption of nutrients. In addition, they act as sensory organs for detecting the surrounding environmental cues. The capacity of the tegument to absorb exogenous materials is proportional to the number and extent of pits or microtriches and the number of mitochondria in the distal cytoplasm.

text: The tegument is the host-parasite interface, and metabolically active body covering performing all the vital activities such as protection, absorption and secretion. The

text: glycocalyx

text: is responsible for inhibition of the host

text: digestive enzymes

text: , absorption of

text: cations

text: and

text: bile

text: salts, and enhancement of the host

text: amylase

text: activity. The

text: acidic glycosaminoglycans

text: of the glycocalyx are specific for inhibiting a number of digestive enzymes of the host. The microtriches in

text: cestodes

text: , and pits and spines in

text: trematodes

text: increase the surface area of the teguments for enhanced absorption of nutrients. In addition, they act as

text: sensory organs

text: for detecting the surrounding environmental cues. The capacity of the tegument to absorb

text: exogenous

text: materials is proportional to the number and extent of pits or

text: microtriches

text: and the number of

text: mitochondria

text: in the distal

text: cytoplasm

text: The single egg is buff-white and may have spots. Both birds incubate the egg; the male does so first. Incubation takes about 65 days, and is followed by several weeks of brooding, after which both parents are out at sea to provide for the growing chick. The chick takes about 160 days to fledge. This time investment by the parents may explain the long courtship; both parents want to be sure the other is serious. The chicks are fed regurgitated meals of very rich "stomach oil" and partially digested squid and fish by the parents.

text: The single egg is buff-white and may have spots. Both birds incubate the

text: egg

text: ; the male does so first.

text: Incubation

text: takes about 65 days, and is followed by several weeks of brooding, after which both parents are out at

text: sea

text: to provide for the growing chick. The chick takes about 160 days to fledge. This time investment by the parents may explain the long courtship; both parents want to be sure the other is serious. The chicks are fed regurgitated meals of very rich "stomach oil" and partially digested squid and fish by the parents.

text: CCK also causes the increased production of hepatic bile, and stimulates the contraction of the gall bladder and the relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi (Glisson's sphincter), resulting in the delivery of bile into the duodenal part of the small intestine. Bile salts form amphipathic lipids, micelles that emulsify fats, aiding in their digestion and absorption.

text: CCK also causes the increased production of hepatic bile, and stimulates the contraction of the

text: gall bladder

text: and the relaxation of the

text: sphincter of Oddi

text: (Glisson's sphincter), resulting in the delivery of

text: bile

text: into the duodenal part of the small intestine.

text: Bile salt

text: s form

text: amphipathic

text: lipids

text: micelle

text: s that

text: emulsify

text: fats, aiding in their digestion and absorption.

text: Walker devoted large sections of many of his books to the description of the different organs of the human body, explaining how the digestive system and the various glands work. He considered a healthy colon the key to one's health. He estimated that 80% of all disease begins in the colon. He wrote:  "Every organ, gland and cell in the body is affected by the condition of the colon."

text: Walker devoted large sections of many of his books to the description of the different

text: organs

text: of the

text: human body

text: , explaining how the

text: digestive system

text: and the various

text: gland

text: s work. He considered a healthy

text: colon

text: the key to one's health. He estimated that 80% of all disease begins in the colon. He wrote:  "Every organ, gland and cell in the body is affected by the condition of the colon."

text: The well-preserved skeleton of the Sinocalliopteryx holotype contained the partial leg of a dromaeosaurid within the abdominal cavity, comprising a complete lower leg and foot with toes and claws in their natural, articulated position. While the leg part, about one foot long, is very large in relation to the abdominal cavity, it is clearly situated within it, lying between the ribs. Ji and colleagues in 2007 suggested that this could indicate it preyed upon the smaller, bird-like dinosaur. This discovery indicated that Sinocalliopteryx may have been an agile, active, "fierce" predator, especially since other compsognathids have been found with (presumably fast-moving) lizards and small mammals in their abdominal cavities. In 2012 the dromaeosaurid was tentatively identified as an individual of Sinornithosaurus with a length of 1.2 metres (3.9 ft). The 2012 study also reported newly discovered remains of prey animals. Above the dromaeosaurid leg, feathers are visible. Below it two clusters of digested food can be seen. It was suggested that the feathers had belonged to a bird and were with the leg still present in the stomach. The digested food would, using the preserved digestive tract of Scipionyx as a reference, have been positioned in the duodenum. The C-shaped abdominal contents of this specimen appear to reflect of the original contour of the digestive tract.

text: The well-preserved skeleton of the Sinocalliopteryx holotype contained the partial leg of a

text: dromaeosaurid

text: within the abdominal cavity, comprising a complete lower leg and foot with toes and claws in their natural, articulated position. While the leg part, about one foot long, is very large in relation to the abdominal cavity, it is clearly situated within it, lying between the ribs. Ji and colleagues in 2007 suggested that this could indicate it preyed upon the smaller, bird-like dinosaur. This discovery indicated that Sinocalliopteryx may have been an agile, active, "fierce" predator, especially since other compsognathids have been found with (presumably fast-moving) lizards and small mammals in their abdominal cavities. In 2012 the dromaeosaurid was tentatively identified as an individual of

text: Sinornithosaurus

text: with a length of 1.2 metres (3.9 ft). The 2012 study also reported newly discovered remains of prey animals. Above the dromaeosaurid leg, feathers are visible. Below it two clusters of digested food can be seen. It was suggested that the feathers had belonged to a bird and were with the leg still present in the

text: stomach

text: . The digested food would, using the preserved digestive tract of

text: Scipionyx

text: as a reference, have been positioned in the

text: duodenum

text: . The C-shaped abdominal contents of this specimen appear to reflect of the original contour of the digestive tract.

text: Operated by the division of digestive diseases, this center is divided into a stomach-esophagus clinic, colon-anus clinic, liver clinic and pancreas-bile clinic. Centered on the departments of gastroenterology and general surgery, the center also provides follow-up counseling after treatment.

text: In healthy humans, CLA and the related conjugated linolenic acid (CLNA) isomers are bioconverted from linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid, respectively, mainly by Bifidobacterium bacteria strains inhabiting the gastrointestinal tract. However, this bioconversion may not occur at any significant level in those with a digestive disease, gluten sensitivity, and/or dysbiosis.

text: In healthy humans, CLA and the related conjugated linolenic acid (CLNA) isomers are

text: bioconverted

text: from

text: linoleic acid

text: and

text: alpha-linolenic acid

text: , respectively, mainly by

text: Bifidobacterium

text: bacteria

text: strains inhabiting the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . However, this bioconversion may not occur at any significant level in those with a

text: digestive disease

text: gluten sensitivity

text: , and/or

text: dysbiosis

text: Merrill and Watt derived a system whereby specific calorie conversion factors for different foods were proposed. This takes cognizance of the fact that first the gross energy values of the protein, fats and carbohydrates from different food sources are different, and second, that the apparent digestibility of the components of different foods is different.

text: A seafood allergy is a hypersensitivity to an allergen which can be present in fish, and particularly in shellfish. This can result in an overreaction of the immune system and lead to severe physical symptoms. Most people who    have a food allergy also have a seafood allergy. Allergic reactions can result from ingesting seafood, or by breathing in vapours from preparing or cooking seafood. The most severe seafood allergy reaction is anaphylaxis, an emergency requiring immediate attention. It is treated with epinephrine.

text: A

text: seafood allergy

text: is a hypersensitivity to an

text: allergen

text: which can be present in

text: fish

text: , and particularly in

text: shellfish

text: . This can result in an overreaction of the immune system and lead to severe physical symptoms. Most people who    have a food allergy also have a seafood allergy. Allergic reactions can result from ingesting seafood, or by breathing in vapours from preparing or cooking seafood. The most severe seafood allergy reaction is

text: anaphylaxis

text: , an emergency requiring immediate attention. It is treated with

text: epinephrine

text: In addition to disease caused by direct bacterial infection, some foodborne illnesses are caused by enterotoxins (exotoxins targeting the intestines). Enterotoxins can produce illness even when the microbes that produced them have been killed. Symptom appearance varies with the toxin but may be rapid in onset, as in the case of enterotoxins of Staphylococcus aureus in which symptoms appear in one to six hours. This causes intense vomiting including or not including diarrhea (resulting in staphylococcal enteritis), and staphylococcal enterotoxins (most commonly staphylococcal enterotoxin A but also including staphylococcal enterotoxin B) are the most commonly reported enterotoxins although cases of poisoning are likely underestimated. It occurs mainly in cooked and processed foods due to competition with other biota in raw foods, and humans are the main cause of contamination as a substantial percentage of humans are persistent carriers of S. aureus. The CDC has estimated about 240,000 cases per year in the United States.

text: In addition to disease caused by direct bacterial infection, some foodborne illnesses are caused by

text: enterotoxin

text: s (

text: exotoxin

text: s targeting the intestines). Enterotoxins can produce illness even when the microbes that produced them have been killed. Symptom appearance varies with the toxin but may be rapid in onset, as in the case of enterotoxins of

text: Staphylococcus aureus

text: in which symptoms appear in one to six hours. This causes intense

text: vomiting

text: including or not including diarrhea (resulting in

text: staphylococcal enteritis

text: ), and staphylococcal enterotoxins (most commonly

text: staphylococcal enterotoxin A

text: but also including

text: staphylococcal enterotoxin B

text: ) are the most commonly reported enterotoxins although cases of poisoning are likely underestimated. It occurs mainly in cooked and processed foods due to competition with other biota in raw foods, and humans are the main cause of contamination as a substantial percentage of humans are persistent carriers of S. aureus. The CDC has estimated about 240,000 cases per year in the United States.

text: The ectodermal dysplasia associated with EEC syndrome arises from abnormalities in the embryonic ectoderm, as described above. Very early in embryonic development, the embryonic stem cells differentiate into three types of cells: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. It is from these three types of cells that all body organs originate. In general terms, ectodermal cells generate the skin, spinal cord, and teeth (as well as the numerous derivatives mentioned above). Mesodermal cells generate blood vessels, muscle and bone, and endodermal cells generate the lungs, the digestive system and the urinary system.

text: The ectodermal dysplasia associated with EEC syndrome arises from abnormalities in the embryonic ectoderm, as described above. Very early in embryonic development, the embryonic

text: stem cells

text: differentiate into three types of cells: the

text: ectoderm

text: mesoderm

text: , and

text: endoderm

text: . It is from these three types of cells that all body organs originate. In general terms, ectodermal cells generate the

text: skin

text: spinal cord

text: , and

text: teeth

text: (as well as the numerous derivatives mentioned above). Mesodermal cells generate

text: blood

text: vessels,

text: muscle

text: and

text: bone

text: , and endodermal cells generate the

text: lungs

text: , the digestive system and the urinary system.

text: Rocked by the death of Jimmy during the school shooting, Mouth refused to allow people to think of Jimmy as a monster. Mouth is commonly seen as a friend or "little brother" by girls whom he likes, such as Brooke Davis, Rachel Gatina, and Shelley Simon. After graduating college, however, he found love with Millie, Brooke's assistant from the New York branch of Clothes Over Bros. Although their relationship has been strained at times, Mouth and Millie currently live together in Tree Hill and host a morning show.

text: Rocked by the death of Jimmy during the

entity_name: With Tired Eyes, Tired Minds, Tired Souls, We Slept

text: school shooting

text: , Mouth refused to allow people to think of Jimmy as a monster. Mouth is commonly seen as a friend or "little brother" by girls whom he likes, such as

text: Brooke Davis

text: Rachel Gatina

text: , and Shelley Simon. After graduating college, however, he found love with

text: Millie

text: , Brooke's assistant from the New York branch of

text: Clothes Over Bros

text: . Although their relationship has been strained at times, Mouth and Millie currently live together in Tree Hill and host a morning show.

text: Diagnosis is carried out by first doing a diagnostic elimination diet, skin prick tests, measuring IgE in blood, and conducting in-office food challenges. A double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge is still the gold standard for the diagnosis for all food allergies, including milk allergies. A negative IgE test doesn't rule out cell-based allergy, and the double-blind, placebo-controlled food challenge is important to rule out this form of allergy.

text:
Year 2
Block 10 - Circulation
Block 11 - Oxygen
Block 12- Hematology (Immunity and Blood)
Block 13 - Musculoskeletal and Rheumatology
Block 14 - Renal Systems
Block 15 - Urinary Systems
Block 16 - Endocrinology
Block 17 - Gynecology
Block 18 - Nutrition and Digestion
Block 19 - Preclinical Studies

text: Although the late stages of pregnancy are associated with an increase in sebaceous gland activity in the skin, pregnancy has not been reliably associated with worsened acne severity. In general, topically applied medications are considered the first-line approach to acne treatment during pregnancy, as topical therapies have little systemic absorption and are therefore unlikely to harm a developing fetus. Highly recommended therapies include topically applied benzoyl peroxide (category C) and azelaic acid (category B). Salicylic acid carries a category C safety rating due to higher systemic absorption (9–25%) and an association between the use of anti-inflammatory medications in the third trimester of pregnancy and adverse effects to the developing fetus including oligohydramnios and early closure of the ductus arteriosus. Prolonged use of salicylic acid over significant areas of the skin or under occlusive dressings is not recommended as these methods increase systemic absorption and the potential for fetal harm. Tretinoin (category C) and adapalene (category C) are very poorly absorbed, but certain studies have suggested teratogenic effects in the first trimester. In studies examining the effects of topical retinoids during pregnancy, fetal harm has not been seen in the second and third trimesters. Retinoids contraindicated for use during pregnancy include the topical retinoid tazarotene (category X) and oral retinoids isotretinoin (category X) and acitretin (category X). Spironolactone is relatively contraindicated for use during pregnancy due to its antiandrogen effects. Finasteride is also not recommended for use during pregnancy as it is highly teratogenic.

text: Although the late stages of pregnancy are associated with an increase in sebaceous gland activity in the skin, pregnancy has not been reliably associated with worsened acne severity. In general, topically applied medications are considered the first-line approach to acne treatment during pregnancy, as topical therapies have little systemic absorption and are therefore unlikely to harm a developing

text: fetus

text: . Highly recommended therapies include topically applied benzoyl peroxide (category C) and azelaic acid (category B). Salicylic acid carries a category C safety rating due to higher systemic absorption (9–25%) and an association between the use of anti-inflammatory medications in the third trimester of pregnancy and adverse effects to the developing fetus including

text: oligohydramnios

text: and early closure of the

text: ductus arteriosus

text: . Prolonged use of salicylic acid over significant areas of the skin or under

text: occlusive dressing

text: s is not recommended as these methods increase systemic absorption and the potential for fetal harm. Tretinoin (category C) and adapalene (category C) are very poorly absorbed, but certain studies have suggested

text: teratogen

text: ic effects in the first trimester. In studies examining the effects of topical retinoids during pregnancy, fetal harm has not been seen in the second and third trimesters. Retinoids contraindicated for use during pregnancy include the topical retinoid tazarotene (category X) and oral retinoids isotretinoin (category X) and

text: acitretin

text: (category X). Spironolactone is relatively contraindicated for use during pregnancy due to its antiandrogen effects.

text: Finasteride

text: is also not recommended for use during pregnancy as it is highly teratogenic.

text: The wall of the esophagus from the lumen outwards consists of mucosa, submucosa (connective tissue), layers of muscle fibers between layers of fibrous tissue, and an outer layer of connective tissue. The mucosa is a stratified squamous epithelium of around three layers of squamous cells, which contrasts to the single layer of columnar cells of the stomach. The transition between these two types of epithelium is visible as a zig-zag line.  Most of the muscle is smooth muscle although striated muscle predominates in its upper two thirds. It has two muscular rings or sphincters in its wall, one at the top and one at the bottom. The lower sphincter helps to prevent reflux of acidic stomach content. The esophagus has a rich blood supply and venous drainage. Its smooth muscle is innervated by involuntary nerves (sympathetic nerves via the sympathetic trunk and parasympathetic nerves via the vagus nerve) and in addition voluntary nerves (lower motor neurons) which are carried in the vagus nerve to innervate its striated muscle.

text: The wall of the esophagus from the

text: lumen

text: outwards consists of

text: mucosa

text: submucosa

text: (connective tissue),

text: layers of muscle fibers

text: between layers of

text: fibrous tissue

text: , and an outer layer of connective tissue. The mucosa is a

text: stratified squamous epithelium

text: of around three layers of squamous cells, which contrasts to the

text: single layer of columnar cells

text: of the stomach. The transition between these two types of epithelium is visible as a zig-zag line.  Most of the muscle is

text: smooth muscle

text: although

text: striated muscle

text: predominates in its upper two thirds. It has two muscular rings or

text: sphincter

text: s in its wall, one at the top and one at the bottom. The lower sphincter helps to prevent reflux of acidic stomach content. The esophagus has a rich blood supply and venous drainage. Its smooth muscle is innervated by involuntary nerves (

text: sympathetic nerve

text: s via the

text: sympathetic trunk

text: and

text: parasympathetic nerve

text: s via the

text: vagus nerve

text: ) and in addition voluntary nerves (

text: lower motor neurons

text: ) which are carried in the vagus nerve to innervate its striated muscle.

text: As with photoacoustic spectroscopy, photothermal spectroscopy is an indirect method for measuring optical absorption, because it is not based on the direct measure of the light which is involved in the absorption. In another sense, however, photothermal (and photoacoustic) methods measure directly the absorption, rather than e.g. calculate it from the transmission, as is the case of more usual (transmission) spectroscopic techniques. And it is this fact that gives the technique its high sensitivity, because in transmission techniques the absorptance is calculated as the difference between total light impinging on the sample and the transmitted (plus reflected, plus scattered) light, with the usual problems of accuracy when one deals with small differences between large numbers, if the absorption is small. In photothermal spectroscopies, instead, the signal is essentially proportional to the absorption, and is zero when there is zero true absorption, even in the presence of reflection or scattering.

text: As with

text: photoacoustic spectroscopy

text: , photothermal spectroscopy is an indirect method for measuring

text: optical absorption

text: , because it is not based on the direct measure of the light which is involved in the absorption. In another sense, however, photothermal (and photoacoustic) methods measure directly the absorption, rather than e.g. calculate it from the transmission, as is the case of more usual (transmission) spectroscopic techniques. And it is this fact that gives the technique its high sensitivity, because in transmission techniques the

text: absorptance

text: is calculated as the difference between total light impinging on the sample and the

text: transmitted

text: (plus

text: reflected

text: , plus

text: scattered

text: ) light, with the usual problems of accuracy when one deals with small differences between large numbers, if the absorption is small. In photothermal spectroscopies, instead, the signal is essentially proportional to the absorption, and is zero when there is zero true absorption, even in the presence of reflection or scattering.

text: FOS has been a popular sweetener in Japan for many years, even before 1990, when the Japanese government installed a "Functionalized Food Study Committee" of 22 experts to start to regulate "special nutrition foods or functional foods" that contain the categories of fortified foods (e.g., vitamin-fortified wheat flour), and is now becoming increasingly popular in Western cultures for its prebiotic effects. FOS serves as a substrate for microflora in the large intestine, increasing the overall gastrointestinal tract (GI Tract) health. It has also been proposed as a supplement for treating yeast infections.

text: FOS has been a popular sweetener in Japan for many years, even before 1990, when the Japanese government installed a "Functionalized Food Study Committee" of 22 experts to start to regulate "special nutrition foods or functional foods" that contain the categories of fortified foods (e.g., vitamin-fortified wheat flour), and is now becoming increasingly popular in Western cultures for its

text: prebiotic

text: effects. FOS serves as a substrate for microflora in the large intestine, increasing the overall

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: (GI Tract) health. It has also been proposed as a supplement for treating yeast infections.

text: Baked beans are known on occasion to cause a considerable increase in flatulence following consumption; this is due to the fermentation of polysaccharides (specifically oligosaccharides) by gut flora, specifically Methanobrevibacter smithii. The oligosaccharides pass through the small intestine largely unchanged, and when they reach the large intestine, bacteria feast on them, producing copious amounts of flatus. This condition is the basis for the U.S. children's song "Beans, Beans, the Musical Fruit" or, in the UK, "Beans, Beans, Good for the Heart". One of the more prominent examples of the phenomenon, in popular culture, is the campfire scene in Mel Brooks's film Blazing Saddles, in which the cowboys' banter is punctuated by fusillades of flatulence.

text: Baked beans are known on occasion to cause a considerable increase in

text: flatulence

text: following consumption; this is due to the

text: fermentation

text: of

text: polysaccharide

text: s (specifically

text: oligosaccharide

text: s) by

text: gut flora

text: , specifically

text: Methanobrevibacter smithii

text: . The oligosaccharides pass through the small

text: intestine

text: largely unchanged, and when they reach the large

text: intestine

text: , bacteria feast on them, producing copious amounts of flatus. This condition is the basis for the U.S. children's song "

text: Beans, Beans, the Musical Fruit

text: " or, in the UK, "Beans, Beans, Good for the Heart". One of the more prominent examples of the phenomenon, in popular culture, is the campfire scene in Mel Brooks's film

text: Blazing Saddles

text: , in which the cowboys' banter is punctuated by fusillades of flatulence.

text: The duodenum, in anatomy, is part of the digestive system and connects the stomach to the small intestine.

text: The

text: duodenum

text: , in anatomy, is part of the digestive system and connects the stomach to the small intestine.

text: Pigs sometimes eat the feces of herbivores that leave a significant amount of semi-digested matter, including their own. In some cultures it was common for poor families to collect horse feces to feed their pigs, which contributes to the risk of parasite infection.The pig toilet is an application of porcine coprophagy to human sanitation.

text: Pig

text: s sometimes eat the feces of herbivores that leave a significant amount of semi-digested matter, including their own. In some cultures it was common for poor families to collect horse feces to feed their pigs, which contributes to the risk of parasite infection.The

text: pig toilet

text: is an application of

text: porcine

text: coprophagy to human

text: sanitation

text: Fermentable fibers are consumed by the microbiota within the large intestines, mildly increasing fecal bulk and producing short-chain fatty acids as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities (discussion below). Resistant starch, inulin, fructooligosaccharide and galactooligosaccharide are dietary fibers which are fully fermented. These include insoluble as well as soluble fibers. This fermentation impacts the expression of many genes within the large intestine, which impact digestive function and lipid and glucose metabolism, as well as the immune system, inflammation and more.

text: Fermentable fibers are consumed by the

text: microbiota

text: within the large intestines, mildly increasing fecal bulk and producing

text: short-chain fatty acids

text: as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities (discussion below).

text: Resistant starch

text: inulin

text: fructooligosaccharide

text: and

text: galactooligosaccharide

text: are dietary fibers which are fully fermented. These include insoluble as well as soluble fibers. This fermentation impacts the expression of many genes within the large intestine, which impact digestive function and lipid and glucose metabolism, as well as the immune system, inflammation and more.

text: Lindow Man's last meal was preserved in his stomach and intestines and was analysed in some detail. It was hoped that investigations into the contents of the stomach would shed light on the contemporary diet, as was the case with Grauballe Man and Tollund Man in the 1950s. The analysis of the contents of the digestive system of bog bodies had become one of the principal endeavours of investigating such remains. Analysis of the grains present revealed his diet to be mostly of cereals. He probably ate slightly charred bread, although the burning may have had ritual significance rather than being an accident. Some mistletoe pollen was also found in the stomach, indicating that Lindow Man died in around March or April.

text: Lindow Man's last meal was preserved in his stomach and intestines and was analysed in some detail. It was hoped that investigations into the contents of the stomach would shed light on the contemporary diet, as was the case with Grauballe Man and Tollund Man in the 1950s. The analysis of the contents of the digestive system of bog bodies had become one of the principal endeavours of investigating such remains. Analysis of the grains present revealed his diet to be mostly of

text: cereal

text: s. He probably ate slightly charred bread, although the burning may have had ritual significance rather than being an accident. Some

text: mistletoe

text: pollen was also found in the stomach, indicating that Lindow Man died in around March or April.

text: Due to the highly time consuming and work intensive standard procedure the method of in-gel digestion was limited to a relatively small number of protein spots to be processed at a time. Therefore it has been found to be the ideal object for automation ambitions to overcome these limitations for industrial and service laboratories. Today, in laboratories where in-gel digestion is performed with a high-throughput the procedure is usually automated. The degree of automation varies from simple pipetting robots to highly sophisticated all-in-one solutions, offering an automated workflow from gel to mass spectrometry. The systems usually consist of a spot picker, a digestion robot, and a spotter.

text: Due to the highly time consuming and work intensive standard procedure the method of in-gel digestion was limited to a relatively small number of protein spots to be processed at a time. Therefore it has been found to be the ideal object for

text: automation

text: ambitions to overcome these limitations for industrial and service laboratories. Today, in laboratories where in-gel digestion is performed with a high-throughput the procedure is usually automated. The degree of automation varies from simple pipetting

text: robot

text: s to highly sophisticated all-in-one solutions, offering an automated workflow from gel to mass spectrometry. The systems usually consist of a spot picker, a digestion robot, and a spotter.

text: The large, sac-like digestive gland is placed at the left side of the visceral hump flanking the ovotestis and extends almost up to the end of the visceral hump. The intestine is densely ciliated and short. The anus opens slightly anterior, but separate to the nephropore and ventrolaterally on the right side of the visceral hump.

text: The large, sac-like

text: digestive gland

text: is placed at the left side of the visceral hump flanking the

text: ovotestis

text: and extends almost up to the end of the visceral hump. The intestine is densely ciliated and short. The anus opens slightly anterior, but separate to the

text: nephropore

text: and ventrolaterally on the right side of the visceral hump.

text: The systemic bioavailability of azelastine is approximately 40% when administered intranasally. Maximum plasma concentrations (Cmax) are observed within 2–3 hours. The elimination half life, steady-state volume of distribution and plasma clearance are 22 h, 14.5 l/kg and 0.5 l/h/kg respectively (based on intravenous and oral administration data). Azelastine is oxidatively metabolized by the cytochrome P450 family into its active metabolite, desmethylazelastine, and two inactive carboxylic acid metabolites. Approximately 75% of an oral dose is excreted in feces. Pharmacokinetics of orally administered azelastine are not affected by age, gender or hepatic impairment.

text: The systemic

text: bioavailability

text: of azelastine is approximately 40% when administered intranasally. Maximum plasma concentrations (Cmax) are observed within 2–3 hours. The

text: elimination half life

text: , steady-state

text: volume of distribution

text: and plasma clearance are 22 h, 14.5 l/kg and 0.5 l/h/kg respectively (based on intravenous and oral administration data). Azelastine is oxidatively metabolized by the

text: cytochrome P450

text: family into its active metabolite, desmethylazelastine, and two inactive carboxylic acid metabolites. Approximately 75% of an oral dose is excreted in feces.

text: Pharmacokinetics

text: of orally administered azelastine are not affected by age, gender or hepatic impairment.

text: After vegetable or animal food has been digested by a living system, the commutation it has sustained is total and complete...

text: There is growing evidence for a gut-brain connection associated with autism, which suggests a potential benefit for digestive enzyme therapy in autistic children. Working with an Egyptian team, Geir Bjørklund and collaborators performed a double-blind, randomized clinical trial on 101 children with autism (82 boys and 19 girls) aged from 3 to 9 years. The autistic children were diagnosed according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th edition, text revision (DSM-IV-TR) diagnostic criteria. Structured interviews of at least one hour were first performed both with the parents and the children. In a later two hours session was the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) applied. After this, the children with autism were randomized to receive digestive enzymes or placebo. It was found that autistic children that received digestive enzyme therapy for three months had significant improvement in emotional response, general impression autistic score, general behavior, and gastrointestinal symptoms. These results indicate that digestive enzyme therapy in the future may be a possible option in the treatment protocols for autism.

text: Poisonous fish are fish that are poisonous to eat. They contain toxins in their body that the digestive system does not destroy if the fish are eaten. Venomous fish also contain toxins, but differ from poisonous fish in the way they deliver the toxin. Venomous fish bite, sting, or stab and don't necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, since the digestive system often destroys their venom.

text: Poisonous fish are fish that are poisonous to eat. They contain

text: toxin

text: s in their body that the digestive system does not destroy if the fish are eaten.

text: Venomous fish

text: also contain toxins, but differ from poisonous fish in the way they deliver the toxin. Venomous fish bite, sting, or stab and don't necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, since the digestive system often destroys their venom.

text: Dr. George Spomer of the University of Idaho has discovered protocarnivorous activity and function in several glandular plant species, including Cerastium arvense, Ipomopsis aggregata, Heuchera cylindrica, Mimulus lewisii, Penstemon attenuata, Penstemon diphyllus, Potentilla glandulosa var. intermedia, Ribes cereum, Rosa nutkana var. hispida, Rosa woodsii var. ultramontana, Solanum tuberosum, Stellaria americana, and Stellaria jamesiana. These species tested positive for protease activity, though it is unclear whether the protease is produced by the plant or by surface microbes. Two other species evaluated by Dr. Spomer, Geranium viscosissimum and Potentilla arguta, exhibited protease activity and were further examined with C-labeled algal protein for nutrient absorption activity. Both of these latter species displayed an ability to digest and absorb the labeled protein.

text: Dr. George Spomer of the

text: University of Idaho

text: has discovered protocarnivorous activity and function in several glandular plant species, including

text: Cerastium arvense

text: Ipomopsis aggregata

text: Heuchera cylindrica

text: Mimulus lewisii

text: Penstemon attenuata

text: Penstemon diphyllus

text: Potentilla glandulosa

text: var. intermedia,

text: Ribes cereum

text: Rosa nutkana

text: var. hispida,

text: Rosa woodsii

text: var. ultramontana,

text: Solanum tuberosum

text: Stellaria americana

text: , and

text: Stellaria jamesiana

text: . These species tested positive for

text: protease

text: activity, though it is unclear whether the protease is produced by the plant or by surface microbes. Two other species evaluated by Dr. Spomer,

text: Geranium viscosissimum

text: and

text: Potentilla arguta

text: , exhibited protease activity and were further examined with

text: C

text: -labeled algal protein for nutrient absorption activity. Both of these latter species displayed an ability to digest and absorb the labeled protein.

text: Food poisoning is a health risk for all people eating raw foods, and increased demand for raw foods is associated with greater incidence of foodborne illness, especially for raw meat, fish, and shellfish. Outbreaks of gastroenteritis among consumers of raw and undercooked animal products (including smoked, pickled or dried animal products) are well-documented, and include raw meat, raw organ meat, raw fish (whether ocean-going or freshwater), shellfish, raw milk and products made from raw milk, and raw eggs.

text: Food poisoning

text: is a health risk for all people eating raw foods, and increased demand for raw foods is associated with greater incidence of

text: foodborne illness

text: , especially for raw meat, fish, and shellfish. Outbreaks of

text: gastroenteritis

text: among consumers of raw and undercooked animal products (including smoked, pickled or dried animal products) are well-documented, and include raw meat, raw organ meat, raw fish (whether ocean-going or freshwater), shellfish, raw milk and products made from raw milk, and raw eggs.

text: In human anatomy, the mouth is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food and saliva. The oral mucosa is the mucous membrane epithelium lining the inside of the mouth.

text: In

text: human anatomy

text: , the mouth is the first portion of the

text: alimentary canal

text: that receives food and

text: saliva

text: . The

text: oral mucosa

text: is the

text: mucous membrane

text: epithelium

text: lining the inside of the mouth.

text: The muscle of the esophagus in many mammals is striated initially, but then becomes smooth muscle in the caudal third or so. In canines and ruminants, however, it is entirely striated to allow regurgitation to feed young (canines) or regurgitation to chew cud (ruminants). It is entirely smooth muscle in amphibians, reptiles and birds.

text: The muscle of the esophagus in many mammals is striated initially, but then becomes smooth muscle in the caudal third or so. In

text: canines

text: and

text: ruminant

text: s, however, it is entirely striated to allow regurgitation to feed young (canines) or regurgitation to chew cud (ruminants). It is entirely smooth muscle in amphibians, reptiles and birds.

text: Nacella macquariensis plays an important part in the ecology of the foreshore and sub-littoral zone of the islands where it is found. On Marion Island, it is preyed on by the starfish Anasterias rupicola. This attacks the limpet by humping itself over the top of the shell, inserting part of its cardiac stomach under the rim and secreting digestive juices onto the soft body parts inside. The starfish are usually found on horizontal surfaces while the limpets occupy vertical ones. When attacked, the limpet may evade the predator by moving further up the rock face. Older limpets grow too large for individual starfish to tackle but it has been found that several starfish often undertake co-operative group attacks. One starfish initiates the attack but if there are others in the vicinity, the limpet may have no safe direction in which to retreat. The starfish all converge on the limpet and, inverting their stomachs under the rim of its shell, start to feed. Groups of up to 14 starfish have been observed simultaneously feeding on one large limpet. After about 12 hours, digestion is complete and the starfish move away.

text: Nacella macquariensis plays an important part in the ecology of the foreshore and sub-littoral zone of the islands where it is found. On

text: Marion Island

text: , it is preyed on by the starfish

text: Anasterias rupicola

text: . This attacks the limpet by humping itself over the top of the shell, inserting part of its cardiac stomach under the rim and secreting digestive juices onto the soft body parts inside. The starfish are usually found on horizontal surfaces while the limpets occupy vertical ones. When attacked, the limpet may evade the predator by moving further up the rock face. Older limpets grow too large for individual starfish to tackle but it has been found that several starfish often undertake co-operative group attacks. One starfish initiates the attack but if there are others in the vicinity, the limpet may have no safe direction in which to retreat. The starfish all converge on the limpet and, inverting their stomachs under the rim of its shell, start to feed. Groups of up to 14 starfish have been observed simultaneously feeding on one large limpet. After about 12 hours, digestion is complete and the starfish move away.

text: The gastrointestinal tract is lined with epithelial cells.  Drugs must pass or permeate through these cells in order to be absorbed into the circulatory system.  One particular cellular barrier that may prevent absorption of a given drug is the cell membrane.  Cell membranes are essentially lipid bilayers which form a semipermeable membrane.  Pure lipid bilayers are generally permeable only to small, uncharged solutes.  Hence, whether or not a molecule is ionized will affect its absorption, since ionic molecules are charged.  Solubility favors charged species, and permeability favors neutral species.  Some molecules have special exchange proteins and channels to facilitate movement from the lumen into the circulation.

text: The

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: is lined with

text: epithelial cells

text: .  Drugs must pass or permeate through these cells in order to be absorbed into the

text: circulatory system

text: .  One particular cellular barrier that may prevent absorption of a given drug is the

text: cell membrane

text: .  Cell membranes are essentially

text: lipid bilayer

text: s which form a

text: semipermeable membrane

text: .  Pure lipid bilayers are generally permeable only to small, uncharged solutes.  Hence, whether or not a molecule is

text: ionized

text: will affect its absorption, since ionic molecules are charged.  Solubility favors charged species, and permeability favors neutral species.  Some molecules have special exchange proteins and channels to facilitate movement from the lumen into the circulation.

text: The word stomach is derived from the Latin stomachus which is derived from the Greek word stomachos (στόμαχος), ultimately from stoma (στόμα), "mouth".  The words gastro- and gastric (meaning related to the stomach) are both derived from the Greek word gaster (γαστήρ, meaning "belly").

text: The word stomach is derived from the

text: Latin

text: stomachus which is derived from the

text: Greek

text: word stomachos (στόμαχος), ultimately from stoma (στόμα), "mouth".  The words gastro- and gastric (meaning related to the stomach) are both derived from the Greek word gaster (γαστήρ, meaning "belly").

text: Bacteria are a common cause of foodborne illness. In the United Kingdom during 2000, the individual bacteria involved were the following: Campylobacter jejuni 77.3%, Salmonella 20.9%, Escherichia coli O157:H7 1.4%, and all others less than 0.56%.  In the past, bacterial infections were thought to be more prevalent because few places had the capability to test for norovirus and no active surveillance was being done for this particular agent. Toxins from bacterial infections are delayed because the bacteria need time to multiply. As a result, symptoms associated with intoxication are usually not seen until 12–72 hours or more after eating contaminated food. However, in some cases, such as Staphylococcal food poisoning, the onset of illness can be as soon as 30 minutes after ingesting contaminated food.

text: Bacteria

text: are a common cause of foodborne illness. In the

text: United Kingdom

text: during 2000, the individual bacteria involved were the following:

text: Campylobacter jejuni

text: Salmonella

text: Escherichia coli O157:H7

text: 1.4%, and all others less than 0.56%.  In the past, bacterial infections were thought to be more prevalent because few places had the capability to test for

text: norovirus

text: and no active surveillance was being done for this particular agent. Toxins from bacterial infections are delayed because the bacteria need time to multiply. As a result, symptoms associated with intoxication are usually not seen until 12–72 hours or more after eating contaminated food. However, in some cases, such as Staphylococcal food poisoning, the onset of illness can be as soon as 30 minutes after ingesting contaminated food.

text: T. saginata does not have a digestive system, mouth, anus, or digestive tract. It derives nutrients from the host through its tegument, as the tegument is completely covered with absorptive hair-like microtriches. It is also an acoelomate, having no body cavity. The inside of each mature proglottid is filled with muscular layers and complete male and female reproductive systems, including the tubular unbranched uterus, ovary, genital pore, testes, and vitelline gland. In the gravid proglottid, the uterus contains up to 15 side branches filled with eggs.

text: T. saginata does not have a

text: digestive system

text: , mouth,

text: anus

text: , or digestive tract. It derives nutrients from the host through its tegument, as the tegument is completely covered with absorptive hair-like

text: microtriches

text: . It is also an

text: acoelomate

text: , having no body cavity. The inside of each mature proglottid is filled with muscular layers and complete male and female reproductive systems, including the tubular unbranched

text: uterus

text: ovary

text: genital

text: pore, testes, and

text: vitelline gland

text: . In the

text: gravid proglottid

text: , the uterus contains up to 15 side branches filled with eggs.

text: Primarily using the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) as a mediator, the parasympathetic system allows the body to function in a “rest and digest” state. Consequently, when the parasympathetic system dominates the body, there are increases in salivation and activities in digestion, while heart rate and other sympathetic response decrease. Unlike the sympathetic system, humans have some voluntary controls in the parasympathetic system. The most prominent examples of this control are urination and defecation.

text: Primarily using the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: (ACh) as a mediator, the

text: parasympathetic system

text: allows the body to function in a “rest and digest” state. Consequently, when the parasympathetic system dominates the body, there are increases in salivation and activities in digestion, while heart rate and other sympathetic response decrease. Unlike the sympathetic system, humans have some voluntary controls in the parasympathetic system. The most prominent examples of this control are urination and defecation.

text: Worms are found in many places, from the forest floor to mountains, and in many locations around the world. Though they are considered terrestrial animals, they are really semi-aquatic, like other annelids; they die quickly in air but survive for months in water. Though inactive during the day, they sometimes come out of their burrows at night. They are eaten by thrushes and other birds in large numbers because they lie close to the surface. They have well developed muscular, nervous, circulatory and digestive systems, the latter being quite unique. Though eyeless, they respond to the intensity and duration of light. They also slowly respond to temperature. They have no hearing, but are sensitive to vibrations. Their sense of smell is feeble, but they are able to find their preferred foods. Omnivorous animals, they swallow much earth and extract food from it. Worms live chiefly on half decayed leaves, partially digested by a pancreatic solution before ingestion. This extra-stomachal digestion is not unlike that which Darwin had previously described as occurring in Insectivorous Plants. The structure and physiology of the calciferous glands of earthworms are described. Many hypotheses had been advanced for their function; Darwin believed them to be primarily for excretion and secondarily a digestion aid.

text: Worms are found in many places, from the forest floor to mountains, and in many locations around the world. Though they are considered terrestrial animals, they are really semi-aquatic, like other

text: annelid

text: s; they die quickly in air but survive for months in water. Though inactive during the day, they sometimes come out of their burrows at night. They are eaten by

text: thrush

text: es and other birds in large numbers because they lie close to the surface. They have well developed muscular, nervous, circulatory and digestive systems, the latter being quite unique. Though eyeless, they respond to the intensity and duration of light. They also slowly respond to temperature. They have no hearing, but are sensitive to vibrations. Their sense of smell is feeble, but they are able to find their preferred foods.

text: Omnivorous

text: animals, they swallow much earth and extract food from it. Worms live chiefly on half decayed

text: leaves

text: , partially digested by a

text: pancreatic solution

text: before ingestion. This extra-stomachal digestion is not unlike that which Darwin had previously described as occurring in

text: Insectivorous Plants

text: . The structure and physiology of the

text: calciferous glands

text: of earthworms are described. Many hypotheses had been advanced for their function; Darwin believed them to be primarily for

text: excretion

text: and secondarily a

text: digestion

text: aid.

text: The Imhoff tank, named for German engineer  Karl Imhoff (1876–1965), is a chamber suitable for the reception and processing of sewage. It may be used for the clarification of sewage by simple settling and sedimentation, along with anaerobic digestion of the extracted sludge. It consists of an upper chamber in which sedimentation takes place, from which collected solids slide down inclined bottom slopes to an entrance into a lower chamber in which the sludge is collected and digested. The two chambers are otherwise unconnected, with sewage flowing only through the upper sedimentation chamber and no flow of sewage in the lower digestion chamber. The lower chamber requires separate biogas vents and pipes for the removal of digested sludge, typically after 6-9 months of digestion. The Imhoff tank is in effect a two-story septic tank and retains the septic tank's simplicity while eliminating many of its drawbacks, which largely result from the mixing of fresh sewage and septic sludge in the same chamber.

text: The Imhoff tank, named for German engineer

text: Karl Imhoff

text: (1876–1965), is a chamber suitable for the reception and processing of

text: sewage

text: . It may be used for the clarification of sewage by simple

text: settling

text: and

text: sedimentation

text: , along with

text: anaerobic digestion

text: of the extracted

text: sludge

text: . It consists of an upper chamber in which sedimentation takes place, from which collected solids slide down inclined bottom slopes to an entrance into a lower chamber in which the sludge is collected and digested. The two chambers are otherwise unconnected, with sewage flowing only through the upper sedimentation chamber and no flow of sewage in the lower digestion chamber. The lower chamber requires separate

text: biogas

text: vents and pipes for the removal of

text: digested sludge

text: , typically after 6-9 months of digestion. The Imhoff tank is in effect a two-story

text: septic tank

text: and retains the septic tank's simplicity while eliminating many of its drawbacks, which largely result from the mixing of fresh sewage and septic sludge in the same chamber.

text: In Ayurveda consuming incompatible foods (“viruddha”)is considered to be a cause of many diseases. In the Charaka Samhita a list is given. P.V. Sharma states that such incompatibilities may not have influence on a person who is strong, exercises sufficiently and has a good digestive system.

text: In

text: Ayurveda

text: consuming incompatible foods (“viruddha”)is considered to be a cause of many diseases. In the

text: Charaka Samhita

text: a list is given. P.V. Sharma states that such incompatibilities may not have influence on a person who is strong, exercises sufficiently and has a good digestive system.

text: The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and bioremediation. Bacteria capable of digesting the hydrocarbons in petroleum are often used to clean up oil spills. Fertiliser was added to some of the beaches in Prince William Sound in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil. Bacteria are also used for the bioremediation of industrial toxic wastes. In the chemical industry, bacteria are most important in the production of enantiomerically pure chemicals for use as pharmaceuticals or agrichemicals.

text: The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and

text: bioremediation

text: . Bacteria capable of digesting the

text: hydrocarbon

text: s in

text: petroleum

text: are often used to clean up

text: oil spill

text: s. Fertiliser was added to some of the beaches in

text: Prince William Sound

text: in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: . These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil. Bacteria are also used for the

text: bioremediation

text: of industrial

text: toxic waste

text: s. In the

text: chemical industry

text: , bacteria are most important in the production of

text: enantiomer

text: ically pure chemicals for use as

text: pharmaceuticals

text: or

text: agrichemical

text: s.

text: The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses, such as peptic ulcer and general trouble with the digestive system (e.g. occult bleeding, melena, constipation/obstipation), diabetes, or even cardiovascular problems (angina pectoris), along with clinical depression and other mental illnesses.

text: The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses, such as

text: peptic ulcer

text: and general trouble with the

text: digestive system

text: (e.g.

text: occult bleeding

text: melena

text: constipation

text: /obstipation),

text: diabetes

text: , or even

text: cardiovascular

text: problems (

text: angina pectoris

text: ), along with

text: clinical depression

text: and other mental illnesses.

text: Because of the configuration of their glycosidic bonds, galacto-oligosaccharides largely resist hydrolysis by salivary and intestinal digestive enzymes. Therefore, they reach the end of the intestine virtually intact. The human intestine contains about 300-500 different species of bacteria that can be divided into health-promoting ones, like Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli and into harmful ones such as some types of Clostridia.  Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) are classified as prebiotics, defined as non-digestible food ingredients that beneficially affect the host by stimulating the growth and/or activity of beneficial bacteria in the colon. The increased activity of these health-promoting bacteria results in a number of health-related benefits both directly by the bacteria themselves or indirectly by the organic acids they produce via fermentation. Examples of potential health-promoting benefits are inhibition of the growth of harmful bacteria, stimulation of immune functions, absorption of essential nutrients and syntheses of certain vitamins.

text: Because of the configuration of their glycosidic bonds, galacto-oligosaccharides largely resist hydrolysis by salivary and intestinal

text: digestive enzyme

text: s. Therefore, they reach the end of the intestine virtually intact. The human intestine contains about 300-500 different species of bacteria that can be divided into health-promoting ones, like

text: Bifidobacteria

text: and

text: Lactobacilli

text: and into harmful ones such as some types of

text: Clostridia

text: .  Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) are classified as prebiotics, defined as non-digestible food ingredients that beneficially affect the host by stimulating the growth and/or activity of beneficial bacteria in the colon. The increased activity of these health-promoting bacteria results in a number of health-related benefits both directly by the bacteria themselves or indirectly by the

text: organic acid

text: s they produce via fermentation. Examples of potential health-promoting benefits are inhibition of the growth of harmful bacteria, stimulation of immune functions, absorption of

text: essential nutrient

text: s and syntheses of certain vitamins.

text: Anaerobic digestion is used as part of the process to treat biodegradable waste and sewage sludge. As part of an integrated waste management system, anaerobic digestion reduces the emission of landfill gas into the atmosphere. Anaerobic digesters can also be fed with purpose-grown energy crops, such as maize.

text: Anaerobic digestion is used as part of the process to treat biodegradable waste and

text: sewage sludge

text: . As part of an integrated

text: waste management

text: system, anaerobic digestion reduces the emission of

text: landfill gas

text: into the atmosphere. Anaerobic digesters can also be fed with purpose-grown energy crops, such as

text: maize

text: A condition in which little or no bile is secreted or the flow of bile into the digestive tract is obstructed. The acolia is a sign of many diseases, such as hepatitis.Acholia results of a fading of feces.

text: A condition in which little or no bile is secreted or the flow of bile into the digestive tract is obstructed. The acolia is a sign of many diseases, such as

text: hepatitis

text: .Acholia results of a fading of feces.

text: Tsai is a national spokesman for the Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network (FAAN); one of his sons has food allergies. He was the first chef in the United States to create a reference book that lists each allergen for every menu item. In 2010, Massachusetts became the first state to mandate that restaurants advise diners about food allergies and advise diners to notify servers of allergies, train staff on food allergies, and that managers have awareness training.

text: The monogastric digestive system of the fetal pig harbors many similarities with many other mammals. The fetal pig's digestive organs are well developed before birth, although it does not ingest food. These organs include the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. Mesenteries serve to connect the organs of the fetal pig together. In order for digestion to occur, the fetal pig would have to ingest food. Instead, it gains much needed nutrition from the mother pig via the umbilical cord. In the adult pig, food will follow the general flow through the esophagus, which can be located behind the tracheae. From the oral cavity, the esophagus leads to the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Other organs developing during fetal pig development such as the gallbladder, pancreas and spleen are all critical in contributing to the overall flow of the digestive system because they contain digestive enzymes that will perform chemical digestion of food. After food is digested and nutrients are absorbed, the food follows through the large intestine and solid wastes are excreted through the anus. In the fetal pig however, the metabolic wastes are sent back to the mother through the umbilical cord where the mother excretes the wastes. Other remaining wastes remain in the fetal pig until birth. Then

text: The

text: monogastric

text: digestive system of the fetal pig harbors many similarities with many other mammals. The fetal pig's digestive organs are well developed before birth, although it does not ingest food. These organs include the

text: esophagus

text: stomach

text: , small and

text: large intestines

text: Mesenteries

text: serve to connect the organs of the fetal pig together. In order for digestion to occur, the fetal pig would have to ingest food. Instead, it gains much needed nutrition from the mother pig via the umbilical cord. In the adult pig, food will follow the general flow through the esophagus, which can be located behind the tracheae. From the oral cavity, the esophagus leads to the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Other organs developing during fetal pig development such as the

text: gallbladder

text: pancreas

text: and

text: spleen

text: are all critical in contributing to the overall flow of the digestive system because they contain digestive enzymes that will perform chemical digestion of food. After food is digested and nutrients are absorbed, the food follows through the large intestine and solid wastes are excreted through the anus. In the fetal pig however, the metabolic wastes are sent back to the mother through the umbilical cord where the mother excretes the wastes. Other remaining wastes remain in the fetal pig until birth. Then

text: The stomach is a major organ of the gastrointestinal tract and digestive system. It is a consistently J-shaped organ joined to the esophagus at its upper end and to the duodenum at its lower end.Gastric acid (informally gastric juice), produced in the stomach plays a vital role in the digestive process, and mainly contains hydrochloric acid and sodium chloride. A peptide hormone, gastrin,  produced by G cells in the gastric glands, stimulates the production of gastric juice which activates the digestive enzymes. Pepsinogen is a precursor enzyme (zymogen) produced by the gastric chief cells, and gastric acid activates this to the enzyme pepsin which begins the digestion of proteins.  As these two chemicals would damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by innumerable gastric glands in the stomach, to provide a slimy protective layer against the damaging effects of the chemicals.

text: The

text: stomach

text: is a major organ of the gastrointestinal tract and digestive system. It is a consistently J-shaped organ joined to the esophagus at its upper end and to the duodenum at its lower end.

text: Gastric acid

text: (informally gastric juice), produced in the stomach plays a vital role in the digestive process, and mainly contains

text: hydrochloric acid

text: and

text: sodium chloride

text: . A

text: peptide hormone

text: gastrin

text: ,  produced by

text: G cell

text: s in the

text: gastric glands

text: , stimulates the production of gastric juice which activates the

text: digestive enzyme

text: s.

text: Pepsinogen

text: is a precursor enzyme (

text: zymogen

text: ) produced by the

text: gastric chief cell

text: s, and gastric acid activates this to the enzyme

text: pepsin

text: which begins the digestion of

text: protein

text: s.  As these two chemicals would damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by innumerable gastric glands in the stomach, to provide a slimy protective layer against the damaging effects of the chemicals.

text: Food enters in the mouth. The pharynx acts as a suction pump; its muscular walls draw in food. In the pharynx, the pharyngeal glands secrete mucus. Food moves into the esophagus, where calcium (from the blood and ingested from previous meals) is pumped in to maintain proper blood calcium levels in the blood and food pH. From there the food passes into the crop and gizzard. In the gizzard, strong muscular contractions grind the food with the help of mineral particles ingested along with the food. Once through the gizzard, food continues through the intestine for digestion. The intestine secretes Pepsin to digest proteins, Amylase to digest polysaccharides, Cellulase to digest cellulose, and lipase to digest fats. Earthworms use in addition to the digestive proteins a class of surface active compounds called drilodefensins, which help digest plant material. Instead of being coiled like a mammalian intestine, an earthworm's intestine increases surface area to increase nutrient absorption by having many folds running along its length. The intestine has its own pair of muscle layers like the body, but in reverse order—an inner circular layer within an outer longitudinal layer. The gizzard is a somewhat of a unique organ to the worm as it is found in very few animals.

text: Food enters in the mouth. The pharynx acts as a suction pump; its muscular walls draw in food. In the pharynx, the pharyngeal glands secrete mucus. Food moves into the esophagus, where calcium (from the blood and ingested from previous meals) is pumped in to maintain proper blood calcium levels in the blood and food pH. From there the food passes into the crop and gizzard. In the gizzard, strong muscular contractions grind the food with the help of mineral particles ingested along with the food. Once through the gizzard, food continues through the intestine for digestion. The intestine secretes

text: Pepsin

text: to digest proteins,

text: Amylase

text: to digest polysaccharides,

text: Cellulase

text: to digest cellulose, and lipase to digest fats. Earthworms use in addition to the digestive proteins a class of surface active compounds called

text: drilodefensins

text: , which help digest plant material. Instead of being coiled like a mammalian intestine, an earthworm's intestine increases surface area to increase nutrient absorption by having many folds running along its length. The intestine has its own pair of muscle layers like the body, but in reverse order—an inner circular layer within an outer longitudinal layer. The gizzard is a somewhat of a unique organ to the worm as it is found in very few animals.

text: Proteolytic bacteria such as clostridia, which are part of the normal intestinal flora, produce toxic substances including phenols, ammonia and indols by digestion of proteins. These compounds are responsible for what Metchnikoff called intestinal auto-intoxication, which, according to him, was the cause of the physical changes associated with old age, a concept that has no scientific basis. It was already known at that time that fermentation with lactic acid bacteria inhibits the deterioration of milk because of its low pH.

text: Proteolytic bacteria such as

text: clostridia

text: , which are part of the normal intestinal flora, produce toxic substances including

text: phenols

text: ammonia

text: and

text: indol

text: s by digestion of

text: protein

text: s. These compounds are responsible for what Metchnikoff called intestinal auto-intoxication, which, according to him, was the cause of the physical changes associated with old age, a concept that has no scientific basis. It was already known at that time that fermentation with

text: lactic acid bacteria

text: inhibits the deterioration of milk because of its low

text: pH

text: The sauropods were the largest and heaviest dinosaurs. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest were an order of magnitude more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth. Giant prehistoric mammals such as Paraceratherium (the largest land mammal ever) were dwarfed by the giant sauropods, and only modern whales approach or surpass them in size. There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary. Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems. This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals. Sauropod remains are mostly found in rock formations interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low-nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments.

text: The

text: sauropods

text: were the largest and heaviest dinosaurs. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest were an

text: order of magnitude

text: more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth. Giant prehistoric

text: mammal

text: s such as

text: Paraceratherium

text: (the largest land mammal ever) were dwarfed by the giant sauropods, and only modern whales approach or surpass them in size. There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary. Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems. This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals. Sauropod remains are mostly found in

text: rock formation

text: s interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low-nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments.

text: Many microbes produce acetaldehyde from ethanol, but they have a lower capacity to eliminate the acetaldehyde, which can lead to the accumulation of acetaldehyde in saliva, stomach acid, and intestinal contents. Fermented food and many alcoholic beverages can also contain significant amounts of acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde, derived from mucosal or microbial oxidation of ethanol, tobacco smoke, and diet, appears to act as a cumulative carcinogen in the upper digestive tract of humans. According to European Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety's (SCCS) "Opinion on Acetaldehyde" (2012) the cosmetic products special risk limit is 5 mg/l and acetaldehyde should not be used in mouth-washing products.

text: Many

text: microbes

text: produce acetaldehyde from ethanol, but they have a lower capacity to eliminate the acetaldehyde, which can lead to the accumulation of acetaldehyde in saliva, stomach acid, and intestinal contents.

text: Fermented

text: food and many alcoholic beverages can also contain significant amounts of acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde, derived from mucosal or microbial oxidation of ethanol, tobacco smoke, and diet, appears to act as a cumulative carcinogen in the upper digestive tract of humans. According to European Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety's (SCCS) "Opinion on Acetaldehyde" (2012) the

text: cosmetic

text: products special risk limit is 5 mg/l and acetaldehyde should not be used in

text: mouth-washing

text: products.

text: Blind loop syndrome (BLS), commonly referred to in the literature as small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) or bacterial overgrowth syndrome (BOS), is a state that occurs when the normal bacterial flora of the small intestine proliferates to numbers that cause significant derangement to the normal physiological processes of digestion and absorption. In some cases of blind loop syndrome, overgrowth of pathogenic non-commensal bacteria has also been noted. It has long been understood that from birth, and throughout life, large amounts of bacteria reside symbiotically within animal gastrointestinal tracts such as the human gastrointestinal tract. The understanding of this gut flora has even led to novel treatments for bowel irregularity that utilize  so called "probiotics" or good bacteria that aid in normal digestion.The problem of BLS arises when the bacterial colonies residing in the upper gastrointestinal tract begin to grow out of control or are altered in their makeup thereby creating a burden on the normal physiological processes occurring in the small intestine. This results in problems inclusive of but not restricted to vitamin B12 deficiency, fat malabsorption and steatorrhea, fat-soluble vitamin deficiencies and intestinal wall injury.

text: Blind loop syndrome (BLS), commonly referred to in the literature as

text: small intestinal bacterial overgrowth

text: (SIBO) or bacterial overgrowth syndrome (BOS), is a state that occurs when the normal bacterial flora of the

text: small intestine

text: proliferates to numbers that cause significant derangement to the normal physiological processes of digestion and absorption. In some cases of blind loop syndrome, overgrowth of

text: pathogen

text: ic non-

text: commensal

text: bacteria has also been noted. It has long been understood that from birth, and throughout life, large amounts of bacteria reside symbiotically within animal gastrointestinal tracts such as the

text: human gastrointestinal tract

text: . The understanding of this

text: gut flora

text: has even led to novel treatments for bowel irregularity that utilize  so called "

text: probiotics

text: " or good bacteria that aid in normal digestion.The problem of BLS arises when the bacterial colonies residing in the upper gastrointestinal tract begin to grow out of control or are altered in their makeup thereby creating a burden on the normal physiological processes occurring in the small intestine. This results in problems inclusive of but not restricted to

text: vitamin B12 deficiency

text: , fat malabsorption and

text: steatorrhea

text: , fat-soluble vitamin deficiencies and intestinal wall injury.

text: In 1982, Reader's Digest published a special edition of the RSV that was billed as a condensed edition of the text. A team of seven editors led by John Evangelist Walsh produced the manuscript. The Reader's Digest edition was intended for those who did not read the Bible or who read it infrequently; it was not intended as a replacement of the full RSV text. In this version, 55% of the Old Testament and 25% of the New Testament were cut. Familiar passages such as the Lord's Prayer, Psalm 23, and the Ten Commandments were retained. For those who wanted the full RSV, Reader's Digest provided a list of publishers that sold the complete RSV at that time.

text: In 1982,

text: Reader's Digest

text: published a special edition of the RSV that was billed as a condensed edition of the text. A team of seven editors led by

text: John Evangelist Walsh

text: produced the manuscript. The Reader's Digest edition was intended for those who did not read the Bible or who read it infrequently; it was not intended as a replacement of the full RSV text. In this version, 55% of the Old Testament and 25% of the New Testament were cut. Familiar passages such as the

text: Lord's Prayer

text: Psalm 23

text: , and the

text: Ten Commandments

text: were retained. For those who wanted the full RSV, Reader's Digest provided a list of publishers that sold the complete RSV at that time.

text: As oxygen is present within a body at the beginning of decomposition, aerobic bacteria flourish during the first stages of the process. As the microbial population increases, an accumulation of gases changes the environment into anaerobic conditions which is consequently followed by a change to anaerobic bacteria.  Gastro-intestinal bacteria are thought to be responsible for the majority of the putrefactive processes that occur in cadavers and carcasses. This can be in part attributed to the impressive concentrations of viable gastro-intestinal organisms and the metabolic capacities they possess allowing them to use an array of different nutrient sources.  Gastro-intestinal bacteria are also capable of migrating from the gut to any other region of the body by using the lymphatic system and blood vessels. Furthermore, we know that coliform varieties of Staphylococcus are important members of the aerobic putrefactive bacteria and that members of the Clostridia genus make up a large part of anaerobic putrefactive bacteria.<br>

text: As oxygen is present within a body at the beginning of decomposition,

text: aerobic bacteria

text: flourish during the first stages of the process. As the microbial population increases, an accumulation of gases changes the environment into anaerobic conditions which is consequently followed by a change to

text: anaerobic bacteria

text: .  Gastro-intestinal bacteria are thought to be responsible for the majority of the putrefactive processes that occur in cadavers and carcasses. This can be in part attributed to the impressive concentrations of viable gastro-intestinal organisms and the metabolic capacities they possess allowing them to use an array of different nutrient sources.  Gastro-intestinal bacteria are also capable of migrating from the gut to any other region of the body by using the

text: lymphatic system

text: and

text: blood vessel

text: s. Furthermore, we know that coliform varieties of

text: Staphylococcus

text: are important members of the aerobic putrefactive bacteria and that members of the

text: Clostridia

text: genus make up a large part of anaerobic putrefactive bacteria.<br>

text: The altered Schaedler flora (ASF) is a community of eight bacterial species: two Lactobacilli, one Bacteroides, one spiral bacteria of the Flexistipes genus, and four extremely oxygen sensitive (EOS) Fusobacterium species. The bacteria are selected for their dominance and persistence in the normal microflora of mice, and for their ability to be isolated and grown in laboratory settings. Germ-free animals, mainly mice, are infected with ASF for the purpose of studying the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Intestinal commensal bacteria play an important role in affecting gene expression of the GI tract, immune responses, nutrient absorption, and pathogen resistance. The standardized microbial cocktail enabled the controlled study of microbe and host interactions, role of microbes, pathogen effects, and intestinal immunity and disease association, such as cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes, and other inflammatory or autoimmune diseases. Also, compared to germfree animals, ASF mice have fully developed immune system, resistance to opportunistic pathogens, and normal GI function and health, and are a great representation of normal mice

text: The altered Schaedler flora (ASF) is a

text: community

text: of eight

text: bacteria

text: l species: two

text: Lactobacilli

text: , one

text: Bacteroides

text: , one

text: spiral bacteria

text: of the Flexistipes

text: genus

text: , and four extremely oxygen sensitive (EOS)

text: Fusobacterium

text: species. The bacteria are selected for their dominance and persistence in the normal

text: microflora

text: of

text: mice

text: , and for their ability to be isolated and grown in laboratory settings.

text: Germ-free animal

text: s, mainly mice, are infected with ASF for the purpose of studying the

text: gastrointestinal (GI) tract

text: . Intestinal commensal bacteria play an important role in affecting

text: gene expression

text: of the GI tract,

text: immune response

text: s,

text: nutrient

text: absorption, and

text: pathogen resistance

text: . The standardized microbial cocktail enabled the controlled study of microbe and host interactions, role of microbes, pathogen effects, and intestinal immunity and disease association, such as

text: cancer

text: inflammatory bowel disease

text: diabetes

text: , and other

text: inflammatory

text: or

text: autoimmune diseases

text: . Also, compared to germfree animals, ASF mice have fully developed immune system, resistance to

text: opportunistic pathogen

text: s, and normal GI function and health, and are a great representation of normal mice

text: All elimination reactions involve the removal of two substituents from a pair of adjacent atoms in a compound. Alkene, alkynes, or similar heteroatom variations (such as carbonyl and cyano) will form. The E1cB mechanism is just one of three types of elimination reaction. The other two elimination reactions are E1 and E2 reactions. Although the mechanisms are similar, they vary in the timing of the deprotonation of the α-carbon and the loss of the leaving group. E1 stands for unimolecular elimination, and E2 stands for bimolecular elimination. In an E1 mechanism, the molecule contains a good leaving group that departs before deprotonation of the α-carbon. This results in the formation of a carbocation intermediate. The carbocation is then deprotonated resulting in the formation of a new pi bond. The molecule involved must also have a very good leaving group such as bromine or chlorine, and it should have a relatively less acidic α-carbon.

text: All elimination reactions involve the removal of two

text: substituent

text: s from a pair of adjacent atoms in a compound. Alkene, alkynes, or similar heteroatom variations (such as

text: carbonyl

text: and

text: cyano

text: ) will form. The E1cB mechanism is just one of three types of elimination reaction. The other two elimination reactions are E1 and E2 reactions. Although the mechanisms are similar, they vary in the timing of the deprotonation of the α-carbon and the loss of the leaving group. E1 stands for unimolecular elimination, and E2 stands for bimolecular elimination. In an E1 mechanism, the molecule contains a good leaving group that departs before deprotonation of the α-carbon. This results in the formation of a carbocation intermediate. The carbocation is then deprotonated resulting in the formation of a new pi bond. The molecule involved must also have a very good leaving group such as bromine or chlorine, and it should have a relatively less acidic α-carbon.

text: In November 2013, PROjEN was awarded the prestigious IChemE Bio-Processing Award for an innovative Anaerobic Digestion process, that utilises a two-phase digestion process. This  included a first stage hydrolysis phase that has ten times the efficiency of conventional continuous stirred tank reactors and allows the system to handle three times the amount of ammonia that would normally kill most digester bacteria. The IChemE awards have been recognising and rewarding chemical engineering innovation and excellence for the last 20 years, and have become "widely recognised as the most prestigious Chemical Engineering awards in the world."

text: In November 2013, PROjEN was awarded the prestigious

text: IChemE

text: Bio-Processing Award for an innovative Anaerobic Digestion process, that utilises a two-phase digestion process. This  included a first stage hydrolysis phase that has ten times the efficiency of conventional continuous stirred tank reactors and allows the system to handle three times the amount of ammonia that would normally kill most digester bacteria. The IChemE awards have been recognising and rewarding chemical engineering innovation and excellence for the last 20 years, and have become "widely recognised as the most prestigious Chemical Engineering awards in the world."

text: - Gastro-intestinal: digestive pain, microbiota

text: Rabbits do not possess the same allergy-causing qualities as many other animals. The average rabbit can live for about 7–12 years when kept indoors and well-cared for. However, many outdoor rabbits have a shorter lifespan. Maintenance is a must. The Satin Angora has a much lower guard hair count and their wool becomes easily tangled. Regardless of breed, all Angoras must be monitored to prevent wool block, a potentially lethal condition where their digestive tracts become clogged with hair. Proper diet is also crucial in lowering their susceptibility to the block.

text: Rabbits do not possess the same

text: allergy

text: -causing qualities as many other animals. The average rabbit can live for about 7–12 years when kept indoors and well-cared for. However, many outdoor rabbits have a shorter lifespan. Maintenance is a must. The Satin Angora has a much lower guard hair count and their wool becomes easily tangled. Regardless of breed, all Angoras must be monitored to prevent wool block, a potentially lethal condition where their digestive tracts become clogged with hair. Proper diet is also crucial in lowering their susceptibility to the block.

text: The absorption of electrolytes and water is one of the most important functions of the digestive tract. Water absorption is passive and isotonic - depending on the speed and direction of solute flow. Other factors influencing fluid absorption are osmolarity and the specific intestinal region. Regulated selective permability is performed through two major routes: the transcellular (transepithelial) route and the paracellular route.

text: The absorption of electrolytes and water is one of the most important functions of the digestive tract. Water absorption is passive and

text: isotonic

text: - depending on the speed and direction of solute flow. Other factors influencing fluid absorption are

text: osmolarity

text: and the specific intestinal region. Regulated selective permability is performed through two major routes: the transcellular (transepithelial) route and the paracellular route.

text: Food poisoning usually causes an abrupt onset of nausea and vomiting one to six hours after ingestion of contaminated food and lasts for one to two days.  It is due to toxins produced by bacteria in food.

text: Food poisoning

text: usually causes an abrupt onset of nausea and vomiting one to six hours after ingestion of contaminated food and lasts for one to two days.  It is due to toxins produced by

text: bacteria

text: in food.

text: For the detection of Staphylococcus aureus food poisoning which can lead to staphylococcal enteritis a stool culture may be required. A stool culture is used to detect the presence of disease-causing bacteria (pathogenic) and help diagnose an infection of the digestive tract. In the case of staphylococcal enteritis, it is conducted to see if the stool is positive for a pathogenic bacterium.

text: For the detection of Staphylococcus aureus food poisoning which can lead to staphylococcal enteritis a stool culture may be required. A stool culture is used to detect the presence of disease-causing bacteria (pathogenic) and help diagnose an infection of the digestive tract. In the case of staphylococcal enteritis, it is conducted to see if the stool is positive for a

text: pathogenic

text: bacterium.

text: Bacteria in the gut were long thought to carry on digestion for the leech, instead of endogenous enzymes that are very low or absent in the intestine. As discovered relatively recently, all leech species studied do produce endogenous intestinal exopeptidases, which can unlink free terminal-end amino acids, one monomer at a time from a gradually unwinding and degrading protein polymer. However, unzipping of the protein can start from either the amino (tail) or carboxyl (head) terminal-end of the protein molecule. The leech exopeptidases (arylamidases), starting from the tail or amino end and possibly aided by proteases from endosymbiotic bacteria in the intestine, slowly but progressively remove many hundreds of individual terminal amino acids for resynthesis into proteins that constitute the leech. Since leeches lack endopeptidases, the mechanism of protein digestion cannot follow the same sequence as it would in all other animals in which exopeptidases act sequentially on peptides produced by the action of endopeptidases. Exopeptidases are especially prominent in the common North American worm-leech Erpobdella punctata. This evolutionary choice of exopeptic digestion in Hirudinea distinguishes these carnivorous clitellates from Oligochaeta.

text: Bacteria in the gut were long thought to carry on

text: digestion

text: for the leech, instead of endogenous enzymes that are very low or absent in the intestine. As discovered relatively recently, all leech species studied do produce endogenous intestinal

text: exopeptidase

text: s, which can unlink free terminal-end

text: amino acid

text: s, one monomer at a time from a gradually unwinding and degrading protein polymer. However, unzipping of the protein can start from either the amino (tail) or carboxyl (head) terminal-end of the

text: protein molecule

text: . The leech exopeptidases (arylamidases), starting from the tail or amino end and possibly aided by proteases from endosymbiotic bacteria in the intestine, slowly but progressively remove many hundreds of individual terminal amino acids for resynthesis into proteins that constitute the leech. Since leeches lack

text: endopeptidase

text: s, the mechanism of protein digestion cannot follow the same sequence as it would in all other animals in which exopeptidases act sequentially on peptides produced by the action of endopeptidases. Exopeptidases are especially prominent in the common North American worm-leech Erpobdella punctata. This evolutionary choice of exopeptic digestion in Hirudinea distinguishes these carnivorous clitellates from Oligochaeta.

text: Isolated reports of scombroid food poisoning in humans caused by histamine present in the tissues of stale or rotten scombroid fish, usually tuna, have occurred over the years. In September 2016, the Singapore authorities intercepted canned tuna imported from Thailand after finding high levels of histamine. No human cases were reported. In 2015, 7 people at a  cafe in Sydney became ill after eating John Bull Tuna Chunky Style in safflower oil on tuna salads. The tinned tuna had come from Thailand.  The Shenzhen Post reported that histamine poisoning from scombroid fish happens often in the autumn in Guangdong province in China. In August 2013, 26 people in Shenzen were poisoned after eating stale mackerel. Several people became ill after eating tuna sandwiches at a cafe in Edinburgh in Scotland in 2013. The tuna had come from Ghana. In 2011, 20 reports of food poisoning at a Stockholm restaurant were thought to be histamine poisoning in tuna from Senegal. In 2012, UK environmental health authorities in North East Lincolnshire intercepted and destroyed a shipment of tuna from Vietnam after 4 crew members were reported to have developed symptoms of histamine poisoning. Commercially canned tuna was determined to be the cause of the poisoning of 232 persons in the north-central United States in 1973.

text: Isolated reports of scombroid food poisoning in humans caused by histamine present in the tissues of stale or rotten scombroid fish, usually tuna, have occurred over the years. In September 2016, the Singapore authorities intercepted canned tuna imported from Thailand after finding high levels of histamine. No human cases were reported. In 2015, 7 people at a  cafe in

text: Sydney

text: became ill after eating John Bull Tuna Chunky Style in safflower oil on tuna salads. The tinned tuna had come from Thailand.  The Shenzhen Post reported that histamine poisoning from scombroid fish happens often in the autumn in

text: Guangdong province

text: in China. In August 2013, 26 people in Shenzen were poisoned after eating stale mackerel. Several people became ill after eating tuna sandwiches at a cafe in Edinburgh in Scotland in 2013. The tuna had come from Ghana. In 2011, 20 reports of food poisoning at a Stockholm restaurant were thought to be histamine poisoning in tuna from Senegal. In 2012, UK environmental health authorities in North East Lincolnshire intercepted and destroyed a shipment of tuna from Vietnam after 4 crew members were reported to have developed symptoms of histamine poisoning. Commercially canned tuna was determined to be the cause of the poisoning of 232 persons in the north-central United States in 1973.

text: Serratiopeptidase (Serratia E-15 protease, also known as serralysin, serrapeptase, serratiapeptase, serratia peptidase, serratio peptidase, or serrapeptidase) is a proteolytic enzyme (protease) produced by enterobacterium Serratia sp. E-15.  This microorganism was originally isolated in the late 1960s from silkworm Bombyx mori L. (intestine),  Serratiopeptidase is present in the silkworm intestine and allows the emerging moth to dissolve its cocoon. Serratiopeptase is produced by purification from culture of Serratia E-15 bacteria.

text: Serratiopeptidase (Serratia E-15 protease, also known as serralysin, serrapeptase, serratiapeptase, serratia peptidase, serratio peptidase, or serrapeptidase) is a

text: proteolytic enzyme (protease)

text: produced by

text: enterobacterium

text: Serratia sp. E-15.  This microorganism was originally isolated in the late 1960s from

text: silkworm

text: Bombyx mori L. (intestine),  Serratiopeptidase is present in the silkworm intestine and allows the emerging moth to dissolve its cocoon. Serratiopeptase is produced by purification from culture of Serratia E-15 bacteria.

text: Horses are non-ruminant herbivores of a type known as a "hindgut fermenter." Horses have only one stomach, as do humans.  However, unlike humans, they also have to utilize plant fiber (largely cellulose) that comes from grass and hay. Ruminants like cattle are foregut fermenters, and digest fiber in plant matter by use of a multi-chambered stomach, whereas horses use microbial fermentation in a part of the digestive system known as the cecum (or caecum) to break down the cellulose.

text: Horses are non-

text: ruminant

text: herbivores

text: of a type known as a "

text: hindgut fermenter

text: ." Horses have only one stomach, as do humans.  However, unlike humans, they also have to utilize plant fiber (largely

text: cellulose

text: ) that comes from

text: grass

text: and

text: hay

text: Ruminant

text: s like cattle are

text: foregut fermenters

text: , and digest

text: fiber

text: in plant matter by use of a multi-chambered

text: stomach

text: , whereas horses use microbial fermentation in a part of the digestive system known as the

text: cecum

text: (or caecum) to break down the cellulose.

text: Chemical absorption or reactive absorption is a chemical reaction between the absorbed and the absorbing substances. Sometimes it combines with physical absorption. This type of absorption depends upon the stoichiometry of the reaction and the concentration of its reactants.

text: Chemical absorption or reactive absorption is a chemical reaction between the absorbed and the absorbing substances. Sometimes it combines with physical absorption. This type of absorption depends upon the

text: stoichiometry

text: of the reaction and the concentration of its reactants.

text: There is no evidence to suggest it is pre-neoplastic, like Barrett's esophagus.

text: There is no evidence to suggest it is pre-neoplastic, like

text: Barrett's esophagus

text: Bile acids (also called bile salts) are produced in the liver, secreted into the biliary system, stored in the gall-bladder and are released after meals stimulated by cholecystokinin. They are important for the digestion and absorption of fats (lipids) in the small intestine. Usually over 95% of the bile acids are absorbed in the terminal ileum and are taken up by the liver and resecreted. This enterohepatic circulation of bile acids takes place 4-6 times in 24 hours and usually less than 0.5 g of bile acids enter the large intestine per 24 h. When larger amounts of bile acids enter the large intestine, they stimulate water secretion and intestinal motility in the colon, which causes symptoms of chronic diarrhea.

text: Bile acids

text: (also called

text: bile salts

text: ) are produced in the

text: liver

text: , secreted into the

text: biliary system

text: , stored in the

text: gall-bladder

text: and are released after meals stimulated by

text: cholecystokinin

text: . They are important for the

text: digestion

text: and

text: absorption

text: of fats (lipids) in the

text: small intestine

text: . Usually over 95% of the bile acids are absorbed in the terminal

text: ileum

text: and are taken up by the liver and resecreted. This

text: enterohepatic circulation

text: of bile acids takes place 4-6 times in 24 hours and usually less than 0.5 g of bile acids enter the

text: large intestine

text: per 24 h. When larger amounts of bile acids enter the

text: large intestine

text: , they stimulate water secretion and

text: intestinal motility

text: in the

text: colon

text: , which causes symptoms of chronic

text: diarrhea

text: The digestive gland itself is rather short. It has four elements, with food passing through the crop, stomach and caecum before entering the intestine. Most digestion, as well as the absorption of nutrients, occurs in the digestive gland, sometimes called the liver.  Nutrients and waste materials are exchanged between the gut and the digestive gland through a pair of connections linking the gland to the junction of the stomach and caecum. Cells in the digestive gland directly release pigmented excretory chemicals into the lumen of the gut, which are then bound with mucus passed through the anus as long dark strings, ejected with the aid of exhaled water from the funnel. Cephalopods tend to concentrate ingested heavy metals in their body tissue.

text: The tropical microbes also might contribute to food poisoning cases, especially among foreigners during their stay in Indonesia. It is advisable to choose cooked hot food instead of uncooked room temperatured ones sold by street vendors. For example, when consuming food sold by street vendors, consuming hot cooked mie ayam or hot soto soup is much safer than having cold and raw karedok, gado-gado salad or fruit rujak.

text: The tropical microbes also might contribute to

text: food poisoning

text: cases, especially among foreigners during their stay in Indonesia. It is advisable to choose cooked hot food instead of uncooked room temperatured ones sold by street vendors. For example, when consuming food sold by street vendors, consuming hot cooked

text: mie ayam

text: or hot soto soup is much safer than having cold and raw karedok, gado-gado salad or fruit rujak.

text: In most organic elimination reactions, at least one hydrogen is lost to form the double bond: the unsaturation of the molecule increases.  It is also possible that a molecule undergoes reductive elimination, by which the valence of an atom in the molecule decreases by two, though this is more common in inorganic chemistry.  An important class of elimination reactions is those involving alkyl halides, with good leaving groups, reacting with a Lewis base to form an alkene.  Elimination may be considered the reverse of an addition reaction. When the substrate is asymmetric, regioselectivity is determined by Zaitsev's rule or through Hofmann elimination if the carbon with the most substituted hydrogen is inaccessible.

text: In most organic elimination reactions, at least one hydrogen is lost to form the double bond: the

text: unsaturation

text: of the molecule increases.  It is also possible that a molecule undergoes

text: reductive elimination

text: , by which the valence of an atom in the molecule decreases by two, though this is more common in inorganic chemistry.  An important class of elimination reactions is those involving

text: alkyl halide

text: s, with good

text: leaving group

text: s, reacting with a

text: Lewis base

text: to form an

text: alkene

text: .  Elimination may be considered the reverse of an

text: addition reaction

text: . When the substrate is asymmetric,

text: regioselectivity

text: is determined by

text: Zaitsev's rule

text: or through

text: Hofmann elimination

text: if the carbon with the most substituted hydrogen is inaccessible.

text: Food Standards Australia New Zealand requires all food businesses to implement food safety systems. These systems are designed to ensure food is safe to consume and halt the increasing incidence of food poisoning, and they include basic food safety training for at least one person in each business.Food safety training is delivered in various forms by, among other organisations, Registered Training Organizations (RTOs), after which staff are issued a nationally recognised unit of competency code on their certificate.Basic food safety training includes:

text: Food Standards Australia New Zealand

text: requires all food businesses to implement food safety systems. These systems are designed to ensure food is safe to consume and halt the increasing incidence of food poisoning, and they include basic food safety training for at least one person in each business.Food safety training is delivered in various forms by, among other organisations, Registered Training Organizations (RTOs), after which staff are issued a nationally recognised unit of competency code on their certificate.Basic food safety training includes:

text: A more extreme treatment includes kidney or liver transplant from a donor without the condition. The foreign organs will produce a functional version of the defective enzymes and digest the methylmalonic acid, however all of the disadvantages of organ transplantation are of course applicable in this situation. There is evidence to suggest that the central nervous system may metabolize methylmalonic-CoA in a system isolated from the rest of the body. If this is the case, transplantation may not reverse the neurological effects of methylmalonic acid previous to the transplant or prevent further damage to the brain by continued build up.

text: FEFF8 is self-consistent real space multiple-scattering code for simultaneous calculations of x-ray-absorption spectra and electronic structure. Output includes extended x-ray-absorption fine structure (EXAFS), full multiple scattering calculations of various x-ray absorption spectra (XAS) and projected local densities of states (LDOS). The spectra include x-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES), x-ray natural circular dichroism (XNCD), and non-resonant x-ray emission spectra. Calculations of the x-ray scattering amplitude (Thomson and anomalous parts) and spin dependent calculations of x-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD) and spin polarized x-ray absorption spectra (SPXAS and SPEXAFS) are also possible, but less automated.

text: FEFF8 is self-consistent

text: real space

text: multiple-scattering code for simultaneous calculations of

text: x-ray

text: absorption spectra

text: and electronic structure. Output includes extended x-ray-absorption fine structure (

text: EXAFS

text: ), full multiple scattering calculations of various x-ray absorption spectra (

text: XAS

text: ) and projected local densities of states (

text: LDOS

text: ). The spectra include x-ray absorption near edge structure (

text: XANES

text: ), x-ray natural

text: circular dichroism

text: (XNCD), and non-resonant x-ray emission spectra. Calculations of the x-ray

text: scattering amplitude

text: Thomson

text: and anomalous parts) and spin dependent calculations of x-ray magnetic circular dichroism (

text: XMCD

text: ) and

text: spin polarized

text: x-ray absorption spectra (SPXAS and SPEXAFS) are also possible, but less automated.

text:
- Name Tag Elimination
Name Tag Elimination is a variation of Bells of Hide and Seek. It features a similar gameplay with the original game, except that this game is a deathmatch-like game, in which any member that has its nametag ripped will be ousted. Any chances to revive is impossible unless there will have a change of rules, or the player has a chance to have additional nametags before the game. The main mission is simply eliminate each other, but sometimes will feature additional missions that required the player to eliminate each other to obtain clues or items, or will feature additional rules that will affect the game. The last man standing  will win.
Sometimes the game will feature spies. The spy can be one of the members, the guests, or both.

text: It is one of the most common causes of food-related death. However, there is an increasing body of medical opinion that the measures taken in response to the threat may be an over-reaction out of proportion to the level of danger: "About 3.3 million Americans are allergic to nuts, and even more—6.9 million—are allergic to seafood. However, all told, serious allergic reactions to foods cause just 2,000 hospitalisations a year (out of more than 30 million hospitalisations nationwide). And only 150 people (children and adults) die each year from all food allergies combined." Media sensationalism has also been blamed.

text: In physics, absorption of electromagnetic radiation is the way in which the energy of a photon is taken up by matter, typically the electrons of an atom. Thus, the electromagnetic energy is transformed into internal energy of the absorber, for example thermal energy.  The reduction in intensity of a light wave propagating through a medium by absorption of a part of its photons is often called attenuation. Usually, the absorption of waves does not depend on their intensity (linear absorption), although in certain conditions (usually, in optics), the medium changes its transparency dependently on the intensity of waves going through, and saturable absorption (or nonlinear absorption) occurs.

text: In

text: physics

text: , absorption of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: is the way in which the

text: energy

text: of a

text: photon

text: is taken up by matter, typically the

text: electrons

text: of an

text: atom

text: . Thus, the

text: electromagnetic energy

text: is transformed into

text: internal energy

text: of the absorber, for example

text: thermal energy

text: .  The reduction in intensity of a light wave

text: propagating

text: through a medium by absorption of a part of its photons is often called

text: attenuation

text: optics

text: ), the medium changes its transparency dependently on the intensity of waves going through, and

text: saturable absorption

text: (or nonlinear absorption) occurs.

text: Latex and banana sensitivity may cross-react.  Furthermore, those with latex allergy may also have sensitivities to avocado, kiwifruit, and chestnut. These people often have perioral itching and local urticaria. Only occasionally have these food-induced allergies induced systemic responses. Researchers suspect that the cross-reactivity of latex with banana, avocado, kiwifruit, and chestnut occurs because latex proteins are structurally homologous with some other plant proteins.

text: Latex and banana sensitivity may cross-react.  Furthermore, those with latex allergy may also have sensitivities to avocado, kiwifruit, and chestnut. These people often have

text: perioral

text: itching and local

text: urticaria

text: . Only occasionally have these food-induced allergies induced systemic responses. Researchers suspect that the cross-reactivity of latex with banana, avocado, kiwifruit, and chestnut occurs because latex proteins are structurally

text: homologous

text: with some other plant proteins.

text: Digestive CareThe Department of Surgical Gastroenterology at Wockhardt Hospitals offers wide variety of diagnostic & therapeutic procedures for all diseases related to gastrointestinal tract, liver and pancreas.

text: Digestive CareThe Department of Surgical Gastroenterology at Wockhardt Hospitals offers wide variety of diagnostic & therapeutic procedures for all diseases related to

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: liver

text: and

text: pancreas

text: Substantial numbers of patients with intestinal malabsorption present initially with symptoms or laboratory abnormalities that point to other organ systems in the absence of or overshadowing symptoms referable to the gastrointestinal tract. For example, there is increasing epidemiologic evidence that more patients with coeliac disease present with anemia and osteopenia in the absence of significant classic gastrointestinal symptoms. Microcytic, macrocytic, or dimorphic anemia may reflect impaired iron, folate, or vitamin B12 absorption. Purpura, subconjunctival hemorrhage, or even frank bleeding may reflect hypoprothrombinemia secondary to vitamin K malabsorption. Osteopenia is common, especially in the presence of steatorrhea. Impaired calcium and vitamin D absorption and chelation of calcium by unabsorbed fatty acids resulting in fecal loss of calcium may all contribute. If calcium deficiency is prolonged, secondary hyperparathyroidism may develop. Prolonged malnutrition may induce amenorrhea, infertility, and impotence. Edema and even ascites may reflect hypoproteinemia associated with protein losing enteropathy caused by lymphatic obstruction or extensive mucosal inflammation. Dermatitis and peripheral neuropathy may be caused by malabsorption of specific vitamins or micronutrients and essential fatty acids.

text: Substantial numbers of patients with intestinal malabsorption present initially with symptoms or laboratory abnormalities that point to other organ systems in the absence of or overshadowing symptoms referable to the gastrointestinal tract. For example, there is increasing epidemiologic evidence that more patients with coeliac disease present with

text: anemia

text: and

text: osteopenia

text: in the absence of significant classic gastrointestinal symptoms. Microcytic,

text: macrocytic

text: , or dimorphic anemia may reflect impaired

text: iron

text: , folate, or

text: vitamin B12

text: absorption.

text: Purpura

text: subconjunctival hemorrhage

text: , or even frank bleeding may reflect hypoprothrombinemia secondary to vitamin K malabsorption. Osteopenia is common, especially in the presence of

text: steatorrhea

text: . Impaired calcium and vitamin D absorption and chelation of calcium by unabsorbed fatty acids resulting in fecal loss of calcium may all contribute. If calcium deficiency is prolonged, secondary hyperparathyroidism may develop. Prolonged malnutrition may induce amenorrhea, infertility, and impotence. Edema and even ascites may reflect hypoproteinemia associated with protein losing enteropathy caused by

text: lymphatic obstruction

text: or extensive mucosal inflammation. Dermatitis and peripheral neuropathy may be caused by malabsorption of specific vitamins or micronutrients and essential fatty acids.

text: The human esophagus has a mucous membrane consisting of a tough stratified squamous epithelium without keratin, a smooth lamina propria, and a muscularis mucosae. The epithelium of the esophagus has a relatively rapid turnover, and serves a protective function against the abrasive effects of food. In many animals the epithelium contains a layer of keratin, representing a coarser diet. There are two types of glands, with mucus-secreting esophageal glands being found in the submucosa, and esophageal cardiac glands, similar to cardiac glands of the stomach, located in the lamina propria and most frequent in the terminal part of the organ. The mucus from the glands gives a good protection to the lining. The submucosa also contains the submucosal plexus, a network of nerve cells that is part of the enteric nervous system.

text: The human esophagus has a

text: mucous membrane

text: consisting of a tough

text: stratified squamous epithelium

text: without

text: keratin

text: , a smooth

text: lamina propria

text: , and a

text: muscularis mucosae

text: . The epithelium of the esophagus has a relatively rapid turnover, and serves a protective function against the abrasive effects of food. In many animals the epithelium contains a layer of keratin, representing a coarser diet. There are two types of glands, with mucus-secreting

text: esophageal gland

text: s being found in the

text: submucosa

text: , and esophageal cardiac glands, similar to

text: cardiac glands

text: of the stomach, located in the lamina propria and most frequent in the terminal part of the organ. The

text: mucus

text: from the glands gives a good protection to the lining. The submucosa also contains the

text: submucosal plexus

text: , a network of

text: nerve cells

text: that is part of the

text: enteric nervous system

text: Hofmeister argued for peptide bonds by process of elimination. C-C, ether and ester bonds were unlikely considering the digestion by trypsin. R=C-N-C=R bonds could be eliminated because it would imply a much larger number of carboxylate groups than is observed experimentally.

text: Hofmeister argued for peptide bonds by process of elimination. C-C, ether and ester bonds were unlikely considering the digestion by

text: trypsin

text: . R=C-N-C=R bonds could be eliminated because it would imply a much larger number of

text: carboxylate

text: groups than is observed experimentally.

text: Like all ruminants, sheep have a complex digestive system composed of four chambers, allowing them to break down cellulose from stems, leaves, and seed hulls into simpler carbohydrates. When sheep graze, vegetation is chewed into a mass called a bolus, which is then passed into the rumen, via the reticulum. The rumen is a 19- to 38-liter (5 to 10 gal) organ in which feed is fermented. The fermenting organisms include bacteria, fungi, and protozoa.  (Other important rumen organisms include some archaea, which produce methane from carbon dioxide.)  The bolus is periodically regurgitated back to the mouth as cud for additional chewing and salivation. After fermentation in the rumen, feed passes into the reticulum and the omasum; special feeds such as grains may bypass the rumen altogether. After the first three chambers, food moves into the abomasum for final digestion before processing by the intestines. The abomasum is the only one of the four chambers analogous to the human stomach, and is sometimes called the "true stomach".

text: Like all ruminants, sheep have a complex

text: digestive system

text: composed of four chambers, allowing them to break down

text: cellulose

text: from stems, leaves, and seed hulls into simpler

text: carbohydrate

text: s. When sheep

text: graze

text: , vegetation is chewed into a mass called a

text: bolus

text: , which is then passed into the

text: rumen

text: , via the

text: reticulum

text: . The rumen is a 19- to 38-liter (5 to 10 gal) organ in which feed is

text: fermented

text: . The fermenting organisms include bacteria, fungi, and protozoa.  (Other important rumen organisms include some archaea, which produce methane from carbon dioxide.)  The bolus is periodically regurgitated back to the mouth as

text: cud

text: for additional chewing and

text: salivation

text: . After fermentation in the rumen, feed passes into the

text: reticulum

text: and the

text: omasum

text: ; special feeds such as grains may bypass the rumen altogether. After the first three chambers, food moves into the

text: abomasum

text: for final digestion before processing by the

text: intestine

text: s. The abomasum is the only one of the four chambers analogous to the human stomach, and is sometimes called the "true stomach".

text: Exposure to dalapon affects the eyes, central nervous system, digestive system, respiratory system, and skin. Dalapon can be absorbed through inhalation, eye contact, skin contact, or by ingesting it. The symptoms of dalapon exposure include eye irritation, central nervous system depression, bradycardia, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite, fatigue, burn, upper respiratory irritation, and skin irritation. First aid measures for exposure include artificial respiration, immediate eye irrigation, and immediate washing with water. Immediate medical attention should be sought if dalapon is ingested.

text: Exposure to dalapon affects the

text: eyes

text: central nervous system

text: digestive system

text: respiratory system

text: , and

text: skin

text: . Dalapon can be absorbed through

text: inhalation

text: , eye contact, skin contact, or by

text: ingesting

text: it. The symptoms of dalapon exposure include eye irritation,

text: central nervous system depression

text: bradycardia

text: vomiting

text: diarrhea

text: loss of appetite

text: fatigue

text: burn

text: , upper respiratory irritation, and skin irritation. First aid measures for exposure include

text: artificial respiration

text: , immediate eye irrigation, and immediate washing with water. Immediate medical attention should be sought if dalapon is ingested.

text: Undang-Undang Melaka (Malay for 'Law of Melaka', Jawi: اوندڠ٢ ملاک ), also known as Hukum Kanun Melaka, Undang-Undang Darat Melaka and Risalah Hukum Kanun, was the legal code of Melaka Sultanate (1400-1511). It contains significant provisions  that reaffirmed the primacy of Malay customary law or adat, while at the same time accommodating and assimilating Islamic principles. The legal code is believed originally compiled during the reign of Muhammad Shah (1424-1444), before it was continuously expanded and improved by the succeeding sultans. The Melaka system of justice as enshrined in the Undang-Undang Melaka was the first digest of laws, compiled in the Malay world. It became a legal resource for other major regional sultanates like Johor, Perak, Brunei, Pattani and  Aceh, and has been regarded as the most important of Malay legal digests.

text: Undang-Undang Melaka (

text: Malay

text: for 'Law of Melaka',

text: Jawi

text: : اوندڠ٢ ملاک ), also known as Hukum Kanun Melaka, Undang-Undang Darat Melaka and Risalah Hukum Kanun, was the

text: legal code

text: of

text: Melaka Sultanate

text: (1400-1511). It contains significant provisions  that reaffirmed the primacy of Malay customary law or

text: adat

text: , while at the same time accommodating and assimilating Islamic principles. The legal code is believed originally compiled during the reign of

text: Muhammad Shah

text: (1424-1444), before it was continuously expanded and improved by the succeeding sultans. The Melaka system of justice as enshrined in the Undang-Undang Melaka was the first digest of laws, compiled in the

text: Malay world

text: . It became a legal resource for other major regional sultanates like

text: Johor

text: Perak

text: Brunei

text: Pattani

text: and

text: Aceh

text: , and has been regarded as the most important of Malay legal digests.

text: Elysia chlorotica feeds on the intertidal alga Vaucheria litorea. It punctures the algal cell wall with its radula, then holds the algal strand firmly in its mouth and sucks out the contents as from a straw. Instead of digesting the entire cell contents, or passing the contents through its gut unscathed, it retains only the chloroplasts, by storing them within its extensive digestive system. It then takes up the live chloroplasts into its own gut cells as organelles and maintains them alive and functional for many months. The acquisition of chloroplasts begins immediately following metamorphosis from the veliger stage when the juvenile sea slugs begin to feed on the Vaucheria litorea cells. Juvenile slugs are brown with red pigment spots until they feed upon the algae, at which point they become green.  This is caused by the distribution of the chloroplasts throughout the extensively branched gut. At first the slug needs to feed continually on algae to retain the chloroplasts, but over time the chloroplasts become more stably incorporated into the cells of the gut enabling the slug to remain green without further feeding. Some Elysia chlorotica slugs have even been known to be able to use photosynthesis for up to a year after only a few feedings.

text: Elysia chlorotica feeds on the

text: intertidal

text: alga Vaucheria litorea. It punctures the algal cell wall with its

text: radula

text: , then holds the

text: algal strand

text: firmly in its mouth and sucks out the contents as from a straw. Instead of digesting the entire cell contents, or passing the contents through its gut unscathed, it retains only the

text: chloroplast

text: s, by storing them within its extensive digestive system. It then takes up the live chloroplasts into its own gut

text: cells

text: as organelles and maintains them alive and functional for many months. The acquisition of chloroplasts begins immediately following

text: metamorphosis

text: from the

text: veliger stage

text: when the

text: juvenile

text: sea slugs begin to feed on the Vaucheria litorea cells. Juvenile slugs are brown with red pigment spots until they feed upon the

text: algae

text: , at which point they become green.  This is caused by the distribution of the chloroplasts throughout the extensively branched gut. At first the slug needs to feed continually on algae to retain the chloroplasts, but over time the chloroplasts become more stably incorporated into the cells of the gut enabling the slug to remain green without further feeding. Some Elysia chlorotica slugs have even been known to be able to use photosynthesis for up to a year after only a few feedings.

text: Some systems incorporate both anaerobic digestion and composting. This may either take the form of a full anaerobic digestion phase, followed by the maturation (composting) of the digestate. Alternatively a partial anaerobic digestion phase can be induced on water that is percolated through the raw waste, dissolving the readily available sugars, with the remaining material being sent to a windrow composting facility.

text: Some systems incorporate both anaerobic digestion and composting. This may either take the form of a full anaerobic digestion phase, followed by the maturation (composting) of the digestate. Alternatively a partial anaerobic digestion phase can be induced on water that is percolated through the raw waste, dissolving the readily available sugars, with the remaining material being sent to a

text: windrow composting

text: facility.

text: Venomous fish produce a strong toxin harmful to humans (called venom) which they deliver by means of a bite, sting, or stab. This results in an envenomation. As a contrast, poisonous fish also produce a strong toxin, but they do not bite, sting, or stab to deliver the toxin. Instead they are poisonous to eat because the human digestive system does not destroy the toxin they contain in their body. Venomous fish don't necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, since the digestive system often destroys the venom.

text: Venomous fish produce a strong

text: toxin

text: harmful to humans (called

text: venom

text: ) which they deliver by means of a bite, sting, or stab. This results in an

text: envenomation

text: . As a contrast,

text: poisonous fish

text: also produce a strong toxin, but they do not bite, sting, or stab to deliver the toxin. Instead they are poisonous to eat because the human digestive system does not destroy the toxin they contain in their body. Venomous fish don't necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, since the digestive system often destroys the venom.

text: For any organism to survive, it must have adaptive mechanisms to avoid toxicosis. In mammals, a variety of behavioral and physiological mechanisms have been identified that allow them to avoid being poisoned. First, there are innate rejection mechanisms such as the rejection of toxic materials that taste bitter to humans. Second, there are other physiologically adaptive responses such as vomiting or alterations in the digestion and processing of toxic materials.  Third, there are learned aversions to distinctive foods if ingestion is followed by illness.

text: A fecal pH test is one where a specimen of feces is tested for acidity in order to diagnose a medical condition. Human feces is normally alkaline. An acidic stool can indicate a digestive problem such as lactose intolerance or a contagion such as E. coli or rotavirus.

text: A fecal pH test is one where a specimen of

text: feces

text: is tested for

text: acidity

text: in order to diagnose a medical condition. Human feces is normally

text: alkaline

text: . An acidic stool can indicate a digestive problem such as

text: lactose intolerance

text: or a contagion such as

text: E. coli

text: or

text: rotavirus

text: In the United States, an estimated 12 million people have food allergies. Food allergies cause roughly 30,000 emergency room visits and 100 to 200 deaths per year and the prevalence is rising.Food allergy affects as many as 5% of infants less than three years of age and 3% to 4% of adults.

text: Some drugs, such as the prokinetic agents increase the speed with which a substance passes through the intestines. If a drug is present in the digestive tract's absorption zone for less time its blood concentration will decrease. The opposite will occur with drugs that decrease intestinal motility.

text: Some drugs, such as the

text: prokinetic agents

text: increase the speed with which a substance passes through the intestines. If a drug is present in the digestive tract's absorption zone for less time its blood concentration will decrease. The opposite will occur with drugs that decrease intestinal

text: motility

text: Where there is a failure to produce, release, or convert trypsinogen—an inactive enzyme precursor or zymogen—muscle fibres are not properly digested and are therefore released in the feces. Trypsinogen is produced in the pancreas and released into the alimentary canal where it is converted to the active enzyme trypsin.Inflammation of the pancreas, or pancreatitis can therefore precipitate this condition, as can cystic fibrosis which also affects the production of digestive enzymes.

text: Where there is a failure to produce, release, or convert

text: trypsinogen

text: —an inactive enzyme precursor or

text: zymogen

text: —muscle fibres are not properly digested and are therefore released in the feces. Trypsinogen is produced in the pancreas and released into the

text: alimentary canal

text: where it is converted to the active enzyme

text: trypsin

text: .Inflammation of the

text: pancreas

text: , or

text: pancreatitis

text: can therefore precipitate this condition, as can

text: cystic fibrosis

text: which also affects the production of digestive enzymes.

text: Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase. The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin. The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid.  Gastric acid is about 0.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1-3.  Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.

text: Different phases of digestion take place including: the

text: cephalic phase

text: , gastric phase, and intestinal phase. The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the

text: cerebral cortex

text: . Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the

text: hypothalamus

text: and

text: medulla oblongata

text: . After this it is routed through the

text: vagus nerve

text: and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and

text: G cell

text: (secretes gastrin) activity via

text: D cell

text: secretion of

text: somatostatin

text: . The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by

text: distension

text: of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in

text: pH

text: . Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of

text: acetylcholine

text: , which stimulates the release of more

text: gastric juice

text: s. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to

text: hydrogen

text: ions, which raises the

text: pH

text: of the

text: stomach

text: . Inhibition of gastrin and

text: gastric acid

text: secretion is lifted. This triggers

text: G cell

text: s to release

text: gastrin

text: , which in turn stimulates

text: parietal cell

text: s to secrete gastric acid.  Gastric acid is about 0.5%

text: hydrochloric acid

text: (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1-3.  Acid release is also triggered by

text: acetylcholine

text: and

text: histamine

text: .The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the

text: duodenum

text: . This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating

text: sympathetic fibers

text: causing the

text: pyloric sphincter

text: to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.

text: Sea turtles are very vulnerable to oil pollution, both because of their tendency to linger on the water's surface, and because oil can affect them at every stage of their life cycle.  Oil can poison the sea turtles upon entering their digestive system.

text: Defecation is the final act of digestion, by which organisms eliminate solid, semisolid, and/or liquid waste material from the digestive tract via the anus.

text: Defecation is the final act of

text: digestion

text: , by which organisms eliminate solid, semisolid, and/or liquid

text: waste

text: material from the

text: digestive tract

text: via the

text: anus

text: The earthworm has a dual circulatory system in which both the coelomic fluid and a closed circulatory system carry the food, waste, and respiratory gases. The closed circulatory system has five main blood vessels: the dorsal (top) vessel, which runs above the digestive tract; the ventral (bottom) vessel, which runs below the digestive tract; the subneural vessel, which runs below the ventral nerve cord; and two lateroneural vessels on either side of the nerve cord. The dorsal vessel moves the blood forward, while the other four longitudinal vessels carry the blood rearward. In segments seven through eleven, a pair of aortic arches rings the coelom and acts as hearts, pumping the blood to the ventral vessel that acts as the aorta. The blood consists of ameboid cells and hemoglobin dissolved in the plasma. The second circulatory system derives from the cells of the digestive system that line the coelom. As the digestive cells become full, they release non-living cells of fat into the fluid-filled coelom, where they float freely but can pass through the walls separating each segment, moving food to other parts and assist in wound healing.

text: "Mouth" was remixed and later released as a single from the band's 1997 album Deconstructed. The remixed version reached number five on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart. "Mouth" is featured on the soundtrack and in the film "An American Werewolf in Paris". The "Mouth" music video features Julie Delpy, who also starred in the film.

text: Mouth

text: " was remixed and later released as a single from the band's 1997 album

text: Deconstructed

text: . The remixed version reached number five on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart. "Mouth" is featured on the soundtrack and in the film "

text: An American Werewolf in Paris

text: ". The "Mouth" music video features

text: Julie Delpy

text: , who also starred in the film.

text: The lipase inhibitors lipstatin and orlistat act locally in the intestinal tract. They are minimally absorbed in the circulation because of their lipophilicity. Hence, they do not affect systemic lipases.  The mechanism of lipase inhibitors in fat digestion is shown in figure 1. These inhibitors bind covalently as an ester to the serine hydroxyl group at the active site on pancreatic- and gastric lipases and form a stable complex.This results in a conformational change in the enzyme which causes exposing of the catalytic active site. When the active site is exposed, the hydroxyl group on the serine residue is acylated. This leads to irreversible inactivation of the enzyme.   The inactive lipase is incapable of hydrolysing fats into absorbable fatty acids and monoglycerides, therefore triglycerides are excreted undigested with faeces. With this mode of action calorie uptake from fat in food is limited, hence body weight is reduced. The main role of lipase inhibitors is therefore to inhibit lipases in the gastrointestinal tract, but they do not have significant activity against proteases, amylases or other digestive enzymes.

text: The lipase inhibitors lipstatin and orlistat act locally in the intestinal tract. They are minimally absorbed in the

text: circulation

text: because of their

text: lipophilicity

text: . Hence, they do not affect systemic lipases.  The mechanism of lipase inhibitors in fat digestion is shown in figure 1. These inhibitors bind

text: covalently

text: as an ester to the serine

text: hydroxyl group

text: at the active site on pancreatic- and gastric lipases and form a stable complex.This results in a conformational change in the enzyme which causes exposing of the catalytic active site. When the active site is exposed, the hydroxyl group on the serine residue is

text: acylated

text: . This leads to irreversible inactivation of the enzyme.   The inactive lipase is incapable of hydrolysing fats into absorbable fatty acids and monoglycerides, therefore triglycerides are

text: excreted

text: undigested with faeces. With this mode of action

text: calorie

text: uptake from fat in food is limited, hence body weight is reduced. The main role of lipase inhibitors is therefore to inhibit lipases in the gastrointestinal tract, but they do not have significant activity against

text: proteases

text: amylases

text: or other

text: digestive enzymes

text: Normally, the downstream gallbladder stores and concentrates the bile which originates in liver hepatocyte cells and is released into the microscopic component of the biliary system by the liver. Through aggregating tubules of increasing diameter, the bile leaves the liver and reaches the upstream (proximal) component of the common bile duct. Apparently, the common bile duct beyond (distal to) the gallbladder tends to normally have a greater tone so that the bile backs up into the gallbladder. When bile enters the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine), it aids in digesting the fat within food leaving the stomach. When the bile can not be properly propelled from the not-mechanically-obstructed gallbladder or can not flow out of the end of the common bile duct properly, there is a state of biliary dyskinesia.

text: Normally, the downstream

text: gallbladder

text: stores and concentrates the bile which originates in liver hepatocyte cells and is released into the microscopic component of the biliary system by the liver. Through aggregating tubules of increasing diameter, the bile leaves the liver and reaches the upstream (proximal) component of the common bile duct. Apparently, the common bile duct beyond (distal to) the gallbladder tends to normally have a greater tone so that the bile backs up into the gallbladder. When bile enters the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine), it aids in digesting the fat within food leaving the stomach. When the bile can not be properly propelled from the not-mechanically-obstructed gallbladder or can not flow out of the end of the common bile duct properly, there is a state of biliary dyskinesia.

text: Several disorders affect the motility of food as it travels down the esophagus. This can cause difficult swallowing, called dysphagia, or painful swallowing, called odynophagia. Achalasia refers to a failure of the lower esophageal sphincter to relax properly, and generally develops later in life. This leads to progressive enlargement of the esophagus, and possibly eventual megaesophagus. A nutcracker esophagus refers to swallowing that can be extremely painful. Diffuse esophageal spasm is a spasm of the esophagus that can be one cause of chest pain. Such referred pain to the wall of the upper chest is quite common in esophageal conditions. Sclerosis of the esophagus, such as with systemic sclerosis or in CREST syndrome may cause hardening of the walls of the esophagus and interfere with peristalsis.

text: Several disorders affect the motility of food as it travels down the esophagus. This can cause difficult swallowing, called

text: dysphagia

text: , or painful swallowing, called

text: odynophagia

text: Achalasia

text: refers to a failure of the lower esophageal sphincter to relax properly, and generally develops later in life. This leads to progressive enlargement of the esophagus, and possibly eventual

text: megaesophagus

text: . A

text: nutcracker esophagus

text: refers to swallowing that can be extremely painful.

text: Diffuse esophageal spasm

text: is a spasm of the esophagus that can be one cause of chest pain. Such

text: referred pain

text: to the wall of the upper chest is quite common in esophageal conditions. Sclerosis of the esophagus, such as with

text: systemic sclerosis

text: or in

text: CREST syndrome

text: may cause hardening of the walls of the esophagus and interfere with peristalsis.

text: Many editions have seen special eliminations. A player, for example, may be given a second chance in the game, should they redeem themselves in a challenge. In one edition, the remaining players had a chance to stop the elimination, if they surrendered their prize money up to that point. There have been several editions where either no players or multiple players were eliminated. Buy-out offers, or "bribes", may also be presented during executions, in which a player may take a guaranteed monetary offer in exchange for voluntarily opting out of the game. On the fourth season of the Australian version, there were two atypical eliminations. In one episode, a genuine contestant appeared to be the third contestant eliminated, but immediately after his elimination the players had the power to "resurrect" him and in that event, one contestant alone decided to bring him back for $50,000 added to the kitty. Later on in the season, another contestant was eliminated, but was given the offer to return herself into the game, if she'd pay $50,000 from the kitty. She accepted this offer and returned. Later on, the contestant resurrected by the group was eliminated one round short from the final, whilst the other contestant wound up being revealed as the Mole. It was later revealed in that season's Mole reveal that the fake eliminations were a trick to get people to suspect the second contestant as the Mole as none of the contestants suspected her until after her elimination and return.

text: Death is caused by an underdeveloped part of the digestive system. The large intestine of the horse is a complex system where most digestion takes place, and comprises the cecum, the colon, and the rectum. Necropsies on lethal white syndrome foals reveal a pale, underdeveloped colon and intestinal obstruction (impaction). Samples of affected tissue show a lack of nerves that allow the intestine to move material through the digestive system, a condition called intestinal agangliosis.

text: Death is caused by an underdeveloped part of the

text: digestive system

text: . The

text: large intestine

text: of the horse is a complex system where most digestion takes place, and comprises the

text: cecum

text: , the

text: colon

text: , and the

text: rectum

text: Necropsies

text: on lethal white syndrome foals reveal a pale, underdeveloped colon and intestinal obstruction (impaction). Samples of affected tissue show a lack of nerves that allow the intestine to move material through the digestive system, a condition called

text: intestinal

text: agangliosis

text: The radula consist of 10 rows. Each row consist of one central tooth and two lateral teeth. The Digestive system also includes an esophagus, gizzard sac and gut.

text: The

text: radula

text: consist of 10 rows. Each row consist of one central tooth and two lateral teeth. The

text: Digestive system

text: also includes an esophagus, gizzard sac and gut.

text: The PNS can be divided into the autonomic and somatic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system can be divided into the parasympathetic, sympathetic, and enteric nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system regulates the “fight or flight” responses. The parasympathetic nervous system regulates the “rest and digest” responses. The enteric nervous system innervates the viscera (gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and gall bladder). The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that send sensory information to the central nervous system and motor nerve fibers that project to skeletal muscle. The somatic nervous system engages in voluntary reactions, and the autonomic nervous system engages in involuntary reactions.

text: The second vital secretion of the GI tract is that of digestive enzymes that are secreted in the mouth, stomach and intestines. Some of these enzymes are secreted by accessory digestive organs, while others are secreted by the epithelial cells of the stomach and intestine. While some of these enzymes remain embedded in the wall of the GI tract, others are secreted in an inactive proenzyme form. When these proenzymes reach the lumen of the tract, a factor specific to a particular proenzyme will activate it. A prime example of this is pepsin, which is secreted in the stomach by chief cells. Pepsin in its secreted form is inactive (pepsinogen). However, once it reaches the gastic lumen it becomes activated into pepsin by the high H+ concentration, becoming an enzyme vital to digestion. The release of the enzymes is regulated by neural, hormonal, or paracrine signals. However, in general, parasympathetic stimulation increases secretion of all digestive enzymes.

text: The second vital secretion of the GI tract is that of digestive enzymes that are secreted in the mouth, stomach and intestines. Some of these enzymes are secreted by accessory digestive organs, while others are secreted by the epithelial cells of the stomach and intestine. While some of these enzymes remain embedded in the wall of the GI tract, others are secreted in an inactive

text: proenzyme

text: form. When these proenzymes reach the lumen of the tract, a factor specific to a particular proenzyme will activate it. A prime example of this is

text: pepsin

text: , which is secreted in the stomach by

text: chief cells

text: . Pepsin in its secreted form is inactive (

text: pepsinogen

text: ). However, once it reaches the gastic lumen it becomes activated into

text: pepsin

text: by the high H+ concentration, becoming an enzyme vital to digestion. The release of the enzymes is regulated by neural, hormonal, or paracrine signals. However, in general, parasympathetic stimulation increases secretion of all digestive enzymes.

text: Excessive consumption of cabbage may lead to increased intestinal gas which causes bloating and flatulence due to the trisaccharide raffinose, which the human small intestine cannot digest.

text: Excessive consumption of cabbage may lead to increased

text: intestinal gas

text: which causes

text: bloating

text: and

text: flatulence

text: due to the

text: trisaccharide

text: raffinose

text: , which the human

text: small intestine

text: cannot

text: digest

text: Mouse models of colorectal cancer and intestinal cancer are experimental systems in which mice are genetically manipulated, fed a modified diet or challenged with chemicals to develop  malignancies in the gastrointestinal tract. These models enable researchers to study  the onset, progression of the disease, and understand in depth the molecular events that contribute to the development and spread of colorectal cancer. They also provide a valuable biological system, to simulate human physiological conditions, suitable for testing therapeutics that can potentially benefit patients. An important example is the development of the APC mutant mouse model of colorectal cancer and the subsequent observation that cyclooxygenase expression is an early event in colorectal carcinogenesis. Genetic disruption of the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) gene or inhibition of the activity of  COX-2 with chemical inhibitors reduced the polyp burden in mice.  These observations gave rationale to treat human patients suffering from the familial form of  the disease FAP with selective COX-2 inhibitors.

text: Mouse

text: models

text: of

text: colorectal cancer

text: and intestinal cancer are experimental systems in which mice are genetically manipulated, fed a modified diet or challenged with chemicals to develop  malignancies in the gastrointestinal tract. These models enable researchers to study  the onset, progression of the disease, and understand in depth the molecular events that contribute to the development and spread of colorectal cancer. They also provide a valuable biological system, to simulate human physiological conditions, suitable for testing therapeutics that can potentially benefit patients. An important example is the development of the APC mutant mouse model of colorectal cancer and the subsequent observation that

text: cyclooxygenase

text: expression is an early event in colorectal carcinogenesis. Genetic disruption of the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) gene or inhibition of the activity of  COX-2 with chemical inhibitors reduced the polyp burden in mice.  These observations gave rationale to treat human patients suffering from the familial form of  the disease

text: FAP

text: with selective COX-2 inhibitors.

text: Schwann discovered the striated muscle in the upper esophagus and initiated research into muscle contraction, since expanded upon greatly by Emil du Bois-Reymond and others. Müller directed Schwann's attention to the process of digestion, and in 1837 Schwann isolated an enzyme essential to digestion, which he called pepsin.

text: Schwann discovered the

text: striated muscle

text: in the upper esophagus and initiated research into

text: muscle contraction

text: , since expanded upon greatly by

text: Emil du Bois-Reymond

text: and others. Müller directed Schwann's attention to the process of

text: digestion

text: , and in 1837 Schwann isolated an

text: enzyme

text: essential to digestion, which he called

text: pepsin

text: François' langur is a medium-sized primate with black, silky hair. It has very distinct white sideburns that grow down from its ears to the corners of its cheeks.  A morphological specialization of François' langur is its complex stomach, made up of four separate chambers. This is a necessary adaptation for the digestion of its folivorous diet.

text: Tapeworms are endoparasites which have numerous adaptations to enhance parasitic nutrition. Tapeworms live in the small intestine of humans, providing an ideal location to access a readily available, rich source of pre-digested nutrients. Since nutrients in the small intestine are plentiful and pre-digested by the host, tapeworms do not require a gut and instead have adaptations to maximise nutrient absorption. Tapeworms have a tegument which allows nutrients to be absorbed directly from the host small intestine by diffusion. They also have anatomical adaptations in the form of a scolex with hookers and suckers to allow the parasite to attach to the host small intestine wall, preventing the tapeworm from being egested following peristalsis. Tapeworms have a flattened body with microtriches to maximise the surface area available for nutrient absorption and they additionally have various transporter molecules. Tapeworms have to compete with the host epithelium for nutrients, so it is essential that they compete more efficiently for nutrients. They also secrete enzymes to enhance host digestive enzymes e.g. pancreatic α-amylase.

text: Tapeworms

text: are endoparasites which have numerous adaptations to enhance parasitic nutrition. Tapeworms live in the

text: small intestine

text: of humans, providing an ideal location to access a readily available, rich source of pre-digested nutrients. Since nutrients in the small intestine are plentiful and pre-digested by the host, tapeworms do not require a gut and instead have adaptations to maximise nutrient absorption. Tapeworms have a tegument which allows nutrients to be absorbed directly from the host small intestine by diffusion. They also have anatomical adaptations in the form of a scolex with hookers and suckers to allow the parasite to attach to the host small intestine wall, preventing the tapeworm from being egested following

text: peristalsis

text: . Tapeworms have a flattened body with

text: microtriches

text: to maximise the surface area available for nutrient absorption and they additionally have various transporter molecules. Tapeworms have to compete with the host epithelium for nutrients, so it is essential that they compete more efficiently for nutrients. They also secrete enzymes to enhance host digestive enzymes e.g. pancreatic α-amylase.

text: Newborn babies do not eat adult foods. They survive solely on breast milk or formula. Small amounts of pureed food are sometimes fed to young infants as young as two or three months old, but most infants do not eat adult food until they are between six and eight months old. Young babies eat pureed baby foods because they have few teeth and immature digestive systems. Between 8 and 12 months of age, the digestive system improves, and many babies begin eating finger foods. Their diet is still limited, however, because most babies lack molars or canines at this age, and often have a limited number of incisors. By 18 months, babies often have enough teeth and a sufficiently mature digestive system to eat the same foods as adults. Learning to eat is a messy process for children, and children often do not master neatness or eating etiquette until they are 5 or 6 years old.

text: Newborn babies do not eat adult foods. They survive solely on breast milk or formula. Small amounts of pureed food are sometimes fed to young infants as young as two or three months old, but most infants do not eat adult food until they are between six and eight months old. Young babies eat pureed

text: baby food

text: s because they have few teeth and immature digestive systems. Between 8 and 12 months of age, the digestive system improves, and many babies begin eating finger foods. Their diet is still limited, however, because most babies lack molars or canines at this age, and often have a limited number of incisors. By 18 months, babies often have enough teeth and a sufficiently mature digestive system to eat the same foods as adults. Learning to eat is a messy process for children, and children often do not master neatness or eating etiquette until they are 5 or 6 years old.

text: Arachnids produce digestive juices in their stomachs, and use their pedipalps and chelicerae to pour them over their dead prey. The digestive juices rapidly turn the prey into a broth of nutrients, which the arachnid sucks into a pre-buccal cavity located immediately in front of the mouth. Behind the mouth is a muscular, sclerotised pharynx, which acts as a pump, sucking the food through the mouth and on into the oesophagus and stomach. In some arachnids, the oesophagus also acts as an additional pump.

text: Arachnids produce digestive juices in their stomachs, and use their pedipalps and chelicerae to pour them over their dead prey. The digestive juices rapidly turn the prey into a broth of nutrients, which the arachnid sucks into a pre-buccal cavity located immediately in front of the mouth. Behind the mouth is a muscular, sclerotised

text: pharynx

text: , which acts as a pump, sucking the food through the mouth and on into the

text: oesophagus

text: and

text: stomach

text: . In some arachnids, the oesophagus also acts as an additional pump.

text: Pietro Albertoni was born in Gazoldo degli Ippoliti, Mantua on 22 September 1849. His father Giovanni was a surgeon.In 1866, when only sixteen years of age, he enlisted in the ranks of Garibaldi's partisans and participated in the battle of Bezzecca. In 1873 he graduated in medicine at the University of Padua.After graduation, he entered the Institute of Physiology directed by Filippo Lussana. In Padua he completed studies on different aspects of the physiology of the digestive and nervous systems, and the physiology of development. He worked on forensic medicine related to poisonings.

text: Pietro Albertoni was born in

text: Gazoldo degli Ippoliti

text: , Mantua on 22 September 1849. His father Giovanni was a surgeon.In 1866, when only sixteen years of age, he enlisted in the ranks of Garibaldi's partisans and participated in the

text: battle of Bezzecca

text: . In 1873 he graduated in medicine at the

text: University of Padua

text: .After graduation, he entered the Institute of Physiology directed by

text: Filippo Lussana

text: . In Padua he completed studies on different aspects of the physiology of the digestive and nervous systems, and the physiology of development. He worked on forensic medicine related to poisonings.

text: In the pancreas the role of dopamine is somewhat complex. The pancreas consists of two parts, an exocrine and an endocrine component.  The exocrine part synthesizes and secretes digestive enzymes and other substances, including dopamine, into the small intestine. The function of this secreted dopamine after it enters the small intestine is not clearly established—the possibilities include protecting the intestinal mucosa from damage and reducing gastrointestinal motility (the rate at which content moves through the digestive system).

text: In the pancreas the role of dopamine is somewhat complex. The pancreas consists of two parts, an

text: exocrine

text: and an

text: endocrine

text: component.  The exocrine part synthesizes and secretes

text: digestive enzymes

text: and other substances, including dopamine, into the

text: small intestine

text: . The function of this secreted dopamine after it enters the small intestine is not clearly established—the possibilities include protecting the intestinal mucosa from damage and reducing

text: gastrointestinal motility

text: (the rate at which content moves through the digestive system).

text: In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. As these two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes.

text: In the

text: human digestive system

text: , food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of

text: mastication

text: (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of

text: saliva

text: . Saliva, a liquid secreted by the

text: salivary glands

text: , contains

text: salivary amylase

text: , an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains

text: mucus

text: , which lubricates the food, and

text: hydrogen carbonate

text: , which provides the ideal conditions of pH (

text: alkaline

text: ) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a

text: bolus

text: . It will then travel down the

text: esophagus

text: and into the

text: stomach

text: by the action of

text: peristalsis

text: Gastric juice

text: in the stomach starts

text: protein digestion

text: . Gastric juice mainly contains

text: hydrochloric acid

text: and

text: pepsin

text: . As these two chemicals may damage the stomach wall,

text: mucus

text: is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by

text: peristalsis

text: , which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes.

text: In the developed world, about 4% to 8% of people have at least one food allergy. They are more common in children than adults and appear to be increasing in frequency. Male children appear to be more commonly affected than females. Some allergies more commonly develop early in life, while others typically develop in later life. In developed countries, a large proportion of people believe they have food allergies when they actually do not have them.

text: In the

text: developed world

text: , about 4% to 8% of people have at least one food allergy. They are more common in children than adults and appear to be increasing in frequency. Male children appear to be more commonly affected than females. Some allergies more commonly develop early in life, while others typically develop in later life. In developed countries, a large proportion of people believe they have food allergies when they actually do not have them.

text: Absorption filters dissipate the energy in unwanted frequencies internally as heat.  This is in contrast to a conventional filter design where the unwanted frequencies are reflected back from the input port of the filter.  Such filters are used where it is undesirable for power to be sent back towards the source.  This is the case with high power transmitters where returning power can be high enough to damage the transmitter.  An absorption filter may be used to remove transmitter spurious emissions such as harmonics or spurious sidebands.  A design that has been in use for some time has slots cut in the walls of the feed waveguide at regular intervals.  This design is known as a leaky-wave filter.  Each slot is connected to a smaller gauge waveguide which is too small to support propagation of frequencies in the wanted band.  Thus those frequencies are unaffected by the filter.  Higher frequencies in the unwanted band, however, readily propagate along the side guides which are terminated with a matched load where the power is absorbed.  These loads are usually a wedge shaped piece of microwave absorbent material.  Another, more compact, design of absorption filter uses resonators with a lossy dielectric.

text: Absorption filters dissipate the energy in unwanted frequencies internally as heat.  This is in contrast to a conventional filter design where the unwanted frequencies are reflected back from the input port of the filter.  Such filters are used where it is undesirable for power to be sent back towards the source.  This is the case with high power transmitters where returning power can be high enough to damage the transmitter.  An absorption filter may be used to remove transmitter

text: spurious emission

text: s such as

text: harmonic

text: s or spurious

text: sideband

text: s.  A design that has been in use for some time has slots cut in the walls of the feed waveguide at regular intervals.  This design is known as a leaky-wave filter.  Each slot is connected to a smaller gauge waveguide which is too small to support propagation of frequencies in the wanted band.  Thus those frequencies are unaffected by the filter.  Higher frequencies in the unwanted band, however, readily propagate along the side guides which are terminated with a matched load where the power is absorbed.  These loads are usually a wedge shaped piece of microwave absorbent material.  Another, more compact, design of absorption filter uses resonators with a lossy dielectric.

text: The mouth opens into a central stomach, from which four interconnected diverticula radiate outwards. In many species, this is further elaborated by a system of radial canals, with or without an additional ring canal towards the edge of the dome. Some genera, such as Cassiopea, even have additional, smaller mouths in the oral arms. The lining of the digestive system includes further stinging nematocysts, along with cells that secrete digestive enzymes.

text: The mouth opens into a central stomach, from which four interconnected

text: diverticula

text: radiate outwards. In many species, this is further elaborated by a system of radial canals, with or without an additional ring canal towards the edge of the dome. Some genera, such as

text: Cassiopea

text: , even have additional, smaller mouths in the oral arms. The lining of the digestive system includes further stinging nematocysts, along with cells that secrete

text: digestive enzyme

text: s.

text: The digestive system comprises a foregut, a midgut and a hindgut, and is situated dorsally. The foregut begins at the mouth, passes through the oesophagus, and opens into a sac which contains the grinding apparatus of the gastric mill. The hepatopancreas feeds into the midgut, where digestive enzymes are released, and nutrients taken up. The hindgut forms faecal pellets, which are then passed out through the muscular anus.

text: The

text: digestive system

text: comprises a foregut, a midgut and a hindgut, and is situated dorsally. The foregut begins at the mouth, passes through the oesophagus, and opens into a sac which contains the grinding apparatus of the

text: gastric mill

text: . The

text: hepatopancreas

text: feeds into the midgut, where

text: digestive enzyme

text: s are released, and nutrients taken up. The hindgut forms faecal pellets, which are then passed out through the muscular

text: anus

text: Spaghetti worms have a well-developed gut consisting of an oesophagus, fore-stomach, closed circulatory system, hind-stomach and intestine, and use enzymes to help carry out digestion.

text: Spaghetti worms have a well-developed gut consisting of an oesophagus, fore-

text: stomach

text: closed circulatory system

text: , hind-stomach and

text: intestine

text: , and use

text: enzymes

text: to help carry out

text: digestion

text: Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids.  The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens.  For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin.  Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.

text: Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and

text: duodenum

text: in which 3 main enzymes,

text: pepsin

text: secreted by the stomach and

text: trypsin

text: and

text: chymotrypsin

text: secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into

text: polypeptides

text: that are then broken down by various

text: exopeptidases

text: and

text: dipeptidases

text: into

text: amino acids

text: .  The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the

text: zymogens

text: .  For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of

text: trypsinogen

text: , which is activated in the duodenum by

text: enterokinase

text: to form trypsin.  Trypsin then cleaves

text: protein

text: s to smaller

text: polypeptide

text: s.

text: In 2013, the principal cause of death for women in Croatia were diseased of circulatory system at 54.3%, followed by tumors at 23.6%. Other significant causes of death are injuries, poisonings and other external causes (4.3%), respiratory system diseases (3.5%), digestive system diseases (3.3%), and endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (2.8%).

text: Digestive enzymes are enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans) and in the traps of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as well as inside cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain cellular survival. Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities and are found in the saliva secreted by the salivary glands, in the secretions of cells lining the stomach, in the pancreatic juice secreted by pancreatic exocrine cells, and in the secretions of cells lining the small and large intestines.

text: Digestive enzymes are

text: enzymes

text: that break down polymeric

text: macromolecule

text: s into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption by the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the

text: digestive tract

text: s of animals (including humans) and in the traps of

text: carnivorous plant

text: s, where they aid in the

text: digestion

text: of

text: food

text: , as well as inside

text: cells

text: , especially in their

text: lysosome

text: s, where they function to maintain cellular survival. Digestive enzymes of diverse specificities and are found in the

text: saliva

text: secreted by the

text: salivary glands

text: , in the secretions of cells lining the stomach, in the

text: pancreatic juice

text: secreted by pancreatic exocrine cells, and in the secretions of cells lining the small and large intestines.

text: Piroxicam  (INN, BAN, USAN, AAN; in some countries it is spelt piroksikam or piroxikam) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) of the oxicam class used to relieve the symptoms of painful, inflammatory conditions like arthritis. Piroxicam works by preventing the production of a certain type of body chemical called prostaglandins which are involved in the mediation of pain, stiffness, tenderness and swelling. The medicine is available as capsules, tablets and (not in all countries) as a prescription-free gel 0.5%. It is also available in a betadex formulation, which allows a more rapid absorption of piroxicam from the digestive tract.

text: Piroxicam  (

text: INN

text: BAN

text: USAN

text: AAN

text: ; in some countries it is spelt piroksikam or piroxikam) is a

text: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: NSAID

text: ) of the

text: oxicam

text: class used to relieve the symptoms of painful, inflammatory conditions like

text: arthritis

text: . Piroxicam works by preventing the production of a certain type of body chemical called

text: prostaglandins

text: which are involved in the mediation of pain, stiffness, tenderness and swelling. The medicine is available as

text: capsules

text: tablets

text: and (not in all countries) as a prescription-free

text: gel

text: 0.5%. It is also available in a betadex formulation, which allows a more rapid absorption of piroxicam from the digestive tract.

text: Aloe vera juice is marketed to support the health of the digestive system, but there is neither scientific evidence nor regulatory approval to support this claim. The extracts and quantities typically used for such purposes appear to be dose-dependent for toxic effects.

text: Short-term PN may be used if a person's digestive system has shut down (for instance by peritonitis), and they are at a low enough weight to cause concerns about nutrition during an extended hospital stay. Long-term PN is occasionally used to treat people suffering the extended consequences of an accident, surgery, or digestive disorder. PN has extended the life of children born with nonexistent or severely deformed organs.

text: Short-term PN may be used if a person's digestive system has shut down (for instance by

text: peritonitis

text: ), and they are at a low enough weight to cause concerns about nutrition during an extended hospital stay. Long-term PN is occasionally used to treat people suffering the extended consequences of an accident, surgery, or digestive disorder. PN has extended the life of children born with nonexistent or severely deformed organs.

text: Unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia in a newborn can lead to accumulation of bilirubin in certain brain regions (particularly the basal nuclei) with consequent irreversible damage to these areas manifesting as various neurological deficits, seizures, abnormal reflexes and eye movements. This type of neurological injury is known as kernicterus. The spectrum of clinical effect is called bilirubin encephalopathy. The neurotoxicity of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia manifests because the blood–brain barrier has yet to develop fully, and bilirubin can freely pass into the brain interstitium, whereas more developed individuals with increased bilirubin in the blood are protected. Aside from specific chronic medical conditions that may lead to hyperbilirubinaemia, neonates in general are at increased risk since they lack the intestinal bacteria that facilitate the breakdown and excretion of conjugated bilirubin in the feces (this is largely why the feces of a neonate are paler than those of an adult). Instead the conjugated bilirubin is converted back into the unconjugated form by the enzyme β-glucuronidase (in the gut, this enzyme is located in the brush border of the lining intestinal cells) and a large proportion is reabsorbed through the enterohepatic circulation.

text: Unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia in a newborn can lead to accumulation of bilirubin in certain brain regions (particularly the

text: basal nuclei

text: ) with consequent irreversible damage to these areas manifesting as various neurological deficits,

text: seizure

text: s, abnormal

text: reflexes

text: and eye movements. This type of neurological injury is known as

text: kernicterus

text: . The spectrum of clinical effect is called bilirubin encephalopathy. The neurotoxicity of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia manifests because the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: has yet to develop fully, and bilirubin can freely pass into the brain interstitium, whereas more developed individuals with increased bilirubin in the blood are protected. Aside from specific chronic medical conditions that may lead to

text: hyperbilirubinaemia

text: , neonates in general are at increased risk since they lack the intestinal bacteria that facilitate the breakdown and excretion of conjugated bilirubin in the feces (this is largely why the feces of a neonate are paler than those of an adult). Instead the conjugated bilirubin is converted back into the unconjugated form by the enzyme

text: β-glucuronidase

text: (in the gut, this enzyme is located in the brush border of the lining intestinal cells) and a large proportion is reabsorbed through the

text: enterohepatic circulation

text: CTAB has been used for applications from nanoparticle synthesis to cosmetics. Due to its use in human products, along with other applications, it is essential to be made aware of the hazards this agent contains. The Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc. offers a comprehensive MSDS for CTAB and should be referred to for additional questions or concerns. Animal testing has shown ingestion of less than 150 g of the agent can lead to adverse health effects or possibly death by CTAB causing chemical burns throughout the esophagus and gastrointestinal tract that can be followed by nausea and vomiting. If the substance continues through the gastrointestinal tract, it will be poorly absorbed in the intestines followed by excretion in feces. Toxicity has also been tested on aquatic life including Brachydanio rerio (zebra fish) and Daphnia magna (Water flea). Zebra fish showed CTAB toxicity when exposed to 0.3 mg/L for 96 hours, and water fleas showed CTAB toxicity when exposed to 0.03 mg/L for 48 hours.

text: CTAB has been used for applications from nanoparticle synthesis to cosmetics. Due to its use in human products, along with other applications, it is essential to be made aware of the hazards this agent contains. The Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc. offers a comprehensive

text: MSDS

text: for CTAB and should be referred to for additional questions or concerns. Animal testing has shown ingestion of less than 150 g of the agent can lead to adverse health effects or possibly death by CTAB causing chemical burns throughout the esophagus and

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: that can be followed by nausea and vomiting. If the substance continues through the gastrointestinal tract, it will be poorly absorbed in the intestines followed by excretion in feces. Toxicity has also been tested on aquatic life including

text: Brachydanio rerio

text: (zebra fish) and

text: Daphnia magna

text: (Water flea). Zebra fish showed CTAB toxicity when exposed to 0.3 mg/L for 96 hours, and water fleas showed CTAB toxicity when exposed to 0.03 mg/L for 48 hours.

text: There are broad generalizations relating to amphibians that can be used to describe their digestive processes. One such generalization is that digestion raises metabolic rate in the organism in which it is occurring. This wide idea will apply to T. carnifex. Digestion results in a hypertrophy (swelling) of the gastrointestinal regions. This is similar to the shunting of blood flow to the gastrointestinal compartments, as seen in muscular exercise. Both activities place a specific demand on the cardio-respiratory system. However, the similarities end at the surface and underlying mechanisms between the two processes differ. While muscular activity increases heart rate by vagal release, the digestive processes act directly on the heart and involve both non-adrenergenic and non-cholinergic factors. Digestion is demonstrated by an increase of the concentration of HCO3 in the blood. Since this shift is towards the lower (and more acidic) end of the pH scale, there is a countering mechanism in the increase of CO2 pressure in order to reduce the pH shift in the arterioles. This another example of regulation as opposed to conformation in the Italian crested newt.

text: The point of exiting is what is known as the stoma. For greatest success and to minimize negative effects, it is preferable to perform this procedure as low down in the tract as possible, as this allows the maximal amount of natural digestion to occur before eliminating fecal matter from the body. The stoma is usually covered with a removable pouching system (adhesive or mechanical) that collects and contains the output for later disposal. Modern pouching systems enable most individuals to resume normal activities and lifestyles after surgery, often with no outward physical evidence of the stoma or its pouching system.

text: The point of exiting is what is known as the stoma. For greatest success and to minimize negative effects, it is preferable to perform this procedure as low down in the tract as possible, as this allows the maximal amount of natural

text: digestion

text: to occur before eliminating

text: fecal

text: matter from the body. The stoma is usually covered with a removable pouching system (adhesive or mechanical) that collects and contains the output for later disposal. Modern

text: pouching systems

text: enable most individuals to resume normal activities and lifestyles after surgery, often with no outward physical evidence of the stoma or its pouching system.

text: Like other lagomorphs, they have a double digestion.  Food passes through their gut twice, first producing soft, green feces (cecotropes) which still contain nutrients.  These are eaten by the animal (coprophagy), and after further digestion the remains form drier, dark brown or black hard pellets, which are not eaten.

text: Like other

text: lagomorph

text: s, they have a double digestion.  Food passes through their gut twice, first producing soft, green feces (

text: cecotrope

text: s) which still contain nutrients.  These are eaten by the animal (

text: coprophagy

text: ), and after further digestion the remains form drier, dark brown or black hard pellets, which are not eaten.

text: The portal venous system is responsible for directing blood from parts of the gastrointestinal tract to the liver. Substances absorbed in the small intestine travel first to the liver for processing before continuing to the heart. Not all of the gastrointestinal tract is part of this system. The system extends from about the lower portion of the esophagus to the upper part of the anal canal. It also includes venous drainage from the spleen and pancreas.

text: The portal venous system is responsible for directing blood from parts of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: to the

text: liver

text: . Substances absorbed in the small intestine travel first to the liver for processing before continuing to the heart. Not all of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: is part of this system. The system extends from about the lower portion of the

text: esophagus

text: to the upper part of the

text: anal canal

text: . It also includes venous drainage from the

text: spleen

text: and

text: pancreas

text: The holotype preserves an exceptionally large set of soft tissues for a fossil dinosaur. Although some muscle tissue (Santanaraptor, Pelecanimimus), cartilage (Juravenator, Aucasaurus), or an intestine (Mirischia) have been reported from other dinosaurs, Scipionyx is unique in preserving in some form examples from most major internal organ groups: blood, blood vessels, cartilage, connective tissues, bone tissue, muscle tissue, horn sheaths, the respiratory system and the digestive system. Nervous tissue and the external skin, including possible scales or feathers, are absent.

text: The holotype preserves an exceptionally large set of soft tissues for a fossil dinosaur. Although some muscle tissue (

text: Santanaraptor

text: Pelecanimimus

text: cartilage

text: Juravenator

text: Aucasaurus

text: ), or an intestine (

text: Mirischia

text: ) have been reported from other dinosaurs, Scipionyx is unique in preserving in some form examples from most major internal organ groups: blood, blood vessels, cartilage, connective tissues, bone tissue, muscle tissue, horn sheaths, the respiratory system and the digestive system. Nervous tissue and the external skin, including possible scales or feathers, are absent.

text: Bicarbonate also serves much in the digestive system.  It raises the internal pH of the stomach, after highly acidic digestive juices have finished in their digestion of food. Ammonium bicarbonate is used in digestive biscuit manufacture.

text: Bicarbonate also serves much in the digestive system.  It raises the internal pH of the stomach, after highly acidic digestive juices have finished in their digestion of food.

text: Ammonium bicarbonate

text: is used in

text: digestive biscuit

text: manufacture.

text: The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built), and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital 'C' to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.

text: The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built), and

text: energy

text: . Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in

text: Joule

text: s or

text: kilocalories

text: (often called "Calories" and written with a capital 'C' to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.

text: The esophagus is innervated by the vagus nerve and the cervical and thoracic sympathetic trunk. The vagus nerve has a parasympathetic function, supplying the muscles of the esophagus and stimulating glandular contraction. Two sets of nerve fibres travel in the vagus nerve to supply the muscles. The upper striated muscle, and upper esophageal sphincter, are supplied by neurons with bodies in the nucleus ambiguus, whereas fibres that supply the smooth muscle and lower esophageal sphincter have bodies situated in the dorsal motor nucleus. The vagus nerve plays the primary role in initiating peristalsis. The sympathetic trunk has a sympathetic function. It may enhance the function of the vagus nerve, increasing peristalsis and glandular activity, and causing sphincter contraction. In addition, sympathetic activation may relax the muscle wall and cause blood vessel constriction. Sensation along the esophagus is supplied by both nerves, with gross sensation being passed in the vagus nerve and pain passed up the sympathetic trunk.

text: The esophagus is innervated by the vagus nerve and the cervical and thoracic

text: sympathetic trunk

text: . The vagus nerve has a

text: parasympathetic

text: function, supplying the muscles of the esophagus and stimulating glandular contraction. Two sets of nerve fibres travel in the vagus nerve to supply the muscles. The upper striated muscle, and upper esophageal sphincter, are supplied by neurons with bodies in the

text: nucleus ambiguus

text: , whereas fibres that supply the smooth muscle and lower esophageal sphincter have bodies situated in the

text: dorsal motor nucleus

text: . The vagus nerve plays the primary role in initiating

text: peristalsis

text: . The sympathetic trunk has a

text: sympathetic

text: function. It may enhance the function of the vagus nerve, increasing peristalsis and glandular activity, and causing sphincter contraction. In addition, sympathetic activation may relax the muscle wall and cause blood vessel constriction. Sensation along the esophagus is supplied by both nerves, with gross sensation being passed in the vagus nerve and pain passed up the sympathetic trunk.

text: Administration through the gastrointestinal tract is sometimes termed enteral or enteric administration (literally meaning 'through the intestines'). Enteral/enteric administration usually includes oral (through the mouth) and rectal (into the rectum) administration, in the sense that these are taken up by the intestines. However, uptake of drugs administered orally may also occur already in the stomach, and as such gastrointestinal (along the gastrointestinal tract) may be a more fitting term for this route of administration. Furthermore, some application locations often classified as enteral, such as sublingual (under the tongue) and sublabial or buccal (between the cheek and gums/gingiva), are taken up in the proximal part of the gastrointestinal tract without reaching the intestines. Strictly enteral administration (directly into the intestines) can be used for systemic administration, as well as local (sometimes termed topical), such as in a contrast enema, whereby contrast media is infused into the intestines for imaging. However, for the purposes of classification based on location of effects, the term enteral is reserved for substances with systemic effects.

text: Administration through the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: is sometimes termed enteral or enteric administration (literally meaning 'through the

text: intestines

text: '). Enteral/enteric administration usually includes

text: oral

text: (through the

text: mouth

text: ) and

text: rectal

text: (into the

text: rectum

text: ) administration, in the sense that these are taken up by the intestines. However, uptake of drugs administered orally may also occur already in the

text: stomach

text: , and as such gastrointestinal (along the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: ) may be a more fitting term for this route of administration. Furthermore, some application locations often classified as enteral, such as

text: sublingual

text: (under the tongue) and

text: sublabial

text: or buccal (between the cheek and gums/

text: gingiva

text: ), are taken up in the proximal part of the gastrointestinal tract without reaching the intestines. Strictly

text: enteral administration

text: (directly into the intestines) can be used for systemic administration, as well as local (sometimes termed

text: topical

text: ), such as in a contrast

text: enema

text: , whereby contrast media is infused into the intestines for imaging. However, for the purposes of classification based on location of effects, the term enteral is reserved for substances with systemic effects.

text: Digestion of food can take a long time in the Port Jackson shark.  Food moves from the mouth to the J-shaped stomach, where it is stored and initial digestion occurs. Unwanted items may never get any further than the stomach, and are coughed up again. They have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and spit it out of their mouths to get rid of any unwanted contents.One of the biggest differences in digestion in the shark when compared to mammals is the extremely short intestine. This short length is achieved by the spiral valve with multiple turns within a single short section instead of a very long tube-like intestine. The valve provides a very long surface area for the digestion of food, requiring it to pass around inside the apparently short gut until fully digested, when remaining waste products pass by. The most obvious internal organ in sharks is the huge liver, which often fills most of the body cavity.Dietary items include sea urchins, molluscs, crustaceans, and fishes. Black sea urchins (Centrostephanus rodgersii) are often eaten. Port Jackson Sharks forage for food at night when their prey are most active.  They often use caves and rocky outcrops as protection during the day.

text: Digestion of food can take a long time in the Port Jackson shark.  Food moves from the mouth to the J-shaped stomach, where it is stored and initial digestion occurs. Unwanted items may never get any further than the stomach, and are coughed up again. They have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and spit it out of their mouths to get rid of any unwanted contents.One of the biggest differences in digestion in the shark when compared to mammals is the extremely short intestine. This short length is achieved by the

text: spiral valve

text: with multiple turns within a single short section instead of a very long tube-like intestine. The valve provides a very long surface area for the digestion of food, requiring it to pass around inside the apparently short gut until fully digested, when remaining waste products pass by. The most obvious internal organ in sharks is the huge liver, which often fills most of the body cavity.Dietary items include sea urchins, molluscs, crustaceans, and fishes. Black sea urchins (

text: Centrostephanus rodgersii

text: ) are often eaten. Port Jackson Sharks forage for food at night when their prey are most active.  They often use caves and rocky outcrops as protection during the day.

text: On 1 April 1974, the Rivers Department and the Rivers Committee ceased to exist, when responsibility for the works passed from Manchester City Council to the newly formed North West Water Authority. The Authority built a new control room in 1981, which housed a computer control system for the site. Three years later, eight new sludge digesters were built, to enable all sludge dumped at sea to be digested first. Construction of the Mersey Valley Regional Sludge Pipeline began, linking Oldham to Davyhulme, and continuing to Sandon Dock in Liverpool. Davyhulme was able to treat sludge from a number of other sewage works to the east, and pump the digested product to Liverpool. Sludge boats ceased to use the ship canal, taking 15 minutes to transport sludge from Liverpool to a point to the north of the Bar Light in the Mersey, instead of over six hours required when using the canal.

text: On 1 April 1974, the Rivers Department and the Rivers Committee ceased to exist, when responsibility for the works passed from Manchester City Council to the newly formed

text: North West Water

text: Authority

text: . The Authority built a new control room in 1981, which housed a computer control system for the site. Three years later, eight new sludge digesters were built, to enable all sludge dumped at sea to be digested first. Construction of the Mersey Valley Regional Sludge Pipeline began, linking

text: Oldham

text: to Davyhulme, and continuing to Sandon Dock in Liverpool. Davyhulme was able to treat sludge from a number of other sewage works to the east, and pump the digested product to Liverpool. Sludge boats ceased to use the ship canal, taking 15 minutes to transport sludge from Liverpool to a point to the north of the Bar Light in the Mersey, instead of over six hours required when using the canal.

text: Acanthurus chirurgus spends its daylight hours grazing on algae and organic detritus. Its teeth are specially shaped for scraping algae and plant matter from rocks. Because it swallows its food whole, it has a gizzard-like organ in the intestine filled with particles of sand which help to grind food before it starts the digestive process.

text: Acanthurus chirurgus spends its daylight hours

text: grazing

text: on

text: algae

text: and organic

text: detritus

text: . Its teeth are specially shaped for scraping algae and plant matter from

text: rocks

text: . Because it swallows its food whole, it has a

text: gizzard

text: -like

text: organ

text: in the

text: intestine

text: filled with particles of sand which help to grind food before it starts the

text: digestive process

text: The hydra have four to twelve tentacles that protrude from just outside the mouth. They feed by extending their tentacles and waiting for food to touch the tentacles.  They then bring the food to their mouth, ingest and digest the organism. Anything that cannot be digested is egested. Ingestion and egestion occur through the mouth.

text: The hydra have four to twelve

text: tentacle

text: s that protrude from just outside the mouth. They feed by extending their tentacles and waiting for food to touch the tentacles.  They then bring the food to their mouth, ingest and digest the organism. Anything that cannot be digested is egested. Ingestion and egestion occur through the mouth.

text: The term absorption refers to the physical process of absorbing light, while absorbance does not always measure absorption: it measures attenuation (of transmitted radiant power). Attenuation can be caused by absorption, but also reflection, scattering, and other physical processes.

text: The term

text: absorption

text: refers to the physical process of absorbing light, while absorbance does not always measure absorption: it measures

text: attenuation

text: (of transmitted radiant power). Attenuation can be caused by absorption, but also reflection, scattering, and other physical processes.

text: Pseudofeces or pseudofaeces are a specialized method of expulsion that filter-feeding bivalve mollusks (and filter-feeding gastropod mollusks) use in order to get rid of suspended particles such as particles of grit which cannot be used as food, and which have been rejected by the animal. The rejected particles are wrapped in mucus, and are then expelled without having passed through the digestive tract. Thus, although they may closely resemble the mollusk's real feces, they are not actually feces, hence the name pseudofeces, meaning false feces.

text: Pseudofeces or pseudofaeces are a specialized method of expulsion that

text: filter-feeding

text: bivalve

text: mollusk

text: s (and filter-feeding

text: gastropod

text: mollusks) use in order to get rid of suspended particles such as particles of grit which cannot be used as food, and which have been rejected by the animal. The rejected particles are wrapped in

text: mucus

text: , and are then expelled without having passed through the

text: digestive tract

text: . Thus, although they may closely resemble the mollusk's real feces, they are not actually feces, hence the name pseudofeces, meaning false feces.

text: Animal tissue consists of elements and compounds ingested, digested, absorbed, and circulated through the bloodstream to feed the cells of the body. Except in the unborn fetus, the digestive system is the first system involved . Digestive juices break chemical bonds in ingested molecules, and modify their conformations and energy states. Though some molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream unchanged, digestive processes release them from the matrix of foods. Unabsorbed matter, along with some waste products of metabolism, is eliminated from the body in the feces.

text: Animal tissue consists of elements and compounds ingested, digested, absorbed, and circulated through the

text: blood

text: stream to feed the

text: cells

text: of the body. Except in the unborn fetus, the

text: digestive system

text: is the first system involved . Digestive juices break

text: chemical bond

text: s in ingested molecules, and modify their

text: conformations

text: and energy states. Though some molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream unchanged, digestive processes release them from the matrix of foods. Unabsorbed matter, along with some waste products of

text: metabolism

text: , is eliminated from the body in the

text: feces

text: The low levels of readily digestible starch (5%), and high levels of slowly digested starch, make lentils of potential value to people with diabetes. The remaining 65% of the starch is a resistant starch classified as RS1. A minimum of 10% in starch from lentils escapes digestion and absorption in the small intestine (therefore called "resistant starch").

text: The low levels of readily digestible starch (5%), and high levels of slowly digested starch, make lentils of potential value to people with

text: diabetes

text: . The remaining 65% of the starch is a

text: resistant starch

text: classified as RS1. A minimum of 10% in starch from lentils escapes

text: digestion

text: and absorption in the

text: small intestine

text: (therefore called "resistant starch").

text: Some members of the laurel family, as well as the unrelated but visually similar mountain laurel and cherry laurel, have leaves that are poisonous to humans and livestock. While these plants are not sold anywhere for culinary use, their visual similarity to bay leaves has led to the oft-repeated belief that bay leaves should be removed from food after cooking because they are poisonous. This is not true – bay leaves may be eaten without toxic effect. However, they remain very stiff even after thorough cooking, and if swallowed whole or in large pieces, they may pose a risk of scratching the digestive tract or even causing choking. There are multiple cases of intestinal perforations caused by swallowing bay leaves, and they should not be swallowed or left in the food before serving to prevent the occurrence of a possibly fatal surgical emergency. Thus, most recipes that use bay leaves will recommend their removal after the cooking process has finished.

text: Some members of the laurel family, as well as the unrelated but visually similar

text: mountain laurel

text: and

text: cherry laurel

text: , have leaves that are poisonous to humans and livestock. While these plants are not sold anywhere for culinary use, their visual similarity to bay leaves has led to the oft-repeated belief that bay leaves should be removed from food after cooking because they are poisonous. This is not true – bay leaves may be eaten without toxic effect. However, they remain very stiff even after thorough cooking, and if swallowed whole or in large pieces, they may pose a risk of scratching the digestive tract or even causing choking. There are multiple cases of intestinal perforations caused by swallowing bay leaves, and they should not be swallowed or left in the food before serving to prevent the occurrence of a possibly fatal surgical emergency. Thus, most recipes that use bay leaves will recommend their removal after the cooking process has finished.

text: Human feces together with human urine are collectively referred to as human waste or human excreta. Containing human feces, and preventing spreading of pathogens from human feces via the fecal–oral route, are the main goals of sanitation.

text: Human feces together with human

text: urine

text: are collectively referred to as

text: human waste

text: or human

text: excreta

text: . Containing human feces, and preventing spreading of

text: pathogen

text: s from human feces via the

text: fecal–oral route

text: , are the main goals of

text: sanitation

text: Inulin is indigestible by the human enzymes ptyalin and amylase, which are adapted to digest starch. As a result, inulin passes through much of the digestive system intact. It is only in the colon that bacteria metabolise inulin, with the release of significant quantities of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and/or methane. Inulin-containing foods can be rather gassy, in particular for those unaccustomed to inulin, and these foods should be consumed in moderation at first.

text: Inulin is indigestible by the human

text: enzyme

text: s

text: ptyalin

text: and

text: amylase

text: , which are adapted to digest starch. As a result, inulin passes through much of the

text: digestive system

text: intact. It is only in the

text: colon

text: that

text: bacteria

text: metabolise

text: inulin, with the release of significant quantities of

text: carbon dioxide

text: hydrogen

text: , and/or

text: methane

text: . Inulin-containing foods can be rather

text: gassy

text: , in particular for those unaccustomed to inulin, and these foods should be consumed in moderation at first.

text: Since rabbits ingest their wool when they groom themselves, clipping their wool at least once every 90 days is considered a must to prevent wool block from occurring. A dietary supplement of papaya (from the vitamin section of the grocery store) in their diet helps wool to break down in their digestive tract. The wool swallowed by a rabbit cannot be coughed or vomited up, and will cause it to slowly starve to death as its digestive tract fills up with ingested wool; if left untreated, wool block can lead to death. It is widely held among serious Angora breeders that ample cage space to exercise and feeding fresh, horse-quality hay on a daily basis will help keep the wool moving through the system and prevent wool block. It is also widely held that feeding both bromelain from fresh pineapple and papain from fresh papaya occasionally will aid in breaking down the ingested wool (they are proteolytic enzymes), and aid in its passage through the rabbits' system. Another helpful tip for loose wool control includes giving the rabbit a pine cone to play with. They nibble them, throw them around, and they turn into a good wool catcher in their cage. When the pine cone is all nibbled or full of wool, replace it.

text: Since rabbits ingest their wool when they groom themselves, clipping their wool at least once every 90 days is considered a must to prevent wool block from occurring. A dietary supplement of

text: papaya

text: (from the vitamin section of the grocery store) in their diet helps wool to break down in their digestive tract. The wool swallowed by a rabbit cannot be coughed or vomited up, and will cause it to slowly starve to death as its digestive tract fills up with ingested wool; if left untreated, wool block can lead to death. It is widely held among serious Angora breeders that ample cage space to exercise and feeding fresh, horse-quality hay on a daily basis will help keep the wool moving through the system and prevent wool block. It is also widely held that feeding both

text: bromelain

text: from fresh pineapple and

text: papain

text: from fresh papaya occasionally will aid in breaking down the ingested wool (they are

text: proteolytic

text: enzymes), and aid in its passage through the rabbits' system. Another helpful tip for loose wool control includes giving the rabbit a pine cone to play with. They nibble them, throw them around, and they turn into a good wool catcher in their cage. When the pine cone is all nibbled or full of wool, replace it.

text: With initial infection, some patients have reported remembering a mild fever and flu-like symptoms about a month previous to extraction or identification of worm. The most common symptom is the complaint of sensation of a worm moving around the mouth, near the lips, and in the soft palate area. This movement is normally engendered by immature adult female worms. Symptoms, once noted, may continue from a month to a year if the worm is not surgically extracted. Eosinophilia is noted in some patients. Gongylonemiasis is the affliction caused by this parasite, which is simply protracted discomfort or sensation of movement in the buccal, oral or gingival areas associated with a sensation of foreign body. Subjects commonly pull worms from their gums, tongue, lips, and inner cheeks after days and even weeks of reported discomfort. In animals, this parasite quickly spreads down the esophagus, and into the upper digestive and respiratory tracts, making it more often than not, fatal. For humans, this parasite never makes it further than the oral cavity, and is often surgically or manually extracted.

text: With initial infection, some patients have reported remembering a mild fever and flu-like symptoms about a month previous to extraction or identification of worm. The most common symptom is the complaint of sensation of a worm moving around the mouth, near the lips, and in the soft palate area. This movement is normally engendered by immature adult female worms. Symptoms, once noted, may continue from a month to a year if the worm is not surgically extracted. Eosinophilia is noted in some patients.

text: Gongylonemiasis

text: is the affliction caused by this parasite, which is simply protracted discomfort or sensation of movement in the buccal, oral or gingival areas associated with a sensation of foreign body. Subjects commonly pull worms from their gums, tongue, lips, and inner cheeks after days and even weeks of reported discomfort. In animals, this parasite quickly spreads down the esophagus, and into the upper digestive and respiratory tracts, making it more often than not, fatal. For humans, this parasite never makes it further than the oral cavity, and is often surgically or manually extracted.

text: Seeds also may be found in feces. Animals who eat fruit are known as frugivores. An advantage for a plant in having fruit is that animals will eat the fruit and unknowingly disperse the seed in doing so. This mode of seed dispersal is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and often are subject to heavy predation. Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the digestive system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant, but is even provided with its own fertilizer.

text: Seed

text: s also may be found in feces. Animals who eat

text: fruit

text: are known as

text: frugivore

text: s. An advantage for a plant in having fruit is that animals will eat the fruit and unknowingly disperse the seed in doing so. This mode of

text: seed dispersal

text: is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and often are subject to heavy

text: predation

text: . Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the digestive system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant, but is even provided with its own fertilizer.

text: The mouth is the first part of the gastrointestinal tract and is equipped with several structures that begin the first processes of digestion. These include salivary glands, teeth and the tongue. The mouth consists of two regions, the vestibule and the oral cavity proper. The vestibule is the area between the teeth, lips and cheeks, and the rest is the oral cavity proper. Most of the oral cavity is lined with oral mucosa, a mucous membrane that produces a lubricating mucus, of which only a small amount is needed. Mucous membranes vary in structure in the different regions of the body but they all produce a lubricating mucus, which is either secreted by surface cells or more usually by underlying glands. The mucous membrane in the mouth continues as the thin mucosa which lines the bases of the teeth. The main component of mucus is a glycoprotein called mucin and the type secreted varies according to the region involved. Mucin is  viscous, clear, and clinging. Underlying the mucous membrane in the mouth is a thin layer of smooth muscle tissue and the loose connection to the membrane gives it its great elasticity. It covers the cheeks, inner surfaces of the lips, and floor of the mouth.

text: The

text: mouth

text: is the first part of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: and is equipped with several structures that begin the first processes of digestion. These include salivary glands, teeth and the tongue. The mouth consists of two regions, the vestibule and the oral cavity proper. The vestibule is the area between the teeth, lips and cheeks, and the rest is the oral cavity proper. Most of the oral cavity is lined with

text: oral mucosa

text: , a

text: mucous membrane

text: that produces a lubricating

text: mucus

text: , of which only a small amount is needed. Mucous membranes vary in structure in the different regions of the body but they all produce a lubricating mucus, which is either secreted by surface cells or more usually by underlying glands. The mucous membrane in the mouth continues as the thin mucosa which lines the bases of the teeth. The main component of mucus is a

text: glycoprotein

text: called

text: mucin

text: and the type secreted varies according to the region involved. Mucin is  viscous, clear, and clinging. Underlying the mucous membrane in the mouth is a thin layer of

text: smooth muscle tissue

text: and the loose connection to the membrane gives it its great elasticity. It covers the cheeks, inner surfaces of the

text: lip

text: s, and floor of the mouth.

text: Health issues often seen in the Yorkshire Terrier include bronchitis, lymphangiectasia, portosystemic shunt, cataracts, and keratitis sicca. Additionally, Yorkies often have a delicate digestive system, with vomiting or diarrhea resulting from consumption of foods outside of a regular diet. The relatively small size of the Yorkshire Terrier means that it usually has a poor tolerance for anesthesia. Additionally, a toy dog such as the Yorkie is more likely to be injured by falls, other dogs and owner clumsiness. Injection reactions (inflammation or hair loss at the site of an injection) can occur. In addition allergies can cause skin to be dry, itchy and/or red.

text: Health issues often seen in the Yorkshire Terrier include

text: bronchitis

text: lymphangiectasia

text: portosystemic shunt

text: cataract

text: s, and

text: keratitis sicca

text: . Additionally, Yorkies often have a delicate

text: digestive system

text: , with vomiting or diarrhea resulting from consumption of foods outside of a regular diet. The relatively small size of the Yorkshire Terrier means that it usually has a poor tolerance for

text: anesthesia

text: . Additionally, a toy dog such as the Yorkie is more likely to be injured by falls, other dogs and owner clumsiness. Injection reactions (inflammation or hair loss at the site of an injection) can occur. In addition allergies can cause skin to be dry, itchy and/or red.

text: In much of a digestive tract such as the human gastrointestinal tract, smooth muscle tissue contracts in sequence to produce a peristaltic wave, which propels a ball of food (called a bolus while in the esophagus and upper gastrointestinal tract and chyme in the stomach) along the tract. Peristaltic movement comprises relaxation of circular smooth muscles, then their contraction behind the chewed material to keep it from moving backward, then longitudinal contraction to push it forward.

text: In much of a

text: digestive tract

text: such as the

text: human gastrointestinal tract

text: smooth muscle tissue

text: contracts in sequence to produce a peristaltic wave, which propels a ball of

text: food

text: (called a

text: bolus

text: while in the

text: esophagus

text: and upper gastrointestinal tract and

text: chyme

text: in the

text: stomach

text: ) along the tract. Peristaltic movement comprises relaxation of circular smooth muscles, then their contraction behind the chewed material to keep it from moving backward, then longitudinal contraction to push it forward.

text: The water flow enters the lophophore from the sides of the open valves and exits at the front of the animal. In lingulids the entrance and exit channels are formed by groups of chaetae that function as funnels. In other brachiopods the entry and exit channels are organized by the shape of the lophophore.  The lophophore captures food particles, especially phytoplankton (tiny photosynthetic organisms), and deliver them to the mouth via the brachial grooves along the bases of the tentacles.The mouth is at the base of the lophophore. Food passes through the mouth, muscular pharynx ("throat") and oesophagus ("gullet"), all of which are lined with cilia and cells that secrete mucus and digestive enzymes. The stomach wall has branched ceca ("pouches") where food is digested, mainly within the cells.

text: The water flow enters the lophophore from the sides of the open valves and exits at the front of the animal. In lingulids the entrance and exit channels are formed by groups of chaetae that function as funnels. In other brachiopods the entry and exit channels are organized by the shape of the lophophore.  The lophophore captures food particles, especially

text: phytoplankton

text: (tiny

text: photosynthetic

text: organisms), and deliver them to the mouth via the brachial grooves along the bases of the tentacles.The mouth is at the base of the lophophore. Food passes through the mouth, muscular

text: pharynx

text: ("throat") and

text: oesophagus

text: ("gullet"), all of which are lined with cilia and cells that secrete

text: mucus

text: and digestive

text: enzymes

text: . The

text: stomach

text: wall has branched ceca ("pouches") where food is digested, mainly within the cells.

text: The stomach and intestines were examined and tests carried out on their contents. Scientists identified the man's last meal as porridge or gruel made from grains and seeds, both cultivated and wild. Approximately 40 kinds of seeds were identified, but the porridge was primarily composed of four types: barley, flax, false flax (Camelina sativa) and knotgrass. From the stage of digestion it was concluded that the man had eaten 12 to 24 hours prior to his death. Porridges were common for people of this time. Because neither meat nor fresh fruit was found in the last meal, it is suggested that the meal was eaten in winter or early spring when these items were not available.

text: The stomach and intestines were examined and tests carried out on their contents. Scientists identified the man's

text: last meal

text: as porridge or gruel made from grains and seeds, both cultivated and wild. Approximately 40 kinds of seeds were identified, but the porridge was primarily composed of four types: barley,

text: flax

text: , false flax (

text: Camelina sativa

text: ) and

text: knotgrass

text: . From the stage of digestion it was concluded that the man had eaten 12 to 24 hours prior to his death. Porridges were common for people of this time. Because neither meat nor fresh fruit was found in the last meal, it is suggested that the meal was eaten in winter or early spring when these items were not available.

text: Viral infections make up perhaps one third of cases of food poisoning in developed countries. In the US, more than 50% of cases are viral and noroviruses are the most common foodborne illness, causing 57% of outbreaks in 2004. Foodborne viral infection are usually of intermediate (1–3 days) incubation period, causing illnesses which are self-limited in otherwise healthy individuals; they are similar to the bacterial forms described above.

text: Viral

text: infections make up perhaps one third of cases of food poisoning in developed countries. In the US, more than 50% of cases are viral and

text: noroviruses

text: are the most common foodborne illness, causing 57% of outbreaks in 2004. Foodborne viral infection are usually of intermediate (1–3 days)

text: incubation period

text: , causing illnesses which are self-limited in otherwise healthy individuals; they are similar to the bacterial forms described above.

text: Abbado first conducted the Berlin Philharmonic in December 1966.  After 33 appearances as a guest conductor, in 1989, the Berlin Philharmonic elected him as its chief conductor and artistic director, in succession to Herbert von Karajan.  During his Berlin tenure, he oversaw an increased presence in contemporary music in the orchestra's programming.  In 1992, he co-founded 'Berlin Encounters', a chamber music festival.  In 1994, he became artistic director of the Salzburg Easter Festival.  In 1998, he announced his departure from the Berlin Philharmonic after the expiration of his contract in 2002.  Prior to his departure, he was diagnosed with stomach cancer in 2000, which led to his cancellation of a number of engagements with the orchestra.  Subsequent medical treatment led to the removal of a portion of his digestive system, and he cancelled his conducting activities for 3 months in 2001.

text: Abbado first conducted the

text: Berlin Philharmonic

text: in December 1966.  After 33 appearances as a guest conductor, in 1989, the

text: Berlin Philharmonic

text: elected him as its chief conductor and artistic director, in succession to

text: Herbert von Karajan

text: .  During his Berlin tenure, he oversaw an increased presence in contemporary music in the orchestra's programming.  In 1992, he co-founded 'Berlin Encounters', a

text: chamber music

text: festival.  In 1994, he became artistic director of the

text: Salzburg Easter Festival

text: .  In 1998, he announced his departure from the Berlin Philharmonic after the expiration of his contract in 2002.  Prior to his departure, he was diagnosed with

text: stomach cancer

text: in 2000, which led to his cancellation of a number of engagements with the orchestra.  Subsequent medical treatment led to the removal of a portion of his digestive system, and he cancelled his conducting activities for 3 months in 2001.

text: The structural component of plants are formed primarily from cellulose. Wood is largely cellulose and lignin, while paper and cotton are nearly pure cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer made with repeated glucose units bonded together by beta-linkages.  Humans and many animals lack an enzyme to break the beta-linkages, so they do not digest cellulose.  Certain animals such as termites can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing the enzyme are present in their gut. Cellulose is insoluble in water. It does not change color when mixed with iodine. On hydrolysis, it yields glucose. It is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature.

text: The structural component of

text: plant

text: s are formed primarily from

text: cellulose

text: . Wood is largely cellulose and

text: lignin

text: , while

text: paper

text: and

text: cotton

text: are nearly pure cellulose. Cellulose is a

text: polymer

text: made with repeated glucose units bonded together by beta-linkages.  Humans and many animals lack an enzyme to break the beta-linkages, so they do not digest cellulose.  Certain animals such as

text: termite

text: s can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing the enzyme are present in their gut. Cellulose is insoluble in water. It does not change color when mixed with iodine. On hydrolysis, it yields glucose. It is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature.

text: Pharantzem had a grudge and had a great envy against Olympias, in which Arsaces II loved Olympias more than Pharantzem. Arsaces II loved Pharantzem to a degree but Pharantzem loathed Arsaces II saying, “Physically, he is hairy, and his color is dark”. After the birth of her son, Pharantzem plotted to kill Olympias through poison. Pharantzem had arranged for Olympias to be poisoned in 361 administered to her in the Holy Sacrament of communion by a priest from the royal court. Olympias was extremely careful in where she accepted matters of food and drink from as she only accepted food and drink offered to her from her maids. Olympias was poisoned through communion.

text: Italy prints around 8000 pages of new Disney stories per year, exported worldwide (it makes up 50% of the total production). The main publication, digest size "Topolino", prints only new stories every week, but there exist 32 different series of reprints going on, for 30 millions of copies sold each year.In the last 10 years Disney Italia produced innovative series like PK (Paperinik stories with an American superheroes flavour), W.I.T.C.H. or Monster Allergy.

text: Italy prints around 8000 pages of new Disney stories per year, exported worldwide (it makes up 50% of the total production). The main publication,

text: digest size

text: Topolino

text: ", prints only new stories every week, but there exist 32 different series of reprints going on, for 30 millions of copies sold each year.In the last 10 years Disney Italia produced innovative series like

text: PK

text: (Paperinik stories with an American superheroes flavour),

text: W.I.T.C.H.

text: or

text: Monster Allergy

text: The NSRL collects software from various sources and computes message digests, or cryptographic hash values, from them. The digests are stored in the Reference Data Set (RDS) which can be used to identify "known" files on digital media. This will help alleviate much of the effort involved in determining which files are important as evidence on computers or file systems that have been seized as part of criminal investigations. Although the RDS hashset contains some malicious software (such as steganography and hacking tools) it does not contain illicit material (e.g. indecent images).

text: The NSRL collects

text: software

text: from various sources and computes

text: message digest

text: s, or cryptographic hash values, from them. The digests are stored in the Reference Data Set (RDS) which can be used to identify "known" files on digital media. This will help alleviate much of the effort involved in determining which files are important as

text: evidence

text: on computers or file systems that have been seized as part of criminal investigations. Although the RDS hashset contains some malicious software (such as

text: steganography

text: and

text: hacking

text: tools) it does not contain illicit material (e.g. indecent images).

text: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is the inability to properly digest food due to a lack of digestive enzymes made by the pancreas. EPI is found in humans afflicted with cystic fibrosis and Shwachman-Diamond syndrome. It is caused by a progressive loss of the pancreatic cells that make digestive enzymes. Chronic pancreatitis is the most common cause of EPI in humans. Loss of digestive enzymes leads to maldigestion and malabsorption of nutrients.

text: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency

text: (EPI) is the inability to properly digest food due to a lack of

text: digestive enzyme

text: s made by the pancreas. EPI is found in humans afflicted with cystic fibrosis and

text: Shwachman-Diamond syndrome

text: . It is caused by a progressive loss of the pancreatic cells that make digestive enzymes.

text: Chronic pancreatitis

text: is the most common cause of EPI in humans. Loss of digestive enzymes leads to mal

text: digestion

text: and

text: malabsorption

text: of nutrients.

text: Dietary fiber may act on each phase of ingestion, digestion, absorption and excretion to affect cholesterol metabolism, such as the following:

text: Designing food for consumption in space is an often difficult process. Foods must meet a number of criteria to be considered fit for space. Firstly, the food must be physiologically appropriate. Specifically, it must be nutritious, easily digestible, and palatable. Secondly, the food must be engineered for consumption in a zero gravity environment. As such, the food must be light, well packaged, fast to serve and require minimal cleaning up.  (Foods that tend to leave crumbs, for example, are ill-suited for space.) Finally, foods require a minimum of energy expenditure throughout their use; they must store well, open easily and leave little waste behind.

text: Designing food for consumption in space is an often difficult process. Foods must meet a number of criteria to be considered fit for space. Firstly, the food must be

text: physiologically

text: appropriate. Specifically, it must be nutritious, easily digestible, and palatable. Secondly, the food must be engineered for consumption in a zero gravity environment. As such, the food must be light, well packaged, fast to serve and require minimal cleaning up.  (Foods that tend to leave crumbs, for example, are ill-suited for space.) Finally, foods require a minimum of energy expenditure throughout their use; they must store well, open easily and leave little waste behind.

text: In adult humans, the stomach has a relaxed, near empty volume of about 75 millilitres. Because it is a distensible organ, it normally expands to hold about one litre of food. The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30 millilitres.

text: Food intolerance is a detrimental reaction, often delayed, to a food, beverage, food additive, or compound found in foods that produces symptoms in one or more body organs and systems, but generally refers to reactions other than food allergy. Food hypersensitivity is used to refer broadly to both food intolerances and food allergies.

text: Food intolerance is a detrimental reaction, often delayed, to a food, beverage,

text: food additive

text: , or compound found in foods that produces symptoms in one or more body organs and systems, but generally refers to reactions other than

text: food allergy

text: . Food hypersensitivity is used to refer broadly to both food intolerances and food allergies.

text: The tongue is skeletal muscle on the floor of the mouth that manipulates food for chewing (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva. The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth mucous membrane. The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing. The tongue is utilized to roll food particles into a bolus before being transported down the esophagus through peristalsis.

text: The tongue is skeletal muscle on the floor of the

text: mouth

text: that manipulates

text: food

text: for chewing (

text: mastication

text: ) and

text: swallowing

text: (deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by

text: saliva

text: . The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth

text: mucous membrane

text: . The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing. The tongue is utilized to roll food particles into a

text: bolus

text: before being transported down the

text: esophagus

text: through

text: peristalsis

text: The animal feces provides an environment rich in nitrogenous material, which has been largely sterilised by the high temperature, as well as the enzymes in the animal's digestive system. The spores themselves survive digestion by being particularly thick-walled, allowing them to germinate in the dung with minimum competition from other organisms. This thick wall is often broken down during digestion, readying the spore for germination. The spores are so hardy that samples of dried dung can later be rehydrated, allowing the fungus to fruit weeks later.

text: The animal feces provides an environment

text: rich in nitrogenous material

text: , which has been largely sterilised by the high temperature, as well as the

text: enzyme

text: s in the animal's

text: digestive system

text: . The spores themselves survive digestion by being particularly thick-walled, allowing them to germinate in the dung with minimum competition from other organisms. This thick wall is often broken down during digestion, readying the spore for germination. The spores are so hardy that samples of dried dung can later be rehydrated, allowing the fungus to fruit weeks later.

text: It's not uncommon to find your dog eating feces. Some consume their own or other dogs' feces; others seem to prefer cat feces (which, due to the feline digestive system, are high in protein and consumed by many animals in the wild) This can be harmful if the feces has any pathogens or parasites or contain excreted drugs.

text: The shallow, usually even-rimmed hydrothecae are sessile or borne on a hydrophore; their bottom is formed by a concentric diaphragm, with a row of small knobs distally to it. They are so small in height as to lack an operculum, but are maintained and repaired throughout the individual animal's life. The hydranths much exceed the hydrothecae in size and are quite sturdy. Their endoderm consists of a proximal digestive and a distal non-digestive section. The tentacles of some but not all carry webbing between them; likewise, the presence of nematophores, nematothecae and nematodactyls varies throughout this family.

text: The shallow, usually even-rimmed

text: hydrotheca

text: e are sessile or borne on a

text: hydrophore

text: ; their bottom is formed by a

text: concentric

text: diaphragm

text: , with a row of small knobs

text: distal

text: ly to it. They are so small in height as to lack an

text: operculum

text: , but are maintained and repaired throughout the individual animal's life. The

text: hydranth

text: s much exceed the hydrothecae in size and are quite sturdy. Their

text: endoderm

text: consists of a

text: proximal

text: digestive and a distal non-digestive section. The

text: tentacles

text: of some but not all carry webbing between them; likewise, the presence of

text: nematophore

text: s,

text: nematotheca

text: e and

text: nematodactyl

text: s varies throughout this family.

text: Vagal tone is an internal biological process referring to the activity of the vagus nerve (the tenth cranial nerve), which originates in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem. The vagus nerve serves as the key component of the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system, which homeostatically regulates the resting state of the majority of the body's internal organ systems that operate on a largely subconscious level, such as the heart, lungs, eyes, glands and digestive tract. Due to the regulatory nature of the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS), vagal activity is continuous, chronic, and passive ("tone" in this usage is analogous to "tension", reflecting a sense of continuous baseline activity, much like muscle tone relies on nervous baseline activity).

text: Vagal tone is an internal biological process referring to the activity of the

text: vagus nerve

text: (the tenth cranial nerve), which originates in the

text: medulla oblongata

text: of the brainstem. The vagus nerve serves as the key component of the parasympathetic branch of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , which

text: homeostatically

text: regulates the resting state of the majority of the body's internal organ systems that operate on a largely subconscious level, such as the heart, lungs, eyes, glands and digestive tract. Due to the regulatory nature of the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: (PSNS), vagal activity is continuous, chronic, and passive ("tone" in this usage is analogous to "tension", reflecting a sense of continuous baseline activity, much like

text: muscle tone

text: relies on nervous baseline activity).

text: Elimination wins are then tallied and the person with the most wins after a certain period of time is crowned 'champion'.  One important rule when the elimination tally is taken into consideration, is that an elimination can not be held unless there is a minimum of 4 competitors.

text: In most blood-sucking leeches the digestive system starts with the jaws, three blades set at an angle to each other. In feeding they slice their way through the skin of the host, leaving a Y-shaped incision. Behind the blades is the mouth, located ventrally at the anterior end of the body. It leads successively into the pharynx, then the esophagus, the crop, the gizzard, and the intestinum, which ends at the posterior sucker. The crop is a distension of the alimentary canal that functions as an expandable storage compartment. In the crop, some blood-sucking species of leech can store up to five times the body mass of blood. The leech produces an anticoagulant that prevents the stored blood from clotting, plus other agents that inhibit microbial decay of the blood. These measures are so effective that a mature medicinal leech does not need to feed more than twice a year.

text: In most blood-sucking leeches the digestive system starts with the jaws, three blades set at an angle to each other. In feeding they slice their way through the skin of the host, leaving a Y-shaped incision. Behind the blades is the mouth, located ventrally at the anterior end of the body. It leads successively into the

text: pharynx

text: , then the esophagus, the

text: crop

text: , the gizzard, and the intestinum, which ends at the posterior sucker. The crop is a distension of the alimentary canal that functions as an expandable storage compartment. In the crop, some blood-sucking species of leech can store up to five times the body mass of blood. The leech produces an anticoagulant that prevents the stored blood from clotting, plus other agents that inhibit microbial decay of the blood. These measures are so effective that a mature

text: medicinal leech

text: does not need to feed more than twice a year.

text: In observations of a wild population of gray wolves, or canis lupus, levels of adrenal glucocorticoid(GCs) were found to be elevated in dominant wolves. GCs affect the stress responses in vertebrates, redirecting energy from systems such as the digestive and reproductive to the senses and heart to eliminate immediate threats.

text: In observations of a wild population of

text: gray wolves

text: , or

text: canis lupus

text: , levels of

text: adrenal

text: glucocorticoid

text: (GCs) were found to be elevated in dominant wolves. GCs affect the stress responses in

text: vertebrates

text: , redirecting energy from systems such as the digestive and reproductive to the senses and heart to eliminate immediate threats.

text: The digestive tube begins at the anterior extremity of the worm, at the bottom of the oral sucker. The digestive tube is composed of an esophagus, which divides in two branches (right and left) and that reunite in a single cecum. The intestines end blindly, meaning that there is no anus.

text: The digestive tube begins at the anterior extremity of the worm, at the bottom of the oral sucker. The digestive tube is composed of an

text: esophagus

text: , which divides in two branches (right and left) and that reunite in a single

text: cecum

text: . The intestines end blindly, meaning that there is no

text: anus

text: Due to the increased digestibility cooked foods conferred, less digestion was needed to procure the necessary nutrients. As a result, the gastrointestinal tract and organs in the digestive system decreased in size. This is in contrast to other primates, where a larger digestive tract is needed for fermentation of long carbohydrate chains. Thus, humans evolved from the large colons and tracts that are seen in other primates to smaller ones.

text: Due to the increased digestibility cooked foods conferred, less digestion was needed to procure the necessary nutrients. As a result, the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: and organs in the

text: digestive system

text: decreased in size. This is in contrast to other primates, where a larger digestive tract is needed for fermentation of long carbohydrate chains. Thus, humans evolved from the large colons and tracts that are seen in other primates to smaller ones.

text: An absorption-re-emission atomic line filter absorbs the desired wavelength of light and emits light that bypasses broadband filters. In passive absorption-re-emission ALFs, a high-pass filter blocks all low-energy incoming light. The vapor cell absorbs the signal, which coincides with the vapor's thin absorption line, and the cell's atoms become excited. The vapor cell then re-emits the signal light by undergoing fluorescence at a lower frequency. A low-pass filter blocks radiation above the frequency of the fluorescent light. In an active ALF, optical or electrical pumping is used for exciting these atoms so they absorb or emit light of different wavelengths. For active ALFs, other systems of conventional filters may be needed.

text: An absorption-re-emission atomic line filter absorbs the desired wavelength of light and emits light that bypasses broadband filters. In passive absorption-re-emission ALFs, a

text: high-pass filter

text: blocks all low-energy incoming light. The vapor cell absorbs the signal, which coincides with the vapor's thin absorption line, and the cell's atoms become excited. The vapor cell then re-emits the signal light by undergoing

text: fluorescence

text: at a lower frequency. A

text: low-pass filter

text: blocks radiation above the frequency of the fluorescent light. In an active ALF,

text: optical

text: or

text: electrical pumping

text: is used for exciting these atoms so they absorb or emit light of different wavelengths. For active ALFs, other systems of conventional filters may be needed.

text: Cohen and Levinthal have focused a lot on investments in R&D to develop one’s absorptive capacity, but many other researchers showed later on that several other areas could be explored to develop an organization’s absorptive capacity. This led to a review of the concept by Shaker Zahra and Gerry George and a reformulation of the definition that expanded greatly the concept and further defined it as being made of two different absorptive capacities: potential absorptive capacity and realized absorptive capacity. Their new definition of absorptive capacity is: “a set of organizational routines and processes by which firms acquire, assimilate, transform and exploit knowledge to produce a dynamic organizational capability.”

text: Cohen and Levinthal have focused a lot on investments in R&D to develop one’s absorptive capacity, but many other researchers showed later on that several other areas could be explored to develop an organization’s absorptive capacity. This led to a review of the concept by

text: Shaker Zahra

text: and

text: Gerry George

text: and a reformulation of the definition that expanded greatly the concept and further defined it as being made of two different absorptive capacities: potential absorptive capacity and realized absorptive capacity. Their new definition of absorptive capacity is: “a set of organizational routines and processes by which firms acquire, assimilate, transform and exploit knowledge to produce a dynamic organizational capability.”

text: Digest size is less popular now than it once was. TV Guide dropped it in favor of a larger format The science fiction magazines Analog and Asimov's had switched to a format slightly larger than digest size several years earlier.  The main publications remaining in digest size now are Reader's Digest, Prevention, Guideposts Magazine and some Archie comics digests. Children's Digest was originally in digest size but switched long ago to a larger format as well (though keeping the word "Digest" in its name). Writer's Digest is another publication with the word in its name that is not actually produced at that size.

text: Digest size is less popular now than it once was. TV Guide dropped it in favor of a larger format The science fiction magazines

text: Analog

text: and Asimov's had switched to a format slightly larger than digest size several years earlier.  The main publications remaining in digest size now are Reader's Digest,

text: Prevention

text: Guideposts Magazine

text: and some

text: Archie

text: comics digests.

text: Children's Digest

text: was originally in digest size but switched long ago to a larger format as well (though keeping the word "Digest" in its name).

text: Writer's Digest

text: is another publication with the word in its name that is not actually produced at that size.

text: Escherichia coli (; also known as E. coli) is a Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium of the genus Escherichia that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms (endotherms). Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some serotypes can cause serious food poisoning in their hosts, and are occasionally responsible for product recalls due to food contamination. The harmless strains are part of the normal flora of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K, and preventing colonization of the intestine with pathogenic bacteria. E. coli is expelled into the environment within fecal matter.  The bacterium grows massively in fresh fecal matter under aerobic conditions for 3 days, but its numbers decline slowly afterwards.

text: Escherichia coli (; also known as E. coli) is a

text: Gram-negative

text: facultatively anaerobic

text: rod-shaped

text: bacterium

text: of the

text: genus

text: Escherichia

text: that is commonly found in the lower

text: intestine

text: of

text: warm-blooded

text: organisms (endotherms). Most E. coli

text: strains

text: are harmless, but some

text: serotype

text: s can cause serious

text: food poisoning

text: in their hosts, and are occasionally responsible for

text: product recall

text: s due to

text: food contamination

text: . The harmless strains are part of the

text: normal flora

text: of the

text: gut

text: , and can benefit their hosts by producing

text: vitamin K

text: , and preventing colonization of the intestine with

text: pathogenic bacteria

text: . E. coli is expelled into the environment within fecal matter.  The bacterium grows massively in fresh fecal matter under aerobic conditions for 3 days, but its numbers decline slowly afterwards.

text: Diets for those dogs allergic to food are made from limited ingredients or hypoallergenic recipes. Limited ingredients make it easier to identify the suspected allergens. In hypoallergenic recipes, manufacturers use those ingredients which are less likely to cause alleries to the dogs such as chicken, lamb, fish, and corn.  Food allergies account for about 10% of all the allergies seen in dogs, being the most common cause after flea bite allergies and atopy (inhalant allergies). Food allergies generally account for 20% of the causes of itching and scratching in dogs.

text: The soft pellets contain a sufficiently large portion of nutrients that are critical to the rabbit's health.  This soft fecal matter is rich in vitamin B and other nutrients.  The process of coprophagy is important to the stability of a rabbit's digestive health because it is one important way that which a rabbit receives vitamin B in a form that is useful to its digestive wellness. Occasionally, the rabbit may leave these pellets lying about its cage; this behavior is harmless and usually related to an ample food supply.

text: The soft pellets contain a sufficiently large portion of nutrients that are critical to the rabbit's health.  This soft fecal matter is rich in

text: vitamin B

text: and other nutrients.  The process of coprophagy is important to the stability of a rabbit's digestive health because it is one important way that which a rabbit receives vitamin B in a form that is useful to its digestive wellness. Occasionally, the rabbit may leave these pellets lying about its cage; this behavior is harmless and usually related to an ample food supply.

text: The first industrial applications - mainly for water, soil extracts and fertilizer - used the same hardware and techniques as clinical methods, but from the mid-1970s special techniques and modules were developed so that by 1990 it was possible to perform solvent extraction, distillation, on-line filtration and UV digestion in the continuously flowing stream.  In 2005 about two thirds of systems sold worldwide were for water analysis of all kinds, ranging from sub-ppb levels of nutrients in seawater to much higher levels in waste water; other common applications are for soil, plant, tobacco, food, fertilizer and wine analysis.

text: On the same surface, immediately above the hilum, is a well-marked curved groove for  the aortic arch, and a groove below it for the descending aorta. The left subclavian artery, a branch off the aortic arch, sits in a groove from the arch to near the apex of the lung. A shallower groove in front of the artery and near the edge of the lung, lodges the left innominate vein. The esophagus may sit in a wider shallow impression at the base of the lung.

text: On the same surface, immediately above the hilum, is a well-marked curved groove for  the

text: aortic arch

text: , and a groove below it for the

text: descending aorta

text: . The

text: left subclavian artery

text: , a branch off the aortic arch, sits in a groove from the arch to near the apex of the lung. A shallower groove in front of the artery and near the edge of the lung, lodges the

text: left innominate vein

text: . The

text: esophagus

text: may sit in a wider shallow impression at the base of the lung.

text: Tikshna means very quick/very sharp/very fast. Agni means digestive power or digestive capacity. Tikshnagni is a state of very quick digestion of food regardless of the type of food. Acharya Sushruta states that when food digests very quickly, this type of agni is known as "Tikshnagni". When the power of digestion is increased from normal to above normal, food digests very quickly and produces hunger or the desire for food. When food digests, the throat, the mouth cavity and the lips become dry with a burning sensation. This condition is known "Bhasmak Roga" according to Ayurveda.

text: For the acquired response to "remember" and eliminate a large number of pathogens the immune system must be able to distinguish between many different antigens, and the receptors that recognize antigens must be produced in a huge variety of configurations, in essence one receptor (at least) for each different pathogen that might ever be encountered. Even in the absence of antigen stimulation, a human can produce more than 1 trillion different antibody molecules. Millions of genes would be required to store the genetic information that produces these receptors, but, the entire human genome contains fewer than 25,000 genes.

text: For the acquired response to "remember" and eliminate a large number of pathogens the immune system must be able to distinguish between many different antigens, and the receptors that recognize antigens must be produced in a huge variety of configurations, in essence one receptor (at least) for each different pathogen that might ever be encountered. Even in the absence of antigen stimulation, a human can produce more than 1 trillion different antibody molecules. Millions of genes would be required to store the genetic information that produces these receptors, but, the entire human genome contains fewer than 25,000

text: gene

text: s.

text: Hazing may also include subjecting the pledge to severe sleep deprivation until physical or mental impairment or hallucinations, including cardiac, digestive or excretory disturbances, are induced, and deliberate food poisonings unbeknownst to the pledge, sometimes through food outlets that are owned or franchised by members of the group, as well as public incidents, stunt accidents and vehicle collisions directed at the pledge by other persons using false identities who are unfamiliar to the pledge, and the practice of "The Silence", which is to pretend not to know anything about the hazing or anything about the arguments being presented by the hazing, in order to force the pledge to doubt his or her sanity or self-worth. "The Silence" is exercised through covert means of infliction, at a distance, which makes it difficult for the victim to prove to law enforcement or to others. This method usually attempts to make everything that could go wrong, go wrong to the fault of the pledge, even when such errors are discreetly inflicted by the hazers. The hazers may deny the validity of the pledge's witness to events, discoveries, ideas and inventions, tangible reality, or falsify personal relationships.

text: Unlike yeast, which can digest sugar only into alcohol and carbon dioxide, C. acetobutylicum and other Clostridia can digest whey, sugar, starch, cellulose and perhaps certain types of lignin, yielding  butanol, propionic acid, ether, and glycerin.

text: Unlike

text: yeast

text: , which can digest

text: sugar

text: only into

text: alcohol

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: , C. acetobutylicum and other Clostridia can digest

text: whey

text: sugar

text: starch

text: cellulose

text: and perhaps certain types of

text: lignin

text: , yielding

text: butanol

text: propionic acid

text: ether

text: , and

text: glycerin

text: Through its life cycle, Obelia take two forms: polyp and medusa. They are diploblastic, with two true tissue layers – an epidermis (ectodermis) and a gastrodermis (endodermis), with a jelly-like mesoglea filling the area between the two true tissue layers. They carry a nerve net with no brain or ganglia. A gastrovascular cavity is present where the digestion starts and later becomes intracellular. They have incomplete digestive tracts where the food enters, is digested, and expelled through the same opening. During the polyp stage, the mouth is situated at the top of the body, surrounded by tentacles, whereas during the medusa stage, the mouth is situated at the distal end of the main body structure. Four gonads lie in this main body structure, or manubrium. When food is taken in through the mouth, it enters the manubrium. The food is then distributed through a canal system, consisting of four radial canals and an outer ring. Defense and the capture of prey are helped by unique stinging cells called cnidocytes that contain nematocysts, which are triggered by the cnidocil. It has a ridge-like structure on the inner margin, called velum. If the velum is present, it is named as craspedote medusa.

text: Through its life cycle, Obelia take two forms:

text: polyp

text: and

text: medusa

text: . They are

text: diploblastic

text: , with two true tissue layers – an

text: epidermis

text: (ectodermis) and a

text: gastrodermis

text: endodermis

text: ), with a jelly-like

text: mesoglea

text: filling the area between the two true tissue layers. They carry a

text: nerve

text: net with no

text: brain

text: or

text: ganglia

text: . A

text: gastrovascular cavity

text: is present where the

text: digestion

text: starts and later becomes intracellular. They have incomplete digestive tracts where the food enters, is digested, and expelled through the same opening. During the polyp stage, the mouth is situated at the top of the body, surrounded by tentacles, whereas during the medusa stage, the mouth is situated at the distal end of the main body structure. Four gonads lie in this main body structure, or manubrium. When food is taken in through the mouth, it enters the manubrium. The food is then distributed through a canal system, consisting of four radial canals and an outer ring. Defense and the capture of prey are helped by unique stinging cells called

text: cnidocyte

text: s that contain nematocysts, which are triggered by the cnidocil. It has a ridge-like structure on the inner margin, called velum. If the velum is present, it is named as craspedote medusa.

text: In 2009, Governor Deval Patrick signed into Massachusetts law the Act Relative to Food Allergy Awareness in Restaurants.  The allergy awareness act requires food protection managers to view a video about food allergens, a poster identifying the eight most common food allergens, and information about identifying and responding to food allergies posted for food service staff, and customers must be notified of their obligation to inform staff about any food allergies.

text: In 2009, Governor

text: Deval Patrick

text: signed into Massachusetts law the Act Relative to Food Allergy Awareness in Restaurants.  The allergy awareness act requires food protection managers to view a video about food allergens, a poster identifying the eight most common food allergens, and information about identifying and responding to food allergies posted for food service staff, and customers must be notified of their obligation to inform staff about any food allergies.

text: Ileus is a disruption of the normal propulsive ability of the gastrointestinal tract. Although ileus originally referred to any lack of digestive propulsion, including bowel obstruction,<ref>thefreedictionary.com > Ileus Citing:

text: Ileus is a disruption of the normal

text: propulsive

text: ability of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . Although ileus originally referred to any lack of digestive propulsion, including

text: bowel obstruction

text: ,<ref>thefreedictionary.com > Ileus Citing:

text: A thermophilic digester or thermophilic biodigester is a kind of biodigester that operates in temperatures above 50 °C producing biogas. It has some advantages: it does not need agitation and is faster in fermentation than a mesophilic digester. In fact, it can be as much as six to ten times faster than a normal biodigester. The problem is that for use in this biodigester, the source must enter at high temperature. Vinasse is produced at more than 70 °C and can be used in this kind of biodigester. For each unit of volume of ethanol, about eight units of vinasse are produced. In Brazil, this kind of biodigester is used to process vinasse as a cheap source of methane.

text: A thermophilic digester or thermophilic biodigester is a kind of

text: biodigester

text: that operates in temperatures above 50 °C producing

text: biogas

text: . It has some advantages: it does not need agitation and is faster in fermentation than a

text: mesophilic digester

text: . In fact, it can be as much as six to ten times faster than a normal biodigester. The problem is that for use in this biodigester, the source must enter at high temperature.

text: Vinasse

text: is produced at more than 70 °C and can be used in this kind of biodigester. For each unit of volume of ethanol, about eight units of vinasse are produced. In Brazil, this kind of biodigester is used to process vinasse as a cheap source of

text: methane

text: Until recently, it was believed that herbivorous lizards were restricted to the tropics and a large body size. These constraints were thought to be a result of their supposed inefficiency in digesting their food compared to carnivorous lizards or mammalian herbivores. Herbivorous lizards utilize symbiotic microorganisms to aid in the digestion of plant material, and higher internal temperatures promote these organisms and the digestion of plant material overall. Zimmerman and Tracy (1989) found that lower body temperatures decreased the rate at which food passes through the digestive system in the chuckwalla (Sauromalus obsesus). Additionally, it was believed that herbivory was found only in large lizards (>300g). A large body size would encourage a higher and more stable body temperature, on average. Large body size also makes it difficult and inefficient to catch and consume small insects, making herbivory the only energy efficient option for large-bodied lizards, though varanids were not considered in these studies.

text: Until recently, it was believed that herbivorous lizards were restricted to the tropics and a large body size. These constraints were thought to be a result of their supposed inefficiency in digesting their food compared to carnivorous lizards or mammalian herbivores. Herbivorous lizards utilize symbiotic microorganisms to aid in the digestion of plant material, and higher internal temperatures promote these organisms and the digestion of plant material overall. Zimmerman and Tracy (1989) found that lower body temperatures decreased the rate at which food passes through the digestive system in the

text: chuckwalla

text: (Sauromalus obsesus). Additionally, it was believed that herbivory was found only in large lizards (>300g). A large body size would encourage a higher and more stable body temperature, on average. Large body size also makes it difficult and inefficient to catch and consume small insects, making herbivory the only energy efficient option for large-bodied lizards, though varanids were not considered in these studies.

text: A. sulcatus is a predatory diving beetle which feeds upon small invertebrate and vertebrate prey. Larvae prefer micro-invertebrate prey such as Daphnia, whereas adults select size appropriate prey. Known for its high aquatic speed A. sulcatus actively pursues prey rather than using a sit and wait ambush strategy seen in other arthropods. A. sulcatus is active both day and night. A. sulcatus larvae capture prey headfirst, with their mandibles before injecting digestive enzymes, for extra oral digestion. Adults do not use extra oral digestion, instead using their strong mouth parts to devour prey.

text: A. sulcatus is a predatory diving beetle which feeds upon small

text: invertebrate

text: and

text: vertebrate

text: prey. Larvae prefer

text: micro-invertebrate

text: prey such as

text: Daphnia

text: , whereas adults select size appropriate prey. Known for its high aquatic speed A. sulcatus actively pursues prey rather than using a sit and wait ambush strategy seen in other

text: arthropods

text: . A. sulcatus is active both day and night. A. sulcatus larvae capture prey headfirst, with their mandibles before injecting digestive enzymes, for extra oral digestion. Adults do not use extra oral digestion, instead using their strong mouth parts to devour prey.

text: The salivary glands (element 30 in numbered diagram) in an insect's mouth produce saliva. The salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium, located behind the hypopharynx. By moving its mouthparts (element 32 in numbered diagram) the insect can mix its food with saliva. The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth, where it begins to break down. Some insects, like flies, have extra-oral digestion. Insects using extra-oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down. This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source.

text: The

text: salivary gland

text: s (element 30 in numbered diagram) in an insect's mouth produce saliva. The salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium, located behind the hypopharynx. By moving its mouthparts (element 32 in numbered diagram) the insect can mix its food with saliva. The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth, where it begins to break down. Some insects, like

text: flies

text: , have

text: extra-oral digestion

text: . Insects using extra-oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down. This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source.

text: Not all bacteria in the interior of Placozoa are digested as food: in the endoplasmic reticulum, an organelle of the fibre syncytium, bacteria are frequently found that appear to live in symbiosis with Trichoplax adhaerens. In particular it has been proposed that there is a ricketsial endosymbiont.

text: Not all bacteria in the interior of Placozoa are digested as food: in the endoplasmic reticulum, an

text: organelle

text: of the fibre syncytium, bacteria are frequently found that appear to live in

text: symbiosis

text: with Trichoplax adhaerens. In particular it has been proposed that there is a ricketsial endosymbiont.

text: Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate (polysaccharide or oligosaccharide) that is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram.  But in most circumstances, it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible because humans do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fibre. Whole grains, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. Fiber is important to digestive health and is thought to reduce the risk of colon cancer. For mechanical  reasons it can help in alleviating both constipation and diarrhea. Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and insoluble fiber especially stimulates peristalsis—the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which move digesta along the digestive tract. Some soluble fibers produce a solution of high viscosity; this is essentially a gel, which slows the movement of food through the intestines. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, may help lessen insulin spikes and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.

text: Dietary fiber is a

text: carbohydrate

text: (polysaccharide or oligosaccharide) that is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram.  But in most circumstances, it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. Dietary fiber consists mainly of

text: cellulose

text: , a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible because humans do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fibre. Whole grains, fruits (especially

text: plum

text: s,

text: prune

text: s, and

text: fig

text: s), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. Fiber is important to digestive health and is thought to reduce the risk of colon cancer. For mechanical  reasons it can help in alleviating both

text: constipation

text: and

text: diarrhea

text: . Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and insoluble fiber especially stimulates

text: peristalsis

text: —the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which move digesta along the digestive tract. Some soluble fibers produce a solution of high

text: viscosity

text: ; this is essentially a gel, which slows the movement of food through the intestines. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, may help lessen insulin spikes and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.

text: Human feces, on the other hand are high in pathogens, including up to 120 viruses and need to be treated well before it can be safely used in agriculture. The main two treatment methods are composting and drying. When feces are used without composting, it is called night soil, and is very smelly.

text: Human feces, on the other hand are high in pathogens, including up to 120 viruses and need to be treated well before it can be safely used in agriculture. The main two treatment methods are

text: composting

text: and drying. When feces are used without composting, it is called

text: night soil

text: , and is very smelly.

text: Pilot scale research in Uganda and Senegal has shown that it is viable to use dry feces as for combustion in industry, provided it has been dried to a minimum of 28% dry solids.

text: Biogen’s anaerobic digestion business was established in 2005 with investment from Bedfordia Group. The company’s Twinwoods anaerobic digestion (AD) plant, at Milton Ernest in Bedfordshire was completed in 2006. to recycle food waste along with animal slurry from Bedfordia Farms. In 2008 Biogen acquired technology and engineering company Greenfinch Ltd. Greenfinch was set up in 1993, initially constructing AD plants for the waste water industry and for farmers as a form of managing their livestock waste. In 2012 Biogen secured £24m of investment from construction, property and services company Kier Group, making them joint venture partners alongside Bedfordia Group. Since 2006 Biogen’s main focus has been on providing a sustainable food waste treatment service for local authorities, retailers, pubs, restaurants, hotels, offices and food manufacturers. The company employs 100 people across the UK and has its head office in Milton Ernest, Bedfordshire.

text: Biogen’s anaerobic digestion business was established in 2005 with investment from Bedfordia Group. The company’s Twinwoods anaerobic digestion (AD) plant, at

text: Milton Ernest

text: in

text: Bedfordshire

text: was completed in 2006. to recycle food waste along with animal slurry from Bedfordia Farms. In 2008 Biogen acquired technology and engineering company Greenfinch Ltd. Greenfinch was set up in 1993, initially constructing AD plants for the waste water industry and for farmers as a form of managing their livestock waste. In 2012 Biogen secured £24m of investment from construction, property and services company

text: Kier Group

text: , making them joint venture partners alongside Bedfordia Group. Since 2006 Biogen’s main focus has been on providing a sustainable food waste treatment service for local authorities, retailers, pubs, restaurants, hotels, offices and food manufacturers. The company employs 100 people across the UK and has its head office in Milton Ernest, Bedfordshire.

text: The poster campaign lasted three months until Hesperidina was finally launched on December 24, 1864, with an advertisement published in La Tribuna newspaper. The advertisement stated Hesperidina was a "stomach digestive, prepared with bitter oranges." The immediate success of the apéritif led to the appearance of imitations and other counterfeiting of the product. Alarmed by the situation, Bagley convinced president of Argentina, Nicolás Avellaneda to create a patent and trademark office in order to protect his product. The office was created in 1876, being Hesperidina the first product to register as a trademark in Argentina on October 27. Soon after, Bagley began to print the Hesperidina labels at the New York Bank Note Company to strengthen controls over the product.

text: The poster campaign lasted three months until Hesperidina was finally launched on December 24, 1864, with an advertisement published in La Tribuna newspaper. The advertisement stated Hesperidina was a "stomach digestive, prepared with bitter oranges." The immediate success of the apéritif led to the appearance of imitations and other counterfeiting of the product. Alarmed by the situation, Bagley convinced president of Argentina,

text: Nicolás Avellaneda

text: to create a patent and trademark office in order to protect his product. The office was created in 1876, being Hesperidina the first product to register as a trademark in Argentina on October 27. Soon after, Bagley began to print the Hesperidina labels at the

text: New York Bank Note Company

text: to strengthen controls over the product.

text: In addition, at high altitude, the heart beats faster; the stroke volume is slightly decreased; and non-essential bodily functions are suppressed, resulting in a decline in food digestion efficiency (as the body suppresses the digestive system in favor of increasing its cardiopulmonary reserves).

text: In addition, at high altitude, the

text: heart beats faster

text: ; the

text: stroke volume

text: is slightly decreased; and non-essential bodily functions are suppressed, resulting in a decline in food digestion efficiency (as the body suppresses the

text: digestive system

text: in favor of increasing its cardiopulmonary reserves).

text: The digestive system is simple, and is reduced to less than 10% of the volume typical in gastropods. The radula is "weak", of the rhipidoglossan type, with a single pair of radular cartilages. The formula of the radula is ∼50 + 4 + 1 + 4 + ∼50. The radula ribbon is 4 mm long, 0.5 mm wide; the width to length ratio is approximately 1:10. There is no jaw, and no salivary glands. A part of the anterior oesophagus rapidly expands into a huge, hypertrophied, blind-ended esophageal gland, which occupies much of the ventral face of the mantle cavity (estimated 9.3% body volume). The oesophageal gland has a uniform texture, and is highly vascularised with fine blood vessels. The stomach has at least three ducts at its anterior right, connecting to the digestive gland. There are consolidated pellets in both the stomach and in the hindgut. These pellets are probably granules of sulfur produced by the endosymbiont as a way to detoxify hydrogen sulfide. The intestine is reduced, and only has a single loop. The extensive and unconsolidated digestive gland extends to the posterior, filling the shell apex of the shell. The rectum does not penetrate the heart, but passes ventral to it. The anus is located on the right side of the snail, above the genital opening.

text: The

text: digestive system

text: is simple, and is reduced to less than 10% of the volume typical in gastropods. The

text: radula

text: is "weak", of the rhipidoglossan type, with a single pair of radular cartilages. The

text: formula of the radula

text: is ∼50 + 4 + 1 + 4 + ∼50. The radula ribbon is 4 mm long, 0.5 mm wide; the width to length ratio is approximately 1:10. There is no

text: jaw

text: , and no salivary glands. A part of the anterior oesophagus rapidly expands into a huge, hypertrophied, blind-ended esophageal gland, which occupies much of the ventral face of the mantle cavity (estimated 9.3% body volume). The oesophageal gland has a uniform texture, and is highly vascularised with fine blood vessels. The

text: stomach

text: has at least three ducts at its anterior right, connecting to the

text: digestive gland

text: . There are consolidated pellets in both the stomach and in the hindgut. These pellets are probably granules of

text: sulfur

text: produced by the endosymbiont as a way to detoxify hydrogen sulfide. The intestine is reduced, and only has a single loop. The extensive and unconsolidated digestive gland extends to the posterior, filling the shell

text: apex

text: of the shell. The rectum does not penetrate the heart, but passes ventral to it. The

text: anus

text: is located on the right side of the snail, above the genital opening.

text: MCTs passively diffuse from the GI tract to the portal system (longer fatty acids are absorbed into the lymphatic system) without requirement for modification like long-chain fatty acids or very-long-chain fatty acids. In addition, MCTs do not require bile salts for digestion. Patients who have malnutrition, malabsorption or particular fatty-acid metabolism disorders are treated with MCTs because MCTs do not require energy for absorption, use, or storage.

text: MCTs passively diffuse from the

text: GI tract

text: to the

text: portal system

text: (longer fatty acids are absorbed into the

text: lymphatic system

text: ) without requirement for modification like

text: long-chain fatty acids

text: or very-long-chain fatty acids. In addition, MCTs do not require

text: bile salt

text: s for digestion. Patients who have

text: malnutrition

text: malabsorption

text: or particular

text: fatty-acid metabolism disorder

text: s are treated with MCTs because MCTs do not require energy for absorption, use, or storage.

text: Mnemiopsis leidyi was first recorded in the Mediterranean Sea in 1990 and in 2009, large swarms were present in some areas. Beroe cucumis is native to the northern Atlantic Ocean and sometimes occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, and it is being monitored to see if it can provide some level of control of M. leidyi. In 2012, Beroe cucumis was found off the coast of Israel for the first time, and there is proof that it preys on M. leidyi, as an individual was found with a partially digested M. leidyi in its stomach.

text: Mnemiopsis leidyi was first recorded in the

text: Mediterranean Sea

text: in 1990 and in 2009, large swarms were present in some areas. Beroe cucumis is native to the northern Atlantic Ocean and sometimes occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, and it is being monitored to see if it can provide some level of control of M. leidyi. In 2012, Beroe cucumis was found off the coast of Israel for the first time, and there is proof that it preys on M. leidyi, as an individual was found with a partially digested M. leidyi in its stomach.

text: - Another advantage is the ease with which the authentication method may be integrated into terminals and service providers, as it is based on HTTP's well known "Digest access authentication". Every Web server already implement HTTP digest authentication and the effort to implement GBA on top of digest authentication is minimal. For example, it could be implemented on SimpleSAMLPhP http://rnd.feide.no/simplesamlphp with 500 PHP lines of code and only a few tens of lines of code are Service Provider specific making it really easy to port it to another Web site.

text: - Another advantage is the ease with which the authentication method may be integrated into terminals and service providers, as it is based on

text: HTTP

text: 's well known "

text: Digest access authentication

text: ". Every Web server already implement HTTP

text: digest authentication

text: and the effort to implement GBA on top of digest authentication is minimal. For example, it could be implemented on SimpleSAMLPhP http://rnd.feide.no/simplesamlphp with 500 PHP lines of code and only a few tens of lines of code are Service Provider specific making it really easy to port it to another Web site.

text: Covering the feces with an absorbent decreases smell and discourages flies. These may include soil, sawdust, ash, or lime, among others. In developing countries, the use of absorbents in pit toilets is not commonly practiced.

text: Trypsinogen (EC 3.4.23.18/20/21/23/24/26) () is the precursor form or zymogen of trypsin, a digestive enzyme. Produced by the pancreas, it is found in pancreatic juice, along with amylase, lipase, and chymotrypsinogen. It is activated by enteropeptidase, which is found in the intestinal mucosa, to form trypsin. Once activated, the trypsin can activate more trypsinogen into trypsin.  Trypsin cleaves the peptide bond on the carboxyl side of basic amino acids such as arginine and lysine.

text: Trypsinogen (EC 3.4.23.18/20/21/23/24/26) () is the

text: precursor form

text: or

text: zymogen

text: of

text: trypsin

text: , a

text: digestive enzyme

text: . Produced by the

text: pancreas

text: , it is found in

text: pancreatic juice

text: , along with

text: amylase

text: lipase

text: , and

text: chymotrypsinogen

text: . It is activated by

text: enteropeptidase

text: , which is found in the

text: intestinal mucosa

text: , to form

text: trypsin

text: . Once activated, the trypsin can activate more trypsinogen into

text: trypsin

text: Trypsin

text: cleaves the peptide bond on the carboxyl side of basic

text: amino acid

text: s such as

text: arginine

text: and

text: lysine

text: This system relies on having measured heats of combustion of a wide range of isolated proteins, fats and carbohydrates. It also depends on data from digestibility studies, where individual foods have been substituted for basal diets in order to measure the apparent digestibility coefficients for those foods. This approach is based on the assumption that there are no interactions between foods in a mixture in the intestine, and from a practical view point, such studies with humans are difficult to control with the required accuracy.

text: In many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals (especially cattle, goats and sheep) as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, an enzyme necessary for digesting the lactose in milk. Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood. This allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of dairy products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream, and cheese. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, and many other food-additives and industrial products.

text: In many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals (especially cattle, goats and sheep) as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce

text: lactase

text: , an enzyme necessary for digesting the lactose in milk. Milk was therefore converted to

text: curd

text: cheese

text: and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the

text: production of lactase in adulthood

text: . This allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of dairy products such as

text: cream

text: butter

text: yogurt

text: kefir

text: ice cream

text: , and cheese. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce

text: casein

text: whey protein

text: , lactose,

text: condensed milk

text: powdered milk

text: , and many other food-additives and industrial products.

text: In beans, endogenous gases seem to arise from complex oligosaccharides (carbohydrates) that are particularly resistant to digestion by mammals, but are readily digestible by gut flora – microorganisms (methane-producing archaea; Methanobrevibacter smithii) that inhabit the digestive tract. These oligosaccharides pass through the upper intestine largely unchanged, and when they reach the lower intestine, bacteria feed on them, producing copious amounts of flatus.

text: In beans, endogenous gases seem to arise from complex oligosaccharides (

text: carbohydrate

text: s) that are particularly resistant to digestion by mammals, but are readily digestible by

text: gut flora

text: microorganisms

text: (methane-producing archaea;

text: Methanobrevibacter smithii

text: ) that inhabit the

text: digestive tract

text: . These oligosaccharides pass through the upper intestine largely unchanged, and when they reach the lower intestine,

text: bacteria

text: feed on them, producing copious amounts of flatus.

text: The gastrocolic reflex or gastrocolic response is one of a number of physiological reflexes controlling the motility, or peristalsis, of the gastrointestinal tract.  It involves an increase in motility of the colon in response to stretch in the stomach and byproducts of digestion in the small intestine.  Thus, this reflex is responsible for the urge to defecate following a meal. The small intestine also shows a similar motility response.  The gastrocolic reflex helps make room for more food.

text: The gastrocolic reflex or gastrocolic response is one of a number of physiological reflexes controlling the

text: motility

text: , or

text: peristalsis

text: , of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: .  It involves an increase in motility of the

text: colon

text: in response to stretch in the

text: stomach

text: and byproducts of digestion in the

text: small intestine

text: .  Thus, this reflex is responsible for the urge to defecate following a meal. The small intestine also shows a similar motility response.  The gastrocolic reflex helps make room for more food.

text: In the human digestive system, the main sites of digestion are the oral cavity, the stomach, and the small intestine. Digestive enzymes are secreted by different exocrine glands including:

text: In the human digestive system, the main sites of digestion are the

text: oral cavity

text: , the

text: stomach

text: , and the

text: small intestine

text: . Digestive enzymes are secreted by different

text: exocrine

text: glands including:

text: Within the San Antonio Cemetery in Formosa, in the area reserved for members of the Gendarmería, there is a grave with the name of Agustín Feced, and an announcement in the local newspaper La Mañana says that he was buried there the same day of his death, at 5:30 PM. The official records of the cemetery show only one person being buried there and then, and it is not Feced; but he does appear in an old notebook also found there. The unofficial record in the notebook was written by Ramón Giménez, Feced's son-in-law and then a top government official. Feced's coffin is sealed in the wall next to another one that dates from the mid-1990s, and almost 3 meters above the ground. According to the guardian of the cemetery, San Antonio did not have lifts for coffins "until a few years ago" (1999), and work hours are 8:00 AM to 1:00 PM, so Feced could not have been buried like that "unless [somebody] brought three ladders and a lot of people to get [the coffin] up there."

text: Hemosuccus pancreaticus, also known as pseudohematobilia or Wirsungorrhage is a rare cause of hemorrhage in the gastrointestinal tract.  It is caused by a bleeding source in the pancreas, pancreatic duct, or structures adjacent to the pancreas, such as the splenic artery, that bleed into the pancreatic duct, which is connected with the bowel at the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine.  Patients with hemosuccus may develop symptoms of gastrointestinal hemorrhage, such as blood in the stools, maroon stools, or melena, which is a dark, tarry stool caused by digestion of red blood cells.  They may also develop abdominal pain.  It is associated with pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer and aneurysms of the splenic artery.  Hemosuccus may be identified with endoscopy (esophagogastroduodenoscopy), where fresh blood may be seen from the pancreatic duct.  Alternatively, angiography may be used to inject the celiac axis to determine the blood vessel that is bleeding.  This may also be used to treat hemosuccus, as embolization of the end vessel may terminate the hemorrhage.  However, a distal pancreatectomy—surgery to removal of the tail of the pancreas—may be required to stop the hemorrhage.

text: Hemosuccus pancreaticus, also known as pseudohematobilia or Wirsungorrhage is a rare cause of

text: hemorrhage

text: in the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: .  It is caused by a bleeding source in the

text: pancreas

text: pancreatic duct

text: , or structures adjacent to the pancreas, such as the

text: splenic artery

text: , that bleed into the pancreatic duct, which is connected with the bowel at the

text: duodenum

text: , the first part of the small intestine.  Patients with hemosuccus may develop symptoms of gastrointestinal hemorrhage, such as blood in the stools, maroon stools, or

text: melena

text: , which is a dark, tarry stool caused by digestion of

text: red blood cells

text: .  They may also develop abdominal pain.  It is associated with

text: pancreatitis

text: pancreatic cancer

text: and aneurysms of the splenic artery.  Hemosuccus may be identified with endoscopy (

text: esophagogastroduodenoscopy

text: ), where fresh blood may be seen from the

text: pancreatic duct

text: .  Alternatively,

text: angiography

text: may be used to inject the

text: celiac axis

text: to determine the blood vessel that is bleeding.  This may also be used to treat hemosuccus, as

text: embolization

text: of the end vessel may terminate the hemorrhage.  However, a

text: distal pancreatectomy

text: —surgery to removal of the tail of the pancreas—may be required to stop the hemorrhage.

text: Mubashir wrote for more than 30 magazines like Dunya-Zaad, Nuqaat, Adbiyaat, Asbaat, Urdu Digest, Jasusi Digest, Jang, The News, Daily Express, Cricketer (Sports Magazine),

text: The dwarf tapeworm, like all other tapeworms, lacks a digestive system and feeds by absorption on nutrients in the intestinal lumen. They have nonspecific carbohydrate requirements and they seem to absorb whatever is being passed through the intestine at that time. When it becomes an adult, it attaches to the intestinal walls with its suckers and toothed rostellum and has its segments reaching out into the intestinal space to absorb food.

text: The dwarf tapeworm, like all other tapeworms, lacks a digestive system and feeds by absorption on nutrients in the intestinal lumen. They have nonspecific carbohydrate requirements and they seem to absorb whatever is being passed through the intestine at that time. When it becomes an adult, it attaches to the intestinal walls with its suckers and toothed

text: rostellum

text: and has its segments reaching out into the intestinal space to absorb food.

text: After an animal has digested eaten material, the remains of that material are discharged from its body as waste. Although it is lower in energy than the food from which it is derived, feces may retain a large amount of energy, often 50% of that of the original food. This means that of all food eaten, a significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as dung beetles, who can sense odors from long distances. Some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods as well. Feces serve not only as a basic food, but also as a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. This is known as coprophagia, and occurs in various animal species such as young elephants eating the feces of their mothers in order to gain essential gut flora, or by other animals such as dogs, rabbits, and monkeys.

text: After an animal has digested eaten material, the remains of that material are discharged from its body as waste. Although it is lower in energy than the food from which it is derived, feces may retain a large amount of energy, often 50% of that of the original food. This means that of all food eaten, a significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as

text: dung beetle

text: s, who can

text: sense

text: odors from long distances. Some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods as well. Feces serve not only as a basic food, but also as a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. This is known as

text: coprophagia

text: , and occurs in various animal species such as young elephants eating the feces of their mothers in order to gain essential

text: gut flora

text: , or by other animals such as dogs, rabbits, and monkeys.

text: Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs.

text: Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the

text: stomach

text: and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs.

text: Enteroendocrine cells do not form glands but are spread throughout the digestive tract. They exert their autocrine and paracrine actions that integrate gastrointestinal function.

text: Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours – eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.

text: Other animals, such as

text: rabbits

text: and

text: rodents

text: , practise

text: coprophagia

text: behaviours – eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more

text: nutrition

text: from grass by giving their food a second pass through the

text: gut

text: . Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.

text: Although sensitivity levels vary by country, the most common food allergies are allergies to milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, seafood, shellfish, soy, and wheat. These are often referred to as "the big eight". Allergies to seeds — especially sesame — seem to be increasing in many countries. An example an allergy more common to a particular region is that to rice in East Asia where it forms a large part of the diet.

text: Although sensitivity levels vary by country, the most common food allergies are allergies to

text: milk

text: eggs

text: peanuts

text: tree nuts

text: seafood

text: shellfish

text: soy

text: , and

text: wheat

text: . These are often referred to as "the big eight". Allergies to seeds — especially sesame — seem to be increasing in many countries. An example an allergy more common to a particular region is that to

text: rice

text: in

text: East Asia

text: where it forms a large part of the diet.

text: Overall, the GI tract and the accessory organs of digestion (pancreas, liver, gall bladder) are responsible for more cancers and more deaths from cancer than any other system in the body. There is significant geographic variation in the rates of different gastrointestinal cancers.

text: Mouth gets a job in Omaha which strains his relationship with Millicent because of the long distance. Mouth meets Lucas when his book tour starts in Omaha and decides to return to Tree Hill to be with Millicent. Mouth goes back to working in Tree Hill, where his new intern, his ex Gigi, causes trouble for his relationship with Millie, and eventually throws her into the arms of another man, Owen. They struggle to fix their relationship, and Millie goes to work in New York, leaving him. By the end of the season, she comes back to Tree Hill, and they are together again.

text: The gastrointestinal tract forms an important part of the immune system. The surface area of the digestive tract is estimated to be about 32 square meters, or about half a badminton court. With such a large exposure (more than three times larger than the exposed surface of the skin), these immune components function to prevent pathogens from entering the blood and lymph circulatory systems. Fundamental components of this protection are provided by the intestinal mucosal barrier which is composed of physical, biochemical, and immune elements elaborated by the intestinal mucosa. Microorganisms also are kept at bay by an extensive immune system comprising the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)

text: The gastrointestinal tract forms an important part of the

text: immune system

text: . The surface area of the digestive tract is estimated to be about 32 square meters, or about half a badminton court. With such a large exposure (more than three times larger than the

text: exposed surface of the skin

text: ), these immune components function to prevent pathogens from entering the blood and lymph circulatory systems. Fundamental components of this protection are provided by the

text: intestinal mucosal barrier

text: which is composed of physical, biochemical, and immune elements elaborated by the intestinal mucosa. Microorganisms also are kept at bay by an extensive immune system comprising the

text: gut-associated lymphoid tissue

text: (GALT)

text: After eating, snakes become dormant while the process of digestion takes place. Digestion is an intense activity, especially after consumption of large prey. In species that feed only sporadically, the entire intestine enters a reduced state between meals to conserve energy. The digestive system is then 'up-regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption. Being ectothermic ("cold-blooded"), the surrounding temperature plays a large role in snake digestion. The ideal temperature for snakes to digest is . So much metabolic energy is involved in a snake's digestion that in the Mexican rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus), surface body temperature increases by as much as  during the digestive process. Because of this, a snake disturbed after having eaten recently will often regurgitate its prey to be able to escape the perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly efficient, with the snake's digestive enzymes dissolving and absorbing everything but the prey's hair (or feathers) and claws, which are excreted along with waste.

text: After eating, snakes become dormant while the process of

text: digestion

text: takes place. Digestion is an intense activity, especially after consumption of large prey. In species that feed only sporadically, the entire

text: intestine

text: enters a reduced state between meals to conserve energy. The digestive system is then 'up-regulated' to full capacity within 48 hours of prey consumption. Being

text: ectothermic

text: ("cold-blooded"), the surrounding temperature plays a large role in snake digestion. The ideal temperature for snakes to digest is . So much

text: metabolic

text: energy is involved in a snake's digestion that in the Mexican rattlesnake (

text: Crotalus durissus

text: ), surface body temperature increases by as much as  during the digestive process. Because of this, a snake disturbed after having eaten recently will often

text: regurgitate

text: its prey to be able to escape the perceived threat. When undisturbed, the digestive process is highly efficient, with the snake's digestive

text: enzymes

text: dissolving and absorbing everything but the prey's hair (or

text: feather

text: s) and

text: claws

text: , which are excreted along with

text: waste

text: In 2006, Belgian conceptual artist Wim Delvoye introduced the world to his "Cloaca Machine", a mechanical art work that actually digests food and turns it into excrement, finally fulfilling Vaucanson's wish for a working digestive automation. Many iterations of the Cloaca Machine have since been produced; the current iteration sits vertically, mimicking the human digestive system. The excrement produced by the machine is vacuum-sealed in Cloaca-branded bags and sold to art collectors and dealers; every series of excrements produced has sold out.

text: In 2006, Belgian conceptual artist

text: Wim Delvoye

text: introduced the world to his "Cloaca Machine", a mechanical art work that actually digests food and turns it into excrement, finally fulfilling Vaucanson's wish for a working digestive automation. Many iterations of the Cloaca Machine have since been produced; the current iteration sits vertically, mimicking the human digestive system. The excrement produced by the machine is vacuum-sealed in Cloaca-branded bags and sold to art collectors and dealers; every series of excrements produced has sold out.

text: A large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut flora that help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey.  This gut flora is made up of cellulose-digesting protozoans or bacteria living in the herbivores' intestines.  Coral reefs are the result of mutualisms between coral organisms and various types of algae that live inside them.  Most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualisms between the plants, which fix carbon from the air, and mycorrhyzal fungi, which help in extracting water and minerals from the ground.

text: A large percentage of

text: herbivores

text: have mutualistic

text: gut flora

text: that help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey.  This gut flora is made up of cellulose-digesting

text: protozoans

text: or bacteria living in the herbivores' intestines.

text: Coral

text: reefs are the result of mutualisms between coral organisms and various types of algae that live inside them.  Most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualisms between the plants, which

text: fix

text: carbon from the air, and

text: mycorrhyzal

text: fungi, which help in extracting water and minerals from the ground.

text: Allergen immunotherapy is useful for environmental allergies, allergies to insect bites, and asthma. Its benefit for food allergies is unclear and thus not recommended. Immunotherapy involves exposing people to larger and larger amounts of allergen in an affect to change the immune system's response.

text: The common symptoms of food allergies consist of skin irritation, excessive itching, hair loss, and hot spots.  In addition, they can cause the dog to have loose bowel movements and even cause them to throw up from time to time.

text: The common symptoms of food allergies consist of skin irritation, excessive itching, hair loss, and

text: hot spot

text: s.  In addition, they can cause the dog to have loose bowel movements and even cause them to throw up from time to time.

text: Digestion of food continues while simplest elements are absorbed. The absorption of most digested food occurs in the small intestine through the brush border of the epithelium covering the villi (small hair-like structure). It is not a simple diffusion of substances, but is active and requires energy use by the epithelial cells.

text: Digestion of food continues while simplest elements are absorbed. The absorption of most digested food occurs in the small intestine through the brush border of the

text: epithelium

text: covering the

text: villi

text: (small hair-like structure). It is not a simple

text: diffusion

text: of substances, but is active and requires energy use by the epithelial cells.

text: Sublingual administration has certain advantages over oral administration.  Being more direct, it is often faster, and it ensures that the substance will risk degradation only by salivary enzymes before entering the bloodstream, whereas orally administered drugs must survive passage through the hostile environment of the gastrointestinal tract, which risks degrading them, either by stomach acid or bile, or by the many enzymes therein, such as monoamine oxidase (MAO).  Furthermore, after absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, such drugs must pass to the liver, where they may be extensively altered; this is known as the first pass effect of drug metabolism.  Due to the digestive activity of the stomach and intestines and the solubility of the GI tract, the oral route is unsuitable for certain substances, such as salvinorin A.

text: Sublingual administration has certain advantages over oral administration.  Being more direct, it is often faster, and it ensures that the substance will risk degradation only by salivary enzymes before entering the bloodstream, whereas orally administered drugs must survive passage through the hostile environment of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , which risks degrading them, either by stomach acid or bile, or by the many

text: enzyme

text: s therein, such as

text: monoamine oxidase

text: (MAO).  Furthermore, after absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, such drugs must pass to the

text: liver

text: , where they may be extensively altered; this is known as the

text: first pass effect

text: of drug metabolism.  Due to the digestive activity of the stomach and intestines and the solubility of the GI tract, the oral route is unsuitable for certain substances, such as

text: salvinorin A

text: The small intestine supports the body's immune system.  The presence of probiotic gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host's immune system. Peyer's patches, located within the ileum of the small intestine, are an important part of the digestive tract's local immune system. They are part of the lymphatic system, and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled, and subsequently presented to the immune system.

text: The small intestine supports the body's

text: immune system

text: .  The presence of probiotic

text: gut flora

text: appears to contribute positively to the host's immune system. Peyer's patches, located within the ileum of the small intestine, are an important part of the digestive tract's local immune system. They are part of the lymphatic system, and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled, and subsequently presented to the immune system.

text: Much of the recent discussion about chloramine has focused on N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), and it is critical to distinguish between chloramine and NDMA. NDMA can be a byproduct of chloramination or chlorination, but drinking water is not a major source of exposure to NDMA. The biggest sources of human exposure to NDMA are tobacco smoke, chewing tobacco, bacon and other cured meats, beer, fish, cheese, toiletries, shampoos, cleansers, interior air of cars, and household pesticides. In addition, NDMA can form in the stomach during digestion of foods or drugs that contain alkylamines, which are naturally occurring compounds.

text: Much of the recent discussion about chloramine has focused on

text: N-nitrosodimethylamine

text: (NDMA), and it is critical to distinguish between chloramine and NDMA. NDMA can be a byproduct of chloramination or chlorination, but drinking water is not a major source of exposure to NDMA. The biggest sources of human exposure to NDMA are

text: tobacco

text: smoke, chewing tobacco,

text: bacon

text: and other cured meats,

text: beer

text: , fish,

text: cheese

text: , toiletries,

text: shampoo

text: s, cleansers, interior air of cars, and household

text: pesticides

text: . In addition, NDMA can form in the stomach during digestion of foods or drugs that contain

text: alkylamines

text: , which are naturally occurring compounds.

text: A few companies have tried to improve the handling process of in-gel digestion to allow even with manual sample preparation an easier and more standardised workflow. The Montage In-Gel Digest Kit from Millipore is based on the standard protocol, but enables processing of a large number of parallel samples by transferring the handling of the gel pieces to a modified 96 well microplate. The solutions for the diverse steps of in-gel digestion are pipetted into the wells of this plate whereas the removal of liquids is performed through the bottom of the wells by a vacuum pump. This system simplifies the handling of the multiple pipetting steps by the use of multichannel pipettes and even pipetting robots. Actually, some manufacturers of high-throughput systems have adopted the system to work with their robots. This illustrates the orientation of this kit solution to laboratories with a larger number of samples.

text: A few companies have tried to improve the handling process of in-gel digestion to allow even with manual sample preparation an easier and more standardised workflow. The Montage In-Gel Digest Kit from

text: Millipore

text: is based on the standard protocol, but enables processing of a large number of parallel samples by transferring the handling of the gel pieces to a modified 96 well microplate. The solutions for the diverse steps of in-gel digestion are pipetted into the wells of this plate whereas the removal of liquids is performed through the bottom of the wells by a

text: vacuum pump

text: . This system simplifies the handling of the multiple pipetting steps by the use of multichannel

text: pipette

text: s and even pipetting robots. Actually, some manufacturers of high-throughput systems have adopted the system to work with their robots. This illustrates the orientation of this kit solution to laboratories with a larger number of samples.

text: Microplastics often become embedded in animals' tissue through ingestion or respiration. Various annelid species, such as deposit-feeding lugworms (Arenicola marina), have been shown to have microplastics embedded in their gastrointestinal tracts. Many crustaceans, like the shore crab Carcinus maenas have been seen to integrate microplastics into both their respiratory and digestive tracts.

text: Microplastics often become embedded in animals' tissue through ingestion or respiration. Various annelid species, such as deposit-feeding lugworms (

text: Arenicola marina

text: ), have been shown to have microplastics embedded in their

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: s. Many crustaceans, like the shore crab

text: Carcinus maenas

text: have been seen to integrate microplastics into both their respiratory and digestive tracts.

text: Most of erythromycin is metabolised by demethylation in the liver by the hepatic enzyme CYP3A4. Its main elimination route is in the bile with little renal excretion, 2%-15% unchanged drug. Erythromycin's elimination half-life ranges between 1.5 and 2.0 hours and is between 5 and 6 hours in patients with end-stage renal disease.  Erythromycin levels peak in the serum 4 hours after dosing; ethylsuccinate peaks 0.5-2.5 hours after dosing, but can be delayed if digested with food.

text: Most of erythromycin is metabolised by

text: demethylation

text: in the

text: liver

text: by the hepatic enzyme CYP3A4. Its main elimination route is in the

text: bile

text: with little renal excretion, 2%-15% unchanged drug. Erythromycin's

text: elimination half-life

text: ranges between 1.5 and 2.0 hours and is between 5 and 6 hours in patients with end-stage renal disease.  Erythromycin levels peak in the serum 4 hours after dosing; ethylsuccinate peaks 0.5-2.5 hours after dosing, but can be delayed if digested with food.

text: The common channel is the portion of small intestine, usually 75-150 centimeters long, in which the contents of the digestive path mix with the bile from the biliopancreatic loop before emptying into the large intestine. The objective of this arrangement is to reduce the amount of time the body has to capture calories from food in the small intestine and to selectively limit the absorption of fat. As a result, following surgery, these patients only absorb approximately 20% of the fat they intake.

text: The common channel is the portion of small intestine, usually 75-150 centimeters long, in which the contents of the digestive path mix with the

text: bile

text: from the biliopancreatic loop before emptying into the

text: large intestine

text: . The objective of this arrangement is to reduce the amount of time the body has to capture

text: calories

text: from food in the small intestine and to selectively limit the absorption of

text: fat

text: . As a result, following surgery, these patients only absorb approximately 20% of the fat they intake.

text: Scorpions are opportunistic predators of small arthropods, although the larger kinds have been known to kill small lizards and mice. The large pincers are studded with highly sensitive tactile hairs, and the moment an insect touches these, they use their chelae (pincers) to catch the prey. Depending on the toxicity of their venom and size of their claws, they will then either crush the prey or inject it with neurotoxic venom. This will kill or paralyze the prey so the scorpion can eat it. Scorpions have an unusual style of eating using chelicerae, small claw-like structures that protrude from the mouth that are unique to the Chelicerata among arthropods. The chelicerae, which are very sharp, are used to pull small amounts of food off the prey item for digestion into a pre-oral cavity below the chelicerae and carapace. Scorpions can ingest food only in a liquid form; they have external digestion. The digestive juices from the gut are egested onto the food and the digested food sucked in liquid form. Any solid indigestible matter (fur, exoskeleton, etc.) is trapped by setae in the pre-oral cavity, which is ejected by the scorpion.

text: Scorpions are opportunistic predators of small arthropods, although the larger kinds have been known to kill small lizards and mice. The large pincers are studded with highly sensitive tactile hairs, and the moment an insect touches these, they use their chelae (pincers) to catch the prey. Depending on the toxicity of their venom and size of their claws, they will then either crush the prey or inject it with

text: neurotoxic

text: venom. This will kill or paralyze the prey so the scorpion can eat it. Scorpions have an unusual style of eating using

text: chelicerae

text: , small claw-like structures that protrude from the mouth that are unique to the

text: Chelicerata

text: among arthropods. The chelicerae, which are very sharp, are used to pull small amounts of food off the prey item for digestion into a pre-oral cavity below the chelicerae and carapace. Scorpions can ingest food only in a liquid form; they have external digestion. The digestive juices from the gut are egested onto the food and the digested food sucked in liquid form. Any solid indigestible matter (fur,

text: exoskeleton

text: , etc.) is trapped by setae in the pre-oral cavity, which is ejected by the scorpion.

text: The most common example of an elimination match is the three-way Dance, where the first fall eliminates only the pinned or submitted wrestler. The Three-Way Dance was popularized in Extreme Championship Wrestling, where it became a regular specialty of the promotion. The name fatal four-way elimination match is often used in place of the four-way dance. Some promotions use a tag format for the match, whereby only two wrestlers are inside the ring at the same time while other competitors stand on the apron, such as a six-pack challenge in which six wrestlers compete with four wrestlers outside the ring.

text: The most common example of an elimination match is the three-way Dance, where the first fall eliminates only the pinned or submitted wrestler. The Three-Way Dance was popularized in

text: Extreme Championship Wrestling

text: , where it became a regular specialty of the promotion. The name fatal four-way elimination match is often used in place of the four-way dance. Some promotions use a tag format for the match, whereby only two wrestlers are inside the ring at the same time while other competitors stand on the apron, such as a six-pack challenge in which six wrestlers compete with four wrestlers outside the ring.

text: Corn/Maize allergy is a type of food allergy.  It can be a difficult allergy to manage, particularly in the United States, due to the high number of food products which contain various forms of corn, such as corn starch, modified food starch, vinegar, and vanilla extract, among many others. However, it is an allergy that often goes unrecognized.

text: Corn/Maize

text: allergy is a type of

text: food allergy

text: .  It can be a difficult allergy to manage, particularly in the United States, due to the high number of food products which contain various forms of corn, such as

text: corn starch

text: modified food starch

text: vinegar

text: , and

text: vanilla extract

text: , among many others. However, it is an allergy that often goes unrecognized.

text: The mechanisms of phosphorus digestion and metabolism differ substantially between ruminant and non-ruminant (monogastric) species.  In pigs, most phosphorus is absorbed from the small intestine -jejunum, duodenum- in the form of ortho-phosphate where its solubility is greatest. The phosphorus is then transported across the gut wall. The kidney plays the major regulatory role in controlling phosphorus levels, any excess is excreted primarily via the urine.  In poultry available phosphorus solubilises in the gizzard where it becomes available for absorption also in the duodenum and jejunum.

text: The mechanisms of phosphorus

text: digestion

text: and metabolism differ substantially between

text: ruminant

text: and non-ruminant (

text: monogastric

text: ) species.  In

text: pig

text: s, most phosphorus is absorbed from the

text: small intestine

text: jejunum

text: duodenum

text: - in the form of ortho-phosphate where its solubility is greatest. The phosphorus is then transported across the

text: gut wall

text: . The

text: kidney

text: plays the major regulatory role in controlling phosphorus levels, any excess is excreted primarily via the

text: urine

text: .  In

text: poultry

text: available phosphorus solubilises in the

text: gizzard

text: where it becomes available for absorption also in the duodenum and jejunum.

text: The lower gastrointestinal tract (GI), includes the small intestine and all of the large intestine. The intestine is also called the bowel or the gut. The lower GI starts at the pyloric sphincter of the stomach and finishes at the anus. The small intestine is subdivided into the duodenum, the jejunum and the ileum. The cecum marks the division between the small and large intestine. The large intestine includes the rectum and anal canal.

text: The lower gastrointestinal tract (GI), includes the

text: small intestine

text: and all of the

text: large intestine

text: . The intestine is also called the bowel or the gut. The lower GI starts at the pyloric sphincter of the stomach and finishes at the anus. The small intestine is subdivided into the

text: duodenum

text: , the

text: jejunum

text: and the

text: ileum

text: . The cecum marks the division between the small and large intestine. The large intestine includes the rectum and

text: anal canal

text: There is also a logical content to elimination theory, as seen in the Boolean satisfiability problem. In the worst case it is presumably hard to eliminate variables computationally. "Quantifier elimination" is a term used in mathematical logic to explain that, in some theories, every formula is equivalent with a formula without quantifier. This is the case of the theory of the polynomials over an algebraically closed field, and "elimination theory" may be viewed as the theory of the methods making quantifier elimination effective (algorithmic) in this case. Quantifier elimination over the reals is another example, which is fundamental in computational algebraic geometry.

text: There is also a logical content to elimination theory, as seen in the

text: Boolean satisfiability problem

text: . In the worst case it is presumably hard to eliminate variables computationally. "

text: Quantifier elimination

text: " is a term used in

text: mathematical logic

text: to explain that, in some theories, every formula is equivalent with a formula without quantifier. This is the case of the theory of the

text: polynomial

text: s over an

text: algebraically closed field

text: , and "elimination theory" may be viewed as the theory of the methods making quantifier elimination effective (algorithmic) in this case.

text: Quantifier elimination over the reals

text: is another example, which is fundamental in

text: computational algebraic geometry

text: This method has led to the discovery that e-coli bacteria are caused in beef due to the use of corn feed, which they cannot digest.

text: In March 1936 Funk became editor in chief of Funk & Wagnalls' magazine The Literary Digest.  The Digest polled its readers regarding the outcome of the 1936 presidential election, and put Alf Landon at 56%; in fact he got only 36% of the vote. AIPO predicted not only the correct result, but also the result of the Digest poll. Funk had desired a wider poll with greater cross-checking, but the costs were prohibitive. He had not questioned the poll's fundamentally flawed methodology, and derided George Gallup of AIPO as "our fine statistical friend". Though Funk and the Digest were good-humored and self-deprecating about the embarrassment, it hastened the Digests decline. Funk and Cuddihy sold the Digest to Albert Shaw in June 1937 for $200,000. Funk in turn got "a very good chuckle" when Gallup failed to predict the 1948 presidential election result.

text: In March 1936 Funk became

text: editor in chief

text: of Funk & Wagnalls' magazine The Literary Digest.  The Digest polled its readers regarding the outcome of the

entity_name: United States presidential election, 1936

text: 1936 presidential election

text: , and put

text: Alf Landon

text: at 56%; in fact he got only 36% of the vote.

text: AIPO

text: predicted not only the correct result, but also the result of the Digest poll. Funk had desired a wider poll with greater cross-checking, but the costs were prohibitive. He had not questioned the poll's fundamentally flawed methodology, and derided

text: George Gallup

text: of AIPO as "our fine statistical friend". Though Funk and the Digest were good-humored and self-deprecating about the embarrassment, it hastened the Digests decline. Funk and Cuddihy sold the Digest to

text: Albert Shaw

text: in June 1937 for $200,000. Funk in turn got "a very good chuckle" when Gallup failed to predict the

entity_name: United States presidential election, 1948

text: 1948 presidential election

text: result.

text: An earthworm is a tube-shaped, segmented worm found in the phylum Annelida. Earthworms are commonly found living in soil, feeding on live and dead organic matter. An earthworm's digestive system runs through the length of its body. It conducts respiration through its skin. It has a double transport system composed of coelomic fluid that moves within the fluid-filled coelom and a simple, closed blood circulatory system. It has a central and a peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of two ganglia above the mouth, one on either side, connected to a nerve cord running back along its length to motor neurons and sensory cells in each segment. Large numbers of chemoreceptors are concentrated near its mouth. Circumferential and longitudinal muscles on the periphery of each segment enable the worm to move. Similar sets of muscles line the gut, and their actions move the digesting food toward the worm's anus.

text: An earthworm is a tube-shaped, segmented

text: worm

text: found in the phylum

text: Annelid

text: a. Earthworms are commonly found living in soil, feeding on live and dead organic matter. An earthworm's digestive system runs through the length of its body. It conducts respiration through its skin. It has a double transport system composed of

text: coelomic fluid

text: that moves within the fluid-filled

text: coelom

text: and a simple, closed blood circulatory system. It has a central and a peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of two ganglia above the mouth, one on either side, connected to a nerve cord running back along its length to motor neurons and sensory cells in each segment. Large numbers of chemoreceptors are concentrated near its mouth. Circumferential and longitudinal muscles on the periphery of each segment enable the worm to move. Similar sets of muscles line the gut, and their actions move the digesting food toward the worm's anus.

text: For nationwide research, about once a month, West publishes a General Digest volume, which incorporates classified digest notes from all reporters of the West National Reporter System. These are then cumulated into a Decennial Digest. Decennial implies that this occurs every ten years, but in the past several decades, there have been Decennial Digest Parts I and II (the 11th Series now has Part III), so the cumulation is now more frequent. However, the various Decennial Digests are not cumulated. Thus, completing such a search over several decades requires consulting the Decennial Digests, and then updating that work with the most recent series of the General Digest.

text: For nationwide research, about once a month, West publishes a General Digest volume, which incorporates classified digest notes from all

text: reporters

text: of the West National Reporter System. These are then cumulated into a Decennial Digest. Decennial implies that this occurs every ten years, but in the past several decades, there have been Decennial Digest Parts I and II (the 11th Series now has Part III), so the cumulation is now more frequent. However, the various Decennial Digests are not cumulated. Thus, completing such a search over several decades requires consulting the Decennial Digests, and then updating that work with the most recent series of the General Digest.

text: Coprophagous insects consume and redigest the feces of large animals. These feces contain substantial amounts of semi-digested food, particularly in the case of herbivores, owing to the inefficiency of the large animals' digestive systems. Two feces-eating insects are the dung-beetle and certain species of fly.

text: Coprophagous insects consume and

text: redigest

text: the feces of large animals. These feces contain substantial amounts of semi-digested

text: food

text: , particularly in the case of

text: herbivores

text: , owing to the inefficiency of the large animals'

text: digestive systems

text: . Two feces-eating insects are the

text: dung-beetle

text: and certain species of

text: fly

text: Gastric acid acts as a barrier against microorganisms to prevent infections and is important for the digestion of food. Its low pH denatures proteins and thereby makes them susceptible to degradation by digestive enzymes such as pepsin. The low pH also activates the enzyme precursor pepsinogen into the active enzyme pepsin by self-cleavage. After leaving the stomach, the hydrochloric acid of the chyme is neutralized in the duodenum by sodium bicarbonate.

text: Gastric acid acts as a barrier against

text: microorganism

text: s to prevent infections and is important for the digestion of food. Its low pH

text: denatures

text: protein

text: s and thereby makes them susceptible to degradation by

text: digestive enzyme

text: s such as

text: pepsin

text: . The low pH also activates the enzyme precursor

text: pepsinogen

text: into the active enzyme pepsin by self-cleavage. After leaving the stomach, the hydrochloric acid of the

text: chyme

text: is neutralized in the

text: duodenum

text: by

text: sodium bicarbonate

text: Carbohydrates not digested in the small intestine, including resistant starch foods such as potato, bean, oat, wheat flour, and several monosaccharide oligosaccharides and starch, are digested in a variable when they reach the large intestine. The bacterial flora metabolize these compounds anaerobically in the absence of oxygen. This produces gases (hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane) and short-chain fatty acids (acetate, propionate, butyrate). The gases are absorbed and excreted by breathing or through the anus (flatulence). Fatty acids are rapidly metabolized. Butyrate is used mainly by cells in the colon and acetate is absorbed into the blood and taken up by the liver, muscle and other tissue. Propionate is an important precursor of glucose in some animals, but not humans.

text: Carbohydrates not digested in the small intestine, including

text: resistant starch

text: foods such as

text: potato

text: bean

text: oat

text: wheat flour

text: , and several

text: monosaccharide

text: oligosaccharides

text: and starch, are digested in a variable when they reach the

text: large intestine

text: . The

text: bacterial flora

text: metabolize

text: these compounds

text: anaerobic

text: ally in the absence of

text: oxygen

text: . This produces

text: gas

text: es (

text: hydrogen

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: methane

text: ) and

text: short-chain fatty acid

text: s (

text: acetate

text: propionate

text: butyrate

text: ). The gases are absorbed and excreted by

text: breath

text: ing or through the

text: anus

text: flatulence

text: Fatty acid

text: s are rapidly metabolized.

text: Butyrate

text: is used mainly by cells in the

text: colon

text: and acetate is absorbed into the

text: blood

text: and taken up by the

text: liver

text: muscle

text: and other

text: tissue

text: Propionate

text: is an important precursor of glucose in some

text: animal

text: s, but not

text: human

text: s.

text: Depletion of the body's store of nutrients is a more likely cause of hunger. The primary fuels for the cells of our body are glucose (a simple sugar) and fatty acids (compounds produced by the breakdown of fats). If the digestive system contains food, these nutrients are absorbed in the blood and nourish our cells. But the digestive tract is sometimes empty; in fact, it is empty when we wake up every morning. There must be a reservoir that stores nutrients to keep the cells of the body nourished when the gut is empty. Indeed, there are two reservoirs: a short-term reservoir and a long-term reservoir. The short-term reservoir stores carbohydrates, and the long-term reservoir stores fat.

text: Pathologically, the mouth represents a transition between the gastrointestinal tract and the skin, meaning that many gastrointestinal and cutaneous conditions can involve the mouth. Some conditions usually associated with the whole gastrointestinal tract may present only in the mouth, e.g. orofacial granulomatosis/oral Crohn's disease.

text: Pathologically, the mouth represents a transition between the gastrointestinal tract and the skin, meaning that many gastrointestinal and cutaneous conditions can involve the mouth. Some conditions usually associated with the whole gastrointestinal tract may present only in the mouth, e.g.

text: orofacial granulomatosis

text: /oral

text: Crohn's disease

text: Some animal phyla, including vertebrates, have a complete digestive system, with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other. Which end forms first in ontogeny is a criterion used to classify animals into protostome and deuterostome.

text: Some animal

text: phyla

text: , including

text: vertebrate

text: s, have a complete

text: digestive system

text: , with a mouth at one end and an

text: anus

text: at the other. Which end forms first in

text: ontogeny

text: is a criterion used to classify animals into

text: protostome

text: and

text: deuterostome

text: "food poisoning", and more properly as "foodborne illness".

text: food poisoning

text: ", and more properly as "

text: foodborne illness

text: A burning sensation in the mouth may be primary (i.e. burning mouth syndrome) or secondary to systemic or local factors. Other sources refer to a "secondary BMS" with a similar definition, i.e. a burning sensation which is caused by local or systemic factors, or "where oral burning is explained by a clinical abnormality". However this contradicts the accepted definition of BMS which specifies that no cause can be identified. "Secondary BMS" could therefore be considered a misnomer. BMS is an example of dysesthesia, or a distortion of sensation.

text: A burning sensation in the mouth may be primary (i.e. burning mouth syndrome) or secondary to systemic or local factors. Other sources refer to a "secondary BMS" with a similar definition, i.e. a burning sensation which is caused by local or systemic factors, or "where oral burning is explained by a clinical abnormality". However this contradicts the accepted definition of BMS which specifies that no cause can be identified. "Secondary BMS" could therefore be considered a misnomer. BMS is an example of

text: dysesthesia

text: , or a distortion of sensation.

text: Although most eliminations are caused by active participants, eliminations caused by other means have occurred, and have been ruled legitimate, including self-eliminations (such as Andre the Giant jumping out of the ring after seeing a snake in 1989, Kane eliminating himself in 1999 and Drew Carey eliminating himself in 2001; however Randy Savage jumping over the top rope in 1992 was not ruled as self-elimination), elimination from previously-eliminated participants (such as The Undertaker eliminating Maven in 2002, Kurt Angle eliminating Shawn Michaels in 2005 and Kane eliminating CM Punk in 2014,The Wyatt Family  eliminating Brock Lesnar in 2016) and elimination from non-participants (such as The Miz eliminating John Cena in 2011). Furthermore, if an injured wrestler is taken away by medical staff, he can return to the match as long as the match is still ongoing (such as Steve Austin in 1999), but if the match ends without the injured wrestler returning, he is deemed eliminated (such as Scotty 2 Hotty in 2005).

text: Although most eliminations are caused by active participants, eliminations caused by other means have occurred, and have been ruled legitimate, including self-eliminations (such as

text: Andre the Giant

text: jumping out of the ring after seeing a

text: snake

text: in 1989,

text: Kane

text: eliminating himself in 1999 and

text: Drew Carey

text: eliminating himself in 2001; however

text: Randy Savage

text: jumping over the top rope in 1992 was not ruled as self-elimination), elimination from previously-eliminated participants (such as

text: The Undertaker

text: eliminating

text: Maven

text: in 2002,

text: Kurt Angle

text: eliminating

text: Shawn Michaels

text: in 2005 and Kane eliminating

text: CM Punk

text: in 2014,

text: The Wyatt Family

text: eliminating

text: Brock Lesnar

text: in 2016) and elimination from non-participants (such as

text: The Miz

text: eliminating

text: John Cena

text: in 2011). Furthermore, if an injured wrestler is taken away by medical staff, he can return to the match as long as the match is still ongoing (such as

text: Steve Austin

text: in 1999), but if the match ends without the injured wrestler returning, he is deemed eliminated (such as

text: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: in 2005).

text: Trypsin protease (enzyme that digests protein) and functions as a steapsin inhibitor. Trypsin is produced in the pancreas and secreted as trypsinogen, an inactive precursor of trypsin. The reason for this is to prevent trypsin from acting upon the pancreas. Upon entering the duodenum, enteropeptidase is secreted which activates trypsin. Since trypsin is classified as a protease, its function in the gastric tract is to act as a steapsin suppressor by digesting steapsin.

text: Trypsin protease (enzyme that digests protein) and functions as a steapsin inhibitor. Trypsin is produced in the pancreas and secreted as

text: trypsinogen

text: , an inactive precursor of trypsin. The reason for this is to prevent trypsin from acting upon the pancreas. Upon entering the

text: duodenum

text: enteropeptidase

text: is secreted which activates trypsin. Since trypsin is classified as a protease, its function in the gastric tract is to act as a steapsin suppressor by digesting steapsin.

text: Barret's esophagus

text: Barret's esophagus

text: Gastrointestinal pathology is the subspecialty of surgical pathology which deals with the diagnosis and characterization of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases of the digestive tract and accessory organs, such as the pancreas and liver.

text: Gastrointestinal pathology is the subspecialty of

text: surgical pathology

text: which deals with the

text: diagnosis

text: and characterization of

text: neoplastic

text: and non-neoplastic

text: disease

text: s of the

text: digestive tract

text: and accessory organs, such as the

text: pancreas

text: and

text: liver

text: Joshua Farris was born in Renton, Washington. At the age of eight, he was diagnosed with dyslexia, which may be connected with a concussion he sustained as a child. He also has a severe allergy to dairy products and travels with a whole suitcase of food.

text: Joshua Farris was born in

text: Renton, Washington

text: . At the age of eight, he was diagnosed with

text: dyslexia

text: , which may be connected with a concussion he sustained as a child. He also has a severe

text: allergy to dairy products

text: and travels with a whole suitcase of food.

text: After some time (typically 1–2 hours in humans, 4–6 hours in dogs, 3–4 hours in house cats), the resulting thick liquid is called chyme.  When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine.  Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9.  Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (KMK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation.

text: After some time (typically 1–2 hours in humans, 4–6 hours in dogs, 3–4 hours in house cats), the resulting thick liquid is called

text: chyme

text: .  When the

text: pyloric sphincter valve

text: opens, chyme enters the

text: duodenum

text: where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the

text: pancreas

text: and bile juice from the

text: liver

text: and then passes through the

text: small intestine

text: , in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine.  Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the

text: colon

text: (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9.  Some vitamins, such as

text: biotin

text: and

text: vitamin K

text: (KMK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the

text: rectum

text: during

text: defecation

text: Food intolerances can be caused by enzymatic defects in the digestive system, can also result from pharmacological effects of vasoactive amines present in foods (e.g. Histamine), among other metabolic, pharmacological and digestive abnormalities.

text: Most mammals have limited ability to digest dietary fiber such as cellulose. Some ruminants like cows and sheep contain certain symbiotic anaerobic bacteria (like Cellulomonas) in the flora of the rumen, and these bacteria produce enzymes called cellulases that help the microorganism to digest cellulose; the breakdown products are then used by the bacteria for proliferation. The bacterial mass is later digested by the ruminant in its digestive system (stomach and small intestine). Horses use cellulose in their diet by fermentation in their hindgut via symbiotic bacteria which produce cellulase to digest cellulose. Similarly, some termites contain in their hindguts certain flagellate protozoa producing such enzymes, whereas others contain bacteria or may produce cellulase.

text: Most mammals have limited ability to digest dietary fiber such as cellulose. Some

text: ruminant

text: s like cows and sheep contain certain

text: symbiotic

text: anaerobic

text: bacteria (like

text: Cellulomonas

text: ) in the flora of the

text: rumen

text: , and these bacteria produce

text: enzyme

text: s called

text: cellulase

text: s that help the microorganism to digest cellulose; the breakdown products are then used by the bacteria for proliferation. The bacterial mass is later digested by the ruminant in its digestive system (stomach and small intestine). Horses use cellulose in their diet by

text: fermentation in their hindgut

text: via symbiotic bacteria which produce

text: cellulase

text: to digest cellulose. Similarly, some

text: termite

text: s contain in their

text: hindgut

text: s certain

text: flagellate

text: protozoa

text: producing such enzymes, whereas others contain bacteria or may produce cellulase.

text: Absorption is a disposition or personality trait in which a person becomes absorbed in their mental imagery, particularly fantasy. This trait thus correlates highly with a fantasy-prone personality. The original research on absorption was by American psychologist Auke Tellegen.  The construct of absorption was developed in order to relate individual differences in hypnotisability to broader aspects of personality. Absorption has a variable correlation with  hypnotisability (r =.13-89) perhaps because in addition to broad personality dispositions, situational factors play an important role in performance on tests of hypnotic susceptibility. Absorption is one of the traits assessed in the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire.

text: Absorption is a disposition or

text: personality trait

text: in which a person becomes absorbed in their mental imagery, particularly fantasy. This trait thus correlates highly with a

text: fantasy-prone personality

text: . The original research on absorption was by American psychologist

text: Auke Tellegen

text: .  The construct of absorption was developed in order to relate individual differences in

text: hypnotisability

text: to broader aspects of personality. Absorption has a variable correlation with  hypnotisability (r =.13-89) perhaps because in addition to broad personality dispositions, situational factors play an important role in performance on tests of hypnotic susceptibility. Absorption is one of the traits assessed in the

text: Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire

text: Allergen immunotherapy, also known as desensitization or hypo-sensitization, is a medical treatment for some types of allergies. It is useful for environmental allergies, allergies to insect bites, and asthma. Its benefit for food allergies is unclear and thus not recommended. Immunotherapy involves exposing people to larger and larger amounts of allergen in an attempt to change the immune system's response.

text: Allergen immunotherapy, also known as desensitization or hypo-sensitization, is a medical treatment for some types of

text: allergies

text: . It is useful for environmental allergies, allergies to insect bites, and

text: asthma

text: . Its benefit for food allergies is unclear and thus not recommended. Immunotherapy involves exposing people to larger and larger amounts of

text: allergen

text: in an attempt to change the immune system's response.

text: Hindgut fermenters are subdivided into two groups based on the relative size of various digestive organs in relationship to the rest of the system: colonic fermenters tend to be larger species such as horses, and cecal fermenters are smaller animals such as rabbits and rodents.  However, in spite of the terminology, colonic fermenters such as horses make extensive use of the cecum to break down cellulose. Also, colonic fermenters typically have a proportionally longer large intestine than small intestine, whereas cecal fermenters have a considerably enlarged cecum compared to the rest of the digestive tract.

text: Hindgut fermenters are subdivided into two groups based on the relative size of various digestive organs in relationship to the rest of the system:

text: colonic

text: fermenters tend to be larger species such as horses, and cecal fermenters are smaller animals such as rabbits and rodents.  However, in spite of the terminology, colonic fermenters such as horses make extensive use of the cecum to break down cellulose. Also, colonic fermenters typically have a proportionally longer large intestine than small intestine, whereas cecal fermenters have a considerably enlarged cecum compared to the rest of the digestive tract.

text: The pancreas is also the main source of enzymes for the digestion of fats and proteins. Some of these are released in response to the production of CKK in the duodenum. (The enzymes that digest polysaccharides, by contrast, are primarily produced by the walls of the intestines.) The cells are filled with secretory granules containing the precursor digestive enzymes. The major proteases, the pancreatic enzymes which work on proteins, are trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen. Elastase is also produced. Smaller amounts of lipase and amylase are secreted. The pancreas also secretes phospholipase A2, lysophospholipase, and cholesterol esterase. The precursor zymogens, are inactive variants of the enzymes; which avoids the onset of pancreatitis caused by autodegradation. Once released in the intestine, the enzyme enteropeptidase present in the intestinal mucosa activates trypsinogen by cleaving it to form trypsin; further cleavage results in chymotripsin.

text: The pancreas is also the main source of enzymes for the digestion of

text: fat

text: s and proteins. Some of these are released in response to the production of

text: CKK

text: in the duodenum. (The enzymes that digest polysaccharides, by contrast, are primarily produced by the walls of the intestines.) The cells are filled with secretory granules containing the precursor digestive enzymes. The major

text: protease

text: s, the pancreatic enzymes which work on proteins, are

text: trypsinogen

text: and

text: chymotrypsinogen

text: Elastase

text: is also produced. Smaller amounts of lipase and amylase are secreted. The pancreas also secretes

text: phospholipase A2

text: lysophospholipase

text: , and

text: cholesterol

text: esterase

text: . The precursor

text: zymogens

text: , are inactive variants of the enzymes; which avoids the onset of

text: pancreatitis

text: caused by autodegradation. Once released in the intestine, the enzyme

text: enteropeptidase

text: present in the intestinal mucosa activates trypsinogen by cleaving it to form trypsin; further cleavage results in chymotripsin.

text: The cecum is the first section of the large intestine.  It is also known as the "water gut" or "hind gut". It is a cul-de-sac pouch, about  long that holds . It contains bacteria that digest cellulose plant fiber through fermentation.  These bacteria feed upon chyme digestive, and also produce certain fat-soluble vitamins which are absorbed by the horse.  The reason horses must have their diets changed slowly is so the bacteria in the cecum are able to modify and adapt to the different chemical structure of new feedstuffs. Too abrupt a change in diet can cause colic, as the new food is not properly digested.

text: The

text: cecum

text: is the first section of the

text: large intestine

text: .  It is also known as the "water gut" or "hind gut". It is a cul-de-sac pouch, about  long that holds . It contains

text: bacteria

text: that digest

text: cellulose

text: plant

text: fiber

text: through

text: fermentation

text: .  These bacteria feed upon

text: chyme digestive

text: , and also produce certain fat-soluble vitamins which are absorbed by the horse.  The reason horses must have their diets changed slowly is so the bacteria in the cecum are able to modify and adapt to the different chemical structure of new feedstuffs. Too abrupt a change in diet can cause

text: colic

text: , as the new food is not properly digested.

text: The large intestine, or the large bowel, is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system in vertebrates. Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored as feces before being removed by defecation.

text: The large intestine, or the large bowel, is the last part of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: and of the

text: digestive system

text: in

text: vertebrate

text: s. Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored as

text: feces

text: before being removed by

text: defecation

text: Tag team matches are occasionally held under elimination rules; that is, the losing wrestler is eliminated from the match, but his/her team is allowed to continue with their remaining members until all members of one team is eliminated.

text: Digestate is the solid remnants of the original input material to the digesters that the microbes cannot use. It also consists of the mineralised remains of the dead bacteria from within the digesters. Digestate can come in three forms: fibrous, liquor, or a sludge-based combination of the two fractions. In two-stage systems, different forms of digestate come from different digestion tanks. In single-stage digestion systems, the two fractions will be combined and, if desired, separated by further processing.

text: When food containing fat enters the digestive tract, it stimulates the secretion of cholecystokinin (CCK) from I cells of the duodenum and jejunum. In response to cholecystokinin, the gallbladder rhythmically contracts and releases its contents into the common bile duct, eventually draining into the duodenum. The bile emulsifies fats in partly digested food, thereby assisting their absorption. Bile consists primarily of water and bile salts, and also acts as a means of eliminating bilirubin, a product of hemoglobin metabolism, from the body.

text: When food containing fat enters the

text: digestive tract

text: , it stimulates the

text: secretion

text: of

text: cholecystokinin

text: (CCK) from

text: I cell

text: s of the duodenum and jejunum. In response to cholecystokinin, the gallbladder rhythmically contracts and releases its contents into the

text: common bile duct

text: , eventually draining into the

text: duodenum

text: . The bile

text: emulsifies

text: fats in partly digested food, thereby assisting their absorption. Bile consists primarily of water and

text: bile salt

text: s, and also acts as a means of eliminating

text: bilirubin

text: , a product of

text: hemoglobin

text: metabolism, from the body.

text: Too much cardiovascular exercise can directly affect muscle tissue if it is used excessively and without eating the correct food. The reason for this is because if the human body doesn't have sufficient energy stored in the form of glucose, then it will begin using energy from other sources, i.e. muscles. So for example, eating a little extra carbohydrates (which eventually transforms into glucose) will help the body to divert away from muscle tissue and extract energy from the glucose supplies. The time in which one eats is an important factor in ripping where cardiovascular training is concerned. Particular foods take a certain amount of time to extract the glucose in the digestive system. This means that there is limited amount of time to use the glucose before it gets stored as fat. Also there is a certain amount of time after cardiovascular exercise is being performed when the body's energy source runs out. This is when the process of muscle breakdown comes in to play also.

text: Too much cardiovascular exercise can directly affect muscle tissue if it is used excessively and without eating the correct food. The reason for this is because if the human body doesn't have sufficient energy stored in the form of

text: glucose

text: , then it will begin using energy from other sources, i.e. muscles. So for example, eating a little extra

text: carbohydrate

text: s (which eventually transforms into glucose) will help the body to divert away from muscle tissue and extract energy from the glucose supplies. The time in which one eats is an important factor in ripping where cardiovascular training is concerned. Particular foods take a certain amount of time to extract the glucose in the

text: digestive system

text: . This means that there is limited amount of time to use the glucose before it gets stored as fat. Also there is a certain amount of time after cardiovascular exercise is being performed when the body's energy source runs out. This is when the process of muscle breakdown comes in to play also.

text: There are a variety of reasons for consuming plant cream, including conditions such as PKU, making digestion of animal proteins (especially casein found in dairy) very difficult or even impossible, lactose intolerance and milk allergy (approximately 3% of people are allergic), Jewish Kashrut (plant cream is Pareve), veganism or ovo-vegetarianism, and the avoidance of dairy products, considered unappealing by some people. Soy free and gluten free plant creams are marketed towards people with multiple food allergies and coeliac disease.

text: There are a variety of reasons for consuming plant cream, including conditions such as

text: PKU

text: , making

text: digestion

text: of

text: animal proteins

text: (especially

text: casein

text: found in dairy) very difficult or even impossible,

text: lactose intolerance

text: and

text: milk allergy

text: (approximately 3% of people are allergic), Jewish

text: Kashrut

text: (plant cream is

text: Pareve

text: veganism

text: or

text: ovo-vegetarianism

text: , and the avoidance of dairy products, considered unappealing by some people. Soy free and gluten free plant creams are marketed towards people with multiple

text: food allergies

text: and

text: coeliac disease

text: Certain ingredients in dog food are known to be a key cause of allergies. A popular belief among pet owners is that wheat and soybeans are a leading cause of dog allergies, however many studies backed by veterinarians have failed to show wheat and soybeans as major sources of allergies, and in fact blame the meat protein for most allergies: beef, chicken, lamb, etc.  A number of "grain free" dog foods are available that claim to alleviate such allergies in dogs, however given the current research that true wheat/grain allergy is rare in dogs, these diets are seen as controversial, gimmicky, or unnecessary by veterinarians.

text: Another category of secondary literature derived from the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras were the digests (nibandhas, sometimes spelled nibhandas). These arose primarily because of the conflict and disagreements on a particular subject across the various Dharma texts. These digests attempted to reconcile, bridge or suggest a compromise guideline to the numerous disagreements in the primary texts, however the digests in themselves disagreed with each other even on basic principles. Geographically, the medieval era digest writers came from many different parts of South Asia, such as Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh. The oldest surviving digest on Dharma texts is Krityakalpataru, from early 12th-century, by Lakshmidhara of Kannauj in north India, belonging to the Varanasi school.

text: Another category of secondary literature derived from the Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras were the digests (nibandhas, sometimes spelled nibhandas). These arose primarily because of the conflict and disagreements on a particular subject across the various Dharma texts. These digests attempted to reconcile, bridge or suggest a compromise guideline to the numerous disagreements in the primary texts, however the digests in themselves disagreed with each other even on basic principles. Geographically, the medieval era digest writers came from many different parts of South Asia, such as

text: Assam

text: Bengal

text: Bihar

text: Gujarat

text: Kashmir

text: Karnataka

text: Maharashtra

text: Odisha

text: Tamil Nadu

text: , and

text: Uttar Pradesh

text: . The oldest surviving digest on Dharma texts is Krityakalpataru, from early 12th-century, by Lakshmidhara of

text: Kannauj

text: in north India, belonging to the

text: Varanasi

text: school.

text: The salivary glands (element 30 in numbered diagram) in an insect's mouth produce saliva. The salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium, located behind the hypopharynx. By moving its mouthparts (element 32 in numbered diagram) the insect can mix its food with saliva. The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth, where it begins to break down. Some insects, like flies, have extra-oral digestion. Insects using extra-oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down. This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source. The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into the foregut, midgut and hindgut.

text: The

text: salivary gland

text: flies

text: , have

text: extra-oral digestion

text: . Insects using extra-oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down. This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source. The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into the

text: foregut

text: midgut

text: and

text: hindgut

text: At least one study found that "standard skin and blood testing for food allergies [does not] predict whether a child has true sesame allergy." In which case, a food challenge under the direction of a physician may be required to properly diagnose a sesame allergy.

text: The 2006 printed edition of the Martindale Hubbell International Law Directory presented in-depth profiles on more than 8,000 law firms and 100,000 lawyers from 165 countries, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe. The 2006 edition of the Martindale Hubbell Law Digest appeared in a two-volume set. The first volume of this described and advertised as  “the single most useful legal compendium available in the world” contained comprehensive digests of the laws of each of the United States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, digests of the U.S. Federal, Copyright, Patent and Trademark laws of the United States, the Model Rules for Professional Conduct of the American Bar Association, the Code of Judicial Conduct and the composition, jurisdiction and rules of procedure of the American Bar Association Standing Committee on Ethics and Professional Responsibility.  The second volume contained digests of the laws of 82 major trading countries  as well as brief descriptions of their government and legal systems.  In case of Australia and Canada, digests of the states and provinces of these countries were included along with the digest of their federal laws, and a separate digest of the European Union law, because of its significance for a number of European countries. The aim of the digests was: "to present the points of law most likely to be of assistance to a lawyer with a matter at hand, some facet of which is controlled by the law of that country".  The digests were compiled and revised by distinguished lawyers and legal scholars of the respective states and countries.  The second volume contained also the texts of ten international conventions, to which the Unites States of America was a party, the complete texts of many Uniform Acts including the Uniform Commercial Code and the Uniform Probate Code and four Model Acts including the Revised Model Business Corporation Act.

text: The 2006 printed edition of the Martindale Hubbell International Law Directory presented in-depth profiles on more than 8,000 law firms and 100,000 lawyers from 165 countries, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe. The 2006 edition of the Martindale Hubbell Law Digest appeared in a two-volume set. The first volume of this described and advertised as  “the single most useful legal compendium available in the world” contained comprehensive digests of the laws of each of the United States, the District of Columbia,

text: Puerto Rico

text: and

text: the Virgin Islands

text: , digests of the U.S. Federal, Copyright, Patent and Trademark laws of the United States, the Model Rules for Professional Conduct of the American Bar Association, the Code of Judicial Conduct and the composition, jurisdiction and rules of procedure of the American Bar Association Standing Committee on Ethics and Professional Responsibility.  The second volume contained digests of the laws of 82 major trading countries  as well as brief descriptions of their government and legal systems.  In case of Australia and Canada, digests of the states and provinces of these countries were included along with the digest of their federal laws, and a separate digest of

text: the European Union law

text: , because of its significance for a number of European countries. The aim of the digests was: "to present the points of law most likely to be of assistance to a lawyer with a matter at hand, some facet of which is controlled by the law of that country".  The digests were compiled and revised by distinguished lawyers and legal scholars of the respective states and countries.  The second volume contained also the texts of ten

text: international convention

text: s, to which the Unites States of America was a party, the complete texts of many

text: Uniform Act

text: s including the

text: Uniform Commercial Code

text: and the

text: Uniform Probate Code

text: and four Model Acts including the Revised

text: Model Business Corporation Act

text: That night the boneless things surround their camp. Goodbody shoots one and the rest scatter. At dawn, they find the corpse, which was "grey and, in texture, tough and gelatinous. Yet, in form, externally, it was not unlike a human being. It had eyes, and there were either vestiges—or rudiments—of head, and neck, and a kind of limbs." Goodbody is instinctively afraid of the thing. He dissects the thing reluctantly. It has "a kind of digestive system enclosed in very tough jelly, a rudimentary nervous system, and a brain about the size of a walnut." The entire creature, stretched out, measures four feet long.

text: Beverage Digest organizes conferences each year, where senior executives in the industry share their view on trends. Beverage manufacturers often quote information from the annual Beverage Digest Fact Book and the twice-monthly Beverage Digest newsletter in their press releases.

text: It is now also known that animal intestines contain a large population of gut flora. In humans, these include species such as Bacteroides, L. acidophilus and E. coli, among many others. They are essential to digestion, and are also affected by the food we eat.  Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing vitamin B12, and defending against some infectious diseases.

text: It is now also known that animal

text: intestine

text: s contain a large population of

text: gut flora

text: . In humans, these include species such as

text: Bacteroides

text: L. acidophilus

text: and

text: E. coli

text: , among many others. They are essential to

text: digestion

text: , and are also affected by the food we eat.  Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing

text: vitamin B12

text: , and defending against some infectious diseases.

text: Cholecystokinin, a hormone secreted by the APUD cells located in the proximal mucosa of the small intestine is administered intravenously, this stimulates  the pancreatic secretion of the digestive enzymes amylase, trypsin, and lipase. These are measured by a catheter placed in the duodenum. Cholecystokinin also stimulates the flow of bile and causes the gall bladder to contract and thus determine if the gall bladder is emptying properly. It also  affects the esophageal sphincter and the sphincter of Oddi by reducing contraction as well as  increasing  motility (movement) of the stomach and intestine. The CCK test may be administered in conjunction with an ultrasound test to visually monitor gall bladder contraction. While the test is usually administered in a supine position Dr. William Smedley of Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania has detected previously missed gallbladder abnormalities by administering the test in an erect position.

text: Cholecystokinin, a hormone secreted by the

text: APUD cell

text: s located in the proximal mucosa of the

text: small intestine

text: is administered intravenously, this stimulates  the pancreatic secretion of the digestive

text: enzymes

text: amylase

text: trypsin

text: , and

text: lipase

text: . These are measured by a

text: catheter

text: placed in the

text: duodenum

text: . Cholecystokinin also stimulates the flow of

text: bile

text: and causes the gall bladder to contract and thus determine if the gall bladder is emptying properly. It also  affects the esophageal sphincter and the

text: sphincter of Oddi

text: by reducing contraction as well as  increasing  motility (movement) of the stomach and intestine. The CCK test may be administered in conjunction with an

text: ultrasound test

text: to visually monitor gall bladder contraction. While the test is usually administered in a supine position Dr. William Smedley of Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania has detected previously missed gallbladder abnormalities by administering the test in an erect position.

text: Soy allergy is a type of food allergy. It is a hypersensitivity to dietary substances from soy causing an overreaction of the immune system which may lead to severe physical symptoms for millions of people. The Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America estimates soy is among the eight most common food allergens for pediatric and adult food allergy patients. It is usually treated with an exclusion diet and vigilant avoidance of foods that may be contaminated with soy ingredients.  The most severe food allergy reaction is called anaphylaxis and is a medical emergency requiring immediate attention and treatment with Epinephrine.

text: Soy allergy is a type of

text: food allergy

text: . It is a hypersensitivity to

text: diet

text: ary substances from

text: soy

text: causing an overreaction of the immune system which may lead to severe physical symptoms for millions of people. The

entity_name: Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America

text: Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America

text: estimates soy is among the eight most common food allergens for pediatric and adult food allergy patients. It is usually treated with an exclusion

text: diet

text: and vigilant avoidance of foods that may be contaminated with soy ingredients.  The most severe food allergy reaction is called

text: anaphylaxis

text: and is a

text: medical emergency

text: requiring immediate attention and treatment with

text: Epinephrine

text: Raisins can be eaten as a nutritious snack, rich in dietary fiber, carbohydrates with a low glycemic index, minerals, vitamins, and other micronutrients.  Their fat content is low. The overall nutritional value of raisins means they are recommended as a snack for both weight control and for maintaining good human health because they help the control of glucose, the good functioning of the digestive system and the regulation of blood pressure.Replacing unhealthy snacks by raisins in usual and moderate quantity can improve health biomarkers in patients with controlled type 2 diabetes. Adoption of this dietary habit may reduce diastolic blood pressure and increase the levels of plasma antioxidants in type 2 diabetic patients.Corinthian raisins are a moderate glycemic index fruit. They can be consumed in small amounts even by diabetic patients instead of sweets in a balanced diet.Antioxidants in Greek raisins may reduce the risk for malignancies in the stomach and colon. Thus, in a balanced diet, their antioxidants can help maintain the health of the digestive system.

text: The term is used in the feed industry where it refers to a healthy balance of the micro-flora in the gastrointestinal tract.

text: (S)-Equol is a very stable molecule that essentially remains unchanged when digested, and this lack of further metabolism explains its very quick absorption and high bioavailability.When (S)-equol is consumed, it is rapidly absorbed and achieves a T (rate of peak plasma concentration) in two to three hours. In comparison, the T of the daidzein is 4 to 10 hours because it occurs in a glycoside (with a glucose (sugar) side chain) form and the body must, in order to use daidzein, convert daidzein to its aglycone form (without the glucose side chain), achieved through removal of the sugar during digestion.  If consumed directly in aglycone form, daidzein has a T of one to three hours.Also, the percent fractional elimination of (S)-equol in urine after oral administration is extremely high and, in some adults, can be close to 100 percent, which is far higher than the percent fractional eliminations of either daidzein (30 to 40 percent) or genistein (7 to 15 percent).

text: In a two-stage digestion system (multistage), different digestion vessels are optimised to bring maximum control over the bacterial communities living within the digesters. Acidogenic bacteria produce organic acids and more quickly grow and reproduce than methanogenic bacteria. Methanogenic bacteria require stable pH and temperature to optimise their performance.

text: Pirenzepine (Gastrozepin), an M1 selective antagonist, is used in the treatment of peptic ulcers, as it reduces gastric acid secretion and reduces muscle spasm. It is in a class of drugs known as muscarinic receptor antagonists - acetylcholine being the neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system which initiates the rest-and-digest state (as opposed to fight-or-flight), resulting in an increase in gastric motility and digestion; whereas pirenzepine would inhibit these actions and cause decreased gastric motility leading to delayed gastric emptying and constipation. It has no effects on the brain and spinal cord as it cannot diffuse through the blood–brain barrier.

text: Pirenzepine (Gastrozepin), an M1 selective antagonist, is used in the treatment of

text: peptic ulcers

text: , as it reduces

text: gastric acid

text: secretion and reduces

text: muscle spasm

text: . It is in a class of drugs known as

text: muscarinic receptor antagonists

text: acetylcholine

text: being the neurotransmitter of the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: which initiates the rest-and-digest state (as opposed to fight-or-flight), resulting in an increase in gastric motility and digestion; whereas pirenzepine would inhibit these actions and cause decreased gastric motility leading to delayed gastric emptying and constipation. It has no effects on the brain and spinal cord as it cannot diffuse through the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: Specializing occurs when the digestive tract or alimentary canal has a separate mouth and anus so that transport of food is one-way. The most primitive digestive tract is seen in nematodes (phylum Nematode), where it is simply a tubular gut lined by an epithelial membrane. Earthworms (phylum Annelids) have a digestive tract specialized in different regions for the ingestion, storage, fragmentation, digestion and absorption of food. All more complex animal groups, including all vertebrates,  show similar specializations. The ingested food may be stored in a specialized region of the digestive tract or subjected to physical fragmentation. This fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth (in the mouth of many vertebrates) or the grinding action of pebbles (in the gizzard of earthworms and birds).Chemical digestion then occurs, breaking down the larger food molecules of polysaccharides and disaccharides, fats, and proteins into their smallest sub-units.

text: Specializing occurs when the digestive tract or alimentary canal has a separate mouth and anus so that transport of food is one-way. The most primitive digestive tract is seen in

text: nematode

text: s (phylum Nematode), where it is simply a tubular gut lined by an

text: epithelial

text: membrane. Earthworms (phylum Annelids) have a digestive tract specialized in different regions for the ingestion, storage, fragmentation, digestion and absorption of food. All more complex animal groups, including all vertebrates,  show similar specializations. The ingested food may be stored in a specialized region of the digestive tract or subjected to physical fragmentation. This fragmentation may occur through the chewing action of teeth (in the mouth of many vertebrates) or the grinding action of pebbles (in the gizzard of earthworms and birds).Chemical digestion then occurs, breaking down the larger food molecules of

text: polysaccharide

text: s and

text: disaccharide

text: s, fats, and proteins into their smallest sub-units.

text: In the cephalopods, the brain often surrounds the esophagus.

text: In the

text: cephalopod

text: s, the brain often surrounds the esophagus.

text: Although slaughterhouse workers are provided with protective gear, the inevitable condition of the work areas means workers are exposed to "blood, grease, animal feces, ingesta (food from the animal's digestive system), and other detritus from the animals they slaughter."

text: The esophagus  commonly known as the gullet, is an organ which consists of a muscular tube through which food passes from the pharynx to the stomach. The esophagus is continuous with the laryngeal part of the pharynx. It passes through the posterior mediastinum in the thorax and enters the stomach through a hole in the thoracic diaphragm–the esophageal hiatus|, at the level of the tenth thoracic vertebra (T10). Its length averages 25 cm, varying with height. It is divided into cervical, thoracic and abdominal parts. The pharynx joins the esophagus at the esophageal inlet which is behind the cricoid cartilage.

text: The

text: esophagus

text: commonly known as the gullet, is an organ which consists of a muscular tube through which food passes from the pharynx to the stomach. The esophagus is continuous with the laryngeal part of the pharynx. It passes through the posterior

text: mediastinum

text: in the

text: thorax

text: and enters the

text: stomach

text: through a hole in the

text: thoracic diaphragm

text: –the

text: esophageal hiatus

text: |, at the level of the tenth

text: thoracic vertebra

text: (T10). Its length averages 25 cm, varying with height. It is divided into cervical,

text: thoracic

text: and

text: abdominal

text: parts. The pharynx joins the esophagus at the esophageal inlet which is behind the

text: cricoid cartilage

text: Soon after birth, the gastrointestinal tract is colonized with bacteria, which, on the basis of models with animals raised in a germ-free environment, have beneficial effects on function of the gastrointestinal tract.  There are 500-1000 different species of bacteria that reside in the bowel.  However, if the flora of the small bowel is altered, inflammation or altered digestion can occur, leading to symptoms.  Many patients with chronic diarrhea have bacterial overgrowth as a cause or a contributor to their symptoms.

text: Soon after birth, the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: is colonized with bacteria, which, on the basis of models with animals raised in a germ-free environment, have beneficial effects on function of the gastrointestinal tract.  There are 500-1000 different species of bacteria that reside in the bowel.  However, if the flora of the small bowel is altered, inflammation or altered digestion can occur, leading to symptoms.  Many patients with chronic diarrhea have bacterial overgrowth as a cause or a contributor to their symptoms.

text: Gastrointestinal cancer refers to malignant conditions of the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and accessory organs of digestion, including the esophagus, stomach, biliary system, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. The symptoms relate to the organ affected and can include obstruction (leading to difficulty swallowing or defecating), abnormal bleeding or other associated problems. The diagnosis often requires endoscopy, followed by biopsy of suspicious tissue. The treatment depends on the location of the tumor, as well as the type of cancer cell and whether it has invaded other tissues or spread elsewhere. These factors also determine the prognosis.

text: Gastrointestinal cancer refers to

text: malignant

text: conditions of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: (GI tract) and

text: accessory organs of digestion

text: , including the esophagus, stomach, biliary system, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. The symptoms relate to the organ affected and can include obstruction (leading to difficulty swallowing or defecating), abnormal bleeding or other associated problems. The diagnosis often requires

text: endoscopy

text: , followed by

text: biopsy

text: of suspicious tissue. The treatment depends on the location of the tumor, as well as the type of cancer cell and whether it has invaded other tissues or spread elsewhere. These factors also determine the prognosis.

text: Xiphinema diversicaudatum are large nematodes, 4.0mm-5.5mm in length.  They have a long protrusible odontostyle, which is around 0.1 mm long and capable of penetrating into a host’s vascular tissue.  The long stylet is similar to Longidorus but is distinguishable by 3 posterior basal flanges and a more posterior guiding ring than is observed in Longidorus. Xiphinema have a two-part esophagus, which does not contain a metacorpus. A modification in the posterior end of the esophagus forms a muscular posterior bulb, which can generate a pumping action similar to that of a metacorpus in other plant parasitic nematodes.  The lumen of esophageal bulb contains 3 ducts which allow for the passage of secretions from the esophageal glands.

text: Xiphinema diversicaudatum are large nematodes, 4.0mm-5.5mm in length.  They have a long protrusible odontostyle, which is around 0.1 mm long and capable of penetrating into a host’s vascular tissue.  The long stylet is similar to Longidorus but is distinguishable by 3 posterior basal flanges and a more posterior guiding ring than is observed in Longidorus. Xiphinema have a two-part

text: esophagus

text: , which does not contain a metacorpus. A modification in the posterior end of the esophagus forms a muscular posterior bulb, which can generate a pumping action similar to that of a metacorpus in other plant parasitic nematodes.  The lumen of esophageal bulb contains 3 ducts which allow for the passage of secretions from the esophageal glands.

text: Behind the mastax lies an oesophagus, which opens into a stomach where most of the digestion and absorption occurs. The stomach opens into a short intestine that terminates in a cloaca on the posterior dorsal surface of the animal. Up to seven salivary glands are present in some species, emptying to the mouth in front of the oesophagus, while the stomach is associated with two gastric glands that produce digestive enzymes.

text: Behind the mastax lies an

text: oesophagus

text: , which opens into a

text: stomach

text: where most of the digestion and absorption occurs. The stomach opens into a short

text: intestine

text: that terminates in a

text: cloaca

text: on the posterior dorsal surface of the animal. Up to seven

text: salivary gland

text: s are present in some species, emptying to the mouth in front of the oesophagus, while the stomach is associated with two gastric glands that produce

text: digestive enzyme

text: s.

text: The nitrogen compounds through which excess nitrogen is eliminated from organisms are called nitrogenous wastes () or nitrogen wastes. They are ammonia, urea, uric acid, and creatinine. All of these substances are produced from protein metabolism. In many animals, the urine is the main route of excretion for such wastes; in some, the feces is.

text: The nitrogen compounds through which excess nitrogen is eliminated from organisms are called nitrogenous wastes () or nitrogen wastes. They are

text: ammonia

text: urea

text: uric acid

text: , and

text: creatinine

text: . All of these substances are produced from

text: protein

text: metabolism. In many animals, the

text: urine

text: is the main route of

text: excretion

text: for such wastes; in some, the

text: feces

text: is.

text: Animals including humans may be poisoned by pesticide residues that remain on food, for example when wild animals enter sprayed fields or nearby areas shortly after spraying.

text: Prebiotics are defined as "non-digestible food ingredients that may beneficially affect the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of a limited number of bacteria in the colon". Oligosaccharides that are not digested and absorbed in the small intestine, pass through to the colon where they are fermented by Bifidobacteria, thus enhancing the proliferation of the bacteria. In this respect, fermentable oligosaccharides may be considered prebiotics. The oligosaccharides in IMO mixtures are, at least partially, fermented by bacteria in the colon and may, therefore, stimulate  the growth of bacterial subpopulations.

text: Prebiotics are defined as "non-digestible food ingredients that may beneficially affect the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of a limited number of bacteria in the

text: colon

text: ". Oligosaccharides that are not digested and absorbed in the small intestine, pass through to the colon where they are fermented by

text: Bifidobacteria

text: , thus enhancing the proliferation of the bacteria. In this respect, fermentable oligosaccharides may be considered

text: prebiotics

text: . The oligosaccharides in IMO mixtures are, at least partially, fermented by bacteria in the colon and may, therefore, stimulate  the growth of bacterial subpopulations.

text: Schmidt analyzed muscle fiber and chitin. He showed that animal and plant cell constituents are chemically similar and studied reactions of calcium albuminates. He studied alcoholic fermentation and the chemistry of metabolism and digestion. He discovered hydrochloric acid in gastric juice and its chemical interaction with pepsin. He studied bile and pancreatic juices. Some of this work was done with Friedrich Bidder. He studied chemical changes in blood associated with cholera, dysentery, diabetes, and arsenic poisoning.

text: Schmidt analyzed muscle fiber and

text: chitin

text: . He showed that

text: animal

text: and

text: plant cell

text: constituents are chemically similar and studied reactions of

text: calcium albuminate

text: s. He studied

text: alcoholic fermentation

text: and the chemistry of

text: metabolism

text: and digestion. He discovered

text: hydrochloric acid

text: in

text: gastric juice

text: and its chemical interaction with

text: pepsin

text: . He studied

text: bile

text: and

text: pancreatic juice

text: s. Some of this work was done with

text: Friedrich Bidder

text: . He studied chemical changes in blood associated with

text: cholera

text: dysentery

text: diabetes

text: , and

text: arsenic poisoning

text: A structure with the same name is often found in invertebrates, including molluscs and arthropods, connecting the oral cavity with the stomach. In terms of the digestive system of snails and slugs, the mouth opens into an esophagus, which connects to the stomach. Because of torsion, which is the rotation of the main body of the animal during larval development, the esophagus usually passes around the stomach, and opens into its back, furthest from the mouth. In species that have undergone de-torsion, however, the esophagus may open into the anterior of the stomach, which is the reverse of the usual gastropod arrangement. There is an extensive rostrum at the front of the esophagus in all carnivorous snails and slugs. In the freshwater snail species Tarebia granifera, the brood pouch is above the esophagus.

text: A structure with the same name is often found in invertebrates, including

text: mollusc

text: s and

text: arthropod

text: s, connecting the oral cavity with the stomach. In terms of the

text: digestive system of snails and slugs

text: , the mouth opens into an esophagus, which connects to the stomach. Because of

text: torsion

text: , which is the rotation of the main body of the animal during larval development, the esophagus usually passes around the stomach, and opens into its back, furthest from the mouth. In species that have undergone de-torsion, however, the esophagus may open into the anterior of the stomach, which is the reverse of the usual gastropod arrangement. There is an extensive

text: rostrum

text: at the front of the esophagus in all carnivorous snails and slugs. In the freshwater snail species

text: Tarebia granifera

text: , the brood pouch is above the esophagus.

text: Signs and symptoms of candidiasis vary depending on the area affected. Most candidal infections result in minimal complications such as redness, itching, and discomfort, though complications may be severe or even fatal if left untreated in certain populations. In healthy (immunocompetent) persons, candidiasis is usually a localized infection of the skin, fingernails or toenails (onychomycosis), or mucosal membranes, including the oral cavity and pharynx (thrush), esophagus, and the genitalia (vagina, penis, etc.); less commonly in healthy individuals, the gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, and respiratory tract are sites of candida infection.

text: Signs and symptoms of candidiasis vary depending on the area affected. Most candidal infections result in minimal complications such as redness, itching, and discomfort, though complications may be severe or even fatal if left untreated in certain populations. In healthy (

text: immunocompetent

text: ) persons, candidiasis is usually a localized infection of the skin, fingernails or toenails (onychomycosis), or mucosal membranes, including the

text: oral cavity

text: and

text: pharynx

text: thrush

text: esophagus

text: , and the genitalia (

text: vagina

text: penis

text: , etc.); less commonly in healthy individuals, the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: urinary tract

text: , and

text: respiratory tract

text: are sites of candida infection.

text: Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A  horse will eat  of food per day and, under normal use, drink  of water. Horses are not ruminants, they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can utilize cellulose, a major component of grass. Horses are hindgut fermenters, Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria occurs in the cecum, or "water gut", which food goes through before reaching the large intestine. Horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death.

text: Horses are

text: herbivore

text: s with a digestive system adapted to a

text: forage

text: diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A  horse will eat  of food per day and, under normal use, drink  of

text: water

text: . Horses are not

text: ruminant

text: s, they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can utilize

text: cellulose

text: , a major component of grass. Horses are

text: hindgut fermenters

text: , Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria occurs in the

text: cecum

text: , or "water gut", which food goes through before reaching the

text: large intestine

text: . Horses cannot

text: vomit

text: , so digestion problems can quickly cause

text: colic

text: , a leading cause of death.

text: A self-expandable metallic stent (or SEMS) is a metallic tube, or stent, used in order to hold open a structure in the gastrointestinal tract in order to allow the passage of food, chyme, stool, or other secretions required for digestion. SEMS are inserted by endoscopy, wherein a fibre optic camera is inserted either through the mouth or retrograde through the colon, in order to reach an area of narrowing. As such, it is termed an endoprosthesis. SEMS can also be inserted using fluoroscopy where an X-ray image is used to guide insertion, or used as an adjunct to endoscopy.

text: A self-expandable metallic stent (or SEMS) is a metallic tube, or

text: stent

text: , used in order to hold open a structure in the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: in order to allow the passage of food,

text: chyme

text: stool

text: , or other secretions required for

text: digestion

text: . SEMS are inserted by

text: endoscopy

text: , wherein a

text: fibre optic

text: camera is inserted either through the

text: mouth

text: or retrograde through the

text: colon

text: , in order to reach an area of narrowing. As such, it is termed an endoprosthesis. SEMS can also be inserted using

text: fluoroscopy

text: where an X-ray image is used to guide insertion, or used as an adjunct to endoscopy.

text: In August 2003 the FDA approved its use for Barrett's esophagus.

text: In August 2003 the FDA approved its use for

text: Barrett's esophagus

text: Crocodilian teeth are adapted for seizing and holding prey, and food is swallowed unchewed. The digestive tract is relatively short, as meat is a fairly simple substance to digest. The stomach is divided into two parts: a muscular gizzard that grinds food, and a digestive chamber where enzymes work on it. The stomach is more acidic than that of any other vertebrate and contains ridges for gastroliths, which play a role in the mechanical breakdown of food. Digestion takes place more quickly at higher temperatures. Crocodilians have a very low metabolic rate and consequently, low energy requirements. This allows them to survive for many months on a single large meal, digesting the food slowly. They can withstand extended fasting, living on stored fat between meals. Even recently hatched crocodiles are able to survive 58 days without food, losing 23% of their bodyweight during this time. An adult crocodile needs between a tenth and a fifth of the amount of food necessary for a lion of the same weight, and can live for half a year without eating.

text: Crocodilian teeth are adapted for seizing and holding prey, and food is swallowed unchewed. The digestive tract is relatively short, as meat is a fairly simple substance to digest. The stomach is divided into two parts: a muscular

text: gizzard

text: that grinds food, and a digestive chamber where

text: enzymes

text: work on it. The stomach is more acidic than that of any other vertebrate and contains ridges for

text: gastrolith

text: s, which play a role in the mechanical breakdown of food. Digestion takes place more quickly at higher temperatures. Crocodilians have a very low metabolic rate and consequently, low energy requirements. This allows them to survive for many months on a single large meal, digesting the food slowly. They can withstand extended fasting, living on

text: stored fat

text: between meals. Even recently hatched crocodiles are able to survive 58 days without food, losing 23% of their bodyweight during this time. An adult crocodile needs between a tenth and a fifth of the amount of food necessary for a

text: lion

text: of the same weight, and can live for half a year without eating.

text: Because the human gastrointestinal tract is unable to digest human hair, the trichobezoar may have to be treated surgically.Patients usually also require psychiatric evaluation and treatment due to the association with Impulse control disorders, especially Trichotillomania.

text: Because the

text: human gastrointestinal tract

text: is unable to digest human hair, the trichobezoar may have to be treated surgically.Patients usually also require psychiatric evaluation and treatment due to the association with

text: Impulse control disorders

text: , especially Trichotillomania.

text: Carbohydrates can be chemically divided into two types: complex and simple.  Simple carbohydrates consist of single or double sugar units (monosaccharides and disaccharides, respectively). Sucrose or table sugar (a disaccharide) is a common example of a simple carbohydrate. Complex carbohydrates contain three or more sugar units linked in a chain, with most containing hundreds to thousands of sugar units. They are digested by enzymes to release the simple sugars. Starch, for example, is a polymer of glucose units and is typically broken down to glucose.  Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose but it cannot be digested by most organisms. Bacteria that produce enzymes to digest cellulose live inside the gut of some mammals, such as cows, and when these mammals eat plants, the cellulose is broken down by the bacteria and some of it is released into the gut.

text: Carbohydrates can be chemically divided into two types: complex and simple.  Simple carbohydrates consist of single or double sugar units (monosaccharides and disaccharides, respectively). Sucrose or table sugar (a disaccharide) is a common example of a simple carbohydrate. Complex carbohydrates contain three or more sugar units linked in a chain, with most containing hundreds to thousands of sugar units. They are digested by enzymes to release the simple sugars. Starch, for example, is a

text: polymer

text: of glucose units and is typically broken down to glucose.  Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose but it cannot be digested by most organisms. Bacteria that produce enzymes to digest cellulose live inside the gut of some mammals, such as cows, and when these mammals eat plants, the cellulose is broken down by the bacteria and some of it is released into the gut.

text: There is no stomach, with the pharynx connecting directly to a muscleless intestine that forms the main length of the gut. This produces further enzymes, and also absorbs nutrients through its single cell thick lining. The last portion of the intestine is lined by cuticle, forming a rectum, which expels waste through the anus just below and in front of the tip of the tail. Movement of food through the digestive system is the result of body movements of the worm. The intestine has valves or sphincters at either end to help control the movement of food through the body.

text: There is no

text: stomach

text: , with the pharynx connecting directly to a muscleless

text: intestine

text: that forms the main length of the gut. This produces further

text: enzyme

text: s, and also absorbs nutrients through its single cell thick lining. The last portion of the intestine is lined by cuticle, forming a

text: rectum

text: , which expels waste through the

text: anus

text: just below and in front of the tip of the tail. Movement of food through the digestive system is the result of body movements of the worm. The intestine has valves or

text: sphincter

text: s at either end to help control the movement of food through the body.

text: Digestate is the material remaining after the anaerobic digestion of a biodegradable feedstock. Anaerobic digestion produces two main products: digestate and biogas. Digestate is produced both by acidogenesis and methanogenesis and each has different characteristics.

text: Digestate is the material remaining after the anaerobic digestion of a

text: biodegradable

text: feedstock.

text: Anaerobic digestion

text: produces two main products: digestate and

text: biogas

text: . Digestate is produced both by

text: acidogenesis

text: and

text: methanogenesis

text: and each has different characteristics.

text: In November 1935, a decision was made to convert the entire works to use the Activated Sludge system. Renewal of the media in the primary and secondary bacteria beds ceased, and by September 1936, both of the media washing plants had been dismantled. Railway tracks around the primary beds were removed during 1937. Rolling stock on the railway consisted of one steam locomotive and two diesels, bought in 1935 from Hudswell Clarke. Construction of a new sludge digestion plant and two secondary sludge digestion tanks was finished in June 1939, and two new settlement tanks were completed in 1940. Five large lagoons were built at Flixton in 1941, which could be used to store sludge in an emergency. The Mancunium sank after hitting a mine in the Mersey estuary in January 1941, but all of the crew were rescued. Parts of the works were damaged by bombs in March and May 1941 and in January 1942. Transport of sludge to the sea was maintained by borrowing the Shieldhall from Glasgow Corporation, until a new Mancunium was built by Ferguson Bros. of Glasgow. It arrived at the works on 27 December 1946.

text: In November 1935, a decision was made to convert the entire works to use the Activated Sludge system. Renewal of the media in the primary and secondary bacteria beds ceased, and by September 1936, both of the media washing plants had been dismantled. Railway tracks around the primary beds were removed during 1937. Rolling stock on the railway consisted of one steam locomotive and two diesels, bought in 1935 from

text: Hudswell Clarke

text: . Construction of a new sludge digestion plant and two secondary sludge digestion tanks was finished in June 1939, and two new settlement tanks were completed in 1940. Five large lagoons were built at Flixton in 1941, which could be used to store sludge in an emergency. The Mancunium sank after hitting a mine in the Mersey estuary in January 1941, but all of the crew were rescued. Parts of the works were damaged by bombs in March and May 1941 and in January 1942. Transport of sludge to the sea was maintained by borrowing the Shieldhall from Glasgow Corporation, until a new Mancunium was built by

text: Ferguson Bros.

text: of Glasgow. It arrived at the works on 27 December 1946.

text: The esophagus is about  in length, and carries food to the stomach. A muscular ring, called the cardiac sphincter, connects the stomach to the esophagus.  This sphincter is very well developed in horses.  This and the oblique angle at which the esophagus connects to the stomach explains why horses cannot vomit.  The esophagus is also the area of the digestive tract where horses may suffer from choke.

text: The

text: esophagus

text: is about  in length, and carries food to the stomach. A muscular ring, called the cardiac sphincter, connects the stomach to the esophagus.  This sphincter is very well developed in horses.  This and the oblique angle at which the esophagus connects to the stomach explains why horses cannot

text: vomit

text: .  The esophagus is also the area of the digestive tract where horses may suffer from

text: choke

text: The half-life is 6–9 hours. The substance is eliminated through the kidney (58%) and feces (39%), mainly in form of its metabolites. Only 3% of the original substance are found in the urine, and 7% in the feces.

text: One of John Glenn's many tasks, as the first American to orbit Earth in 1962, was to experiment with eating in weightless conditions. Some experts had been concerned that weightlessness would impair swallowing. Glenn experienced no difficulties and it was determined that microgravity did not affect the natural swallowing process, which is enabled by the peristalsis of the esophagus.

text: One of

text: John Glenn

text: 's many tasks, as the first American to orbit Earth in 1962, was to experiment with eating in weightless conditions. Some experts had been concerned that weightlessness would impair swallowing. Glenn experienced no difficulties and it was determined that

text: microgravity

text: did not affect the natural

text: swallowing

text: process, which is enabled by the

text: peristalsis

text: of the

text: esophagus

text: As reported in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), early phaseolamin products did not have sufficient potency or stability to effect any in vivo changes.  In addition, impurities contained therein caused complaints of GI distress including flatulence.  In the late 1990s, the first standardized starch blocker, "Phase 2 Carb Controller" (also known as StarchLite), was developed .  Phase 2 is a fractionated white kidney bean extract that has been clinically shown in 13 studies to delay the digestion and absorption of starch calories. Phase 2 neutralizes some of the digestive enzyme alpha amylase, temporarily delaying the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, allowing a portion of them to pass through the system before they can be converted into glucose, and then fat.  Phase 2 is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and usually does not cause side effects.  Phase 2 is available as an ingredient that can be formulated in a variety of nutritional supplements, foods and beverages.  It is also sold as "StarchLite" in Europe.In 2006, the Food and Drug Administration, based on clinical data and information submitted to the agency, announced that it does not object to weight control and starch reduction claims for Phase 2, and finished dietary supplement products containing the ingredient. With this announcement, Phase 2 became the first nutritional ingredient with two permitted structure/function claims:  1) May assist in weight control when used in conjunction with a sensible diet and exercise, and 2) May reduce the enzymatic digestion of dietary starches.

text: As reported in the

text: Journal of the American Medical Association

text: (JAMA), early phaseolamin products did not have sufficient potency or stability to effect any

text: in vivo

text: changes.  In addition, impurities contained therein caused complaints of

text: GI

text: distress including flatulence.  In the late 1990s, the first standardized

text: starch

text: blocker, "Phase 2 Carb Controller" (also known as StarchLite), was developed .  Phase 2 is a

text: fractionated

text: white kidney bean extract that has been clinically shown in 13 studies to delay the digestion and absorption of starch calories. Phase 2 neutralizes some of the digestive enzyme alpha amylase, temporarily delaying the digestion and absorption of

text: carbohydrate

text: s, allowing a portion of them to pass through the system before they can be converted into

text: glucose

text: , and then fat.  Phase 2 is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and usually does not cause side effects.  Phase 2 is available as an ingredient that can be formulated in a variety of nutritional supplements, foods and beverages.  It is also sold as "StarchLite" in Europe.In 2006, the Food and Drug Administration, based on clinical data and information submitted to the agency, announced that it does not object to weight control and starch reduction claims for Phase 2, and finished dietary supplement products containing the ingredient. With this announcement, Phase 2 became the first nutritional ingredient with two permitted structure/function claims:  1) May assist in weight control when used in conjunction with a sensible diet and exercise, and 2) May reduce the enzymatic digestion of dietary starches.

text: Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid, formed in the stomach and is composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl) .05–0.1 M (roughly 5,000–10,000 parts per million or 0.5-1%) potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl).  The acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins, by activating digestive enzymes, and making ingested proteins unravel so that digestive enzymes break down the long chains of amino acids.Gastric acid is produced by cells in the lining of the stomach, which are coupled in feedback systems to increase acid production when needed.  Other cells in the stomach produce bicarbonate, a base, to buffer the fluid, ensuring that it does not become too acidic.  These cells also produce mucus, which forms a viscous physical barrier to prevent gastric acid from damaging the stomach. Cells in the beginning of the small intestine, or duodenum, further produce large amounts of bicarbonate to completely neutralize any gastric acid that passes further down into the digestive tract.

text: Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid, formed in the

text: stomach

text: and is composed of

text: hydrochloric acid

text: (HCl) .05–0.1

text: M

text: (roughly 5,000–10,000

text: parts per million

text: or 0.5-1%)

text: potassium chloride

text: (KCl) and

text: sodium chloride

text: (NaCl).  The acid plays a key role in digestion of

text: protein

text: s, by activating

text: digestive enzyme

text: s, and making ingested proteins unravel so that digestive enzymes break down the long chains of

text: amino acid

text: s.Gastric acid is produced by cells in the lining of the stomach, which are coupled in feedback systems to increase acid production when needed.  Other cells in the stomach produce

text: bicarbonate

text: , a base, to

text: buffer

text: the fluid, ensuring that it does not become too acidic.  These cells also produce

text: mucus

text: , which forms a viscous physical barrier to prevent gastric acid from damaging the stomach. Cells in the beginning of the small intestine, or

text: duodenum

text: , further produce large amounts of bicarbonate to completely neutralize any gastric acid that passes further down into the digestive tract.

text: - factory ship- famine- FARMA- farmers' market- fast food- fasting- fat- fat acceptance movement- fiber- finger bowl- fishing- food allergy- food bank- food chain- food consumption by class- food consumption by gender- food consumption by race- food consumption by socioeconomic status- food contaminants- food energy- Food for Peace- food fortification- food guide pyramid- food irradiation- food labeling regulations (U.K., E.U.)- food microbiology- food policy- food porn- food price crisis- food processing- food safety- food security- food sovereignty- food vs fuel- FreeRice- Free The Hops- fresherized- from scratch- fruitarianism- functional food

text: factory ship

text: famine

text: FARMA

text: farmers' market

text: fast food

text: fasting

text: fat

text: fat acceptance movement

text: fiber

text: finger bowl

text: fishing

text: food allergy

text: food bank

text: food chain

text: food consumption by class

text: food consumption by gender

text: food consumption by race

text: food consumption by socioeconomic status

text: food contaminants

text: food energy

text: Food for Peace

text: food fortification

text: food guide pyramid

text: food irradiation

text: food labeling regulations

text: (U.K., E.U.)-

text: food microbiology

text: food policy

text: food porn

text: food price crisis

text: food processing

text: food safety

text: food security

text: food sovereignty

text: food vs fuel

text: FreeRice

text: Free The Hops

text: fresherized

text: - from scratch-

text: fruitarianism

text: functional food

text: A glycocalyx can also be found on the apical portion of microvilli within the digestive tract, especially within the small intestine.  It creates a meshwork 0.3 micrometers thick and consists of acidic mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins that project from the apical plasma membrane of epithelial absorptive cells.  It provides additional surface for adsorption and includes enzymes secreted by the absorptive cells that are essential for the final steps of digestion of proteins and sugars.

text: A glycocalyx can also be found on the apical portion of

text: microvilli

text: within the

text: digestive tract

text: , especially within the small intestine.  It creates a meshwork 0.3 micrometers thick and consists of acidic mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins that project from the

text: apical

text: plasma membrane

text: of epithelial absorptive cells.  It provides additional surface for

text: adsorption

text: and includes

text: enzyme

text: s secreted by the absorptive cells that are essential for the final steps of digestion of proteins and sugars.

text: The Clinic implements diagnosis and treatment of the following diseases:Early and elder age children and adolescents pathology.Urinary system diseasesUrinary system infections (cystitis, pyelonephritis, urosepsis),nephritic syndrome,glomerulopathy,tubulointerstitial diseases,urine stones disease,chronic kidney disease and its complications,water electrolyte and acid-base balances’ deviations,lower urinary tract dysfunction, urinary incontinence, enuresis,neonatal nephrology,renal and renovascular hypertensionmetabolic bone diseases (rickets / osteomalacia, osteoporosis, osteogenesis imperfecta, osteopetrosis, hypophosphatasia, etc.)phosphorus-calcium exchange disorders,ezofagogastroduodenal zone diseases,hepatobiliary system diseases,pancreas diseases,inflammatory diseases of the intestine,malabsorption syndrome,chronic constipation,Wilson's disease,Storage Diseases (glycogenosis),acute rheumatic fever,infective endocarditis,juvenile rheumatoid arthritis,juvenile spondiloarthritis,systemic lupus erythematosus,systemic sclerodermajuvenile dermatomyositis,systemic [visceral] angiitisreactive arthritisbronchial asthma.allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis,atopic dermatitis,Acute and chronic Urticaria,drug allergy,insects allergy,Stevens-Johnson syndrome.3. Bone and mineral exchange disorders,4. Digestive disorders,5. cardioreumatological diseases,6. allergological diseases.Clinic staff shows considerable assistance to the practical health care; actively takes part both in physicians improving courses and professional Doors open days in RA regions and in Artsakh.

text: If any results are doubtful the testing is repeated, only when all tests are completed is a treatment diet determined for the patient. The diet restricts only those compounds to which the patient has reacted and over time liberalisation is attempted.In some patients food allergy and food intolerance can coexist, with symptoms such as asthma, eczema and rhinitis. In such cases the elimination diet for food intolerance is used for dietary investigation. Any foods identified by SPT or RAST as suspect should not be included in the elimination diet.

text: EE2 is eliminated 62% in the feces and 38% in the urine.

text: EE2 is

text: eliminated

text: 62% in the

text: feces

text: and 38% in the

text: urine

text: Muthazhagi along with her mother are introduced to Madhumitha by Sivasu and Shiva, and all of them plot together to destroy Chellamma. Muthazhagi's mother gives Sivasu poison asking to mix it and give to Chellamma which will result in the death of her fetus. Siva videos this and madhumitha exchanges the bottle with a bottle of dangerous poison to kill Chellamma. However, in a turn of events, Chellamma eats the poisoned food, resulting in one of her fetus to become deformed. Vadaimalai knows this but hides it from Chellamma.

text: Wisdom teeth are vestigial third molars that helped human ancestors to grind plant tissue. It is thought that the skulls of human ancestors had larger jaws with more teeth, which possibly helped to chew foliage to compensate for a lack of ability to efficiently digest the cellulose that makes up a plant cell wall. As human diets changed, smaller jaws gradually evolved, yet the third molars, or "wisdom teeth", still commonly develop in human mouths.

text: Wisdom teeth are

text: vestigial

text: third molars that helped human ancestors to grind plant tissue. It is thought that the skulls of human ancestors had larger jaws with more teeth, which possibly helped to chew foliage to compensate for a lack of ability to efficiently digest the

text: cellulose

text: that makes up a plant cell wall. As human diets changed, smaller jaws gradually evolved, yet the third molars, or "wisdom teeth", still commonly develop in human mouths.

text: Chenodeoxycholic acid is synthesized in the liver from cholesterol by a process which involves several enzymatic steps.  Like other bile acids, it can be conjugated in the liver with taurine or glycine, forming taurochenodeoxycholate or glycochenodeoxycholate. Conjugation results in a lower pKa. This means the conjugated bile acids are ionized at the usual pH in the intestine and will stay in the gastrointestinal tract until reaching the ileum where most will be reabsorbed. Bile acids form micelles which facilitate lipid digestion. After absorption, they are taken up by the liver and resecreted, so undergoing an enterohepatic circulation. Unabsorbed chenodeoxycholic acid can be metabolised by bacteria in the colon to form the secondary bile acid known as lithocholic acid.

text: Chenodeoxycholic acid is synthesized in the liver from

text: cholesterol

text: by a process which involves several enzymatic steps.  Like other bile acids, it can be conjugated in the

text: liver

text: with

text: taurine

text: or

text: glycine

text: , forming

text: taurochenodeoxycholate

text: or glycochenodeoxycholate. Conjugation results in a lower pKa. This means the conjugated bile acids are ionized at the usual pH in the intestine and will stay in the gastrointestinal tract until reaching the

text: ileum

text: where most will be reabsorbed. Bile acids form

text: micelles

text: which facilitate

text: lipid digestion

text: . After absorption, they are taken up by the liver and resecreted, so undergoing an

text: enterohepatic circulation

text: . Unabsorbed chenodeoxycholic acid can be metabolised by

text: bacteria

text: in the

text: colon

text: to form the secondary bile acid known as

text: lithocholic acid

text: Sponges are animals of the phylum Porifera (Modern Latin for bearing pores ). They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin layers of cells. They have unspecialized cells that can transform into other types and that often migrate between the main cell layers and the mesohyl in the process. Sponges do not have nervous, digestive or circulatory systems. Instead, most rely on maintaining a constant water flow through their bodies to obtain food and oxygen and to remove wastes.

text: Sponge

text: s are animals of the

text: phylum

text: Porifera (Modern Latin for bearing pores ). They are multicellular organisms that have bodies full of pores and channels allowing water to circulate through them, consisting of jelly-like

text: mesohyl

text: sandwiched between two thin layers of

text: cell

text: s. They have unspecialized cells that can

text: transform into other types

text: and that often migrate between the main cell layers and the mesohyl in the process. Sponges do not have

text: nervous

text: digestive

text: or

text: circulatory system

text: s. Instead, most rely on maintaining a constant water flow through their bodies to obtain food and oxygen and to remove wastes.

text: VMATs are found in a variety of cell types throughout the body, however, VMAT1 is found exclusively in neuroendocrine cells, in contrast to VMAT2, which is also found in the PNS and CNS.  Specifically, VMAT1 is found in chromaffin cells, enterochromaffin cells, and small intensely fluorescent cells (SIFs).   Chromaffin cells are responsible for releasing the catecholamines (norepinephrine and epinephrine) into systemic circulation.  Enterochromaffin cells are responsible for storing serotonin in the gastrointestinal tract.  SIFs are interneurons associated with the sympathetic nervous system which are managed by dopamine.

text: VMATs are found in a variety of cell types throughout the body, however, VMAT1 is found exclusively in

text: neuroendocrine cells

text: , in contrast to VMAT2, which is also found in the

text: PNS

text: and

text: CNS

text: .  Specifically, VMAT1 is found in

text: chromaffin cell

text: s,

text: enterochromaffin cell

text: s, and

text: small intensely fluorescent cell

text: s (SIFs).   Chromaffin cells are responsible for releasing the

text: catecholamines

text: (norepinephrine and

text: epinephrine

text: ) into

text: systemic circulation

text: .  Enterochromaffin cells are responsible for storing serotonin in the gastrointestinal tract.  SIFs are

text: interneurons

text: associated with the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: which are managed by dopamine.

text: This pocket mouse lives in a burrow and is nocturnal. When it ventures into the open to search for food it is cautious, remaining as far as possible under cover or in the shadow of plants. When the risk of predation by owls is high it tries to avoid crossing open ground between shrubs, especially on moonlit nights. Pocket mice feed on seeds which they carry in fur lined pouches on the outside of their cheeks, taking them back to their burrow for storage; this arrangement is advantageous to the mouse as it prevents the seeds from getting wet as would happen if they were carried in the mouth. Bailey's pocket mouse is the only known animal to be able to digest the wax found inside the jojoba nut and is the only rodent from the Sonoran Desert that is able to eat the seeds, because they are poisonous to most other mammals.

text: This pocket mouse lives in a burrow and is nocturnal. When it ventures into the open to search for food it is cautious, remaining as far as possible under cover or in the shadow of plants. When the risk of predation by owls is high it tries to avoid crossing open ground between shrubs, especially on moonlit nights. Pocket mice feed on seeds which they carry in fur lined pouches on the outside of their cheeks, taking them back to their burrow for storage; this arrangement is advantageous to the mouse as it prevents the seeds from getting wet as would happen if they were carried in the mouth. Bailey's pocket mouse is the only known animal to be able to digest the wax found inside the

text: jojoba

text: nut and is the only rodent from the

text: Sonoran Desert

text: that is able to eat the seeds, because they are poisonous to most other mammals.

text: Hollandia Yoghurt is rich in Vitamins and Minerals, as its nutritional and caloric contents are similar to those of the fluid milk from which it is made.  Yoghurt consumers get a dose of animal protein (about 9 grams per 6-ounce serving), plus several other nutrients found in dairy foods, like calcium, vitamins A, vitamin B-2, vitamin B-12, potassium, phosphorus and magnesium. In fact, one serving of yoghurt contains about as much potassium as a banana (around 400 mg) and is rich in "probiotics" which are "friendly bacteria" that are naturally present in the digestive system. Findings from research have revealed that these probiotics can help boost the immune system and promote a healthy digestive tract. This is why its communication is centred on experiencing the taste, feeling the goodness within and flaunting the goodness outside.

text: In order to consume gums and other indirect sources of nutrients, these animals must have a digestive system to compensate. Gums of trees are beta-linked polysaccharides that are not easily digested. (Primatol, A.) These require a form of microbial fermentation to acquire the essential nutrients. This process takes the marmoset roughly 17.5 hours (+ or – 1.6 hours) to completely digest, while carnivores take a mere 3–4 hours to digest proteins from meat. (Primatol, A.) Though the digestive process takes some time, the gummivorous mammals have relatively low daily caloric needs, as they do not expend as much energy to acquire their food.

text: In order to consume gums and other indirect sources of nutrients, these animals must have a digestive system to compensate. Gums of trees are beta-linked

text: polysaccharides

text: that are not easily digested. (Primatol, A.) These require a form of microbial

text: fermentation

text: to acquire the essential nutrients. This process takes the marmoset roughly 17.5 hours (+ or – 1.6 hours) to completely digest, while

text: carnivores

text: take a mere 3–4 hours to digest proteins from meat. (Primatol, A.) Though the digestive process takes some time, the gummivorous mammals have relatively low daily caloric needs, as they do not expend as much energy to acquire their food.

text: The digestive tract of typical bivalves consists of an oesophagus, stomach, and intestine. A number of digestive glands open into the stomach, often via a pair of diverticula; these secrete enzymes to digest food in the stomach, but also include cells that phagocytose food particles, and digest them intracellularly. In filter-feeding bivalves, an elongated rod of solidified mucus referred to as the "crystalline style" projects into the stomach from an associated sac. Cilia in the sac cause the style to rotate, winding in a stream of food-containing mucus from the mouth, and churning the stomach contents. This constant motion propels food particles into a sorting region at the rear of the stomach, which distributes smaller particles into the digestive glands, and heavier particles into the intestine. Waste material is consolidated in the rectum and voided as pellets into the exhalent water stream through an anal pore. Feeding and digestion are synchronized with diurnal and tidal cycles.

text: The digestive tract of typical bivalves consists of an

text: oesophagus

text: stomach

text: , and

text: intestine

text: . A number of

text: digestive gland

text: s open into the stomach, often via a pair of

text: diverticula

text: ; these secrete enzymes to digest food in the stomach, but also include cells that

text: phagocytose

text: food particles, and digest them intracellularly. In filter-feeding bivalves, an elongated rod of solidified mucus referred to as the "

text: crystalline style

text: " projects into the stomach from an associated sac. Cilia in the sac cause the style to rotate, winding in a stream of food-containing mucus from the mouth, and churning the stomach contents. This constant motion propels food particles into a sorting region at the rear of the stomach, which distributes smaller particles into the digestive glands, and heavier particles into the intestine. Waste material is consolidated in the rectum and voided as pellets into the exhalent water stream through an anal pore. Feeding and digestion are synchronized with diurnal and tidal cycles.

text: Football Digest - First-team All-American

text: In most species, the stomach itself is a relatively simple sac, and is the main site of digestion. In many herbivores, however, the hind part of the oesophagus is enlarged to form a crop, which, in terrestrial pulmonates, may even replace the stomach entirely. In many aquatic herbivores, however, the stomach is adapted into a gizzard that helps to grind up the food. The gizzard may have a tough cuticle, or may be filled with abrasive sand grains.

text: In most species, the stomach itself is a relatively simple sac, and is the main site of digestion. In many herbivores, however, the hind part of the oesophagus is enlarged to form a

text: crop

text: , which, in terrestrial

text: pulmonate

text: s, may even replace the stomach entirely. In many aquatic herbivores, however, the stomach is adapted into a

text: gizzard

text: that helps to grind up the food. The gizzard may have a tough

text: cuticle

text: , or may be filled with abrasive sand grains.

text: The colon is the last part of the digestive system. It extracts water and salt from solid wastes before they are eliminated from the body and is the site in which flora-aided (largely bacterial) fermentation of unabsorbed material occurs. Unlike the small intestine, the colon does not play a major role in absorption of foods and nutrients. About 1.5 litres or 45 ounces of water arrives in the colon each day.

text: The colon is the last part of the

text: digestive system

text: . It extracts

text: water

text: and

text: salt

text: from

text: solid wastes

text: before they are

text: eliminated

text: from the body and is the site in which

text: flora-aided

text: (largely bacterial) fermentation of unabsorbed material occurs. Unlike the

text: small intestine

text: , the colon does not play a major role in absorption of foods and nutrients. About 1.5 litres or 45 ounces of water arrives in the colon each day.

text: Marvin McFadden, also known as Mouth, is portrayed by Lee Norris. He is Lucas's friend from the river court. Originally a recurring character during seasons one and two, he was upgraded to series regular status from the third season. He becomes close friends with Brooke and Rachel. Mouth is the only one who knows it was Rachel who released the time capsule which caused the events leading up to Keith's death. He at first stops speaking to her but forgives her in the end. Four years later; Mouth falls in love with Millicent, Brooke's assistant. After the pressures of the modelling industry cause her to worry about her weight she begins to take drugs and rejects all her friends, including Mouth. When Skills leaves for a new job in season 7, Mouth begins to date Lauren, which ends his friendship with Skills when he finds out. Skills later forgives Mouth. Despite Lauren wanting to continue their relationship, Mouth refused as his friendship to Skills meant more to him. Since Lucas left Tree Hill, Mouth and Nathan have become close friends. Mouth lost his job because he refused to speak on air about Nathan's scandal. At the beginning of season 8, Mouth and Millicent sleep together after getting drunk together at a bar discussing their problems and why they broke up. During season 8, he and Millicent get a job as hosts of a talk show. In season nine, Mouth goes through a transformation by gaining around 50 pounds for his food reviews.In the final episode Mouth receives $500,000 from Dan. Mouth uses this to create a sporting scholarship in memory of Jimmy Edwards and Keith Scott. Also in the final episode, in the time jump, Millicent and Mouth are expecting a baby and both Mouth and Millicent are wearing rings on their ring fingers, indicating that Mouth and Millicent are married.

text: Marvin McFadden, also known as Mouth, is portrayed by

text: Lee Norris

text: Precise measurements of the absorbance at many wavelengths allow the identification of a substance via absorption spectroscopy, where a sample is illuminated from one side, and the intensity of the light that exits from the sample in every direction is measured. A few examples of absorption are ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy.

text: Precise measurements of the absorbance at many wavelengths allow the identification of a substance via

text: absorption spectroscopy

text: , where a sample is illuminated from one side, and the intensity of the light that exits from the sample in every direction is measured. A few examples of absorption are

text: ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy

text: infrared spectroscopy

text: , and

text: X-ray absorption spectroscopy

text: The digestive system usually has the following parts:

text: The lyases cleave heparin/HS by a beta elimination mechanism. This action generates an unsaturated double bond between C4 and C5 of the uronate residue. The C4-C5 unsaturated uronate is termed ΔUA or UA. It is a sensitive UV chromophore (max absorption at 232 nm) and allows the rate of an enzyme digest to be followed, as well as providing a convenient method for detecting the fragments produced by enzyme digestion.

text: The lyases cleave heparin/HS by a

text: beta elimination

text: mechanism. This action generates an unsaturated double bond between C4 and C5 of the uronate residue. The C4-C5 unsaturated uronate is termed ΔUA or UA. It is a sensitive UV

text: chromophore

text: (max absorption at 232 nm) and allows the rate of an enzyme digest to be followed, as well as providing a convenient method for detecting the fragments produced by enzyme digestion.

text: In most fish, the esophagus is extremely short, primarily due to the length of the pharynx (which is associated with the gills). However, some fish, including lampreys, chimaeras, and lungfish, have no true stomach, so that the esophagus effectively runs from the pharynx directly to the intestine, and is therefore somewhat longer.

text: In most fish, the esophagus is extremely short, primarily due to the length of the pharynx (which is associated with the

text: gill

text: s). However, some fish, including

text: lamprey

text: s,

text: chimaera

text: s, and

text: lungfish

text: , have no true stomach, so that the esophagus effectively runs from the pharynx directly to the

text: intestine

text: , and is therefore somewhat longer.

text: Gastrointestinal bleeding (GI bleed), also known as gastrointestinal hemorrhage, is all forms of bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract, from the mouth to the rectum. When there is significant blood loss over a short time, symptoms may include vomiting red blood, vomiting black blood, bloody stool, or black stool. Small amounts of bleeding over a long time may cause iron-deficiency anemia resulting in feeling tired or heart-related chest pain. Other symptoms may include abdominal pain, shortness of breath, pale skin, or passing out. Sometimes in those with small amounts of bleeding no symptoms may be present.

text: Gastrointestinal bleeding (GI bleed), also known as gastrointestinal hemorrhage, is all forms of

text: bleeding

text: in the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , from the

text: mouth

text: to the

text: rectum

text: . When there is significant

text: blood

text: loss over a short time, symptoms may include

text: vomiting red blood

text: vomiting black blood

text: bloody stool

text: , or

text: black stool

text: . Small amounts of bleeding over a long time may cause

text: iron-deficiency anemia

text: resulting in

text: feeling tired

text: or

text: heart-related chest pain

text: . Other symptoms may include

text: abdominal pain

text: shortness of breath

text: pale skin

text: , or

text: passing out

text: . Sometimes in those with small amounts of bleeding no symptoms may be present.

text: The outermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract consists of several layers of connective tissue.

text: The outermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract consists of several layers of

text: connective tissue

text: Both rabbits and hares are almost exclusively herbivorous (with exceptions among the members of Lepus), feeding primarily on grasses and herbs, although they also eat leaves, fruit, and seeds of various kinds. They are coprophagous, as they pass food through their digestive systems twice, first expelling it as soft green feces, called cecotropes, which they then reingest, eventually producing hard, dark fecal pellets. Like rodents, they have powerful front incisor teeth, but they also have a smaller second pair of incisors to either side of the main teeth in the upper jaw, and the structure is different from that of rodent incisors. Also like rodents, leporids lack any canine teeth, but they do have more cheek teeth than rodents do. Their jaws also contain a large diastema. The dental formula of most, though not all, leporids is:

text: Both rabbits and hares are almost exclusively

text: herbivorous

text: (with exceptions among the members of Lepus), feeding primarily on

text: grass

text: es and herbs, although they also eat leaves, fruit, and seeds of various kinds. They are

text: coprophagous

text: , as they pass food through their digestive systems twice, first expelling it as soft green

text: feces

text: , called

text: cecotrope

text: s, which they then reingest, eventually producing hard, dark fecal pellets. Like

text: rodent

text: s, they have powerful front

text: incisor

text: teeth, but they also have a smaller second pair of incisors to either side of the main teeth in the upper jaw, and the structure is different from that of rodent incisors. Also like rodents, leporids lack any

text: canine

text: teeth, but they do have more cheek teeth than rodents do. Their jaws also contain a large

text: diastema

text: . The

text: dental formula

text: of most, though not all, leporids is:

text: Absorption is a primary focus in drug development and medicinal chemistry, since the drug must be absorbed before any medicinal effects can take place.  Moreover, the drug's pharmacokinetic profile can be easily and significantly changed by adjusting factors that affect absorption.

text: Absorption is a primary focus in

text: drug development

text: and

text: medicinal chemistry

text: , since the drug must be absorbed before any medicinal effects can take place.  Moreover, the drug's pharmacokinetic profile can be easily and significantly changed by adjusting factors that affect absorption.

text: Hippos can be found in both savannah and forest areas. Proper habitat requires enough water to submerge in and grass nearby. Larger densities of the animals inhabit quiet waters with mostly firm, smooth sloping beaches. Males may be found in very small numbers in rapid waters in rocky gorges. With the exception of eating, most of hippopotamuses' lives – from fighting with other hippos, mating, to parturition – occurs in the water. Hippos leave the water at dusk and travel inland, sometimes up to , to graze on short grasses, their main source of food. They spend four to five hours grazing and can consume  of grass each night. Like almost any herbivore, they consume other plants if presented with them, but their diet in nature consists almost entirely of grass, with only minimal consumption of aquatic plants. Hippos are born with sterile intestines, and require bacteria obtained from their mothers' feces to digest vegetation. Hippos have (rarely) been filmed eating carrion, usually close to the water. There are other reports of meat-eating, and even cannibalism and predation. The stomach anatomy of a hippo is not suited to carnivory, and meat-eating is likely caused by aberrant behaviour or nutritional stress.

text: Hippos can be found in both savannah and forest areas. Proper habitat requires enough water to submerge in and grass nearby. Larger densities of the animals inhabit quiet waters with mostly firm, smooth sloping beaches. Males may be found in very small numbers in

text: rapid

text: waters in rocky gorges. With the exception of eating, most of hippopotamuses' lives – from fighting with other hippos, mating, to

text: parturition

text: – occurs in the water. Hippos leave the water at dusk and travel inland, sometimes up to , to graze on short grasses, their main source of food. They spend four to five hours grazing and can consume  of grass each night. Like almost any herbivore, they consume other plants if presented with them, but their diet in nature consists almost entirely of grass, with only minimal consumption of aquatic plants.

text: Hippo

text: s are born with sterile intestines, and require bacteria obtained from their mothers' feces to digest vegetation. Hippos have (rarely) been filmed eating

text: carrion

text: , usually close to the water. There are other reports of meat-eating, and even

text: cannibalism

text: and

text: predation

text: . The stomach anatomy of a hippo is not suited to carnivory, and meat-eating is likely caused by aberrant behaviour or nutritional stress.

text: The Gut Microbiota Research and Practice section is aimed at researchers, scientists and health care professionals. It contains papers and reviews, abstracts of congresses and events, and discussions of recent findings on the human digestive system, the immune system, metabolic conditions and gut-brain axis... Thanks to an Internet forum, this section enables scientists from around the world to debate and discuss on gut microbiota issues. Researchers are also allowed to send and submit their scientific articles.

text: The Gut Microbiota Research and Practice section is aimed at researchers, scientists and

text: health care professionals

text: . It contains papers and reviews, abstracts of congresses and events, and discussions of recent findings on the

text: human digestive system

text: , the

text: immune system

text: , metabolic conditions and gut-brain axis... Thanks to an

text: Internet forum

text: , this section enables scientists from around the world to debate and discuss on gut microbiota issues. Researchers are also allowed to send and submit their

text: scientific article

text: s.

text: For manufacturing IMO on a commercial scale, food industries use starch processed from cereal crops like wheat, barley, pulses (peas, beans, lentils), oats, tapioca, rice, potato and others. This variety in sources could benefit consumers who have allergies or hypersensitivity to certain cereal crops. The manufacturing process controls the degree of polymerization (dp) and the α(1,6)-linkages to ensure a consistent quality of IMO from different starch sources. The starch is first converted, by means of simple enzymatic hydrolysis, into high maltose syrup with di-, tri and oligosaccharides (2, 3 or more glucose units) having α(1,4)-glycosidic linkages which are readily digestible in the human intestine. These α(1,4)-glycosidic linkages are further converted into digestion-resistant α(1,6)-glycosidic linkages, creating “iso” linkages between glucose moieties and forming Isomalto-oligosaccharide (IMO).

text: For manufacturing IMO on a commercial scale, food industries use

text: starch

text: processed from

text: cereal

text: crops like wheat, barley,

text: pulses

text: (peas, beans,

text: lentils

text: ), oats,

text: tapioca

text: , rice, potato and others. This variety in sources could benefit consumers who have allergies or hypersensitivity to certain cereal crops. The manufacturing process controls the degree of polymerization (dp) and the α(1,6)-linkages to ensure a consistent quality of IMO from different starch sources. The starch is first converted, by means of simple enzymatic

text: hydrolysis

text: , into high

text: maltose

text: syrup with di-, tri and oligosaccharides (2, 3 or more glucose units) having α(1,4)-glycosidic linkages which are readily digestible in the human intestine. These α(1,4)-glycosidic linkages are further converted into digestion-resistant α(1,6)-glycosidic linkages, creating “iso” linkages between glucose moieties and forming Isomalto-oligosaccharide (IMO).

text: In smaller hindgut fermenters of the order Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, and pikas), cecotropes formed in the cecum are passed through the large intestine and subsequently reingested to allow another opportunity to absorb nutrients. Cecotropes are surrounded by a layer of mucus which protects them from stomach acid but which does not inhibit nutrient absorption in the small intestine. Coprophagy is also practiced by some rodents, such as the capybara, guinea pig and related species, and by the marsupial common ringtail possum. This process is also beneficial in allowing for restoration of the microflora population, or gut flora. These microbes are found in the digestive organs of living creatures and can act as protective agents that strengthen the immune system. Hindgut fermenters do have the ability to expel their microflora, which is useful during the acts of hibernation, estivation and torpor.

text: In smaller hindgut fermenters of the

text: order

text: Lagomorpha

text: (rabbits, hares, and

text: pika

text: s),

text: cecotrope

text: s formed in the cecum are passed through the large intestine and subsequently reingested to allow another opportunity to absorb nutrients. Cecotropes are surrounded by a layer of mucus which protects them from stomach acid but which does not inhibit nutrient absorption in the small intestine.

text: Coprophagy

text: is also practiced by some rodents, such as the

text: capybara

text: guinea pig

text: and related species, and by the marsupial

text: common ringtail possum

text: . This process is also beneficial in allowing for restoration of the microflora population, or

text: gut flora

text: . These microbes are found in the digestive organs of living creatures and can act as protective agents that strengthen the

text: immune system

text: . Hindgut fermenters do have the ability to expel their microflora, which is useful during the acts of

text: hibernation

text: estivation

text: and

text: torpor

text: The main disadvantage of absorption spectrometry (AS) as well as laser absorption spectrometry (LAS) in general is that it relies on a measurement of a small change of a signal on top of a large background. Any noise introduced by the light source or the optical system will deteriorate the detectability of the technique. The sensitivity of direct absorption techniques is therefore often limited to an absorbance of ~10, far away from the shot noise level, which for single pass direct AS (DAS) is in the 10 – 10 range. Since this is insufficient for many types of applications, AS is seldom used in its simplest mode of operation.

text: The main disadvantage of

text: absorption spectrometry

text: (AS) as well as

text: laser absorption spectrometry

text: (LAS) in general is that it relies on a measurement of a small change of a signal on top of a large background. Any noise introduced by the light source or the optical system will deteriorate the detectability of the technique. The sensitivity of direct absorption techniques is therefore often limited to an absorbance of ~10, far away from the shot noise level, which for single pass direct AS (DAS) is in the 10 – 10 range. Since this is insufficient for many types of applications, AS is seldom used in its simplest mode of operation.

text: Condensed tannins inhibit herbivore digestion by binding to consumed plant proteins and making them more difficult for animals to digest, and by interfering with protein absorption and digestive enzymes (for more on that topic, see plant defense against herbivory). Many tannin-consuming animals secrete a tannin-binding protein (mucin) in their saliva. Tannin-binding capacity of salivary mucin is directly related to its proline content. Advantages in using salivary proline-rich proteins (PRPs) to inactivate tannins are:

text: Condensed tannins inhibit herbivore digestion by binding to consumed plant proteins and making them more difficult for animals to digest, and by interfering with protein absorption and digestive enzymes (for more on that topic, see

text: plant defense against herbivory

text: ). Many tannin-consuming animals secrete a tannin-binding protein (

text: mucin

text: ) in their saliva. Tannin-binding capacity of salivary mucin is directly related to its proline content. Advantages in using salivary

text: proline-rich protein

text: s (PRPs) to inactivate tannins are:

text: In addition to its primary role as the beginning of the digestive system, in humans the mouth also plays a significant role in communication. While primary aspects of the voice are produced in the throat, the tongue, lips, and jaw are also needed to produce the range of sounds included in human language.

text: In addition to its primary role as the beginning of the digestive system, in humans the mouth also plays a significant role in

text: communication

text: . While primary aspects of the

text: voice

text: are produced in the

text: throat

text: , the

text: tongue

text: lip

text: s, and

text: jaw

text: are also needed to produce the range of sounds included in human language.

text: Health: Serious sickness, cancer of the digestive system

text: enderoparasite is parasites which live inside the body of the host. This group includes helminths, trematodes and cestodes. Endoparasites are two groups of parasites: intercellular and intracellular parasites. Intercellular parasites live in spaces within the host e.g. the alimentary canal, whereas intracellular parasites live in cells within the host e.g. erythrocytes. Intracellular parasites typically rely on a third organism, a vector, to transmit the parasite between hosts. Rather than requiring adaptations to penetrate the host, as ectoparasites do, endoparasites are in a nutrient-rich location so they instead have adaptations to maximise nutrient absorption. Endoparasites have a readily available and renewable supply of nutrients inside the host, which in some cases is pre-digested by the host, so mechanisms of nutrient absorption across their body surface is a common feature. As part of their life cycle strategy, endoparasites must also be able to transmit from within the host body and survive the hostile environment within the host. Only by achieving this can they benefit from acquiring nutrition in this way.

text: enderoparasite is parasites which live inside the body of the host. This group includes

text: helminths

text: trematodes

text: and

text: cestodes

text: . Endoparasites are two groups of parasites: intercellular and

text: intracellular parasite

text: s. Intercellular parasites live in spaces within the host e.g. the alimentary canal, whereas intracellular parasites live in cells within the host e.g. erythrocytes. Intracellular parasites typically rely on a third organism, a vector, to transmit the parasite between hosts. Rather than requiring adaptations to penetrate the host, as ectoparasites do, endoparasites are in a nutrient-rich location so they instead have adaptations to maximise nutrient absorption. Endoparasites have a readily available and renewable supply of nutrients inside the host, which in some cases is pre-digested by the host, so mechanisms of nutrient absorption across their body surface is a common feature. As part of their life cycle strategy, endoparasites must also be able to transmit from within the host body and survive the hostile environment within the host. Only by achieving this can they benefit from acquiring nutrition in this way.

text: In developing countries, simple home and farm-based anaerobic digestion systems offer the potential for low-cost energy for cooking and lighting.From 1975, China and India have both had large, government-backed schemes for adaptation of small biogas plants for use in the household for cooking and lighting. At present, projects for anaerobic digestion in the developing world can gain financial support through the United Nations Clean Development Mechanism if they are able to show they provide reduced carbon emissions.

text: In developing countries, simple home and farm-based anaerobic digestion systems offer the potential for low-cost energy for cooking and lighting.From 1975,

text: China

text: and India have both had large, government-backed schemes for adaptation of small biogas plants for use in the household for cooking and lighting. At present, projects for anaerobic digestion in the developing world can gain financial support through the

text: United Nations

text: Clean Development Mechanism

text: if they are able to show they provide reduced carbon emissions.

text: In continuous digestion processes, organic matter is constantly added (continuous complete mixed) or added in stages to the reactor (continuous plug flow; first in – first out). Here, the end products are constantly or periodically removed, resulting in constant production of biogas. A single or multiple digesters in sequence may be used. Examples of this form of anaerobic digestion include continuous stirred-tank reactors, upflow anaerobic sludge blankets, expanded granular sludge beds and internal circulation reactors.

text: In continuous digestion processes, organic matter is constantly added (continuous complete mixed) or added in stages to the reactor (continuous plug flow; first in – first out). Here, the end products are constantly or periodically removed, resulting in constant production of biogas. A single or multiple digesters in sequence may be used. Examples of this form of anaerobic digestion include

text: continuous stirred-tank reactor

text: s,

entity_name: Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion

text: upflow anaerobic sludge blanket

text: s,

text: expanded granular sludge bed

text: s and

text: internal circulation reactor

text: s.

text: William Parker, Randy Bollinger, and colleagues at Duke University proposed in 2007 that the appendix serves as a haven for useful bacteria when illness flushes those bacteria from the rest of the intestines. This proposal is based on an understanding that emerged by the early 2000s of how the immune system supports the growth of beneficial intestinal bacteria, in combination with many well-known features of the appendix, including its architecture, its location just below the normal one-way flow of food and germs in the large intestine, and its association with copious amounts of immune tissue. Research performed at Winthrop University-Hospital showed that individuals without an appendix were four times more likely to have a recurrence of Clostridium difficile colitis. The appendix, therefore, may act as a "safe house" for commensal ("good") bacteria. This reservoir of gut flora could then serve to repopulate the digestive system following a bout of dysentery or cholera.

text: William Parker, Randy Bollinger, and colleagues at

text: Duke University

text: proposed in 2007 that the appendix serves as a haven for useful

text: bacteria

text: when illness flushes those bacteria from the rest of the intestines. This proposal is based on an understanding that emerged by the early 2000s of how the immune system supports the growth of beneficial

text: intestinal bacteria

text: , in combination with many well-known features of the appendix, including its architecture, its location just below the normal one-way flow of food and germs in the large intestine, and its association with copious amounts of immune tissue. Research performed at Winthrop University-Hospital showed that individuals without an appendix were four times more likely to have a recurrence of

text: Clostridium difficile colitis

text: . The appendix, therefore, may act as a "safe house" for

text: commensal

text: ("good") bacteria. This reservoir of gut flora could then serve to repopulate the digestive system following a bout of dysentery or cholera.

text: The usual variant in New England is made from whole soft-shell clams, known as "clams with bellies"; these include the clam's gastrointestinal tract and have a fuller flavor. Some restaurants remove the clam's chewy siphon, called the neck.

text: The usual variant in New England is made from whole

text: soft-shell clams

text: , known as "clams with bellies"; these include the clam's gastrointestinal tract and have a fuller flavor. Some restaurants remove the clam's chewy siphon, called the neck.

text: Night soil was produced as a result of a sanitation system in areas without sewer systems or septic tanks. In this system of waste management, the human feces are collected without dilution with water.

text: Night soil was produced as a result of a

text: sanitation

text: system in areas without

text: sewer systems

text: or

text: septic tanks

text: . In this system of waste management, the human feces are collected without dilution with water.

text: The black slug is mainly nocturnal and avoids exposure to sunlight. It is omnivorous, eating carrion, fungi, animal feces, algae, lichen, fungi, and vegetation (living or decaying). These slugs prefer to eat on cloudy days or at night when temperatures are above 10 degrees Celsius. Mucus-production necessitates moist habitats, such as among leaf-litter, mosses, or fallen trees. Consequently, the black slug becomes most active after rainfall. A 1976 study compared black slug assimilation rates to that of similar slugs in the UK. The study determined the black slug feeds at similar rates to other European slugs (in terms of biomass), suggesting the black slug is an equally important decomposer/consumer in forest systems. The study theorized these high assimilation rates might result from abundant enzymes in slug digestive systems: amylase, invertase, cellulase, xylanase, and chitinase. The last might be especially indicative of how these slugs can consume large quantities of fungi such as Armillaria mellea. Microbiota within black slug digestive systems produce these enzymes—such as the bacteria that produce cellulose—enabling the slugs to break down lignocellulose. A recent study further explored Arion ater’s gut microbiome and discovered the black slug to have far more bacteria within its gut than did neighboring, northern European insects, including members of the orders Coleoptera, Isoptera, Orthoptera, and Diptera. This study learned the black slug’s gut microbiome to be functional at a wide range of temperatures and pH levels, and its results suggest that the mycobacterial culture may be uniform throughout the black slug’s gut and that Gammaproteobacteria composes most of this culture. This study contrasted its results to studies of North American black slugs that presented higher levels of cellulolytic activity at a narrower pH range. In summary, Arion ater can digest diverse food material such as cellulose because gut bacteria produce digestive enzymes.

text: The black slug is mainly nocturnal and

text: avoids

text: exposure to sunlight. It is

text: omnivorous

text: , eating

text: carrion

text: fungi

text: , animal feces,

text: algae

text: lichen

text: fungi

text: , and

text: vegetation

text: (living or decaying). These slugs prefer to eat on cloudy days or at night when temperatures are above 10 degrees Celsius. Mucus-production necessitates moist habitats, such as among leaf-litter, mosses, or fallen trees. Consequently, the black slug becomes most active after rainfall. A 1976 study compared black slug assimilation rates to that of similar slugs in the UK. The study determined the black slug feeds at similar rates to other European slugs (in terms of biomass), suggesting the black slug is an equally important decomposer/consumer in forest systems. The study theorized these high assimilation rates might result from abundant enzymes in slug digestive systems: amylase, invertase,

text: cellulase

text: , xylanase, and chitinase. The last might be especially indicative of how these slugs can consume large quantities of fungi such as

text: Armillaria mellea

text: . Microbiota within black slug digestive systems produce these enzymes—such as the bacteria that produce cellulose—enabling the slugs to break down lignocellulose. A recent study further explored Arion ater’s gut microbiome and discovered the black slug to have far more bacteria within its gut than did neighboring, northern European insects, including members of the orders

text: Coleoptera

text: Isoptera

text: Orthoptera

text: , and

text: Diptera

text: . This study learned the black slug’s gut microbiome to be functional at a wide range of temperatures and pH levels, and its results suggest that the mycobacterial culture may be uniform throughout the black slug’s gut and that Gammaproteobacteria composes most of this culture. This study contrasted its results to studies of North American black slugs that presented higher levels of cellulolytic activity at a narrower pH range. In summary, Arion ater can digest diverse food material such as cellulose because gut bacteria produce digestive enzymes.

text: Symbiotic microbial communities are known to confer various benefits to their human and animal hosts health including aiding digestion, production of beneficial vitamins and amino acids, and suppression of pathogenic microbes. Some benefit may be conferred by consuming fermented foods, probiotics (bacteria potentially beneficial to the digestive system) and/or prebiotics (substances consumed to promote the growth of probiotic microorganisms). The ways the microbiome influences human and animal health, as well as methods to influence the microbiome are active areas of research.

text: Symbiotic microbial communities are known to confer various benefits to their human and animal hosts health including aiding digestion, production of beneficial vitamins and amino acids, and suppression of pathogenic microbes. Some benefit may be conferred by consuming fermented foods,

text: probiotics

text: (bacteria potentially beneficial to the digestive system) and/or

text: prebiotics

text: (substances consumed to promote the growth of probiotic microorganisms). The ways the microbiome influences human and animal health, as well as methods to influence the microbiome are active areas of research.

text: The broader definition differs mainly in including plants that do not produce their own digestive enzymes but rely on internal food webs or microbes to digest prey, such as Darlingtonia and some species of Heliamphora. The original definition of botanical carnivory, set out in Givnish et. al. (1984), required a plant to exhibit an adaptation of some trait specifically for the attraction, capture, or digestion of prey while gaining a fitness advantage through the absorption of nutrients derived from said prey. Upon further analysis of genera currently considered carnivorous, botanists widened the original definition to include species that use mutualistic interactions for digestion.

text: The broader definition differs mainly in including plants that do not produce their own digestive enzymes but rely on internal food webs or microbes to digest prey, such as

text: Darlingtonia

text: and some species of

text: Heliamphora

text: . The original definition of botanical carnivory, set out in Givnish et. al. (1984), required a plant to exhibit an adaptation of some trait specifically for the attraction, capture, or digestion of prey while gaining a

text: fitness

text: advantage through the absorption of nutrients derived from said prey. Upon further analysis of genera currently considered carnivorous, botanists widened the original definition to include species that use mutualistic interactions for digestion.

text: Chronological age is your age in calendar years. Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy consumed per unit of time when all environmental factors are considered neutral, the digestive system is in a post-absorptive state (meaning that the digestive system is inactive, which requires about twelve hours of fasting in humans), and the energy expenditure is only sufficient to support normal functioning of the vital organs, the heart, lungs, nervous system, kidneys, liver, intestine, sex organs, muscles, and skin. Formulas for estimating basal metabolic rate take into account age, weight, height, activity level, body fat mass, and lean body mass.

text: Chronological age is your age in

text: calendar year

text: s. Basal metabolic rate is the amount of energy consumed per unit of time when all environmental factors are considered neutral, the

text: digestive system

text: is in a post-absorptive state (meaning that the digestive system is inactive, which requires about twelve hours of

text: fasting

text: in humans), and the

text: energy expenditure

text: is only sufficient to support normal functioning of the

text: vital organ

text: s, the

text: heart

text: lung

text: s,

text: nervous system

text: kidney

text: s,

text: liver

text: intestine

text: sex organ

text: s,

text: muscle

text: s, and

text: skin

text: . Formulas for estimating basal metabolic rate take into account age, weight, height, activity level, body fat mass, and lean body mass.

text: The secretion of gastrointestinal enzymes, such as gastrin and secretin, is regulated through cholinergic neurons residing in the walls of the digestive tract.  Hormone secretion is controlled by the vagovagal reflex, where the neurons in the digestive tract communicate through both afferent and efferent pathways with the vagus nerve.

text: The secretion of

text: gastrointestinal enzymes

text: , such as

text: gastrin

text: and

text: secretin

text: , is regulated through cholinergic neurons residing in the walls of the digestive tract.  Hormone secretion is controlled by the

text: vagovagal reflex

text: , where the neurons in the digestive tract communicate through both

text: afferent

text: and

text: efferent

text: pathways with the

text: vagus nerve

text: In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach.  Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches.  The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation.

text: In

text: mammal

text: s, preparation for digestion begins with the

text: cephalic phase

text: in which

text: saliva

text: is produced in the

text: mouth

text: and

text: digestive enzyme

text: s are produced in the

text: stomach

text: .  Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is

text: chewed

text: , and mixed with

text: saliva

text: to begin enzymatic processing of

text: starch

text: es.  The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes.

text: Absorption

text: occurs in the stomach and

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , and the process finishes with

text: defecation

text: Reduced food intake, while hunger is held on to, may also be responsible for significant weight loss. Restrictive diets can lead to significant weight loss, as can psychological problems, depression and social problems and issues; Anorexia nervosa, in the case where a denial of weight loss and thinness and were maintaining the same physical activity; Certain digestive diseases or ENT (discomfort food) can induce weight loss. Weight loss can also occur with a normal or even sometimes reduced food intake. An infectious disease that is accompanied by fever, tuberculosis, HIV infection, endocarditis or chronic inflammatory disease with febrile vasculitis, Behcet’s disease, connective, Still’s disease, sarcoidosis, certain cancers or blood diseases; A chronic disease without fever, cancer, metabolic diseases, respiratory insufficiency, hepatic or digestive diseases associated with signs of deficiency. Some neurological diseases such as Parkinson’s disease  may also be the cause of weight loss significantly. Poisoning like chronic alcoholism, drug addiction or taking drugs by mistake are also common causes. Taking too much medication is a major cause of weight loss in the elderly and weak people where the single dose capsules or tablets is able to suppress appetite.

text: Reduced food intake, while hunger is held on to, may also be responsible for significant weight loss. Restrictive diets can lead to significant weight loss, as can psychological problems, depression and social problems and issues; Anorexia nervosa, in the case where a denial of weight loss and thinness and were maintaining the same physical activity; Certain digestive diseases or ENT (discomfort food) can induce weight loss. Weight loss can also occur with a normal or even sometimes reduced food intake. An infectious disease that is accompanied by fever, tuberculosis, HIV infection, endocarditis or chronic inflammatory disease with

text: febrile vasculitis

text: Behcet’s disease

text: , connective,

text: Still’s disease

text: sarcoidosis

text: , certain cancers or blood diseases; A chronic disease without fever, cancer, metabolic diseases, respiratory insufficiency, hepatic or digestive diseases associated with signs of deficiency. Some neurological diseases such as Parkinson’s disease  may also be the cause of weight loss significantly. Poisoning like chronic alcoholism, drug addiction or taking drugs by mistake are also common causes. Taking too much medication is a major cause of weight loss in the elderly and weak people where the single dose capsules or tablets is able to suppress appetite.

text: All cestodes lack digestive and excretory systems, therefore, the tegument with its microtriches constitute the principal site of absorption of nutrients and elimination of waste materials. Moreover, the microtriches are the primary structures for host-parasite interface, and are metabolically active performing all the vital activities such as sensory, absorptive and secretory functions. Thus their structural significance is clearly to amplify the total surface area of the tegument. The surface carbohydrate complex called  glycocalyx is responsible for inhibition of the host digestive enzymes, absorption of cations and bile salts, and enhancement of the host amylase activity. The acidic glycosaminoglycans of the glycocalyx are specific for inhibiting a number of digestive enzymes of the host. The microtriches in cestodes, and pits and spines in trematodes increase the surface area of the teguments for enhanced absorption of nutrients. In addition, they act as sensory organs for detecting the surrounding environmental cues and primary target site of anthelmintic drugs. The capacity of the tegument to absorb exogenous materials is proportional to the number and extent of pits or microtriches and the number of mitochondria in the distal cytoplasm.

text: All cestodes lack

text: digestive

text: and

text: excretory system

text: s, therefore, the tegument with its microtriches constitute the principal site of absorption of nutrients and elimination of waste materials. Moreover, the microtriches are the primary structures for

text: host

text: parasite

text: interface, and are

text: metabolically active

text: performing all the vital activities such as sensory, absorptive and secretory functions. Thus their structural significance is clearly to amplify the total surface area of the tegument. The surface

text: carbohydrate

text: complex called

text: glycocalyx

text: digestive enzymes

text: , absorption of

text: cations

text: and

text: bile

text: salts, and enhancement of the host

text: amylase

text: activity. The

text: acidic glycosaminoglycans

text: of the

text: glycocalyx

text: are specific for inhibiting a number of

text: digestive enzymes

text: of the host. The microtriches in cestodes, and pits and

text: spines

text: in

text: trematodes

text: increase the surface area of the teguments for enhanced absorption of

text: nutrient

text: s. In addition, they act as

text: sensory organs

text: for detecting the surrounding environmental cues and primary target site of

text: anthelmintic drugs

text: . The capacity of the tegument to absorb exogenous materials is proportional to the number and extent of pits or microtriches and the number of

text: mitochondria

text: in the distal cytoplasm.

text: During respiration the diaphragm contracts causing the central tendon to be drawn inferiorly which partially flattens the domes. The result is an enlargement of thoracic cavity and reduction in intra-thoracic pressure. Physiologically this means that air enters the lungs and venous return to the heart is enhanced. During inspiration the central tendon retains its shape due to its tendinous nature and prevents constriction of the inferior vena cava or aorta, however the esophagus is surrounded by muscle at the esophageal hiatus and is constricted.

text: Symptoms are usually visible on the behaviour of the host. Infected sheep and cattle become severely anorexic or digest food inefficiently and become unthrifty. Continuous diarrhoea is an obvious indication of heavy infection in the digestive system, thus a primary diagnosis. The fluid faeces are examined to identify immature flukes.

text: Symptoms are usually visible on the behaviour of the host. Infected sheep and cattle become severely

text: anorexic

text: or digest food inefficiently and become unthrifty. Continuous diarrhoea is an obvious indication of heavy infection in the digestive system, thus a primary diagnosis. The fluid faeces are examined to identify immature flukes.

text: Enteric fermentation is a digestive process by which carbohydrates are broken down by microorganisms into simple molecules for absorption into the bloodstream of an animal.

text: The first stage is autolysis, more commonly known as self-digestion, during which the body's cells are destroyed through the action of their own digestive enzymes. However, these enzymes are released into the cells because of active processes ceasing in the cells, not as an active process. In other words, though autolysis resembles the active process of digestion of nutrients by live cells, the dead cells are not actively digesting themselves as is often claimed in popular literature and as the synonym self-digestion of autolysis seems to imply. As a result of autolysis, liquid is created that gets between the layers of skin and makes the skin peel off. During this stage, flies (when present) start to lay eggs in the openings of the body: eyes, nostrils, mouth, ears, open wounds, and other orifices. Hatched larvae, (maggots) of blowflies, subsequently get under the skin and start to eat the body.

text: The first stage is

text: autolysis

text: , more commonly known as self-digestion, during which the body's cells are destroyed through the action of their own

text: digestive enzyme

text: s. However, these enzymes are released into the cells because of active processes ceasing in the cells, not as an active process. In other words, though autolysis resembles the active process of digestion of nutrients by live cells, the dead cells are not actively digesting themselves as is often claimed in popular literature and as the synonym self-digestion of autolysis seems to imply. As a result of autolysis, liquid is created that gets between the layers of skin and makes the skin peel off. During this stage,

text: flies

text: (when present) start to lay eggs in the openings of the body:

text: eyes

text: nostrils

text: mouth

text: ears

text: , open wounds, and other orifices. Hatched larvae, (

text: maggots

text: ) of

text: blowflies

text: , subsequently get under the skin and start to eat the body.

text: On May 14, 2016, the band were forced to cancel their headlining slot at the annual KROQ Weenie Roast, as Kiedis was rushed to the hospital prior to the band appearing on stage. It was confirmed that Kiedis was suffering from intestinal flu and was expected to make a full recovery soon however the band was forced to postpone their iHeartRadio album preview show on May 17, 2016 (rescheduling it for May 26). Kiedis and the Chili Peppers returned to the stage on May 22, 2016 in Columbus, OH. According to the band's drummer Chad Smith, Kiedis was suffering from a stomach flu a few weeks earlier and it had returned on the night they were set to perform. In a May 20, 2016 interview with Entertainment Tonight Canada, his first since being released from the hospital, Kiedis said that his illness was brought on by an "inflammation in my guts" which he said was complicated by a recent stomach virus and existing scar tissue from previous hernia operations which required his stomach being pumped at the hospital due to his food not being able to properly digest. "That becomes an incredibly painful situation where you get a fever and pass out... Lo an behold, I'm on the mend" He went on to say "so it turned out to be a good thing, albeit painful and very sad to have to cancel a show. We don't really do that. I'd rather play deathly ill than not play at all, but in this particular instance, I was starting to go down, as in to the ground, so I got rushed to the hospital, got some help, and now I get to figure things out."

text: On May 14, 2016, the band were forced to cancel their headlining slot at the annual

text: KROQ Weenie Roast

text: , as Kiedis was rushed to the hospital prior to the band appearing on stage. It was confirmed that Kiedis was suffering from

text: intestinal flu

text: iHeartRadio

text: album preview show on May 17, 2016 (rescheduling it for May 26). Kiedis and the Chili Peppers returned to the stage on May 22, 2016 in

text: Columbus, OH

text: . According to the band's drummer

text: Chad Smith

text: , Kiedis was suffering from a stomach flu a few weeks earlier and it had returned on the night they were set to perform. In a May 20, 2016 interview with

text: Entertainment Tonight Canada

text: Elephants, hippos, koalas, and pandas are born with sterile intestines, and to digest vegetation need bacteria which they obtain by eating their mothers' feces, a practice termed coprophagia. Other animals eat dung.

text: Elephant

text: s,

text: hippos

text: koala

text: s, and

text: pandas

text: are born with sterile intestines, and to digest vegetation need bacteria which they obtain by eating their mothers' feces, a practice termed

text: coprophagia

text: . Other animals eat dung.

text: Indices of citations are provided by Shepard's Citations while the West American Digest System offers access by hierarchized keywords.

text: Indices of citations are provided by

text: Shepard's Citations

text: while the

text: West American Digest System

text: offers access by hierarchized

text: keywords

text: The external surface of tegument is associated with unique defining structures in cestodes and trematodes. In cestodes the tegument is further covered with highly specialized microvilli, called "microtriches", projecting from the outer limiting membrane of the tegument. These microtriches are fine hair-like filaments distributed throughout the surface of the body, and give the body surface a smooth and silky appearance. Since cestodes are devoid of any digestive and excretory systems, the tegument with its microtriches constitute the principal site of absorption of nutrients and elimination of waste materials. In fact the tegument highly resembles the gut of animals turned inside out.

text: The external surface of tegument is associated with unique defining structures in cestodes and trematodes. In cestodes the tegument is further covered with highly specialized

text: microvilli

text: , called "

text: microtriches

text: ", projecting from the outer limiting membrane of the tegument. These microtriches are fine hair-like filaments distributed throughout the surface of the body, and give the body surface a smooth and silky appearance. Since cestodes are devoid of any

text: digestive

text: and

text: excretory system

text: s, the tegument with its microtriches constitute the principal site of absorption of

text: nutrients

text: and elimination of waste materials. In fact the tegument highly resembles the

text: gut

text: of

text: animals

text: turned inside out.

text: Whether the feces are handled on site or hauled to another location, the weight and volume of material is reduced by separating out urine.  Additionally, treatment is simplified and faster. Urine diversion can also be used for composting toilets to reduce odor and reduce excessive moisture.

text: Whether the feces are handled on site or hauled to another location, the weight and volume of material is reduced by separating out urine.  Additionally, treatment is simplified and faster. Urine diversion can also be used for

text: composting toilets

text: to reduce odor and reduce excessive moisture.

text: The mouth plays an important role in eating, drinking, breathing and speaking. Infants are born with a sucking reflex, by which they instinctively know to suck for nourishment using their lips and jaw.The mouth also helps in chewing and biting food.

text: The mouth plays an important role in

text: eating

text: drink

text: ing,

text: breathing

text: and speaking.

text: Infant

text: s are born with a

text: sucking

text: reflex, by which they

text: instinct

text: ively know to suck for nourishment using their lips and

text: jaw

text: .The mouth also helps in chewing and biting food.

text: David Ing became a member of the International Society for the Systems Sciences in 1998, contributing digests of the ISSS Atlanta meeting.  He served as chair of the Special Integration Group on Systems Applications in Business and Industry from 2002 to 2009.  Acting as webmaster between 2003-2007, he was elected as Vice-President of Communications and Systems Education (2005-2009), and then Vice-President of Research and Publications (2008-2010).   In his role as president (2011-2012), he led the ISSS 2012 meeting in San Jose, California.  As a member of the International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE), he brought together the systems sciences and systems engineering communities as a cofounder of the Systems Sciences Working Group.

text: David Ing became a member of the

entity_name: International Society for the Systems Sciences

text: International Society for the Systems Sciences

text: in 1998, contributing digests of the ISSS Atlanta meeting.  He served as chair of the Special Integration Group on Systems Applications in Business and Industry from 2002 to 2009.  Acting as webmaster between 2003-2007, he was elected as Vice-President of Communications and Systems Education (2005-2009), and then Vice-President of Research and Publications (2008-2010).   In his role as president (2011-2012), he led the ISSS 2012 meeting in

text: San Jose, California

text: .  As a member of the

entity_name: International Council on Systems Engineering

text: International Council on Systems Engineering

text: (INCOSE), he brought together the

text: systems science

text: s and

text: systems engineering

text: communities as a cofounder of the Systems Sciences Working Group.

text: Chylomicrons are formed in the endoplasmic reticulum in the absorptive cells (enterocytes) of the small intestine.  The villi, lined with the microvilli of the brush border, provide a lot of surface area for absorption. Newly formed chylomicrons are secreted through the basolateral membrane into the lacteals, where they join lymph to become chyle. The lymphatic vessels carry the chyle to the venous return of the systemic circulation. From there the chylomicrons supply the tissue with fat absorbed from the diet. Thus, unlike the saccharides and amino acids that digestion liberates from the carbohydrates and proteins of the diet (respectively), the lipids from the diet bypass the hepatic portal system, meaning the liver does not get "first crack" at them.

text: Chylomicrons are formed in the

text: endoplasmic reticulum

text: in the absorptive cells (

text: enterocyte

text: s) of the small intestine.  The

text: villi

text: , lined with the

text: microvilli

text: of the

text: brush border

text: , provide a lot of

text: surface area

text: for absorption. Newly formed chylomicrons are secreted through the basolateral membrane into the

text: lacteal

text: s, where they join

text: lymph

text: to become

text: chyle

text: . The

text: lymphatic vessel

text: s carry the chyle to the

text: venous return

text: of the systemic

text: circulation

text: . From there the chylomicrons supply the tissue with fat absorbed from the diet. Thus, unlike the saccharides and

text: amino acid

text: s that

text: digestion

text: liberates from the

text: carbohydrate

text: s and

text: protein

text: s of the diet (respectively), the lipids from the diet bypass the

text: hepatic portal system

text: , meaning the

text: liver

text: does not get "first crack" at them.

text: Giardia lamblia, also known as Giardia intestinalis,  is a flagellated parasite that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine, causing giardiasis. The parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive disc, and reproduces via binary fission. Giardiasis does not spread via the bloodstream, nor does it spread to other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, but remains confined to the lumen of the small intestine. Giardia trophozoites absorb their nutrients from the lumen of the small intestine, and are anaerobes.  If the organism is split and stained, its characteristic pattern resembles the familiar "smiley face" symbol. Chief pathways of human infection include ingestion of untreated sewage, a phenomenon particularly common in many developing countries; contamination of natural waters also occurs in watersheds where intensive grazing occurs.

text: Giardia lamblia, also known as Giardia intestinalis,  is a

text: flagellate

text: d

text: parasite

text: that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine, causing

text: giardiasis

text: . The parasite attaches to the

text: epithelium

text: by a

text: ventral

text: adhesive disc, and reproduces via

text: binary fission

text: . Giardiasis does not spread via the bloodstream, nor does it spread to other parts of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , but remains confined to the

text: lumen

text: of the small intestine. Giardia

text: trophozoite

text: s absorb their nutrients from the lumen of the small intestine, and are

text: anaerobe

text: s.  If the organism is split and stained, its characteristic pattern resembles the familiar "

text: smiley

text: face" symbol. Chief pathways of human infection include ingestion of untreated sewage, a phenomenon particularly common in many developing countries; contamination of natural waters also occurs in watersheds where intensive grazing occurs.

text: Salisbury was one of the earliest health food faddists and taught that diet was the main determinant of health. He believed vegetables and starchy foods produced poisonous substances in the digestive system which were responsible for heart disease, tumors, mental illness and tuberculosis. He believed that human dentition demonstrated that humans were meant to eat meat, and sought to limit vegetables, fruit, starches, and fats to one-third of the diet.

text: Salisbury was one of the earliest health

text: food faddist

text: s and taught that diet was the main determinant of health. He believed

text: vegetables

text: and starchy foods produced poisonous substances in the digestive system which were responsible for

text: heart disease

text: tumors

text: , mental illness and

text: tuberculosis

text: . He believed that

text: human dentition

text: demonstrated that humans were meant to eat meat, and sought to limit vegetables, fruit,

text: starches

text: , and

text: fat

text: s to one-third of the

text: diet

text: Small-scale biogas plants exist in several countries, e.g. Ghana, utilising mixed animal and human feces, and larger centralised systems are being planned. The same use of excreta - when it is mixed with domestic wastewater - takes place in the anaerobic digesters of centralised sewage treatment plants where sewage sludge is digested and biogas is produced. This biogas is used for heating the digesters and for electricity generation.

text: Small-scale biogas plants exist in several countries, e.g. Ghana, utilising mixed animal and human feces, and larger centralised systems are being planned. The same use of excreta - when it is mixed with domestic

text: wastewater

text: - takes place in the anaerobic digesters of centralised

text: sewage treatment plant

text: s where

text: sewage sludge

text: is digested and biogas is produced. This biogas is used for heating the digesters and for electricity generation.

text: Latin for "the Conjunction".  The figure resembles a crossroads or joining of two figures. The sign is neutral in meaning (good in good things, evil in evil), but good with joining or recovering things, especially marriage or relationships.  Astrologically it is associated with Virgo and Mercury retrograde. It represents a combination of forces, for good or ill.  By itself, it is neutral, only becoming favourable or not by other figures around it.  Its outer element is earth, while its inner element is air.  Its planetary intelligence is Tiriel and its spirit is Taphthartharath; it is associated with the deities Mercurius and Ceres, and the angels Raphael and Hamaliel.  It is associated with the intestines and digestive system.

text: Latin for "the Conjunction".  The figure resembles a crossroads or joining of two figures. The sign is neutral in meaning (good in good things, evil in evil), but good with joining or recovering things, especially marriage or relationships.  Astrologically it is associated with

text: Virgo

text: and Mercury retrograde. It represents a combination of forces, for good or ill.  By itself, it is neutral, only becoming favourable or not by other figures around it.  Its outer element is earth, while its inner element is air.  Its planetary intelligence is Tiriel and its spirit is

text: Taphthartharath

text: ; it is associated with the deities

text: Mercurius

text: and

text: Ceres

text: , and the angels

text: Raphael

text: and

text: Hamaliel

text: .  It is associated with the intestines and digestive system.

text: The large intestine absorbs some of the products formed by the bacteria inhabiting this region. Undigested polysaccharides (fiber) are metabolized to short-chain fatty acids by bacteria in the large intestine and absorbed by passive diffusion. The bicarbonate that the large intestine secretes helps to neutralize the increased acidity resulting from the formation of these fatty acids.

text: The large intestine absorbs some of the products formed by the bacteria inhabiting this region. Undigested

text: polysaccharides

text: (fiber) are metabolized to short-chain fatty acids by bacteria in the large intestine and absorbed by

text: passive diffusion

text: . The bicarbonate that the large intestine secretes helps to neutralize the increased acidity resulting from the formation of these fatty acids.

text: Malabsorption constitutes the pathological interference with the normal physiological sequence of digestion (intraluminal process), absorption (mucosal process) and transport (postmucosal events) of nutrients.

text: Malabsorption constitutes the pathological interference with the normal physiological sequence of

text: digestion

text: (intraluminal process), absorption (mucosal process) and transport (postmucosal events) of nutrients.

text: Death– Deficiency disease– Dental hygiene– Dentistry– Dermatology– Determinants of health– Detoxification– Developmental disability– Diabetes– Diagnosis– Diet (nutrition)– Diet and obesity– Dietary fiber– Dietary mineral– Dietary supplement– Dietetics– Dieting– Digestion– Digestive system– Digestive tract– Disability– Disease registry– Disease– Doctor-patient relationship– Dysarthria– Dyslexia

text: Death

text: Deficiency disease

text: Dental hygiene

text: Dentistry

text: Dermatology

text: Determinants of health

text: Detoxification

text: Developmental disability

text: Diabetes

text: Diagnosis

text: Diet (nutrition)

text: Diet and obesity

text: Dietary fiber

text: Dietary mineral

text: Dietary supplement

text: Dietetics

text: Dieting

text: Digestion

text: Digestive system

text: Digestive tract

text: Disability

text: Disease registry

text: Disease

text: Doctor-patient relationship

text: Dysarthria

text: Dyslexia

text: It has not been determined, however, if and how Colura zoophaga attracts its prey or if it produces proteases or other digestive enzymes to break down the prey. Barthlott et al. suggested that it may be reasonable to assume it does not produce such enzymes and that, like some other species of carnivorous plants (e.g. some Heliamphora species), it may rely on commensals such as bacteria to break down the prey. There has been no experimental evidence of this, nor has there been evidence of absorption of the prey by the traps. These are typically the criteria by which other carnivorous plants have been identified.

text: It has not been determined, however, if and how Colura zoophaga attracts its prey or if it produces

text: protease

text: s or other digestive enzymes to break down the prey. Barthlott et al. suggested that it may be reasonable to assume it does not produce such enzymes and that, like some other species of carnivorous plants (e.g. some

text: Heliamphora

text: species), it may rely on

text: commensal

text: s such as bacteria to break down the prey. There has been no experimental evidence of this, nor has there been evidence of absorption of the prey by the traps. These are typically the criteria by which other carnivorous plants have been identified.

text: The vertebrate nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain, retina, and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of all the nerves outside of the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body. The PNS is further subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system is made up of "afferent" neurons, which bring sensory information from the sense organs to the CNS, and "efferent" neurons, which carry motor instructions out to the muscles. The autonomic nervous system also has two subdivisions, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic, which are important for regulating the body's basic internal organ functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and salivation. Autonomic nerves, like somatic nerves, contain afferent and efferent fibers.

text: The vertebrate nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) consists of the

text: brain

text: retina

text: , and

text: spinal cord

text: , while the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) is made up of all the nerves outside of the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body. The PNS is further subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The

text: somatic nervous system

text: is made up of "afferent" neurons, which bring sensory information from the sense organs to the CNS, and "efferent" neurons, which carry motor instructions out to the muscles. The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: also has two subdivisions, the

text: sympathetic

text: and the

text: parasympathetic

text: , which are important for regulating the body's basic internal organ functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and salivation. Autonomic nerves, like somatic nerves, contain afferent and efferent fibers.

text: Some of the proteins in this family are allergens. Allergies are hypersensitivity reactions of the immune system to specific substances called allergens (such as pollen, synthetic materials, dust, stings, drugs, or food) that, in most people, result in no symptoms. A nomenclature system has been established for antigens (allergens) that cause IgE-mediated atopic allergies in humans. This nomenclature system is defined by a designation that is composed of the first three letters of the genus; a space; the first letter of the species name; a space and an Arabic number. In the event that two species names have identical designations, they are discriminated from one another by adding one or more letters (as necessary) to each species designation.

text: Some of the proteins in this family are

text: allergen

text: s. Allergies are hypersensitivity reactions of the immune system to specific substances called allergens (such as pollen, synthetic materials, dust, stings, drugs, or food) that, in most people, result in no symptoms. A nomenclature system has been established for antigens (allergens) that cause IgE-mediated atopic allergies in humans. This nomenclature system is defined by a designation that is composed of the first three letters of the genus; a space; the first letter of the species name; a space and an Arabic number. In the event that two species names have identical designations, they are discriminated from one another by adding one or more letters (as necessary) to each species designation.

text: In many vertebrates, the esophagus is lined by stratified squamous epithelium without glands. In fish, the esophagus is often lined with columnar epithelium, and in amphibians, sharks and rays, the esophageal epithelium is ciliated, helping to wash food along, in addition to the action of muscular peristalsis. In addition, in the bat Plecotus auritus, fish and some amphibians, glands secreting pepsinogen or hydrochloric acid have been found.

text: In many vertebrates, the esophagus is lined by

text: stratified squamous epithelium

text: without glands. In fish, the esophagus is often lined with

text: columnar epithelium

text: , and in

text: amphibian

text: s,

text: shark

text: s and

text: rays

text: , the esophageal epithelium is

text: cilia

text: ted, helping to wash food along, in addition to the action of muscular peristalsis. In addition, in the

text: bat

text: Plecotus auritus

text: , fish and some amphibians, glands secreting

text: pepsinogen

text: or

text: hydrochloric acid

text: have been found.

text: In yoga, Nauli generally recommended for the recovery of constipation. The exercise may clean the small intestine and eliminate digesting problems.

text: Medieval scholars considered human digestion to be a process similar to cooking. The processing of food in the stomach was seen as a continuation of the preparation initiated by the cook. In order for the food to be properly "cooked" and for the nutrients to be properly absorbed, it was important that the stomach be filled in an appropriate manner. Easily digestible foods would be consumed first, followed by gradually heavier dishes. If this regimen were not respected it was believed that heavy foods would sink to the bottom of the stomach, thus blocking the digestion duct, so that food would digest very slowly and cause putrefaction of the body and draw bad humours into the stomach. It was also of vital importance that food of differing properties not be mixed.

text: Medieval scholars considered human

text: digestion

text: to be a process similar to cooking. The processing of food in the stomach was seen as a continuation of the preparation initiated by the cook. In order for the food to be properly "cooked" and for the nutrients to be properly absorbed, it was important that the

text: stomach

text: be filled in an appropriate manner. Easily digestible foods would be consumed first, followed by gradually heavier dishes. If this regimen were not respected it was believed that heavy foods would sink to the bottom of the stomach, thus blocking the digestion duct, so that food would digest very slowly and cause

text: putrefaction

text: of the body and draw bad humours into the stomach. It was also of vital importance that food of differing properties not be mixed.

text: The suspensory muscle marks the end of the duodenum and the division between the upper gastrointestinal tract and the lower GI tract. The digestive tract continues as the jejunum which continues as the ileum. The jejunum, the midsection of the small intestine contains circular folds, flaps of doubled mucosal membrane which partially encircle and sometimes completely encircle the lumen of the intestine. These folds together with villi serve to increase the surface area of the jejunum enabling an increased absorption of digested sugars, amino acids and fatty acids into the bloodstream. The circular folds also slow the passage of food giving more time for nutrients to be absorbed.

text: The suspensory muscle marks the end of the duodenum and the division between the upper gastrointestinal tract and the lower GI tract. The digestive tract continues as the jejunum which continues as the ileum. The jejunum, the midsection of the small intestine contains

text: circular folds

text: , flaps of doubled mucosal membrane which partially encircle and sometimes completely encircle the

text: lumen

text: of the intestine. These folds together with villi serve to increase the surface area of the jejunum enabling an increased absorption of digested sugars, amino acids and fatty acids into the bloodstream. The circular folds also slow the passage of food giving more time for nutrients to be absorbed.

text: The digestive system of lamoids allows them to digest certain toxins. Laminoids also lack a gallbladder.

text: The digestive system of lamoids allows them to digest certain toxins. Laminoids also lack a

text: gallbladder

text: In addition to the pericardial glands and nephridum, excretory cells are also present in the digestive glands opening into the stomach. These glands have a metabolic function, somewhat similar to that of the vertebrate liver, and excrete waste products directly into the digestive system, where it is voided with the faeces.

text: In addition to the pericardial glands and nephridum, excretory cells are also present in the digestive glands opening into the

text: stomach

text: . These glands have a metabolic function, somewhat similar to that of the vertebrate

text: liver

text: , and excrete waste products directly into the digestive system, where it is voided with the

text: faeces

text: A food poisoning outbreak of 26 cases in the Ganyudo area of Suruga Bay, Shizuoka Prefecture in Japan in September 1965 was traced to ingestion of the toxin surugatoxin (SGTX), named for Suruga Bay.  SGTX is contained in the mid-gut digestive gland of the Japanese ivory mollusk, Babylonia japonica, which is used as an ingredient in sushi and sashimi. The food-poisoning patients reported a variety of symptoms, including visual disorders, speech disorders, lazy eye amblyopia, pupil dilation (mydriasis), abdominal distention, dry mouth, numbness of lips, constipation, and vomiting.

text: A food poisoning outbreak of 26 cases in the Ganyudo area of

text: Suruga Bay

text: , Shizuoka Prefecture in Japan in September 1965 was traced to ingestion of the toxin surugatoxin (SGTX), named for Suruga Bay.  SGTX is contained in the mid-gut digestive gland of the Japanese ivory mollusk,

text: Babylonia

text: japonica, which is used as an

text: ingredient in sushi and sashimi

text: . The food-poisoning patients reported a variety of symptoms, including visual disorders, speech disorders, lazy eye

text: amblyopia

text: , pupil dilation (

text: mydriasis

text: ), abdominal distention, dry mouth, numbness of lips, constipation, and vomiting.

text: Most animal manure consists of feces. Common forms of animal manure include farmyard manure (FYM) or farm slurry (liquid manure). FYM also contains plant material (often straw), which has been used as bedding for animals and has absorbed the feces and urine. Agricultural manure in liquid form, known as slurry, is produced by more intensive livestock rearing systems where concrete or slats are used, instead of straw bedding. Manure from different animals has different qualities and requires different application rates when used as fertilizer. For example horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, chickens, turkeys, rabbits, and guano from seabirds and bats all have different properties. For instance, sheep manure is high in nitrogen and potash, while pig manure is relatively low in both.  Horses mainly eat grass and a few weeds so horse manure can contain grass and weed seeds, as horses do not digest seeds the way that cattle do. Chicken litter, coming from a bird, is very concentrated in nitrogen and phosphate and is prized for both properties.

text: Most animal manure consists of

text: feces

text: . Common forms of animal manure include farmyard manure (FYM) or farm slurry (liquid manure). FYM also contains plant material (often straw), which has been used as bedding for animals and has absorbed the feces and

text: urine

text: . Agricultural manure in liquid form, known as

text: slurry

text: , is produced by more intensive livestock rearing systems where concrete or slats are used, instead of straw bedding. Manure from different animals has different qualities and requires different application rates when used as fertilizer. For example

text: horse

text: s,

text: cattle

text: pig

text: s,

text: sheep

text: chicken

text: s,

text: turkey

text: s,

text: rabbit

text: s, and

text: guano

text: from

text: seabird

text: s and

text: bat

text: s all have different properties. For instance, sheep manure is high in nitrogen and potash, while pig manure is relatively low in both.  Horses mainly eat grass and a few weeds so horse manure can contain grass and weed seeds, as horses do not digest seeds the way that cattle do. Chicken litter, coming from a bird, is very concentrated in nitrogen and phosphate and is prized for both properties.

text: Following being fired for refusing to report Nathan's scandal, Mouth is unemployed and is struggling to find work. During this time he and Millie sleep together and become more friendly, which she believes means they are getting back together, but after he tells her otherwise their friendship ends bitterly. While trying to find a job he does little with his time and can't pay the rent but starts to do podcasts, which aren't very popular until Nathan has his full interview regarding him quitting basketball done by Mouth. He is also part of Julian's documentary and finally gets a job at Tric.Mouth later sends an audition tape of him interviewing Millie to the news station. When they call for Millie, she takes the job, and he remains jobless. Then when Millie has a chance to audition for a morning talks show, she gives it to Mouth, and they end up hosting "Mouth and Millie in the Morning".

text: Expert scientists helped the producers to film animal behaviour that is rarely seen. The team 'staked out' radiotagged timber rattlesnakes in order to witness one of them despatching its prey. However, for Attenborough's close encounter with a spitting cobra, a captive snake that was used to being handled was placed in a natural setting and the presenter wore a face visor. Other examples of 'pets' being used were for sequences depicting the lassoing tongue of a chameleon (which had to be filmed at ultra-high speed) and the digestive system of a python (which was enhanced by computer-generated imagery).

text: Expert scientists helped the producers to film animal behaviour that is rarely seen. The team 'staked out' radiotagged

text: timber rattlesnake

text: s in order to witness one of them despatching its prey. However, for Attenborough's close encounter with a spitting

text: cobra

text: , a captive snake that was used to being handled was placed in a natural setting and the presenter wore a face visor. Other examples of 'pets' being used were for sequences depicting the lassoing tongue of a

text: chameleon

text: (which had to be

text: filmed at ultra-high speed

text: ) and the digestive system of a

text: python

text: (which was enhanced by

text: computer-generated imagery

text: Migrating motor complexes (or migrating myoelectric complex or migratory motor complex or migratory myoelectric complex or MMC) are waves of electrical activity that sweep through the intestines in a regular cycle during fasting. These motor complexes trigger peristaltic waves, which facilitate transportation of indigestible substances such as bone, fiber, and foreign bodies from the stomach, through the small intestine, past the ileocecal sphincter, and into the colon. The MMC occurs every 90–120 minutes during the interdigestive phase (i.e., between meals) and is responsible for the rumbling experienced when hungry. It also serves to transport bacteria from the small intestine to the large intestine and to inhibit the migration of colonic bacteria into the terminal ileum.

text: Migrating motor complexes (or migrating myoelectric complex or migratory motor complex or migratory myoelectric complex or MMC) are waves of electrical activity that sweep through the intestines in a regular cycle during fasting. These motor complexes trigger

text: peristaltic wave

text: s, which facilitate transportation of indigestible substances such as

text: bone

text: fiber

text: , and

text: foreign bodies

text: from the

text: stomach

text: , through the

text: small intestine

text: , past the

text: ileocecal sphincter

text: , and into the

text: colon

text: . The MMC occurs every 90–120 minutes during the interdigestive phase (i.e., between meals) and is responsible for the

text: rumbling

text: experienced when hungry. It also serves to transport

text: bacteria

text: from the

text: small intestine

text: to the

text: large intestine

text: and to inhibit the migration of colonic bacteria into the

text: terminal ileum

text: Cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones and corals) have an incomplete digestive system, meaning that one end of the organism has a mouth, and the opposite end has no opening from the gut (coelenteron). For this reason, the end of the organism with the mouth is referred to as the oral end (, "mouth"), and the opposite surface is the aboral end (, prefix meaning "away from").

text: Cnidaria

text: ns (jellyfish, sea anemones and corals) have an incomplete digestive system, meaning that one end of the organism has a mouth, and the opposite end has no opening from the gut (coelenteron). For this reason, the end of the organism with the mouth is referred to as the oral end (, "mouth"), and the opposite surface is the aboral end (, prefix meaning "away from").

text: The movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach are controlled by both the autonomic nervous system and by the various digestive system hormones:

text: The movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach are controlled by both the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: and by the various digestive system

text: hormone

text: s:

text: Food hypersensitivity is used to refer broadly to both food intolerances and food allergies. There are a variety of earlier terms which are no longer in use such as "psuedo-allergy".

text: Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice.  The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.

text: Digestion begins in the

text: mouth

text: with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a

text: bolus

text: by the mechanical

text: mastication

text: and

text: swallowed

text: into the

text: esophagus

text: from where it enters the

text: stomach

text: through the action of

text: peristalsis

text: Gastric juice

text: contains

text: hydrochloric acid

text: and

text: pepsin

text: which would damage the walls of the stomach and

text: mucus

text: is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the

text: duodenum

text: as a thick semi-liquid

text: chyme

text: . In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of

text: bile

text: pancreatic juice

text: and

text: intestinal juice

text: .  The intestinal walls are lined with

text: villi

text: , and their

text: epithelial cells

text: is covered with numerous

text: microvilli

text: to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the

text: surface area

text: of the intestine.

text: Humpty Dumpty Magazine (then called Humpty Dumpty’s Magazine) was launched by George J. Hecht and Parents magazine in October 1952. Originally, it was a sister publication to Children's Digest, aimed at a younger audience than the latter publication. The first editor of Humpty Dumpty was Harold Schwartz. In January 1980, both Humpty Dumpty and Children’s Digest came under the ownership of the nonprofit Saturday Evening Post Society. When Children's Digest was merged with Jack and Jill in 2009, Humpty Dumpty was continued.

text: Humpty Dumpty Magazine (then called Humpty Dumpty’s Magazine) was launched by

text: George J. Hecht

text: and

text: Parents magazine

text: in October 1952. Originally, it was a sister publication to

text: Children's Digest

text: , aimed at a younger audience than the latter publication. The first editor of Humpty Dumpty was Harold Schwartz. In January 1980, both Humpty Dumpty and Children’s Digest came under the ownership of the nonprofit

text: Saturday Evening Post Society

text: . When Children's Digest was merged with

text: Jack and Jill

text: in 2009, Humpty Dumpty was continued.

text: The hoatzin is pheasant-sized, with a total length of , and a long neck and small head. It has an unfeathered blue face with maroon eyes, and its head is topped by a spiky, rufous crest. The long, sooty-brown tail is broadly tipped buff. The upperparts are dark, sooty-brown-edged buff on the wing coverts, and streaked buff on the mantle and nape. The under parts are buff, while the crissum (the undertail coverts surrounding the cloaca), primaries, underwing coverts and flanks are rich rufous-chestnut, but this is mainly visible when it opens its wings. The hoatzin is an herbivore, eating leaves and fruit, and has an unusual digestive system with an enlarged crop used for fermentation of vegetable matter, in a manner broadly analogous to the digestive system of mammalian ruminants. The alternative name of "stinkbird" is derived from the bird's foul odour, which is caused by the fermentation of food in its digestive system.

text: The hoatzin is

text: pheasant

text: -sized, with a total length of , and a long neck and small head. It has an unfeathered blue face with

text: maroon

text: eyes, and its head is topped by a spiky, rufous crest. The long, sooty-brown tail is broadly tipped

text: buff

text: . The upperparts are dark, sooty-brown-edged buff on the

text: wing covert

text: s, and streaked buff on the mantle and nape. The under parts are buff, while the crissum (the undertail

text: coverts

text: surrounding the

text: cloaca

text: primaries

text: , underwing coverts and flanks are rich rufous-

text: chestnut

text: , but this is mainly visible when it opens its wings. The hoatzin is an

text: herbivore

text: , eating leaves and fruit, and has an unusual digestive system with an enlarged

text: crop

text: used for fermentation of vegetable matter, in a manner broadly analogous to the digestive system of mammalian

text: ruminants

text: . The alternative name of "stinkbird" is derived from the bird's foul odour, which is caused by the fermentation of food in its digestive system.

text: The Zero-Force Evolutionary Law, or ZFEL, is a theory proposed by Robert Brandon and Dan McShea regarding the evolution of diversity and complexity.  Brandon and McShea define diversity and complexity in terms of variation, diversity being variation between organisms and complexity being variation among parts within an organism.  McShea had previously defined a part as "a system that is both integrated internally and isolated from its surround," giving the digestive tract, epidermis, and skeleton, as examples.  As an analogue to the theory of relativity, the theory has a special and general formulation.  The special formulation states "in an evolutionary system in which there is variation and heredity, in the absence of natural selection, other forces, or constraints on diversity or complexity, diversity and complexity will increase on average" while the general formulation states that "in an evolutionary system in which there is variation and heredity, there is a tendency for diversity and complexity to increase, one that is always present but may be opposed or augmented by natural selection, other forces, or constraints acting on diversity or complexity".  The rationale for the claim is that as replicators such as genes replicate, errors will accumulate.  If not eliminated by negative selection, these variations will lead to greater diversity and complexity.

text: The Zero-Force Evolutionary Law, or ZFEL, is a theory proposed by Robert Brandon and Dan McShea regarding the evolution of

text: diversity

text: and

text: complexity

text: .  Brandon and McShea define diversity and complexity in terms of

text: variation

text: , diversity being variation between organisms and complexity being variation among parts within an organism.  McShea had previously defined a part as "a system that is both integrated internally and isolated from its surround," giving the digestive tract, epidermis, and skeleton, as examples.  As an analogue to the

text: theory of relativity

text: , the theory has a special and general formulation.  The special formulation states "in an evolutionary system in which there is variation and heredity, in the absence of natural selection, other forces, or constraints on diversity or complexity, diversity and complexity will increase on average" while the general formulation states that "in an evolutionary system in which there is variation and heredity, there is a tendency for diversity and complexity to increase, one that is always present but may be opposed or augmented by natural selection, other forces, or constraints acting on diversity or complexity".  The rationale for the claim is that as replicators such as

text: gene

text: s replicate, errors will accumulate.  If not eliminated by

text: negative selection

text: , these variations will lead to greater diversity and complexity.

text: Triglyceride digestion by endogenous lipases leads to hydrolysis of fatty acids from the triacylglyceride sn-1,3 positions, to release two fatty acids and one sn-2 monoglyceride into the intestinal lumen. The fatty acids configuration on the triglyceride has a major contribution to the efficacy of this nutrient absorption. While the unsaturated and short chain saturated free fatty acids are well absorbed regardless of their position, the absorption of free long chain saturated fatty acids, i.e. palmitic acid and longer, is relatively low. The main cause for this low absorption is their melting point above body temperature (~630 C), and thus high tendency to create complexes with dietary minerals, such as calcium or magnesium  which are secreted into feces leading to loss of both fatty acids (energy) and calcium. These complexes, also known as fatty acids soaps, are insoluble and therefore indigestible and positively related to stool hardness.

text: Triglyceride digestion by

text: endogenous

text: lipases

text: leads to

text: hydrolysis

text: of fatty acids from the triacylglyceride sn-1,3 positions, to release two fatty acids and one sn-2

text: monoglyceride

text: into the intestinal lumen. The fatty acids configuration on the triglyceride has a major contribution to the efficacy of this nutrient absorption. While the unsaturated and short chain saturated free fatty acids are well absorbed regardless of their position, the absorption of free long chain saturated fatty acids, i.e. palmitic acid and longer, is relatively low. The main cause for this low absorption is their

text: melting point

text: above body temperature (~630 C), and thus high tendency to create complexes with dietary

text: minerals

text: , such as calcium or magnesium  which are secreted into feces leading to loss of both fatty acids (energy) and calcium. These complexes, also known as fatty acids soaps, are insoluble and therefore indigestible and positively related to stool hardness.

text: During the final stages of transformation when the tadpoles have four limbs and a tail, they stop feeding for a short time while their mouths widen and their digestive systems adjust from herbivorous to carnivorous.

text: The exocrine pancreas is a portion of this organ that contains clusters of ducts (acini) producing bicarbonate anion, a mild alkali, as well as an array of digestive enzymes that together empty by way of the interlobular and main pancreatic ducts into the duodenum (upper small intestine). The hormones gastrin, cholecystokinin and secretin are secreted by the stomach and duodenum in response to distension and the presence of food, and in turn stimulate the production of digestive enzymes by the exocrine pancreas. The alkalization of the duodenum neutralizes the acidic chyme produced by the stomach that is passing into it; the digestive enzymes serve to catalyze the breakdown of complex foodstuffs into smaller molecules for absorption and integration into metabolic pathways. The enzymes include proteases (trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen), hydrolytic enzymes that cleave lipids (the lipases phospholipase A2 and lysophospholipase, and cholesterol esterase), and amylase to digest starches. EPI results from progressive failure in the exocrine function of the pancreas to provide its digestive enzymes, often in response to a genetic condition or other disease state, resulting in the inability of the animal involved to properly digest food.

text: The

text: exocrine pancreas

text: is a portion of this organ that contains clusters of ducts (acini) producing

text: bicarbonate

text: anion, a mild alkali, as well as an array of digestive enzymes that together empty by way of the interlobular and main pancreatic ducts into the

text: duodenum

text: (upper small intestine). The hormones gastrin, cholecystokinin and secretin are secreted by the stomach and duodenum in response to distension and the presence of food, and in turn stimulate the production of digestive enzymes by the exocrine pancreas. The alkalization of the duodenum neutralizes the acidic chyme produced by the stomach that is passing into it; the digestive enzymes serve to catalyze the breakdown of complex foodstuffs into smaller molecules for absorption and integration into metabolic pathways. The enzymes include

text: protease

text: s (

text: trypsinogen

text: and

text: chymotrypsinogen

text: ), hydrolytic enzymes that cleave

text: lipids

text: (the

text: lipase

text: s

text: phospholipase A2

text: and

text: lysophospholipase

text: , and

text: cholesterol ester

text: ase), and amylase to digest starches. EPI results from progressive failure in the exocrine function of the pancreas to provide its

text: digestive enzyme

text: s, often in response to a genetic condition or other disease state, resulting in the inability of the animal involved to properly digest food.

text: After this, the digesta is moved to the true stomach, the abomasum. The abomasum is the direct equivalent of the monogastric stomach, and digesta is digested here in much the same way. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulorumen are also digested in the small intestine. Fermentation continues in the large intestine in the same way as in the reticulorumen.

text: After this, the digesta is moved to the true stomach, the abomasum. The abomasum is the direct equivalent of the

text: monogastric

text: stomach, and digesta is digested here in much the same way. Digesta is finally moved into the

text: small intestine

text: , where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulorumen are also digested in the small intestine. Fermentation continues in the

text: large intestine

text: in the same way as in the reticulorumen.

text: A typical municipal sewage treatment plant in an industrialized country may include primary treatment to remove solid material, secondary treatment to digest dissolved and suspended organic material as well as the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus, and - sometimes but not always - disinfection to kill pathogenic bacteria. The sewage sludge that is produced in sewage treatment plants undergoes sludge treatment. Larger municipalities often include factories discharging industrial wastewater into the municipal sewer system. The term "sewage treatment plant" is nowadays often replaced with the term "wastewater treatment plant".

text: A typical municipal sewage treatment plant in an industrialized country may include primary treatment to remove solid material,

text: secondary treatment

text: to digest dissolved and suspended organic material as well as the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus, and - sometimes but not always - disinfection to kill

text: pathogenic bacteria

text: . The

text: sewage sludge

text: that is produced in sewage treatment plants undergoes

text: sludge treatment

text: . Larger municipalities often include factories discharging industrial wastewater into the municipal sewer system. The term "sewage treatment plant" is nowadays often replaced with the term "wastewater treatment plant".

text: Ulcerative colitis is an autoimmune disease characterized by T-cells infiltrating the colon. In contrast to Crohn's disease, which can affect areas of the gastrointestinal tract outside of the colon, ulcerative colitis usually involves the rectum and is confined to the colon, with occasional involvement of the ileum. This so-called "backwash ileitis" can occur in 10–20% of patients with pancolitis and is believed to be of little clinical significance. Ulcerative colitis can also be associated with comorbidities that produce symptoms in many areas of the body outside the digestive system. Surgical removal of the large intestine often cures the disease.

text: Ulcerative colitis is an

text: autoimmune disease

text: characterized by

text: T-cells

text: infiltrating the colon. In contrast to Crohn's disease, which can affect areas of the gastrointestinal tract outside of the colon, ulcerative colitis usually involves the rectum and is confined to the colon, with occasional involvement of the

text: ileum

text: . This so-called "backwash ileitis" can occur in 10–20% of patients with

text: pancolitis

text: and is believed to be of little clinical significance. Ulcerative colitis can also be associated with comorbidities that produce symptoms in many areas of the body outside the digestive system. Surgical removal of the large intestine often cures the disease.

text: Digestive Health products are designed for enteral feeding, diagnostics and endoscopy procedures and include feeding tubes, gastric lavage systems, paracentesis needles and trays, endoscopy catheters, cleaning devices and cytology brushes.

text: Digestive Health products are designed for enteral feeding, diagnostics and

text: endoscopy

text: procedures and include

text: feeding tubes

text: gastric lavage

text: systems,

text: paracentesis

text: needles and trays, endoscopy catheters, cleaning devices and

text: cytology

text: brushes.

text: of Pergamum (AD 129–c. AD 210). Galen was a prolific writer from whose surviving works comes what Galen believed to be the definitive guide to a healthy diet, based on the theory of the four humours. Galen understood the humoral theory in a dynamic sense rather than static sense such that yellow bile is hot and dry like fire; black bile is dry and cold like earth; phlegm is cold and moist like water; and blood is moist and hot. He also understood the humours to be produced by food through digestion and it is with digestion, and respiration, that Galen applies his knowledge of anatomy. According to Galen, digestion begins in the mouth because this where food comes into contact with the saliva. The chewed food is then pulled into the stomach where the heat of the stomach cooks the food into chyle. The chyle is then carried to the liver where the nutrients are converted to blood and transported throughout the body,. With this understanding of the humours as being dynamic, and his knowledge of anatomy, Galen was able to categorize illnesses as hot, cold, dry or moist and attribute the causes of these illnesses to specific types of foods. For example, in Galen’s own “On the Causes of Disease”, as cited by Mark Grant, Galen says when describing hot diseases that, “[one cause of excessive heat] lies in foods that have hot and harsh powers, such as garlic, leeks, onions, and so on. Immoderate use of these foods sometimes sparks a fever,”. Galen believed that a good physician must also be a good cook. Therefore, in Galen’s dietary treatise “On the Powers of Foods”, recipes are often given in addition to descriptions of foods as being salty or sweet, sour or watery, difficult or easy to digest, costive or laxative, cooling or heating, etc. Galen insists that the balance of the four humours can be beneficially or adversely effected by ‘diet’ which in Galenic medicine includes not just food and drink but also physical exercise, baths, massage, and climate

text: In the US, the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases have both advised that applied kinesiology should not be used in the diagnosis of allergies. The European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology, the National Institute for Clinical Excellence of the UK, the Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy and the Allergy Society of South Africa has also advised similarly. The World Allergy Organization does not have a formal position on applied  kinesiology, but in educational materials from its Global Resources In Allergy program it lists applied kinesiology as an unproven test and describes it as useless. In 1998, a small pilot study published in the International Journal of Neuroscience showed a correlation between applied kinesiology muscle testings and serum immunoglobulin levels for food allergies. 19 of 21 (90.5%) suspected food allergies diagnosed by applied kinesiology were confirmed by serum immunoglobulin tests.  A follow up review published in 2005 in the Current Opinion of Allergy and Clinical Immunology concluded applied kinesiology had no proven basis for diagnosis.

text: In the US, the

entity_name: American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology

text: American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology

text: and the

entity_name: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

text: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

text: have both advised that applied kinesiology should not be used in the diagnosis of allergies. The

entity_name: European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology

text: European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology

text: , the

entity_name: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence

text: National Institute for Clinical Excellence

text: of the UK, the

entity_name: Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy

text: Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy

text: and the Allergy Society of South Africa has also advised similarly. The

text: World Allergy Organization

text: does not have a formal position on applied  kinesiology, but in educational materials from its Global Resources In Allergy program it lists applied kinesiology as an unproven test and describes it as useless. In 1998, a small pilot study published in the

text: International Journal of Neuroscience

text: showed a correlation between applied kinesiology muscle testings and serum immunoglobulin levels for food allergies. 19 of 21 (90.5%) suspected food allergies diagnosed by applied kinesiology were confirmed by serum immunoglobulin tests.  A follow up review published in 2005 in the Current Opinion of Allergy and Clinical Immunology concluded applied kinesiology had no proven basis for diagnosis.

text: The most common food allergy in the US population is a sensitivity to crustacea. Although peanut allergies are notorious for their severity, peanut allergies are not the most common food allergy in adults or children. Severe or life-threatening reactions may be triggered by other allergens, and are more common when combined with asthma.

text: The most common food allergy in the US population is a sensitivity to

text: crustacea

text: . Although peanut allergies are notorious for their severity, peanut allergies are not the most common food allergy in adults or children. Severe or life-threatening reactions may be triggered by other allergens, and are more common when combined with asthma.

text: The digestive system of beetles is primarily based on plants, which they for the most part feed upon, with mostly the anterior midgut performing digestion. However, in predatory species (e.g., Carabidae) most digestion occurs in the crop by means of midgut enzymes. In Elateridae species, the predatory larvae defecate enzymes on their prey, with digestion being extraorally. The alimentary canal basically comprises a short narrow pharynx, a widened expansion, the crop and a poorly developed gizzard. After there is a midgut, that varies in dimensions between species, with a large amount of cecum, with a hingut, with varying lengths. There are typically four to six Malpighian tubules.

text: The

text: digestive system

text: of beetles is primarily based on plants, which they for the most part feed upon, with mostly the anterior

text: midgut

text: performing digestion. However, in predatory species (e.g.,

text: Carabidae

text: ) most digestion occurs in the crop by means of midgut enzymes. In

text: Elateridae

text: species, the predatory larvae defecate enzymes on their prey, with digestion being extraorally. The alimentary canal basically comprises a short narrow

text: pharynx

text: , a widened expansion, the

text: crop

text: and a poorly developed

text: gizzard

text: . After there is a midgut, that varies in dimensions between species, with a large amount of

text: cecum

text: , with a hingut, with varying lengths. There are typically four to six

text: Malpighian tubule

text: s.

text: A number of minute tentacles around the foot, called captacula, sift through the sediment and latch onto bits of food, which they then convey to the mouth. The mouth has a grinding radula that breaks the bit into smaller pieces for digestion.  The radulae and cartilaginous oral bolsters of the Gadilidae are structured like zippers where the teeth actively crush the prey by opening and closing on it repeatedly, while the radulae and bolsters of the Dentaliidae work rachet-like to pull the prey into the esophagus, sometimes whole. The massive radula of the scaphopods is the largest such organ relative to body size of any mollusc (among whom, except for the bivalves, the presence of a which is a defining characteristic). The remainder of the digestive system consists of a digestive diverticulum, esophagus, stomach, and intestine. A digestive gland secretes enzymes into the stomach, but, unlike some other molluscs, does not digest the food directly itself. The anus opens on the ventral/ underside of the animal, roughly in the middle of the mantle cavity.

text: A number of minute tentacles around the foot, called captacula, sift through the sediment and latch onto bits of food, which they then convey to the mouth. The mouth has a grinding

text: radula

text: that breaks the bit into smaller pieces for digestion.  The radulae and cartilaginous oral bolsters of the Gadilidae are structured like zippers where the teeth actively crush the prey by opening and closing on it repeatedly, while the radulae and bolsters of the Dentaliidae work rachet-like to pull the prey into the esophagus, sometimes whole. The massive radula of the scaphopods is the largest such organ relative to body size of any mollusc (among whom, except for the

text: bivalves

text: , the presence of a which is a defining characteristic). The remainder of the digestive system consists of a digestive

text: diverticulum

text: esophagus

text: stomach

text: , and

text: intestine

text: . A digestive gland secretes enzymes into the stomach, but, unlike some other molluscs, does not digest the food directly itself. The

text: anus

text: opens on the ventral/ underside of the animal, roughly in the middle of the mantle cavity.

text: Mucosa: mucous tissue lining various tubular structures consisting of epithelium, lamina propria, and, in the digestive tract, a layer of smooth muscle (muscularis mucosae)in contact with the outside world including the mouth, throat, lungs, digestive system and some of the reproductive system.

text: There are four genetic disorders acknowledged by the industry that may affect horses of Friesian breeding: dwarfism, hydrocephalus, a tendency for aortic rupture, and mega-esophagus.  There are genetic tests for the first two conditions.  The Friesian is also among several breeds that may develop PSSM.  Approximately 0.25% of Friesians are affected by dwarfism, which results in horses with a normal-sized head, a broader chest than normal, an abnormally long back and very short limbs. It is a recessive condition.  Additionally, the breed has a higher-than-usual rate of digestive system disorders, and a greater tendency to have insect bite hypersensitivity. Like some other draught breeds, they are prone to a skin condition called Verrucous pastern dermatopathy and may be generally prone to having a compromised immune system.  Friesian mares have a very high 54% rate of retained placenta after foaling. Some normal-sized Friesians also have a propensity toward tendon and ligament laxity which may or may not be associated with dwarfism.  The relatively small gene pool and inbreeding are thought to be factors behind most of these disorders.

text: There are four genetic disorders acknowledged by the industry that may affect horses of Friesian breeding:

text: dwarfism

text: hydrocephalus

text: , a tendency for

text: aortic rupture

text: , and

text: mega-esophagus

text: .  There are genetic tests for the first two conditions.  The Friesian is also among several breeds that may develop

text: PSSM

text: .  Approximately 0.25% of Friesians are affected by dwarfism, which results in horses with a normal-sized head, a broader chest than normal, an abnormally long back and very short limbs. It is a

text: recessive

text: condition.  Additionally, the breed has a higher-than-usual rate of digestive system disorders, and a greater tendency to have insect bite hypersensitivity. Like some other draught breeds, they are prone to a skin condition called Verrucous

text: pastern

text: dermatopathy

text: and may be generally prone to having a compromised immune system.  Friesian mares have a very high 54% rate of retained placenta after foaling. Some normal-sized Friesians also have a propensity toward tendon and ligament laxity which may or may not be associated with dwarfism.  The relatively small gene pool and

text: inbreeding

text: are thought to be factors behind most of these disorders.

text: Hindgut fermenters generally have a cecum and large intestine that are much larger and more complex than those of a foregut or midgut fermenter. Research on small cecum fermenters such as flying squirrels, rabbits and lemurs has revealed these mammals to have a GI tract about 10-13 times the length of their body.  This is due to the high intake of fiber and other hard to digest compounds that are characteristic to the diet of monogastric herbivores. Unlike in foregut fermenters, the cecum is located after the stomach and small intestine in monogastric animals, which limits the amount of further digestion or absorption that can occur after the food is fermented.

text: Hindgut fermenters generally have a cecum and large intestine that are much larger and more complex than those of a foregut or

text: midgut

text: fermenter. Research on small cecum fermenters such as

text: flying squirrel

text: s, rabbits and lemurs has revealed these mammals to have a GI tract about 10-13 times the length of their body.  This is due to the high intake of

text: fiber

text: and other hard to digest compounds that are characteristic to the diet of monogastric herbivores. Unlike in foregut fermenters, the cecum is located after the

text: stomach

text: and small intestine in monogastric animals, which limits the amount of further digestion or absorption that can occur after the food is fermented.

text: Microvilli function as the primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.  Because of this vital function, the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compounds that are more easily absorbed. For example, enzymes that digest carbohydrates called glycosidases are present at high concentrations on the surface of enterocyte microvilli.  Thus, microvilli not only increase the cellular surface area for absorption, they also increase the number of digestive enzymes that can be present on the cell surface.

text: Microvilli function as the primary surface of nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.  Because of this vital function, the microvillar membrane is packed with enzymes that aid in the breakdown of complex nutrients into simpler compounds that are more easily absorbed. For example, enzymes that digest carbohydrates called

text: glycosidases

text: are present at high concentrations on the surface of enterocyte microvilli.  Thus, microvilli not only increase the cellular surface area for absorption, they also increase the number of digestive enzymes that can be present on the cell surface.

text: Intestinal barrier dysfunction may be a critical factor for antigen sensitisations and the IgE/mast cell-mediated anaphylactic effector phase of food allergies. The development of food allergies depend on the antigen coming into contact with components of the mucosal immune system. This leads to antigen sensitisation and dietary antigen-specific CD4+ Th2 cell and IgE production. The hypothesis is that intestinal barrier dysfunction allows dietary antigens to cross the intestinal barrier, come into contact with the mucosal immune system, and trigger an antigen-specific immune response.

text: Intestinal barrier dysfunction may be a critical factor for antigen sensitisations and the

text: IgE

text: mast cell

text: -mediated

text: anaphylactic

text: effector phase of food allergies. The development of food allergies depend on the antigen coming into contact with components of the mucosal immune system. This leads to antigen sensitisation and dietary antigen-specific CD4+

text: Th2 cell

text: and IgE production. The hypothesis is that intestinal barrier dysfunction allows dietary antigens to cross the intestinal barrier, come into contact with the mucosal immune system, and trigger an antigen-specific immune response.

text: An exocrine pancreas cell is a pancreatic cell that produces enzymes that are secreted into the small intestine. These enzymes help digest food by releasing enzymes as it passes through the gastrointestinal tract.

text: An exocrine pancreas cell is a

text: pancreatic

text: cell that produces

text: enzymes

text: that are

text: secreted

text: into the

text: small intestine

text: . These enzymes help

text: digest

text: food by releasing enzymes as it passes through the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: Although less dangerous than work below ground, some bal maidens suffered poor health. Tuberculosis and bronchitis were endemic in the mining communities, and would be exacerbated by constant exposure to high levels of mineral dust. Constant work with damp ore might have led to rheumatic problems. The extraction of arsenic from the tin and copper ores sometimes led to exposure to arsenic fumes. Constant bending, lifting, and carrying often led to muscular strains. The need to hold chunks of ore with one hand while hammering them with the other led to some bal maidens suffering permanent damage to their left hands. The noise generated by industrial machinery, particularly after the introduction of the steam engine, could cause hearing difficulties, with some groups of bal maidens developing private sign languages. Noxious fumes, notably arsenic, lead and antimony could cause  digestive problems, bowel disorders and amenorrhoea and other disruptions of the reproductive system. Barley hoggans also caused digestive problems.

text: Although less dangerous than work below ground, some bal maidens suffered poor health.

text: Tuberculosis

text: and

text: bronchitis

text: were endemic in the mining communities, and would be exacerbated by constant exposure to high levels of mineral dust. Constant work with damp ore might have led to

text: rheumatic

text: problems. The extraction of arsenic from the tin and copper ores sometimes led to exposure to

text: arsenic

text: fumes. Constant bending, lifting, and carrying often led to muscular strains. The need to hold chunks of ore with one hand while hammering them with the other led to some bal maidens suffering permanent damage to their left hands. The noise generated by industrial machinery, particularly after the introduction of the

text: steam engine

text: , could cause hearing difficulties, with some groups of bal maidens developing private

text: sign language

text: s. Noxious fumes, notably arsenic, lead and antimony could cause  digestive problems, bowel disorders and

text: amenorrhoea

text: and other disruptions of the reproductive system. Barley hoggans also caused digestive problems.

text: Innate immunity to gluten refers to an immune response that works independently of T-cell receptor or antibody recognition of the 'innate' peptide. This peptide acts directly on cells, such as monocytes, stimulating their growth and differentiation. Innate immunity to gluten is complicated by an apparent role gluten has in bypassing normal host defense and peptide exclusion mechanisms in the gut. While not truly innate, these activities allow gliadin to enter into areas where many lymphocytes patron. In bypassing these filters gliadin alters the normal behavior of both digestive cells, called enterocytes or epithelial cells, and lymphocytes. This increases the potential of causing sensitivity (see Underlying Conditions). One potential explanation of why certain people become sensitive is that these individuals may not produce adequate peptidases in some areas of the gut, allowing these peptides to survive. Other explanation for some may be that food chemicals or drugs are weakening the defenses. This can be the case with ω5-gliadin allergy with salicylate sensitivity. There is no clear reasoning, either from genetics or from long term studies of susceptible individuals why these gut peptide restrictions would change.

text: Innate immunity

text: to

text: gluten

text: refers to an

text: immune response

text: that works independently of

text: T-cell receptor

text: or

text: antibody

text: recognition of the 'innate' peptide. This peptide acts directly on cells, such as monocytes, stimulating their growth and differentiation. Innate immunity to gluten is complicated by an apparent role gluten has in bypassing normal host defense and peptide exclusion mechanisms in the gut. While not truly innate, these activities allow gliadin to enter into areas where many lymphocytes patron. In bypassing these filters gliadin alters the normal behavior of both digestive cells, called

text: enterocytes

text: or epithelial cells, and lymphocytes. This increases the potential of causing sensitivity (see Underlying Conditions). One potential explanation of why certain people become sensitive is that these individuals may not produce adequate peptidases in some areas of the gut, allowing these peptides to survive. Other explanation for some may be that food chemicals or drugs are weakening the defenses. This can be the case with ω5-gliadin allergy with salicylate sensitivity. There is no clear reasoning, either from genetics or from long term studies of susceptible individuals why these gut peptide restrictions would change.

text: b) The gastrointestinal tract (GI). This is applied for modeling the intake of particles in the GI tract following the model provided in ICRP 30 (ICRP 1979) and ICRP 105(ICRP 2005). Particles can be introduced in the GI Tract directly by ingestion, or from the RT. Deposition is in the stomach (ST). Part or all the flow is transferred, through SI, to the blood (B). The rate transfer from SI to B, is given by λB = f1 λSI/(1 – f1), where f1 is the fraction of the stable element reaching the blood (or body fluids). If f1 = 1 all flows from the stomach it goes to B. The value of f1 is associated to the element and their chemical form  The GI tract model will be replaced by the called Human Alimentary Tract Model (HATM), but it is not published yet.

text: The stomach is a muscular, hollow, dilated part of the gastrointestinal tract that functions as an important organ in the digestive system. The stomach is present in many animals including vertebrates, echinoderms, insects (mid-gut), and molluscs. In humans and many other vertebrates it is involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication (chewing).

text: The stomach is a muscular, hollow, dilated part of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: that functions as an important organ in the

text: digestive system

text: . The stomach is present in many animals including

text: vertebrate

text: s,

text: echinoderm

text: s,

text: insect

text: s (

text: mid-gut

text: ), and

text: mollusc

text: s. In humans and many other vertebrates it is involved in the second phase of

text: digestion

text: , following

text: mastication

text: (chewing).

text: Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) is an endoscopic technique where a miniaturized ultrasound probe is passed though the mouth into the upper gastrointestinal tract to investigate organs and structures close to the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum, such as the lung. In 1993, Wiersema published the first description of EUS to diagnose and stage lung cancer, done by advancing a fine needle through the esophagus into adjacent lymph nodes. Numerous subsequent studies have shown this general methodology to be effective, very safe, minimally invasive, and very well tolerated. Given these advantages, many authorities think that EUS together with endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) enhances lung cancer diagnosis and staging.

text: Endoscopic ultrasound

text: (EUS) is an

text: endoscopic

text: technique where a miniaturized

text: ultrasound

text: probe is passed though the mouth into the upper

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: to investigate organs and structures close to the

text: esophagus

text: stomach

text: , or

text: duodenum

text: , such as the

text: lung

text: . In 1993, Wiersema published the first description of EUS to diagnose and stage lung cancer, done by advancing a fine needle through the esophagus into adjacent

text: lymph node

text: s. Numerous subsequent studies have shown this general methodology to be effective, very safe, minimally invasive, and very well tolerated. Given these advantages, many authorities think that EUS together with endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) enhances lung cancer diagnosis and staging.

text: Food allergies develop more easily in people with the atopic syndrome, a very common combination of diseases: allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis, eczema, and asthma. The syndrome has a strong inherited component; a family history of allergic diseases can be indicative of the atopic syndrome.

text: Food allergies develop more easily in people with the

text: atopic syndrome

text: , a very common combination of diseases:

text: allergic rhinitis

text: and

text: conjunctivitis

text: eczema

text: , and

text: asthma

text: . The syndrome has a strong inherited component; a family history of allergic diseases can be indicative of the atopic syndrome.

text: To reduce the risk of digestive upsets it is critical to keep the concentrations of potential pathogens low. MOS has been shown to reduce faecal E. coli and C. perfringens and tended to have greater concentrations of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria. Older dogs tend to have reduced concentrations of bifidobacteria. A significant increase in bifidobacteria concentration was noted with MOS supplementation to diets of senior dogs, thus counteracting the negative effect of age on colonic health.

text: To reduce the risk of digestive upsets it is critical to keep the concentrations of potential pathogens low. MOS has been shown to reduce faecal E. coli and

text: C. perfringens

text: and tended to have greater concentrations of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria. Older dogs tend to have reduced concentrations of bifidobacteria. A significant increase in bifidobacteria concentration was noted with MOS supplementation to diets of senior dogs, thus counteracting the negative effect of age on colonic health.

text: Struvite can be a problem in sewage and waste water treatment, particularly after anaerobic digesters release ammonium and phosphate from waste material. Struvite can form a scale on lines and belts, in centrifuges and pumps, clog system pipes and other equipment including the anaerobic digester itself. Struvite, also referred to as MAP, forms when there is a mole to mole to mole ratio (1:1:1) of magnesium, ammonia and phosphate in the wastewater. The magnesium can be found in soil, seawater as well as drinking water. Ammonia is broken down from the urea in wastewater, and phosphate, which is found through food, soaps and detergents. These elements in place, struvite is more likely to form in a high pH environment, where there is higher conductivity, lower temperatures, and higher concentrations of magnesium, ammonia and phosphate. Recovery of phosphorus from wastestreams as struvite and recycling those nutrients into agriculture as fertilizer appears promising, particularly in agricultural manure and municipal waste water treatment plants.

text: Struvite can be a problem in

text: sewage

text: and waste water treatment, particularly after anaerobic digesters release ammonium and phosphate from waste material. Struvite can form a scale on lines and belts, in centrifuges and pumps, clog system pipes and other equipment including the anaerobic digester itself. Struvite, also referred to as MAP, forms when there is a mole to mole to mole ratio (1:1:1) of magnesium, ammonia and phosphate in the wastewater. The magnesium can be found in soil, seawater as well as drinking water. Ammonia is broken down from the urea in wastewater, and phosphate, which is found through food, soaps and detergents. These elements in place, struvite is more likely to form in a high pH environment, where there is higher conductivity, lower temperatures, and higher concentrations of magnesium, ammonia and phosphate. Recovery of phosphorus from wastestreams as struvite and recycling those nutrients into agriculture as

text: fertilizer

text: appears promising, particularly in agricultural manure and municipal

text: waste water treatment plants

text: While in Ribeirão Preto, Köberle noted that a promising field of research in pathology for the new department and himself could be Chagas disease, or American trypanosomiasis, which had been discovered by another Brazilian physician named Carlos Chagas, in 1910. Even though 40 years had passed since its discovery, little was known about the peculiar manifestations of the chronic phase of the disease, such as megaesophagus, megacolon, cardiomegaly, heart ventricular aneurysm, achalasia, etc., and the mechanism of the causation of these several pathologies. By making good use of the extensive caseload of fatalities due to Chagas disease in the region of Ribeirão Preto and Southern Minas Gerais, where it was endemic and widely prevalent at the time, Köberle studied initially the dilation pathologies of the digestive tract and proved, by extensively quantifying the number of neurons of the autonomic nervous system in the Auerbach's plexus, that: 1) they were strongly reduced all over the digestive tract; 2) that megacolon and megaesophagus appeared only when there was a reduction of over 80% and 55% of the number of neurons, respectively; 3) these pathologies appeared as a result of the disruption of the neurally integrated control of peristalsis (muscular annular contraction) in those parts where a strong force is necessary to impel the luminal bolus of food or feces; and 4) European idiopathic megaesophagus and Chagas megaesophagus appeared to have the same etiology, namely the degeneration of the Auerbach's myoenteric plexus.

text: While in Ribeirão Preto, Köberle noted that a promising field of research in pathology for the new department and himself could be

text: Chagas disease

text: , or American trypanosomiasis, which had been discovered by another Brazilian physician named

text: Carlos Chagas

text: , in 1910. Even though 40 years had passed since its discovery, little was known about the peculiar manifestations of the

text: chronic

text: phase of the disease, such as

text: megaesophagus

text: megacolon

text: cardiomegaly

text: , heart

text: ventricular aneurysm

text: achalasia

text: , etc., and the mechanism of the causation of these several pathologies. By making good use of the extensive caseload of fatalities due to Chagas disease in the region of Ribeirão Preto and Southern

text: Minas Gerais

text: , where it was endemic and widely prevalent at the time, Köberle studied initially the dilation pathologies of the

text: digestive tract

text: and proved, by extensively quantifying the number of

text: neurons

text: of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: in the

text: Auerbach's plexus

text: , that: 1) they were strongly reduced all over the digestive tract; 2) that megacolon and megaesophagus appeared only when there was a reduction of over 80% and 55% of the number of neurons, respectively; 3) these pathologies appeared as a result of the disruption of the neurally integrated control of

text: peristalsis

text: (muscular annular contraction) in those parts where a strong force is necessary to impel the luminal

text: bolus

text: of food or

text: feces

text: ; and 4) European

text: idiopathic

text: megaesophagus

text: and Chagas megaesophagus appeared to have the same

text: etiology

text: , namely the

text: degeneration

text: of the Auerbach's myoenteric plexus.

text: The digest system includes digests for the individual states (except for Delaware, Nevada and Utah).  The U.S. Supreme Court, Bankruptcy Courts, Federal Claims Court, and military courts each have an individual digest, as well as their decisions being included in the Federal Practice Digest with the notes of decisions from the federal District Courts and Courts of Appeals.  Digests are also published for West's National Reporter System. Specialty subject digests exist, such as the Education Law Digest, and the Social Security Digest.

text: The digest system includes digests for the individual states (except for Delaware, Nevada and Utah).  The U.S. Supreme Court, Bankruptcy Courts, Federal Claims Court, and military courts each have an individual digest, as well as their decisions being included in the Federal Practice Digest with the notes of decisions from the federal

text: District Courts

text: and

text: Courts of Appeals

text: .  Digests are also published for West's

text: National Reporter System

text: . Specialty subject digests exist, such as the Education Law Digest, and the Social Security Digest.

text: The feces of animals often are used as fertilizer; see guano and manure. In northern Thailand, elephants are used to digest coffee beans in order to make Black Ivory coffee, which is among the world's most expensive coffees. Human feces also may be used as fertilizer (reuse of excreta in agriculture), and it has been known as night soil.

text: The feces of animals often are used as

text: fertilizer

text: ; see

text: guano

text: and

text: manure

text: . In northern

text: Thailand

text: , elephants are used to digest coffee beans in order to make

text: Black Ivory coffee

text: , which is among the world's most expensive coffees. Human feces also may be used as

text: fertilizer

text: reuse of excreta

text: in agriculture), and it has been known as

text: night soil

text: Lime and wood ash both have the advantage of raising the pH value of the feces pile, thus adding to  the pathogen killing abilities.

text: The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes and bile from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin, which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients. Secretin, another hormone produced in the small intestine, causes additional effects on the pancreas, where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach.

text: The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the

text: digestive enzyme

text: s that act in the small intestine are secreted by the

text: pancreas

text: and

text: liver

text: and enter the small intestine via the

text: pancreatic duct

text: . Pancreatic enzymes and

text: bile

text: from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone

text: cholecystokinin

text: , which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients.

text: Secretin

text: , another hormone produced in the small intestine, causes additional effects on the pancreas, where it promotes the release of

text: bicarbonate

text: into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach.

text: Dinosaur evolution after the Triassic follows changes in vegetation and the location of continents. In the late Triassic and early Jurassic, the continents were connected as the single landmass Pangaea, and there was a worldwide dinosaur fauna mostly composed of coelophysoid carnivores and early sauropodomorph herbivores. Gymnosperm plants (particularly conifers), a potential food source, radiated in the late Triassic. Early sauropodomorphs did not have sophisticated mechanisms for processing food in the mouth, and so must have employed other means of breaking down food farther along the digestive tract. The general homogeneity of dinosaurian faunas continued into the middle and late Jurassic, where most localities had predators consisting of ceratosaurians, spinosauroids, and carnosaurians, and herbivores consisting of stegosaurian ornithischians and large sauropods. Examples of this include the Morrison Formation of North America and Tendaguru Beds of Tanzania. Dinosaurs in China show some differences, with specialized sinraptorid theropods and unusual, long-necked sauropods like Mamenchisaurus. Ankylosaurians and ornithopods were also becoming more common, but prosauropods had become extinct. Conifers and pteridophytes were the most common plants. Sauropods, like the earlier prosauropods, were not oral processors, but ornithischians were evolving various means of dealing with food in the mouth, including potential cheek-like organs to keep food in the mouth, and jaw motions to grind food. Another notable evolutionary event of the Jurassic was the appearance of true birds, descended from maniraptoran coelurosaurians.

text: Dinosaur evolution after the Triassic follows changes in vegetation and the location of continents. In the late Triassic and early Jurassic, the continents were connected as the single landmass

text: Pangaea

text: , and there was a worldwide dinosaur fauna mostly composed of

text: coelophysoid

text: carnivore

text: s and early

text: sauropodomorph

text: herbivore

text: s.

text: Gymnosperm

text: plants (particularly

text: conifer

text: s), a potential food source, radiated in the late Triassic. Early sauropodomorphs did not have sophisticated mechanisms for processing food in the mouth, and so must have employed other means of breaking down food farther along the digestive tract. The general homogeneity of dinosaurian faunas continued into the middle and late Jurassic, where most localities had predators consisting of

text: ceratosauria

text: ns,

text: spinosauroids

text: , and

text: carnosauria

text: ns, and herbivores consisting of

text: stegosauria

text: n ornithischians and large sauropods. Examples of this include the

text: Morrison Formation

text: of North America and

text: Tendaguru Beds

text: of Tanzania. Dinosaurs in China show some differences, with specialized

text: sinraptorid

text: theropods and unusual, long-necked sauropods like

text: Mamenchisaurus

text: Ankylosauria

text: ns and

text: ornithopods

text: were also becoming more common, but

text: prosauropods

text: had become extinct. Conifers and

text: pteridophyte

text: s were the most common plants. Sauropods, like the earlier prosauropods, were not oral processors, but ornithischians were evolving various means of dealing with food in the mouth, including potential

text: cheek

text: -like organs to keep food in the mouth, and jaw motions to grind food. Another notable evolutionary event of the Jurassic was the appearance of true birds, descended from

text: maniraptora

text: n

text: coelurosauria

text: ns.

text: Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a condition in which the digestive acid in the stomach comes in contact with the esophagus. The irritation caused by this disorder is known as heartburn. Long-term contact between gastric acids and the esophagus can cause permanent damage to the esophagus. Esomeprazole reduces the production of digestive acids, thus minimizing their effect on the esophagus.

text: Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a condition in which the digestive acid in the stomach comes in contact with the

text: esophagus

text: . The irritation caused by this disorder is known as

text: heartburn

text: . Long-term contact between gastric acids and the esophagus can cause permanent damage to the esophagus. Esomeprazole reduces the production of digestive acids, thus minimizing their effect on the esophagus.

text: Common foods involved include cow's milk, peanuts, eggs, shellfish, tree nuts, wheat, rice, and fruit. The common allergies in a region vary depending on the country. Risk factors include a family history of allergies, vitamin D deficiency, obesity, and high levels of cleanliness. Allergies occur when immunoglobulin E (IgE), part of the body's immune system, binds to food molecules. A protein in the food is usually the problem. This triggers the release of inflammatory chemicals such as histamine. Diagnosis is usually based on a medical history, elimination diet, skin prick test, blood tests for food-specific IgE antibodies, or oral food challenge.

text: Common foods involved include

text: cow's milk

text: peanut

text: s,

text: eggs

text: shellfish

text: tree nuts

text: , wheat,

text: rice

text: , and

text: fruit

text: . The common allergies in a region vary depending on the country. Risk factors include a family history of

text: allergies

text: vitamin D deficiency

text: obesity

text: , and high levels of cleanliness. Allergies occur when

text: immunoglobulin E

text: (IgE), part of the body's immune system, binds to food molecules. A

text: protein

text: in the food is usually the problem. This triggers the release of inflammatory chemicals such as

text: histamine

text: . Diagnosis is usually based on a

text: medical history

text: elimination diet

text: skin prick test

text: , blood tests for food-specific IgE

text: antibodies

text: , or

text: oral food challenge

text: In the small intestine, local stimulation of the intestinal smooth muscle by the presence of food particles causes contractions that tend to travel from the stimulated point in both directions. Under normal circumstances, the progress of the contractions in an oral direction is quickly inhibited, while the contractions travelling away from the mouth tend to persist. If the intestine is paralyzed by applying such drugs as nicotine or cocaine to the intestinal wall, the contractions initiated by local stimulations travel equally well in both directions. Ordinarily, peristaltic waves appear in the small intestine at irregular intervals and travel for varying distances; some travel only a few inches, others a few feet. They serve to expose food to the intestinal wall for absorption and to move it forward.

text: In the

text: small intestine

text: , local stimulation of the intestinal smooth muscle by the presence of food particles causes contractions that tend to travel from the stimulated point in both directions. Under normal circumstances, the progress of the contractions in an oral direction is quickly inhibited, while the contractions travelling away from the mouth tend to persist. If the intestine is paralyzed by applying such drugs as nicotine or cocaine to the intestinal wall, the contractions initiated by local stimulations travel equally well in both directions. Ordinarily, peristaltic waves appear in the small intestine at irregular intervals and travel for varying distances; some travel only a few inches, others a few feet. They serve to expose food to the intestinal wall for absorption and to move it forward.

text: The process that preserves the feces in a way such that they can be analyzed later is called the Maillard reaction. This reaction creates a casing of sugar that preserves the feces from the elements. To extract and analyze the information contained within, researchers generally have to freeze the feces and grind it up into powder for analysis.

text: The process that preserves the feces in a way such that they can be analyzed later is called the

text: Maillard reaction

text: . This reaction creates a casing of sugar that preserves the feces from the elements. To extract and analyze the information contained within, researchers generally have to freeze the feces and grind it up into powder for analysis.

text: Encopresis: The most common cause of Encopresis is constipation.  When a child becomes constipated, feces build up in and stretch the rectum.  This stretching causes the nerve endings to become dull.  The child may not feel when he or she needs to eliminate the feces or if the waste is coming out.  Inside the rectum, the feces could become too large or solid to eliminate without feeling pain.  While the mass of feces is stuck in the child's rectum, liquid feces could leak from around the mass and out of the child's body.  The main causes of constipation are diet, lack of sufficient amounts of water, stress, not enough exercise, and inconsistent bathroom routines.

text: Cutaneous anthrax infection in humans shows up as a boil-like skin lesion that eventually forms an ulcer with a black center (eschar), often beginning as an irritating and itchy skin lesion or blister that is dark and usually concentrated as a black dot. Cutaneous infections generally form within the site of spore penetration between two and five days after exposure. Without treatment about 20% of cutaneous skin infection cases progress to toxemia and death. Respiratory infection in humans initially presents with cold or flu-like symptoms for several days, followed by severe (and often fatal) respiratory collapse. Historical mortality was 92%. Gastrointestinal infection in humans is most often caused by eating anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by serious gastrointestinal difficulty, vomiting of blood, severe diarrhea, acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, and loss of appetite. After the bacteria invades the bowel system, it spreads through the bloodstream throughout the body, making more toxins on the way.

text: Cutaneous anthrax infection in humans shows up as a boil-like skin lesion that eventually forms an ulcer with a black center (

text: eschar

text: ), often beginning as an irritating and itchy skin lesion or blister that is dark and usually concentrated as a black dot. Cutaneous infections generally form within the site of spore penetration between two and five days after exposure. Without treatment about 20% of cutaneous skin infection cases progress to

text: toxemia

text: and death. Respiratory infection in humans initially presents with cold or

text: flu-like symptoms

text: for several days, followed by severe (and often fatal) respiratory collapse. Historical mortality was 92%. Gastrointestinal infection in humans is most often caused by eating anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by serious gastrointestinal difficulty,

text: vomiting

text: of blood, severe diarrhea, acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, and loss of appetite. After the bacteria invades the bowel system, it spreads through the bloodstream throughout the body, making more toxins on the way.

text: A bolometer consists of an absorptive element, such as a thin layer of metal, connected to a thermal reservoir (a body of constant temperature) through a thermal link. The result is that any radiation impinging on the absorptive element raises its temperature above that of the reservoir – the greater the absorbed power, the higher the temperature. The intrinsic thermal time constant, which sets the speed of the detector, is equal to the ratio of the heat capacity of the absorptive element to the thermal conductance between the absorptive element and the reservoir. The temperature change can be measured directly with an attached resistive thermometer, or the resistance of the absorptive element itself can be used as a thermometer. Metal bolometers usually work without cooling. They are produced from thin foils or metal films. Today, most bolometers use semiconductor or superconductor absorptive elements rather than metals. These devices can be operated at cryogenic temperatures, enabling significantly greater sensitivity.

text: A bolometer consists of an absorptive element, such as a thin layer of metal, connected to a thermal reservoir (a body of constant temperature) through a thermal link. The result is that any radiation impinging on the absorptive element raises its temperature above that of the reservoir – the greater the absorbed power, the higher the temperature. The intrinsic thermal time constant, which sets the speed of the detector, is equal to the ratio of the

text: heat capacity

text: of the absorptive element to the

text: thermal conductance

text: between the absorptive element and the reservoir. The temperature change can be measured directly with an attached resistive

text: thermometer

text: , or the resistance of the absorptive element itself can be used as a thermometer. Metal bolometers usually work without cooling. They are produced from thin foils or metal films. Today, most bolometers use

text: semiconductor

text: or

text: superconductor

text: absorptive elements rather than metals. These devices can be operated at

text: cryogenic

text: temperatures, enabling significantly greater sensitivity.

text: The internal circulation reactor (IC reactor) is a form of anaerobic digester. It is primarily designed to treat wastewater. The IC reactor is an evolution of the UASB and EGSB digestion systems. The digester typically produces biogas with a high concentration methane (c80%). In essence the IC to improve digestion rates and gas yields. The foot print for the IC reactor is therefore typically smaller however it is taller due to the increased complexity of the reactor.

text: The internal circulation reactor (IC reactor) is a form of

text: anaerobic digester

text: . It is primarily designed to treat

text: wastewater

text: . The IC reactor is an evolution of the

text: UASB

text: and

text: EGSB

text: digestion systems. The digester typically produces

text: biogas

text: with a high concentration

text: methane

text: (c80%). In essence the IC to improve digestion rates and gas yields. The foot print for the IC reactor is therefore typically smaller however it is taller due to the increased complexity of the reactor.

text: The pancreas  is a glandular organ in the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdominal cavity behind the stomach.  It is an endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide which circulate in the blood.  The pancreas is also a digestive organ, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that assist digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.

text: The pancreas  is a

text: gland

text: ular

text: organ

text: in the

text: digestive system

text: and

text: endocrine system

text: of

text: vertebrate

text: s. In humans, it is located in the

text: abdominal cavity

text: behind the

text: stomach

text: .  It is an

text: endocrine gland

text: producing several important

text: hormone

text: s, including

text: insulin

text: glucagon

text: somatostatin

text: , and

text: pancreatic polypeptide

text: which circulate in the blood.  The pancreas is also a digestive organ, secreting

text: pancreatic juice

text: containing

text: digestive enzyme

text: s that assist digestion and absorption of nutrients in the

text: small intestine

text: . These

text: enzyme

text: s help to further break down the

text: carbohydrates

text: protein

text: s, and

text: lipids

text: in the

text: chyme

text: Porocephalus crotali is cylindrical and annulated (having ring-like segments) with 38–40 body segments, a digestive system, centrally located mouth surrounded by four hooks making it seem like it has five mouths — hence the name “pentastomes” .

text: Porocephalus crotali is cylindrical and annulated (having ring-like segments) with 38–40

text: body segment

text: s, a

text: digestive system

text: , centrally located mouth surrounded by four hooks making it seem like it has five mouths — hence the name “pentastomes” .

text: Pepsin is an enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides (that is, a protease). It is produced in the stomach and is one of the main digestive enzymes in the digestive systems of humans and many other animals, where it helps digest the proteins in food.

text: Pepsin is an

text: enzyme

text: that breaks down

text: protein

text: s into smaller

text: peptide

text: s (that is, a

text: protease

text: ). It is produced in the

text: stomach

text: and is one of the main

text: digestive enzyme

text: s in the

text: digestive system

text: s of humans and many other animals, where it helps

text: digest

text: the proteins in

text: food

text: Since this fly tends to lay its eggs in wool, a simple and effective way to reduce the incidence of infection is to shear ewes regularly. Enacting simple sanitary measures can also reduce blow fly strike. Timely and proper disposal of carcasses and proper removal of feces can aid in significantly reducing strike. Moving sheep from warm, humid, and sheltered areas to more open areas can also help to reduce blow fly strike, for this eliminates conditions conducive to fly development. Trapping systems such as sticky paper may also be used to control fly numbers. Treating a flock with chemical agents can be costly, but can aid greatly in maintaining the resistance of the flock to L. sericata. Plunge dipping in diazinon can directly kill the fly on contact. This method works from 3 to 8 weeks in controlling the fly. An alternate chemical method is a pyrethroid pour-on, which  lasts 6 to 10 weeks depending on the type of pyrethroid used. Cryomazine and dicylanil, which are insect growth regulators, are also effective and last from 10 to 16 weeks. Although chemical treatment can be very effective, it is costly, tedious, and takes up valuable time.

text: Since this fly tends to lay its eggs in wool, a simple and effective way to reduce the incidence of infection is to shear ewes regularly. Enacting simple sanitary measures can also reduce blow fly strike. Timely and proper disposal of carcasses and proper removal of

text: feces

text: can aid in significantly reducing strike. Moving sheep from warm, humid, and sheltered areas to more open areas can also help to reduce blow fly strike, for this eliminates conditions conducive to fly development. Trapping systems such as sticky paper may also be used to control fly numbers. Treating a flock with chemical agents can be costly, but can aid greatly in maintaining the resistance of the flock to L. sericata. Plunge dipping in diazinon can directly kill the fly on contact. This method works from 3 to 8 weeks in controlling the fly. An alternate chemical method is a

text: pyrethroid

text: pour-on, which  lasts 6 to 10 weeks depending on the type of pyrethroid used. Cryomazine and dicylanil, which are insect growth regulators, are also effective and last from 10 to 16 weeks. Although chemical treatment can be very effective, it is costly, tedious, and takes up valuable time.

text: Some of the proteins in this family are allergens. Allergies are hypersensitivity reactions of the immune system to specific substances called allergens (such as pollen, stings, drugs, or food) that, in most people, result in no symptoms. A nomenclature system has been established for antigens (allergens) that cause IgE-mediated atopic allergies in humans. This nomenclature system is defined by a designation that is composed of the first threeletters of the genus; a space; the first letter of the species name; a space and an Arabic number. In the event that two species names have identical designations, they are discriminated from one another by adding one or more letters (as necessary) to each species designation.

text: Henricia sanguinolenta has two stomachs, a small intestine, and an rectum leading to an anus. The two stomachs are called the cardiac stomach, and the pyloric stomach. The cardiac stomach is on the oral side, in the center of the disc. It is covered by a thin membrane and sphincter. When the sea star has its prey, it extends the stomach to envelope the prey. Once the prey is enveloped, it then retracts back into the disc, and transfers it to the pyloric stomach for further digestion. The pyloric stomach has two extensions into each arm called the pyloric caeca. These secrete digestive enzymes into the pyloric stomach. Then, the waste is transported through a short intestine, and rectum. The material that is left is secreted through a small anus on the oral side of the disc.

text: Henricia sanguinolenta has two stomachs, a small

text: intestine

text: , and an

text: rectum

text: leading to an

text: anus

text: . The two stomachs are called the cardiac stomach, and the

text: pyloric stomach

text: . The cardiac stomach is on the oral side, in the center of the disc. It is covered by a thin membrane and

text: sphincter

text: . When the sea star has its prey, it extends the stomach to envelope the prey. Once the prey is enveloped, it then retracts back into the disc, and transfers it to the pyloric stomach for further digestion. The pyloric stomach has two extensions into each arm called the

text: pyloric caeca

text: . These secrete digestive

text: enzyme

text: s into the pyloric stomach. Then, the waste is transported through a short intestine, and rectum. The material that is left is secreted through a small anus on the oral side of the disc.

text: In the 1980s, some medical researchers began to explore whether some peptides (including peptides from casein) that are created during digestion might have negative or positive health effects.

text: Inflammation along any portion of the GI tract can lead to colic. This leads to pain and possibly stasis of peristalsis (Ileus), which can cause excessive accumulation of fluid in the gastrointestinal tract. This is a functional rather than mechanical blockage of the intestine, but like the mechanical blockage seen with simple obstructions, it can have serious effects including severe dehydration. Inflammation of the bowel may lead to increased permeability and subsequent endotoxemia. The underlying cause of inflammation may be due to infection, toxin, or trauma, and may require special treatment in order to resolve the colic.

text: Inflammation along any portion of the GI tract can lead to colic. This leads to pain and possibly stasis of

text: peristalsis

text: Ileus

text: ), which can cause excessive accumulation of fluid in the gastrointestinal tract. This is a functional rather than mechanical blockage of the intestine, but like the mechanical blockage seen with simple obstructions, it can have serious effects including severe dehydration. Inflammation of the bowel may lead to increased permeability and subsequent

text: endotoxemia

text: . The underlying cause of inflammation may be due to infection, toxin, or trauma, and may require special treatment in order to resolve the colic.

text: Complying with the demands of his Guru, Yājñavalkya vomited all the knowledge that he acquired from his teacher in the form of digested food. Other disciples of Vaisampayana took the shape of partridges and consumed the digested knowledge  because they were very eager to receive it. There is a metaphor here of knowledge in its simplified form, without the complexities of the whole, but in the simplicity of its parts.

text: Complying with the demands of his

text: Guru

text: , Yājñavalkya vomited all the knowledge that he acquired from his teacher in the form of digested food. Other disciples of

text: Vaisampayana

text: took the shape of

text: partridge

text: s and consumed the digested knowledge  because they were very eager to receive it. There is a metaphor here of knowledge in its simplified form, without the complexities of the whole, but in the simplicity of its parts.

text: The large intestine hosts several kinds of bacteria that can deal with molecules that the human body cannot otherwise break down. This is an example of symbiosis. These bacteria also account for the production of gases at host-pathogen interface, inside our intestine(this gas is released as flatulence when eliminated through the anus). However the large intestine is mainly concerned with the absorption of water from digested material (which is regulated by the hypothalamus) and the re absorption of sodium, as well as any nutrients that may have escaped primary digestion in the ileum.

text: The large intestine hosts several kinds of

text: bacteria

text: that can deal with molecules that the human body cannot otherwise break down. This is an example of

text: symbiosis

text: . These bacteria also account for the production of gases at

text: host-pathogen interface

text: , inside our intestine(this gas is released as

text: flatulence

text: when eliminated through the anus). However the large intestine is mainly concerned with the absorption of water from digested material (which is regulated by the

text: hypothalamus

text: ) and the re absorption of

text: sodium

text: , as well as any nutrients that may have escaped primary digestion in the ileum.

text: Hindgut fermentation is a digestive process seen in monogastric herbivores, animals with a simple, single-chambered stomach.   Cellulose is digested with the aid of symbiotic bacteria. The microbial fermentation occurs in the digestive organs that follow the small intestine: the large intestine and cecum.  Examples of hindgut fermenters include proboscideans and large odd-toed ungulates such as horses and rhinos, as well as small animals such as rodents, rabbits and koalas. In contrast, foregut fermentation is the form of cellulose digestion seen in ruminants such as cattle which have a four-chambered stomach which digests cellulose.

text: Hindgut fermentation is a digestive process seen in

text: monogastric

text: herbivore

text: s, animals with a simple, single-chambered

text: stomach

text: Cellulose

text: is digested with the aid of

text: symbiotic

text: bacteria

text: . The

text: microbial

text: fermentation

text: occurs in the digestive organs that follow the

text: small intestine

text: : the

text: large intestine

text: and

text: cecum

text: .  Examples of

text: hindgut

text: fermenters include

text: proboscidea

text: ns and large

text: odd-toed ungulate

text: s such as

text: horses

text: and

text: rhino

text: s, as well as small animals such as

text: rodent

text: s,

text: rabbits

text: and

text: koala

text: s. In contrast,

text: foregut fermentation

text: is the form of cellulose digestion seen in

text: ruminant

text: s such as

text: cattle

text: which have a four-chambered stomach which digests cellulose.

text: Gastroparesis (GP) (gastro- from Ancient Greek γαστήρ gaster, "stomach" and πάρεσις -paresis, "partial paralysis"), also called delayed gastric emptying, is a medical condition consisting of a paresis (partial paralysis) of the stomach, resulting in food remaining in the stomach for an abnormally long time. Normally, the stomach contracts to move food down into the small intestine for additional digestion. The vagus nerve controls these contractions. Gastroparesis may occur when the vagus nerve is damaged and the muscles of the stomach and intestines do not properly function. Food then moves slowly or stops moving through the digestive tract.

text: Gastroparesis (GP) (

text: gastro-

text: from

text: Ancient Greek

text: γαστήρ gaster, "stomach" and πάρεσις -paresis, "partial paralysis"), also called delayed gastric emptying, is a medical condition consisting of a

text: paresis

text: (partial

text: paralysis

text: ) of the

text: stomach

text: , resulting in food remaining in the stomach for an abnormally long time. Normally, the stomach contracts to move food down into the

text: small intestine

text: for additional digestion. The

text: vagus nerve

text: controls these contractions. Gastroparesis may occur when the vagus nerve is damaged and the muscles of the stomach and intestines do not properly function. Food then moves slowly or stops moving through the digestive tract.

text: Organisms that subsist on dead organic matter or detritus are known as detritivores, and play an important role in ecosystems by recycling organic matter back into a simpler form that plants and other autotrophs may absorb once again. This cycling of matter is known as the biogeochemical cycle. To maintain nutrients in soil it is therefore important that feces return to the area from which they came, which is not always the case in human society where food may be transported from rural areas to urban populations and then feces disposed of into a river or sea.

text: Organisms that subsist on dead organic matter or

text: detritus

text: are known as

text: detritivore

text: s, and play an important role in ecosystems by recycling organic matter back into a simpler form that plants and other

text: autotroph

text: s may absorb once again. This cycling of matter is known as the

text: biogeochemical cycle

text: . To maintain nutrients in soil it is therefore important that feces return to the area from which they came, which is not always the case in human society where food may be transported from rural areas to urban populations and then feces disposed of into a river or sea.

text: There are different routes of administration for antibiotic treatment.  Antibiotics are usually taken by mouth. In more severe cases, particularly deep-seated systemic infections, antibiotics can be given intravenously or by injection. Where the site of infection is easily accessed antibiotics may be given topically in the form of eye drops onto the conjunctiva for conjunctivitis or ear drops for ear infections and acute cases of swimmer's ear.  Topical use is also one of the treatment options for some skin conditions including  acne and cellulitis. Advantages of topical application include achieving high and sustained concentration of antibiotic at the site of infection; reducing the potential for systemic absorption and toxicity, and total volumes of antibiotic required are reduced, thereby also reducing the risk of antibiotic misuse. Topical antibiotics applied over certain types of surgical wounds have been reported to reduce the risk of surgical site infections. However, there are certain general causes for concern with topical administration of antibiotics. Some systemic absorption of the antibiotic may occur; the quantity of antibiotic applied is difficult to accurately dose, and there is also the possibility of local hypersensitivity reactions or contact dermatitis occurring.

text: There are different

text: routes of administration

text: for antibiotic treatment.  Antibiotics are usually

text: taken by mouth

text: . In more severe cases, particularly deep-seated

text: systemic infection

text: s, antibiotics can be given

text: intravenously

text: or by injection. Where the site of infection is easily accessed antibiotics may be given

text: topically

text: in the form of

text: eye drop

text: s onto the

text: conjunctiva

text: for

text: conjunctivitis

text: or

text: ear drop

text: s for ear infections and acute cases of

text: swimmer's ear

text: .  Topical use is also one of the treatment options for some skin conditions including

text: acne

text: and

text: cellulitis

text: . Advantages of topical application include achieving high and sustained concentration of antibiotic at the site of infection; reducing the potential for systemic absorption and toxicity, and total volumes of antibiotic required are reduced, thereby also reducing the risk of antibiotic misuse. Topical antibiotics applied over certain types of surgical wounds have been reported to reduce the risk of surgical site infections. However, there are certain general causes for concern with topical administration of antibiotics. Some systemic absorption of the antibiotic may occur; the quantity of antibiotic applied is difficult to accurately dose, and there is also the possibility of local

text: hypersensitivity

text: reactions or

text: contact dermatitis

text: occurring.

text: Diseases that affect the large intestine may affect it in whole or in part. Appendicitis is one such disease, caused by inflammation of the appendix. Generalised inflammation of the large intestine is referred to as colitis, which when caused be the bacteria Clostridium difficile is referred to as pseudomembranous colitis. Diverticulitis is a common cause of abdominal pain resulting from outpouchings that particularly affects the colon. Functional colonic diseases refer to disorders without a known cause, and include irritable bowel syndrome and intestinal pseudoobstruction. Constipation may result from lifestyle factors, impaction of a rigid stool in the rectum, or in neonates, Hirschprung's disease.

text: Diseases that affect the

text: large intestine

text: may affect it in whole or in part.

text: Appendicitis

text: is one such disease, caused by inflammation of the

text: appendix

text: . Generalised inflammation of the large intestine is referred to as

text: colitis

text: , which when caused be the bacteria

text: Clostridium difficile

text: is referred to as

text: pseudomembranous colitis

text: Diverticulitis

text: is a common cause of abdominal pain resulting from outpouchings that particularly affects the colon.

text: Functional colonic disease

text: s refer to disorders without a known cause, and include

text: irritable bowel syndrome

text: and

text: intestinal pseudoobstruction

text: Constipation

text: may result from lifestyle factors,

text: impaction of a rigid stool

text: in the rectum, or in

text: neonate

text: s,

text: Hirschprung's disease

text: Like all cephalopods, squid have complex digestive systems. The muscular stomach is found roughly in the midpoint of the visceral mass. From there, the bolus moves into the caecum for digestion. The caecum, a long, white organ, is found next to the ovary or testis. In mature squid, more priority is given to reproduction such that the stomach and caecum often shrivel up during the later life stages. Finally, food goes to the liver (or digestive gland), found at the siphon end, for absorption. Solid waste is passed out of the rectum. Beside the rectum is the ink sac, which allows a squid to rapidly discharge black ink into the mantle cavity.

text: Like all cephalopods, squid have complex digestive systems. The muscular

text: stomach

text: is found roughly in the midpoint of the visceral mass. From there, the

text: bolus

text: moves into the

text: caecum

text: for digestion. The caecum, a long, white organ, is found next to the ovary or testis. In mature squid, more priority is given to reproduction such that the stomach and caecum often shrivel up during the later life stages. Finally, food goes to the

text: liver

text: (or digestive gland), found at the siphon end, for absorption. Solid waste is passed out of the

text: rectum

text: . Beside the rectum is the ink sac, which allows a squid to rapidly discharge black ink into the mantle cavity.

text: The initial components of the gastrointestinal tract are the mouth and the pharynx, which is the common passage of the oral and nasal cavities. The pharynx leads to the esophagus, a muscular tube that delivers food to the stomach, where some preliminary digestion occurs; here, the digestion is extracellular.From the stomach, food passes to the small intestine, where a battery of digestive enzymes continue the digestive process. The products of digestion are absorbed across the wall of the intestine into the bloodstream. What remains is emptied into the large intestine, where some of the remaining water and minerals are absorbed; here the digestion is intracellular.In most vertebrates other than mammals, the waste products emerge from the large intestine into a cavity called the cloaca, which also receives the products of the urinary and reproductive systems.

text: The initial components of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: are the mouth and the

text: pharynx

text: , which is the common passage of the oral and nasal cavities. The pharynx leads to the esophagus, a muscular tube that delivers food to the stomach, where some preliminary digestion occurs; here, the digestion is extracellular.From the stomach, food passes to the

text: small intestine

text: , where a battery of digestive enzymes continue the digestive process. The products of digestion are absorbed across the wall of the intestine into the

text: bloodstream

text: . What remains is emptied into the

text: large intestine

text: , where some of the remaining water and minerals are absorbed; here the digestion is intracellular.In most vertebrates other than mammals, the waste products emerge from the large intestine into a cavity called the

text: cloaca

text: , which also receives the products of the urinary and reproductive systems.

text: Bile overload is very rare, and not a health threat. Problems as simple as serious diarrhea may cause blood in one's stool. Black stools caused by the presence of blood usually indicate a problem in the intestines (the black color is a sign of digested blood), whereas red streaks of blood in stool usually are caused by bleeding in the rectum or anus.

text: Bile

text: overload is very rare, and not a health threat. Problems as simple as serious

text: diarrhea

text: may cause blood in one's stool. Black stools caused by the presence of blood usually indicate a problem in the intestines (the black color is a sign of digested blood), whereas red streaks of blood in stool usually are caused by bleeding in the rectum or anus.

text: The Elimination Chase, first used in WWE's version of ECW brand in 2007, is a series of multi-competitor, one fall matches, with the loser of the fall being eliminated from future matches until one competitor remains.

text: The Elimination Chase, first used in WWE's version of

text: ECW brand

text: in 2007, is a series of multi-competitor, one fall matches, with the loser of the fall being eliminated from future matches until one competitor remains.

text: High solids (dry) digesters are designed to process materials with a solids content between 25 and 40%. Unlike wet digesters that process pumpable slurries, high solids (dry – stackable substrate) digesters are designed to process solid substrates without the addition of water. The primary styles of dry digesters are continuous vertical plug flow and batch tunnel horizontal digesters. Continuous vertical plug flow digesters are upright, cylindrical tanks where feedstock is continuously fed into the top of the digester, and flows downward by gravity during digestion. In batch tunnel digesters, the feedstock is deposited in tunnel-like chambers with a gas-tight door. Neither approach has mixing inside the digester. The amount of pretreatment, such as contaminant removal, depends both upon the nature of the waste streams being processed and the desired quality of the digestate. Size reduction (grinding) is beneficial in continuous vertical systems, as it accelerates digestion, while batch systems avoid grinding and instead require structure (e.g. yard waste) to reduce compaction of the stacked pile. Continuous vertical dry digesters have a smaller footprint due to the shorter effective retention time and vertical design. Wet digesters can be designed to operate in either a high-solids content, with a total suspended solids (TSS) concentration greater than ~20%, or a low-solids concentration less than ~15%.

text: total suspended solids

text: (TSS) concentration greater than ~20%, or a low-solids concentration less than ~15%.

text: The largest structure of the digestive system is the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). This starts at the mouth and ends at the anus, covering a distance of about nine (9) metres.

text: The largest structure of the digestive

text: system

text: is the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: (GI tract). This starts at the mouth and ends at the

text: anus

text: , covering a distance of about nine (9) metres.

text: Infliximab (trade names Remicade among others) is a chimeric monoclonal antibody biologic drug that works against tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and is used to treat autoimmune diseases. Infliximab was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and rheumatoid arthritis. It is used off-label outside its FDA approval for Behçet's disease and other conditions. Infliximab is administered by intravenous infusion, typically at six- to eight-week intervals. It cannot be given by mouth because the digestive system would destroy the drug.

text: Infliximab (trade names Remicade among others) is a

text: chimeric

text: monoclonal antibody

text: biologic

text: drug that works against tumor necrosis factor alpha (

text: TNF-α

text: ) and is used to treat

text: autoimmune

text: diseases

text: . Infliximab was approved by the

text: U.S. Food and Drug Administration

text: (FDA) for the treatment of

text: Crohn's disease

text: ulcerative colitis

text: psoriasis

text: psoriatic arthritis

text: ankylosing spondylitis

text: , and

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: . It is used off-label outside its FDA approval for

text: Behçet's disease

text: and other conditions. Infliximab is administered by

text: intravenous infusion

text: , typically at six- to eight-week intervals. It cannot be given

text: by mouth

text: because the

text: digestive system

text: would destroy the drug.

text: Lucinda Bruce-Gardyne is a writer specialising in cookery and food allergies.

text: Lucinda Bruce-Gardyne is a writer specialising in cookery and

text: food allergies

text: Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the faeces of their mother, probably to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to get any nutritional value from many plant components.

text: The following is a partial list of types of anaerobic digesters.  These processes and systems harness anaerobic digestion for purposes such as sewage treatment and biogas generation. Anaerobic digesters can be categorized according to two main criteria: by whether the biomass is fixed to a surface ("attached growth") or can mix freely with the reactor liquid ("suspended growth"); and by the organic loading rate (the influent mass rate of chemical oxygen demand per unit volume).  The widely used UASB reactor, for example, is a suspended-growth high-rate digester, with its biomass clumped into granules that will settle relatively easily and with typical loading rates in the range 5-10 kgCOD/m/d.

text: The following is a partial list of types of anaerobic digesters.  These processes and systems harness

text: anaerobic digestion

text: for purposes such as

text: sewage treatment

text: and

text: biogas

text: generation. Anaerobic digesters can be categorized according to two main criteria: by whether the biomass is fixed to a surface ("attached growth") or can mix freely with the reactor liquid ("suspended growth"); and by the organic loading rate (the influent mass rate of

text: chemical oxygen demand

text: per unit volume).  The widely used

text: UASB

text: reactor, for example, is a suspended-growth high-rate digester, with its biomass clumped into granules that will

text: settle

text: relatively easily and with typical loading rates in the range 5-10 kgCOD/m/d.

text: The autonomic nervous system controls a wide range of involuntary and unconscious body functions.  Its main branches are the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system.  Broadly speaking, the function of the sympathetic nervous system is to mobilize the body for action:  the slogan often used for it is fight-or-flight. The function of the parasympathetic nervous system is to put the body in a state conducive to rest, regeneration, digestion, and reproduction:  it is sometimes described using the slogans "rest and digest" or "feed and breed".  Both branches use acetylcholine, but in different ways.

text: The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: controls a wide range of involuntary and unconscious body functions.  Its main branches are the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: .  Broadly speaking, the function of the sympathetic nervous system is to mobilize the body for action:  the slogan often used for it is

text: fight-or-flight

text: . The function of the parasympathetic nervous system is to put the body in a state conducive to rest, regeneration, digestion, and reproduction:  it is sometimes described using the slogans "rest and digest" or "feed and breed".  Both branches use acetylcholine, but in different ways.

text: The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). In this system, the process of digestion has many stages, the first of which starts in the mouth. Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body.

text: The human digestive system consists of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: plus the accessory organs of digestion (the

text: tongue

text: salivary gland

text: s,

text: pancreas

text: liver

text: , and

text: gallbladder

text: ). In this system, the process of

text: digestion

text: has many stages, the first of which starts in the

text: mouth

text: . Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body.

text: Symphytum officinale roots have been used in the traditional Balkan medicine internally (as tea or tincture) or externally (as ointment, compresses,or alcoholic digestion) for treatment of disorders of the locomotor system and gastrointestinal tract. The leaves and stems have also been used for the treatment of the same disorders, and additionally also for treatment of rheumatism and gout.

text: St. Mark's Hospital (informally St. Mark's) is a hospital located near Harrow in northwest London, England. It is in the northwest corner of the London Borough of Brent, adjacent with the boundary of the London Borough of Harrow. It is the only hospital in the world to specialise entirely in intestinal and colorectal medicine and is a national and international referral centre for intestinal and colorectal disorders. It is the only hospital in the UK, and one of only 14 worldwide, to be recognised as a centre of excellence by the World Organisation of Digestive Endoscopy.

text: St. Mark's Hospital (informally St. Mark's) is a

text: hospital

text: located near

text: Harrow

text: in northwest

text: London

text: England

text: . It is in the northwest corner of the

text: London Borough of Brent

text: , adjacent with the boundary of the

text: London Borough of Harrow

text: . It is the only hospital in the world to specialise entirely in intestinal and colorectal medicine and is a national and international referral centre for intestinal and colorectal disorders. It is the only hospital in the UK, and one of only 14 worldwide, to be recognised as a centre of excellence by the World Organisation of Digestive Endoscopy.

text: There is no cure for food allergy yet, but research is being conducted throughout the world to find a cure or therapies for food allergy. Since the inception of its donor-funded Research Grant Program, FAAN has committed more than $4.6 million to scientists studying various areas of food allergy and anaphylaxis.  FAAN has partnered with the National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases to fund the Exploratory Investigations in Food Allergy program to encourage researchers to move into the field of food allergy. FAAN also initiates research and surveys its members on various quality of life issues.

text: It is due to a type I hypersensitivity reaction of the immune system in susceptible individuals. The allergy is recognized "as one of the most severe food allergies due to its prevalence, persistency, and potential severity of allergic reaction."

text: It is due to a

text: type I hypersensitivity

text: reaction of the

text: immune system

text: in susceptible individuals. The allergy is recognized "as one of the most severe food allergies due to its prevalence, persistency, and potential severity of allergic reaction."

text: In very low birth weight infants (VLBWI), systemic fungus infection is a hospital-acquired infection with serious consequences. The pathogens are usually Candida albicans and Candida parapsilosis. A small percentage of fungal infections are caused by Aspergillus, Zygomycetes, Malassezia, and Trichosporon. Infection is usually late-onset. Up to 9% of VLBWI with birth weights of <1,000 g develop these fungus infections leading to sepsis or meningitis. As many as one-third of these infants can die. Candidiasis is associated with retinopathy, prematurity and negative neurodevelopmental consequences. Candida can colonize the gastrointestinal tract of low birthweight infants (LBI). This gastrointestinal colonization is often a precursor to a more serious invasive infection. The risk of serious candida infection increases when multiple factors are present. These are: thrombocytopenia, the presence of candidal dermatitis, the use of systemic steroids, birth weights of <1,000 g, presence of a central catheter, postponing enteral feeding, vaginal delivery, and the amount of time broad-spectrum antibiotics were given.

text: In very low birth weight infants (VLBWI), systemic fungus infection is a

text: hospital-acquired infection

text: with serious consequences. The pathogens are usually

text: Candida albicans

text: and

text: Candida parapsilosis

text: . A small percentage of fungal infections are caused by

text: Aspergillus

text: Zygomycetes

text: Malassezia

text: , and

text: Trichosporon

text: . Infection is usually late-onset. Up to 9% of VLBWI with birth weights of <1,000 g develop these fungus infections leading to sepsis or meningitis. As many as one-third of these infants can die. Candidiasis is associated with retinopathy, prematurity and negative neurodevelopmental consequences. Candida can colonize the gastrointestinal tract of low birthweight infants (LBI). This gastrointestinal colonization is often a precursor to a more serious invasive infection. The risk of serious candida infection increases when multiple factors are present. These are:

text: thrombocytopenia

text: , the presence of candidal dermatitis, the use of systemic steroids, birth weights of <1,000 g, presence of a central catheter, postponing enteral feeding, vaginal delivery, and the amount of time broad-spectrum antibiotics were given.

text: To enable the absorption of sufficient amounts of water and heat, the expiratory stream of respiratory gas must be fully filtered through the HME. Leakages in the system, such as may be caused by bronchial fistulae, will render this system less effective. Other negative effects of this technology include increased secretions (i.e. mucus) and nosebleeds, either or which may clog an HME. In such cases, the application of active respiratory gas humidifiers is recommended.

text: Nearly all starfish are detritivores or carnivores, though a few are suspension feeders. Small fish landing on the upper surface may be captured by pedicilaria and dead animal matter may be scavenged but the main prey items are living invertebrates, mostly bivalve molluscs. To feed on one of these, the starfish moves over it, attaches its tube feet and exerts pressure on the valves by arching its back. When a small gap between the valves is formed, the starfish inserts part of its stomach into the prey, excretes digestive enzymes and slowly liquefies the soft body parts. As the adductor muscle of the shellfish relaxes, more stomach is inserted and when digestion is complete, the stomach is returned to its usual position in the starfish with its now liquefied bivalve meal inside it. The same everted stomach process is used by other starfish to feed on sponges, sea anemones, corals, detritus and algal films.

text: Nearly all starfish are detritivores or carnivores, though a few are suspension feeders. Small fish landing on the upper surface may be captured by pedicilaria and dead animal matter may be scavenged but the main prey items are living invertebrates, mostly bivalve molluscs. To feed on one of these, the starfish moves over it, attaches its tube feet and exerts pressure on the valves by arching its back. When a small gap between the valves is formed, the starfish inserts part of its stomach into the prey, excretes digestive

text: enzyme

text: s and slowly liquefies the soft body parts. As the adductor muscle of the shellfish relaxes, more stomach is inserted and when digestion is complete, the stomach is returned to its usual position in the starfish with its now liquefied bivalve meal inside it. The same everted stomach process is used by other starfish to feed on sponges, sea anemones, corals, detritus and algal films.

text: Alimentary system. A snail breaks up its food using the radula inside its mouth. The radula is a chitinous ribbon-like structure containing rows of microscopic teeth. With this the snail scrapes at food, which is then transferred to the digestive tract. In a very quiet setting, a large land snail can be heard 'crunching' its food: the radula is tearing away at the surface of the food that the snail is eating.

text: Alimentary system. A snail breaks up its food using the

text: radula

text: inside its mouth. The radula is a

text: chitin

text: ous ribbon-like structure containing rows of microscopic teeth. With this the snail scrapes at food, which is then transferred to the

text: digestive tract

text: . In a very quiet setting, a large land snail can be heard 'crunching' its food: the radula is tearing away at the surface of the food that the snail is eating.

text: Foods that are claimed to be negative in calories are mostly low-calorie fruits and vegetables such as celery, grapefruit, lemon, lime, apple, lettuce, broccoli, and cabbage. These foods are not negative-calorie foods. There is no scientific evidence to show that any of these foods have a negative calorific impact. Celery has a thermic effect of around 8%, much less than the 100% or more required for a food to have "negative calories". A stalk of celery provides 6 calories to the body, but the body expends only half of a single calorie digesting it. Even proteins, which require the most energy to digest, have a thermic energy of only 20%–30%. Diets based on negative-calorie food do not work as advertised but can lead to weight loss because they satisfy hunger by filling the stomach with food that is not calorically dense. A 2005 study based on a low-fat plant-based diet found that the average participant lost  over fourteen weeks, and attributed the weight loss to the reduced energy density of the foods resulting from their low fat content and high fiber content, and the increased thermic effect. A study on chewing gum reports mastication burns roughly  per hour.

text: Foods that are claimed to be negative in calories are mostly low-calorie fruits and vegetables such as celery, grapefruit, lemon, lime, apple, lettuce, broccoli, and cabbage. These foods are not negative-calorie foods. There is no scientific evidence to show that any of these foods have a negative calorific impact. Celery has a

text: thermic effect

text: of around 8%, much less than the 100% or more required for a food to have "negative calories". A stalk of celery provides 6 calories to the body, but the body expends only half of a single calorie digesting it. Even proteins, which require the most energy to digest, have a thermic energy of only 20%–30%. Diets based on negative-calorie food do not work as advertised but can lead to weight loss because they satisfy hunger by filling the stomach with food that is not calorically dense. A 2005 study based on a low-fat plant-based diet found that the average participant lost  over fourteen weeks, and attributed the weight loss to the reduced energy density of the foods resulting from their low fat content and high fiber content, and the increased thermic effect. A study on chewing gum reports mastication burns roughly  per hour.

text: Desensitization approaches for food allergies are generally at the research stage.  They include:

text: Desensitization approaches for food

text: allergies

text: are generally at the research stage.  They include:

text: There are several organs and other components involved in the digestion of food. The organs known as the accessory digestive glands are the liver, gall bladder and pancreas. Other components include the mouth, salivary glands, tongue, teeth and epiglottis.

text: There are several organs and other components involved in the digestion of food. The organs known as the accessory digestive glands are the

text: liver

text: gall bladder

text: and

text: pancreas

text: . Other components include the

text: mouth

text: salivary gland

text: s,

text: tongue

text: teeth

text: and

text: epiglottis

text: Many birds possess a muscular pouch along the esophagus called a crop. The crop functions to both soften food and regulate its flow through the system by storing it temporarily. The size and shape of the crop is quite variable among the birds. Members of the order Columbiformes, such as pigeons, produce a nutritious crop milk which is fed to their young by regurgitation. Birds possess a ventriculus, or gizzard, composed of four muscular bands that rotate and crush food by shifting the food from one area to the next within the gizzard. The gizzard of some species contains small pieces of grit or stone swallowed by the bird to aid in the grinding process of digestion, serving the function of mammalian or reptilian teeth. The use of gizzard stones is a similarity between birds and dinosaurs, which left gizzard stones called gastroliths as trace fossils.

text: Many birds possess a muscular pouch along the esophagus called a

text: crop

text: . The crop functions to both soften food and regulate its flow through the system by storing it temporarily. The size and shape of the crop is quite variable among the birds. Members of the order

text: Columbiformes

text: , such as

text: pigeons

text: , produce a nutritious

text: crop milk

text: which is fed to their young by regurgitation. Birds possess a ventriculus, or

text: gizzard

text: , composed of four muscular bands that rotate and crush food by shifting the food from one area to the next within the gizzard. The gizzard of some species contains small pieces of grit or stone swallowed by the bird to aid in the grinding process of

text: digestion

text: , serving the function of mammalian or reptilian teeth. The use of gizzard stones is a similarity between birds and

text: dinosaur

text: s, which left gizzard stones called

text: gastrolith

text: s as

text: trace fossil

text: s.

text: Cattle are ruminants, meaning their digestive system is highly specialized to allow the use of poorly digestible plants as food. Cattle have one stomach with four compartments, the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum, with the rumen being the largest compartment. The reticulum, the smallest compartment, is known as the "honeycomb". Cattle sometimes consume metal objects which are deposited in the reticulum and irritation from the metal objects causes hardware disease. The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The omasum is known as the "many plies". The abomasum is like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the "true stomach".

text: Cattle are

text: ruminant

text: s, meaning their

text: digestive system

text: is highly specialized to allow the use of poorly digestible plants as food. Cattle have one

text: stomach

text: with four compartments, the

text: rumen

text: reticulum

text: omasum

text: , and

text: abomasum

text: , with the rumen being the largest compartment. The reticulum, the smallest compartment, is known as the "honeycomb". Cattle sometimes consume metal objects which are deposited in the reticulum and irritation from the metal objects causes

text: hardware disease

text: . The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The omasum is known as the "many plies". The abomasum is like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the "true stomach".

text: Whereas the word cine () in general usage refers to cinema (that is, a movie) or to certain film formats (cine film) for recording such a movie, in medical usage it refers to cineradiography or, in recent decades, to any digital imaging mode that produces cine-like moving images (for example, newer CT and MRI systems can output to either cine mode or tile mode). Cineradiography records 30-frame-per-second fluoroscopic images of internal organs such as the heart taken during injection of contrast dye to better visualize regions of stenosis, or to record motility in the body's gastrointestinal tract. The predigital technology is being replaced with digital imaging systems. Some of these decrease the frame rate but also decrease the absorbed dose of radiation to the patient. As they improve, frame rates will likely increase.

text: Whereas the word cine () in general usage refers to

text: cinema

text: (that is, a movie) or to certain film formats (

text: cine film

text: ) for recording such a movie, in medical usage it refers to cineradiography or, in recent decades, to any digital imaging mode that produces cine-like moving images (for example, newer CT and MRI systems can output to either cine mode or tile mode). Cineradiography records

text: fluoroscopic images of internal organs such as the heart taken during injection of contrast dye to better visualize regions of

text: stenosis

text: , or to record motility in the body's gastrointestinal tract. The predigital technology is being replaced with

text: digital imaging

text: systems. Some of these decrease the frame rate but also decrease the absorbed dose of radiation to the patient. As they improve, frame rates will likely increase.

text: The overgrowth of bacteria in the small intestine is prevented by various mechanical and chemical factors which include the constant peristaltic movement of contents along the length of the gastrointestinal tract and the antibacterial properties of gastric secretions, pancreatic secretions and bile.It follows that a disruption of any of these factors could lead to bacterial overgrowth and indeed BLS has been found to occur in persons with anatomical anomalies that result in stagnation. BLS has also been associated with achlorhydria, dysmotility, fistulae, and strictures.Due to the disruption of digestive processes by the overgrowth of intestinal bacteria malabsorption of bile salts, fat and fat-soluble vitamins, protein and carbohydrates results in damage to the mucosal lining of the intestine by bacteria or via the production of toxic metabolites.

text: The overgrowth of bacteria in the small intestine is prevented by various mechanical and chemical factors which include the constant peristaltic movement of contents along the length of the gastrointestinal tract and the antibacterial properties of gastric secretions, pancreatic secretions and

text: bile

text: .It follows that a disruption of any of these factors could lead to bacterial overgrowth and indeed BLS has been found to occur in persons with anatomical anomalies that result in stagnation. BLS has also been associated with

text: achlorhydria

text: , dysmotility,

text: fistulae

text: , and

text: strictures

text: .Due to the disruption of digestive processes by the overgrowth of intestinal bacteria malabsorption of bile salts, fat and fat-soluble vitamins, protein and carbohydrates results in damage to the mucosal lining of the intestine by bacteria or via the production of toxic metabolites.

text: By August 1825, Beaumont had been relocated to Fort Niagara in New York, and Alexis St. Martin had come with him. Beaumont recognized that he had in St. Martin an unusual opportunity to observe digestive processes. Dr. Beaumont began to perform experiments on digestion using the stomach of St. Martin. Most of the experiments were conducted by tying a piece of food to a string and inserting it through the hole into St. Martin's stomach. Every few hours, Beaumont would remove the food and observe how well it had been digested. Beaumont also extracted a sample of gastric acid from St. Martin's stomach for analysis. In September, Alexis St. Martin ran away from Dr. Beaumont and moved to Canada, leaving Beaumont to concentrate on his duties as an army surgeon but Dr. Beaumont had him caught to continue to exhibit him. Beaumont also used samples of stomach acid taken out of St. Martin to "digest" bits of food in cups. This led to the important discovery that the stomach acid, and not solely the mashing, pounding and squeezing of the stomach, digests the food into nutrients the stomach can use; in other words, digestion was primarily a chemical process and not a mechanical one.

text: By August 1825, Beaumont had been relocated to

text: Fort Niagara

text: in New York, and Alexis St. Martin had come with him. Beaumont recognized that he had in St. Martin an unusual opportunity to observe digestive processes. Dr. Beaumont began to perform experiments on digestion using the stomach of St. Martin. Most of the experiments were conducted by tying a piece of food to a string and inserting it through the hole into St. Martin's stomach. Every few hours, Beaumont would remove the food and observe how well it had been digested. Beaumont also extracted a sample of

text: gastric acid

text: from St. Martin's stomach for analysis. In September, Alexis St. Martin ran away from Dr. Beaumont and moved to

text: Canada

text: , leaving Beaumont to concentrate on his duties as an army surgeon but Dr. Beaumont had him caught to continue to exhibit him. Beaumont also used samples of stomach acid taken out of St. Martin to "digest" bits of food in cups. This led to the important discovery that the stomach acid, and not solely the mashing, pounding and squeezing of the stomach, digests the food into nutrients the stomach can use; in other words, digestion was primarily a chemical process and not a mechanical one.

text: From a legal perspective, the use of markup language embedded within a mostly legal prose document leads to reduced transaction costs, faster dispute resolution, better enforceability and enhanced transparency.  From a computing perspective, the Ricardian Contract is a software design pattern to digitise paper documents and have them participate within financial transactions such as payments without losing any of the richness of the contracting tradition. Publication of the content and reference to that content by the unique cryptographic message digest eliminates frauds based on multiple presentations.

text: From a legal perspective, the use of

text: markup language

text: embedded within a mostly legal prose document leads to reduced transaction costs, faster dispute resolution, better enforceability and enhanced transparency.  From a computing perspective, the Ricardian Contract is a

text: software design pattern

text: to digitise paper documents and have them participate within financial transactions such as payments without losing any of the richness of the contracting tradition. Publication of the content and reference to that content by the unique

text: cryptographic message digest

text: eliminates frauds based on multiple presentations.

text: Human body parts and excreta are currently used in TCM medicines and are included in its new textbooks and handbooks, such as licorice in human feces, dried human placenta, finger nails, child's urine, hair, and urinary sediments (Hominis Urinae Sedimentum, Ren Zhong Bai). The current consumption of human parts is considered cannibalism by some. Other parts include pubic hair, flesh, blood, bone, semen, and menstrual blood. The Bencao Gangmu describes the use of 35 human waste products and body parts as medicines, such as bones, fingernail, hairs, dandruff, earwax, impurities on the teeth, feces, urine, sweat, and organs. - Also listed are human breath and the "soul of criminals that were hanged", which is considered under TCM to be a material object resembling charcoal that is dug out of the ground beneath the body shortly after a hanged criminal died, but very few human or allegedly human products remain in use today.

text: Human body parts and

text: excreta

text: are currently used in TCM medicines and are included in its new textbooks and handbooks, such as

text: licorice

text: in human

text: feces

text: , dried human

text: placenta

text: , finger nails, child's

text: urine

text: , hair, and urinary sediments (Hominis Urinae Sedimentum, Ren Zhong Bai). The current consumption of human parts is considered

text: cannibalism

text: by some. Other parts include

text: pubic hair

text: flesh

text: blood

text: bone

text: semen

text: , and

text: menstrual blood

text: . The

text: Bencao Gangmu

text: describes the use of 35 human waste products and body parts as medicines, such as bones, fingernail, hairs, dandruff, earwax, impurities on the teeth, feces, urine, sweat, and organs. - Also listed are human

text: breath

text: and the "

text: soul

text: of criminals that were

text: hanged

text: ", which is considered under TCM to be a material object resembling

text: charcoal

text: that is dug out of the ground beneath the body shortly after a hanged criminal died, but very few human or allegedly human products remain in use today.

text: Fructose exists in foods either as a monosaccharide (free fructose) or as a unit of a disaccharide (sucrose). Free fructose is absorbed directly by the intestine. When fructose is consumed in the form of sucrose, it is digested (broken down) and then absorbed as free fructose. As sucrose comes into contact with the membrane of the small intestine, the enzyme sucrase catalyzes the cleavage of sucrose to yield one glucose unit and one fructose unit, which are then each absorbed. After absorption, it enters the hepatic portal vein and is directed toward the liver.

text: Fructose exists in foods either as a monosaccharide (free fructose) or as a unit of a disaccharide (sucrose). Free fructose is absorbed directly by the intestine. When fructose is consumed in the form of sucrose, it is digested (broken down) and then absorbed as free fructose. As sucrose comes into contact with the membrane of the small intestine, the enzyme sucrase catalyzes the cleavage of sucrose to yield one glucose unit and one fructose unit, which are then each absorbed. After absorption, it enters the

text: hepatic portal vein

text: and is directed toward the liver.

text: The Synergistetes is a recently recognized phylum of anaerobic bacteria that show Gram-negative staining and have rod/vibrioid cell shape. Although Synergistetes have a diderm cell envelope,  the genes for various proteins involved in lipopolysaccharides biosynthesis have not yet been detected in Synergistetes, indicating that they may have an atypical outer cell envelope. The Synergistetes inhabit a majority of anaerobic environments including animal gastrointestinal tracts, soil, oil wells, and wastewater treatment plants and they are also present in sites of human diseases such as cysts, abscesses, and areas of periodontal disease. Due to their presence at illness related sites, the Synergistetes are suggested to be opportunistic pathogens but they can also be found in healthy individuals in the microbiome of the umbilicus and in normal vaginal flora. Species within this phylum have also been implicated in periodontal disease, gastrointestinal infections and soft tissue infections. Other species from this phylum have been identified as significant contributors in the degradation of sludge for production of biogas in anaerobic digesters and are potential candidates for use in renewable energy production through their production of hydrogen gas. All of the known Synergistetes species and genera are presently part of a single class (Synergistia), order (Synergistiales) and family (Synergistaceae).

text: The Synergistetes is a recently recognized phylum of anaerobic bacteria that show

text: Gram-negative

text: staining and have rod/vibrioid cell shape. Although Synergistetes have a diderm cell envelope,  the genes for various proteins involved in lipopolysaccharides

text: biosynthesis

text: have not yet been detected in Synergistetes, indicating that they may have an atypical outer cell envelope. The Synergistetes inhabit a majority of anaerobic environments including animal gastrointestinal tracts, soil, oil wells, and wastewater treatment plants and they are also present in sites of human diseases such as cysts, abscesses, and areas of

text: periodontal disease

text: . Due to their presence at illness related sites, the Synergistetes are suggested to be opportunistic pathogens but they can also be found in healthy individuals in the microbiome of the umbilicus and in normal

text: vaginal flora

text: . Species within this phylum have also been implicated in

text: periodontal disease

text: , gastrointestinal infections and soft tissue infections. Other species from this phylum have been identified as significant contributors in the degradation of sludge for production of biogas in anaerobic digesters and are potential candidates for use in renewable energy production through their production of hydrogen gas. All of the known Synergistetes species and genera are presently part of a single class (Synergistia), order (Synergistiales) and family (Synergistaceae).

text: Medically, it is used in the treatment of hypokalemia and associated conditions as an electrolyte replenisher. Brand names include K-Dur, Klor-Con, Micro-K, Slow-K, Sando-K and Kaon Cl, most of which are extended release oral medicines. With a molecular weight of approximately 75 and a valence of 1, the use of KCl for electrolytes makes 75 mg the equivalent of 1 mEq. Oral and intravenous doses for adults are typically in the range of 8 to 20 mEq, which is 600 to 1500 mg of KCl. Side effects can include gastrointestinal discomfort, including nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, and bleeding of the digestive tract. Overdoses cause hyperkalemia, which can lead to paresthesia, cardiac conduction blocks, fibrillation, arrhythmias, and sclerosis. Because of the danger of hyperkalemia, the US FDA limits the amount of potassium supplements to 99 mg (about 1.3 mEq) while recommending an adult daily intake of 4700 mg (about 63 mEq).

text: Medically, it is used in the treatment of

text: hypokalemia

text: and associated conditions as an

text: electrolyte

text: replenisher. Brand names include K-Dur, Klor-Con, Micro-K, Slow-K, Sando-K and Kaon Cl, most of which are

text: extended release

text: oral medicines. With a

text: molecular weight

text: of approximately 75 and a

text: valence

text: of 1, the use of KCl for electrolytes makes 75 mg the equivalent of 1

text: mEq

text: . Oral and intravenous doses for adults are typically in the range of 8 to 20 mEq, which is 600 to 1500 mg of KCl. Side effects can include

text: gastrointestinal

text: discomfort, including

text: nausea

text: and

text: vomiting

text: diarrhea

text: , and

text: bleeding

text: of the digestive tract.

text: Overdose

text: s cause

text: hyperkalemia

text: , which can lead to

text: paresthesia

text: cardiac

text: conduction blocks,

text: fibrillation

text: arrhythmias

text: , and

text: sclerosis

text: . Because of the danger of hyperkalemia, the US

text: FDA

text: limits the amount of potassium supplements to 99 mg (about 1.3 mEq) while

text: recommending

text: an adult daily intake of 4700 mg (about 63 mEq).

text: A Netherland Dwarf needs 2-3 ounces of alfalfa pellets a day and an unlimited amount of timothy hay. As with all rabbits, an important part of the diet should consist of hay and pellets. These should be available at all times and are essential for the rabbits digestive system. Do not give cut grass as it ferments quickly and may cause digestive problems. A small amount of vegetables may be given. Dark leafed vegetables are good. Root vegetables such as carrots and parsnips etc. and fruit are high in sugar and should not be given often or in large amounts. If you wish to feed them fruit, give them low-sugar fruits, like apple. Only certain varieties of lettuce may be given. Romaine and rocket and some of the darker leaf varieties are OK but check first if you are unsure, with a vet or the Rabbit Welfare Assoc. whose knowledge about rabbits is excellent. If in ANY doubt avoid lettuce altogether as feeding unsuitable varieties may affect your rabbits health . Water should be available at all times. A regulated amount of pelleted food should be given. NOT muesli style rabbit food as this can kill a rabbit by upsetting their GI system. Rabbits GI systems are very sensitive and they can easily go into something called GI stasis, from which many don't recover. Sudden changes to a rabbit's diet can cause digestion problems. If you have to change their diet do it slowly over a period of weeks. Incorrect feeding of any rabbit can lead to digestion problems such as diarrhea and gut stasis which can result in serious illness and possibly death. Consult a vet or animal charity for advice if you are in any doubt.

text: The United European Gastroenterology (UEG) is a non-profit organisation combining European societies concerned with digestive health.

text: The United European Gastroenterology (UEG) is a

text: non-profit organisation

text: combining European societies concerned with digestive health.

text: Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease and colloquially referred to as food poisoning) is any illness resulting from the food spoilage of contaminated food, pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food, as well as chemical or natural toxins such as poisonous mushrooms and various species of beans that have not been boiled for at least 10 minutes.

text: Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease and colloquially referred to as food poisoning) is any

text: illness

text: resulting from the food spoilage of

text: contaminated food

text: pathogen

text: ic

text: bacteria

text: virus

text: es, or

text: parasite

text: s that contaminate food, as well as chemical or natural

text: toxin

text: s such as

text: poisonous mushrooms

text: and various species of

text: beans that have not been boiled

text: for at least 10 minutes.

text: The West digest system, used in WestLaw, has allocated several topics in energy law:

text: The West digest system, used in

text: WestLaw

text: , has allocated several topics in energy law:

text: Huating, among other localities in Shanghai, also produces something called "Lu Shu" as the locals name it or "Tian Gan" (甜杆) as people from North China call it. This plant is similar to sugar cane, but has medical benefits in terms of comforting the stomach and facilitating digestion. Almost all local people grow it in the margins of their farmland and it becomes one of the most popular local snack for the young and old alike.

text: Mouth: A kid who has been in Scott's classes since kindergarten. Louden is his real name, but nobody ever mentions him by anything other than Mouth. He is called Mouth because he never stops talking and often finds himself in sticky situations because of this word vomit. He thinks he is always doing what is best but it often will get someone in trouble because he doesn't know better. Due to stress and rejection, Mouth tries to commit suicide by hanging himself, but survives, and is then transferred to a different school.

text: Enterodiol is a lignan formed by the action of intestinal bacteria on lignan precursors found in plants.

text: Enterodiol is a

text: lignan

text: formed by the action of intestinal bacteria on lignan precursors found in plants.

text: Ragwort poses little risk to the livers of humans since, although it is theoretically poisonous to humans,  it is distasteful and is not used as a food. The alkaloids  can be absorbed in small quantities through the skin but studies have shown that the absorption is very much less than by ingestion.  Also they are in the N-oxide form which only becomes toxic after conversion inside the digestive tract and they will be excreted harmlessly.

text: The other main function is that of defense in the immune system. Lymph is very similar to blood plasma: it contains lymphocytes and other white blood cells. It also contains waste products and cellular debris together with bacteria and proteins. Associated organs composed of lymphoid tissue are the sites of  lymphocyte production. Lymphocytes are concentrated in the lymph nodes. The spleen and the thymus are also lymphoid organs of the immune system. The tonsils are lymphoid organs that are also associated with the digestive system.  Lymphoid tissues contain lymphocytes, and also contain other types of cells for support. The system also includes all the structures dedicated to the circulation and production of lymphocytes (the primary cellular component of lymph), which also includes the bone marrow, and the lymphoid tissue associated with the digestive system.

text: The other main function is that of defense in the

text: immune system

text: . Lymph is very similar to blood plasma: it contains

text: lymphocyte

text: s and other white blood cells. It also contains waste products and cellular debris together with

text: bacteria

text: and

text: protein

text: s. Associated

text: organ

text: s composed of lymphoid tissue are the sites of  lymphocyte production. Lymphocytes are concentrated in the

text: lymph node

text: s. The

text: spleen

text: and the

text: thymus

text: are also lymphoid organs of the immune system. The

text: tonsil

text: s are lymphoid organs that are also associated with the

text: digestive system

text: .  Lymphoid tissues contain

text: lymphocyte

text: s, and also contain other types of cells for support. The system also includes all the structures dedicated to the circulation and production of lymphocytes (the primary cellular component of

text: lymph

text: ), which also includes the

text: bone marrow

text: , and the lymphoid tissue associated with the digestive system.

text: PXE may affect the gastrointestinal and cardiovascular systems. In the digestive tract, the principal symptom is gastrointestinal bleeding, usually from the stomach. This occurs in very small number of patients. In the circulatory system, intermittent claudication (leg pain during walking which resolves at rest) is a prominent feature, although at later stages coronary artery disease may develop, leading to angina and myocardial infarction (heart attack) may occur.

text: PXE may affect the gastrointestinal and cardiovascular systems. In the digestive tract, the principal symptom is

text: gastrointestinal bleeding

text: , usually from the

text: stomach

text: . This occurs in very small number of patients. In the circulatory system,

text: intermittent claudication

text: (leg pain during walking which resolves at rest) is a prominent feature, although at later stages

text: coronary artery disease

text: may develop, leading to

text: angina

text: and

text: myocardial infarction

text: (heart attack) may occur.

text: Specialty professional organizations which specialize in digestive problems advise that many patients with Barrett's esophagus are too frequently receiving endoscopies. Such societies recommend that patients with Barrett's esophagus and no cancer symptoms after two biopsies receive biopsies as indicated and no more often than the recommended rate.

text: Specialty

text: professional organizations

text: which specialize in digestive problems advise that many patients with

text: Barrett's esophagus

text: are too frequently receiving endoscopies. Such societies recommend that patients with Barrett's esophagus and no cancer symptoms after two biopsies receive biopsies as indicated and no more often than the recommended rate.

text: An esophageal stent is a stent (tube) placed in the esophagus to keep a blocked area open so the patient can swallow soft food and liquids.  Esophageal stents may be self-expandable metallic stents, or made of plastic, or silicone, and may be used in the treatment of esophageal cancer.

text: An esophageal stent is a

text: stent

text: (tube) placed in the

text: esophagus

text: to keep a blocked area open so the patient can

text: swallow

text: soft food and liquids.  Esophageal stents may be

text: self-expandable metallic stent

text: s, or made of

text: plastic

text: , or

text: silicone

text: , and may be used in the treatment of

text: esophageal cancer

text: The last part of the small intestine is the ileum. This also contains villi and vitamin B12; bile acids and any residue nutrients are absorbed here. When the chyme is exhausted of its nutrients the remaining waste material changes into the semi-solids called feces, which pass to the large intestine, where bacteria in the gut flora further break down residual proteins and starches.

text: The last part of the small intestine is the ileum. This also contains villi and

text: vitamin B12

text: ; bile acids and any residue nutrients are absorbed here. When the chyme is exhausted of its nutrients the remaining waste material changes into the semi-solids called feces, which pass to the large intestine, where bacteria in the

text: gut flora

text: further break down residual proteins and starches.

text: The microbial composition of the gut flora varies across the digestive tract. In the stomach and small intestine, relatively few species of bacteria are generally present. The colon, in contrast, contains a densely-populated microbial ecosystem with up to 10 cells per gram of intestinal content. These bacteria represent between 300 and 1000 different species. However, 99% of the bacteria come from about 30 or 40 species. As a consequence of their abundance in the intestine, bacteria also make up to 60% of the dry mass of feces. Fungi, archaea, and viruses are also present in the gut flora, but less is known about their activities.

text: The microbial composition of the gut flora varies across the digestive tract. In the

text: stomach

text: and

text: small intestine

text: , relatively few species of bacteria are generally present. The

text: colon

text: , in contrast, contains a densely-populated microbial ecosystem with up to 10 cells per gram of intestinal content. These bacteria represent between 300 and 1000 different

text: species

text: . However, 99% of the bacteria come from about 30 or 40 species. As a consequence of their abundance in the intestine, bacteria also make up to 60% of the dry mass of

text: feces

text: Fungi

text: archaea

text: , and

text: virus

text: es are also present in the gut flora, but less is known about their activities.

text: Dietary fats and lipids are usually efficiently digested and over 90% absorbed. Impaired digestion or absorption can result in fatty stools.  Possible causes include exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, with poor digestion from lack of lipases, loss of bile salts, which reduces micelle formation, and small intestinal disease producing malabsorption.  Various other causes including certain medicines that block fat absorption, or indigestible or excess oil/fat in diet.

text: Dietary fats and lipids are usually efficiently

text: digested

text: and over 90% absorbed. Impaired digestion or absorption can result in fatty stools.  Possible causes include

text: exocrine pancreatic insufficiency

text: , with poor digestion from lack of

text: lipases

text: , loss of

text: bile salts

text: , which reduces

text: micelle

text: formation, and small intestinal disease producing

text: malabsorption

text: .  Various other causes including certain medicines that block fat absorption, or indigestible or excess oil/fat in diet.

text: As predators, centipedes mainly use their antennae to seek out their prey. The digestive tract forms a simple tube, with digestive glands attached to the mouthparts. Like insects, centipedes breathe through a tracheal system, typically with a single opening, or spiracle on each body segment. They excrete waste through a single pair of malpighian tubules.

text: As predators, centipedes mainly use their antennae to seek out their prey. The digestive tract forms a simple tube, with digestive glands attached to the mouthparts. Like insects, centipedes breathe through a

text: tracheal system

text: , typically with a single opening, or

text: spiracle

text: on each body segment. They excrete waste through a single pair of

text: malpighian tubule

text: s.

text: Echinoderms possess a simple digestive system which varies according to the animal's diet. Starfish are mostly carnivorous and have a mouth, oesophagus, two-part stomach, intestine and rectum, with the anus located in the centre of the aboral body surface. In many species, the large cardiac stomach can be everted and digest food outside the body. In other species, whole food items such as molluscs may be ingested. Brittle stars have a blind gut with no intestine or anus. They have varying diets and expel food waste through their mouth. Sea urchins are herbivores and use their specialised mouthparts to graze, tear and chew algae and sometimes other animal or vegetable material. They have an oesophagus, a large stomach and a rectum with the anus at the apex of the test. Sea cucumbers are mostly detritivores, sorting through the sediment with their buccal tentacles which are modified tube feet. Sand and mud accompanies their food through their simple gut which has a long coiled intestine and a capacious cloaca. Crinoids are passive suspension feeders, catching plankton with their outstretched arms. Boluses of mucus-trapped food are passed to the mouth which is linked to the anus by a loop consisting of a short oesophagus and longer intestine.

text: Echinoderms possess a simple digestive system which varies according to the animal's diet. Starfish are mostly carnivorous and have a mouth, oesophagus, two-part stomach, intestine and rectum, with the anus located in the centre of the aboral body surface. In many species, the large cardiac stomach can be everted and digest food outside the body. In other species, whole food items such as

text: mollusc

text: s may be ingested. Brittle stars have a blind gut with no intestine or anus. They have varying diets and expel food waste through their mouth. Sea urchins are herbivores and use their specialised mouthparts to graze, tear and chew

text: algae

text: and sometimes other animal or vegetable material. They have an oesophagus, a large stomach and a rectum with the anus at the apex of the test. Sea cucumbers are mostly

text: detritivore

text: s, sorting through the sediment with their buccal tentacles which are modified tube feet. Sand and mud accompanies their food through their simple gut which has a long coiled intestine and a capacious

text: cloaca

text: . Crinoids are passive

text: suspension feeder

text: s, catching

text: plankton

text: with their outstretched arms. Boluses of mucus-trapped food are passed to the mouth which is linked to the anus by a loop consisting of a short oesophagus and longer intestine.

text: Like the eutherian ruminants of the Northern Hemisphere (sheep, cattle, and so on), macropods have specialised digestive systems that use a high concentration of bacteria, protozoans, and fungi in the first chamber of a complex stomach to digest plant material. The details of organisation are quite different, but the end result is somewhat similar.

text: Like the

text: eutheria

text: n

text: ruminant

text: s of the Northern Hemisphere (sheep, cattle, and so on), macropods have specialised digestive systems that use a high concentration of

text: bacteria

text: , protozoans, and fungi in the first chamber of a complex stomach to digest plant material. The details of organisation are quite different, but the end result is somewhat similar.

text: On 5 December 2011 they released the first 7" single "Allergies" from their third album 'Wildlife' on the Too Pure Label. The single was produced by Gruff Rhys who also appeared in the video (produced by Casey Raymond). Allergies won the vote in Steve Lamacq's round table on 6 music and also won Steve Lamacq's rebel playlist with 82% of the public vote. The single sold out before release date and received airplay from both 6 music and Radio 1."Food", the second single from their then forthcoming album Wildlife, was released on 14 May 2012. Following its release Cornershop's Tjinder Singh remixed the track for release on his own Ample Play label.

text: On 5 December 2011 they released the first 7" single "Allergies" from their third album 'Wildlife' on the

text: Too Pure

text: Label. The single was produced by

text: Gruff Rhys

text: who also appeared in the video (produced by Casey Raymond). Allergies won the vote in

text: Steve Lamacq

text: 's round table on 6 music and also won

text: Steve Lamacq

text: 's rebel playlist with 82% of the public vote. The single sold out before release date and received airplay from both 6 music and Radio 1."Food", the second single from their then forthcoming album Wildlife, was released on 14 May 2012. Following its release

text: Cornershop

text: 's

text: Tjinder Singh

text: remixed the track for release on his own

text: Ample Play

text: label.

text: Human feces can in principal also be dried and used as a fuel source if they are collected in a type of dry toilet, for example an incinerating toilet. Since 2011, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation is supporting the development of such toilets as part of their "Reinvent the Toilet Challenge" to promote safer, more effective ways to treat human excreta. The omni-processor is another example of using human feces contained in faecal sludge or sewage sludge as a fuel source.

text: Human feces

text: can in principal also be dried and used as a fuel source if they are collected in a type of

text: dry toilet

text: , for example an

text: incinerating toilet

text: . Since 2011, the

text: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

text: is supporting the development of such toilets as part of their "Reinvent the Toilet Challenge" to promote safer, more effective ways to treat human

text: excreta

text: . The

text: omni-processor

text: is another example of using human feces contained in

text: faecal sludge

text: or

text: sewage sludge

text: as a fuel source.

text: In most respects, antilocaprids resemble other ruminants. They have a complex, four-chambered stomach for digesting tough plant matter, cloven hooves, and are similar in body shape to antelopes. Their horns resemble those of the bovids, in that they have a true horny sheath, but, uniquely, they are shed outside of the breeding season, and subsequently regrown. Their lateral toes are even further diminished than in bovids, with the digits themselves being entirely lost, and only the cannon bones remaining. Antilocaprids have the same dental formula as most other ruminants:

text: In most respects, antilocaprids resemble other ruminants. They have a complex, four-chambered stomach for digesting tough plant matter,

text: cloven hooves

text: , and are similar in body shape to antelopes. Their horns resemble those of the

text: bovid

text: s, in that they have a true horny sheath, but, uniquely, they are shed outside of the breeding season, and subsequently regrown. Their lateral toes are even further diminished than in bovids, with the digits themselves being entirely lost, and only the

text: cannon bone

text: s remaining. Antilocaprids have the same

text: dental formula

text: as most other ruminants:

text: Food is ingested through the mouth and when swallowed passes first into the pharynx and then into the esophagus. The esophagus is thus one of the first components of the digestive system and the gastrointestinal tract. After food passes through the esophagus, it enters the stomach. When food is being swallowed, the epiglottis moves backward to cover the larynx, preventing food from entering the trachea. At the same time, the upper esophageal sphincter relaxes, allowing a bolus of food to enter. Peristaltic contractions of the esophageal muscle push the food down the esophagus. These rhythmic contractions occur both as a reflex response to food that is in the mouth, and also as a response to the sensation of food within the esophagus itself. Along with peristalsis, the lower esophageal sphincter relaxes.

text: Food is

text: ingested

text: through the

text: mouth

text: and when

text: swallowed

text: passes first into the

text: pharynx

text: and then into the esophagus. The esophagus is thus one of the first components of the

text: digestive system

text: and the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . After food passes through the esophagus, it enters the stomach. When food is being swallowed, the

text: epiglottis

text: moves backward to cover the

text: larynx

text: , preventing food from entering the

text: trachea

text: . At the same time, the upper esophageal sphincter relaxes, allowing a

text: bolus

text: of food to enter.

text: Peristaltic

text: contractions of the esophageal muscle push the food down the esophagus. These rhythmic contractions occur both as a reflex response to food that is in the mouth, and also as a response to the sensation of food within the esophagus itself. Along with peristalsis, the lower esophageal sphincter relaxes.

text: Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine.  The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids.  Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of  fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules.

text: Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where

text: lingual lipase

text: breaks down some short chain lipids into

text: diglyceride

text: s. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine.  The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of

text: pancreatic lipase

text: from the pancreas and

text: bile

text: from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of

text: fatty acids

text: .  Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a

text: triglyceride

text: ) results a mixture of  fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free

text: glycerol

text: molecules.

text: In 1994, Peter B. Cotton formed the Digestive Disease Center at the Medical University of South Carolina. The center specializes in the management and treatment of digestive diseases. In 2012, it was the first hospital in South Carolina to perform the new LINX Reflux Management System treatment for patients with GERD.

text: In 1994,

text: Peter B. Cotton

text: formed the Digestive Disease Center at the Medical University of South Carolina. The center specializes in the management and treatment of digestive diseases. In 2012, it was the first hospital in South Carolina to perform the new LINX Reflux Management System treatment for patients with

text: GERD

text: A core feature of absorption is an experience of focused attention wherein: "objects of absorbed attention acquire an importance and intimacy that are normally reserved for the self and may, therefore, acquire a temporary self-like quality. These object identifications have mystical overtones." This capacity for focused attention facilitates the experience of altered states of consciousness. In addition to individual differences in hypnotizability, absorption is associated with differential responses to other procedures for inducing altered states of consciousness, including meditation, marijuana use, and biofeedback. A review of studies on differential response to the drug psilocybin found that absorption had the largest effect of all the psychological variables assessed on the intensity of individual experiences of altered states of consciousness. Absorption was strongly associated with overall consciousness alteration and with mystical-type experiences and visual effects induced by psilocybin. Researchers have suggested that individual differences in both absorption and responsiveness to hallucinogenic drugs could be related to the binding potential of serotonin receptors (specifically 5-HT) which are the main site of action of classic hallucinogens, such as LSD and psilocybin.

text: A core feature of absorption is an experience of focused attention wherein: "objects of absorbed attention acquire an importance and intimacy that are normally reserved for the self and may, therefore, acquire a temporary self-like quality. These object identifications have mystical overtones." This capacity for focused attention facilitates the experience of altered states of consciousness. In addition to individual differences in hypnotizability, absorption is associated with differential responses to other procedures for inducing altered states of consciousness, including

text: meditation

text: marijuana

text: use, and

text: biofeedback

text: . A review of studies on differential response to the drug

text: psilocybin

text: found that absorption had the largest effect of all the psychological variables assessed on the intensity of individual experiences of altered states of consciousness. Absorption was strongly associated with overall consciousness alteration and with mystical-type experiences and visual effects induced by psilocybin. Researchers have suggested that individual differences in both absorption and responsiveness to hallucinogenic drugs could be related to the binding potential of

text: serotonin

text: receptors (specifically

text: ) which are the main site of action of classic hallucinogens, such as

text: LSD

text: and psilocybin.

text: The plant contains calcium oxalate crystals as raphides in all parts, and because of this consumption of the raw plant material results in a powerful burning sensation.  It can cause irritation of the mouth and digestive system, and on rare occasions the swelling of the mouth and throat may be severe enough to affect breathing.

text: The plant contains

text: calcium oxalate

text: crystals as

text: raphide

text: s in all parts, and because of this consumption of the raw plant material results in a powerful burning sensation.  It can cause irritation of the mouth and digestive system, and on rare occasions the swelling of the mouth and throat may be severe enough to affect breathing.

text: Infants are offered a range of foods to provide a balanced diet from around 6 months.  They often begin by picking up and licking or sucking on the piece food, before progressing to eating.  Babies are typically able to begin self-feeding at around 6 months old, although some are ready and will reach for food as early as 5 months and some will wait until 7 or 8 months.  The intention of this process is that it is tailored to suit the individual baby and their personal development.  The 6-month-old guideline provided by the World Health Organization is based on research indicating that the internal digestive system matures when the infant is 4–6 months old.

text: Infant

text: s are offered a range of foods to provide a

text: balanced diet

text: from around 6 months.  They often begin by picking up and

text: licking

text: or sucking on the piece food, before progressing to eating.  Babies are typically able to begin self-feeding at around 6 months old, although some are ready and will reach for food as early as 5 months and some will wait until 7 or 8 months.  The intention of this process is that it is tailored to suit the individual baby and their personal development.  The 6-month-old guideline provided by the

text: World Health Organization

text: is based on research indicating that the

text: internal digestive system

text: matures when the infant is 4–6 months old.

text: When compared with other sugar alcohols, it is also much more difficult for intestinal bacteria to digest, so it is less likely to cause gas or bloating than other polyols, such as maltitol, sorbitol, or lactitol.

text: When compared with other sugar alcohols, it is also much more difficult for intestinal bacteria to digest, so it is less likely to cause gas or bloating than other polyols, such as

text: maltitol

text: sorbitol

text: , or

text: lactitol

text: A mucus layer protects the large intestine from attacks from colonic commensal bacteria.

text: A

text: mucus

text: layer protects the large intestine from attacks from colonic

text: commensal bacteria

text: Digestive enzymes can break casein down into peptides that have some biological activity in cells and in laboratory animals though conclusive causal effects on humans have not been established. Although they have not yet been proven to be formed in the human digestive system, there are associations between serum levels of β -casomorphins and the risk of sudden infant death syndrome, histamine release, stimulation of food intake, specifically high-fat foods, and lymphocytosis.

text: Digestive enzymes

text: can break

text: casein

text: down into

text: peptides

text: that have some biological activity in cells and in laboratory animals though conclusive causal effects on humans have not been established. Although they have not yet been proven to be formed in the human digestive system, there are associations between

text: serum

text: levels of β -casomorphins and the risk of

text: sudden infant death syndrome

text: histamine

text: release, stimulation of food intake, specifically high-fat foods, and

text: lymphocytosis

text: According to in vivo studies with mice, rats and hamsters, tomatine seems to be non-toxic when orally consumed (LD50=500 mg/kg). Complex formation may be the reason why tomatine has a much lower oral toxicity than other glycoalkaloids.  Due to formation of insoluble complexes with sterols, tomatine is eliminated in the feces and only small amounts of tomatine are absorbed by the digestive tract. The amount of plasma LDL cholesterol (low-density lipoprotein) decreases as the amount of dietary tomatine increases. The LD50 value of tomatine when served intravenous is determined to be 18 mg/kg body weight. When administered intraperiotoneal, the LD50 value is equal to 25 mg/kg body weight. Generally, tomatine is less toxic than potato glycoalkaloids.

text: According to in vivo studies with mice, rats and hamsters, tomatine seems to be non-toxic when orally consumed (LD50=500 mg/kg). Complex formation may be the reason why tomatine has a much lower oral toxicity than other

text: glycoalkaloids

text: .  Due to formation of insoluble complexes with

text: sterols

text: , tomatine is eliminated in the feces and only small amounts of tomatine are absorbed by the digestive tract. The amount of plasma

text: LDL cholesterol

text: (low-density lipoprotein) decreases as the amount of dietary tomatine increases. The LD50 value of tomatine when served intravenous is determined to be 18 mg/kg body weight. When administered intraperiotoneal, the LD50 value is equal to 25 mg/kg body weight. Generally, tomatine is less toxic than potato glycoalkaloids.

text: Single board computers were made possible by increasing density of integrated circuits. A single-board configuration reduces a system's overall cost, by reducing the number of circuit boards required, and by eliminating connectors and bus driver circuits that would otherwise be used. By putting all the functions on one board, a smaller overall system can be obtained, for example, as in notebook computers. Connectors are a frequent source of reliability problems, so a single-board system eliminates these problems.

text: Single board computers were made possible by increasing density of

text: integrated circuit

text: s. A single-board configuration reduces a system's overall cost, by reducing the number of circuit boards required, and by eliminating connectors and bus driver circuits that would otherwise be used. By putting all the functions on one board, a smaller overall system can be obtained, for example, as in notebook computers. Connectors are a frequent source of reliability problems, so a single-board system eliminates these problems.

text: Unlike most veins, the portal vein does not drain into the heart. Rather, it is part of a portal venous system that delivers venous blood into another capillary system, the hepatic sinusoids of the liver. In carrying venous blood from the gastrointestinal tract to the liver, the portal vein accomplishes two tasks: it supplies the liver with metabolic substrates and it ensures that substances ingested are first processed by the liver before reaching the systemic circulation. This accomplishes two things.  First, possible toxins that may be ingested can be detoxified by the hepatocytes before they are released into the systemic circulation.  Second, the liver is the first organ to absorb nutrients just taken in by the intestines.  After draining into the liver sinusoids, blood from the liver is drained by the hepatic vein.

text: Unlike most veins, the portal vein does not drain into the

text: heart

text: . Rather, it is part of a

text: portal venous system

text: that delivers venous blood into another

text: capillary system

text: , the

text: hepatic sinusoid

text: s of the liver. In carrying venous blood from the gastrointestinal tract to the liver, the portal vein accomplishes two tasks: it supplies the liver with metabolic substrates and it ensures that substances ingested are first processed by the liver before reaching the

text: systemic circulation

text: . This accomplishes two things.  First, possible toxins that may be ingested can be detoxified by the hepatocytes before they are released into the systemic circulation.  Second, the liver is the first organ to absorb nutrients just taken in by the intestines.  After draining into the liver sinusoids, blood from the liver is drained by the

text: hepatic vein

text: Bacteria that digest plastic have been found in landfills.

text: Philophthalmus gralli reaches sexual maturity in a bird and produces eggs. Fully embryonated eggs are shed into the water from the definitive host’s eyes. Miracidium is induced to hatch when ripe eggs are released from the worm into water. Upon contact with a snail, the miracidium perforates the host epidermis with the aid of secretions and the anterior cilia. It penetrates the snail far enough to release a single rediae. The mother redia localizes in the heart and produces daughter rediae, which migrate to digestive glands to continue its development and produce megalurous cercariae. Cercariae are released from the snail and encyst on aquatic vegetation or other solid objects in the water. The definitive host, which is usually an aquatic bird, becomes infected upon ingestion of metacercariae. Excystment of the metacercariae occurs immediately upon reaching the mouth or crop of the bird and not in the stomach or intestine as in many other digenetic trematodes. Within 3 to 5 hours after ingestion, immature worms may be found in the esophagus, nasal passages, the orbit and the lobes of the lacrimal gland. Humans rarely serve as incidental hosts, but may do so when they ingest metacercariae on aquatic vegetation.

text: The stomach is divided into 2 main sections: a squamous region at the upper 1/3 of the stomach near the cardiac sphincter, and a lower glandular region. These 2 regions are separated by a band of tissue called the margo plicatus. The pH of the stomach contents varies by location. The most dorsal part of the stomach has the highest pH, usually close to 7, dropping to a pH of 3.0–6.0 near the margo plicatus, and reaching as low as 1.5–4.0 in the glandular regions. In foals, pH is uniform since all gastric contents are liquid, and pH rises for a around one hour after milk ingestion.

text: Frogs have maxillary teeth along their upper jaw which are used to hold food before it is swallowed. These teeth are very weak, and cannot be used to chew or catch and harm agile prey. Instead, the frog uses its sticky, cleft tongue to catch flies and other small moving prey. The tongue normally lies coiled in the mouth, free at the back and attached to the mandible at the front. It can be shot out and retracted at great speed. Some frogs have no tongue and just stuff food into their mouths with their hands. The eyes assist in the swallowing of food as they can be retracted through holes in the skull and help push food down the throat. The food then moves through the oesophagus into the stomach where digestive enzymes are added and it is churned up. It then proceeds to the small intestine (duodenum and ileum) where most digestion occurs. Pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, are secreted into the small intestine, where the fluids digest the food and the nutrients are absorbed. The food residue passes into the large intestine where excess water is removed and the wastes are passed out through the cloaca.

text: Frogs have maxillary teeth along their upper jaw which are used to hold food before it is swallowed. These teeth are very weak, and cannot be used to chew or catch and harm agile prey. Instead, the frog uses its sticky, cleft tongue to catch flies and other small moving prey. The tongue normally lies coiled in the mouth, free at the back and attached to the mandible at the front. It can be shot out and retracted at great speed. Some frogs have no tongue and just stuff food into their mouths with their hands. The eyes assist in the swallowing of food as they can be retracted through holes in the skull and help push food down the throat. The food then moves through the oesophagus into the stomach where digestive enzymes are added and it is churned up. It then proceeds to the small intestine (duodenum and ileum) where most digestion occurs. Pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, are secreted into the small intestine, where the fluids digest the food and the nutrients are absorbed. The food residue passes into the large intestine where excess water is removed and the wastes are passed out through the

text: cloaca

text: Gastrointestinal physiology is the branch of human physiology that addresses the physical function of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The function of the GI tract is to process ingested food by mechanical and chemical means, extract nutrients and excrete waste products. The GI tract is composed of the alimentary canal, that runs from the mouth to the anus, as well as the associated glands, chemicals, hormones, and enzymes that assist in digestion.The major processes that occur in the GI tract are: motility, secretion, regulation, digestion and circulation. The proper function and coordination of these processes are vital for maintaining good health by providing for the effective digestion and uptake of nutrients.

text: Gastrointestinal physiology is the branch of

text: human physiology

text: that addresses the physical function of the

text: gastrointestinal (GI) tract

text: . The function of the GI tract is to process ingested food by mechanical and chemical means, extract nutrients and excrete waste products. The GI tract is composed of the alimentary canal, that runs from the mouth to the anus, as well as the associated glands, chemicals, hormones, and enzymes that assist in digestion.The major processes that occur in the GI tract are: motility, secretion, regulation, digestion and circulation. The proper function and coordination of these processes are vital for maintaining good health by providing for the effective digestion and uptake of nutrients.

text: They are about 5–6 ft. long once they reach maturity and they walk and lie horizontally, although they can temporarily stand up on their rearmost four legs, at which point they would be at eye level with average humans. They have four extensible eye-stalks which can turn to give a 360° view of their surroundings.  Their number of legs varies throughout the series, but is generally held to be 12 pairs, or 24 legs. They have no neck or skeleton, due to an immense and highly vulnerable cardiovascular system.  This system is complex, with two hearts and many thin-walled blood vessels near the surface. This, combined with high pressure and a high pulse rate, makes cuts very dangerous; a Kelgian can bleed to death from a minor injury if not controlled. Their skin is thicker than a human's, and they have two mouths, one for their digestive system and one for their respiratory system.  A Kelgian female conceives once in her lifetime, producing two offspring of each gender.  Their speech sounds like a series of hoots and whines to human ears.

text: They are about 5–6 ft. long once they reach maturity and they walk and lie

text: horizontally

text: , although they can temporarily stand up on their rearmost four legs, at which point they would be at eye level with average humans. They have four extensible eye-stalks which can turn to give a 360° view of their surroundings.  Their number of legs varies throughout the series, but is generally held to be 12 pairs, or 24 legs. They have no neck or skeleton, due to an immense and highly vulnerable

text: cardiovascular system

text: .  This system is complex, with two hearts and many thin-walled

text: blood vessels

text: near the surface. This, combined with high pressure and a high pulse rate, makes cuts very dangerous; a Kelgian can bleed to death from a minor injury if not controlled. Their skin is thicker than a human's, and they have two mouths, one for their digestive system and one for their respiratory system.  A Kelgian female conceives once in her lifetime, producing two offspring of each gender.  Their speech sounds like a series of hoots and whines to human ears.

text: Other digest systems exist, including Butterworth's Digest for the United Kingdom (also containing references to cases decided in other Commonwealth countries), the Canadian Abridgment, digests associated with official state reports, such as in California and Wisconsin, and digests associated with topical reporters, such as the Uniform Commercial Code Case Digest. Most of these use a topic and section format, while some, like the U.C.C. Case Digest, use a section format based on the statute or rules being annotated. The A.L.R. Digest, accompanying the American Law Reports, formerly had its own classification system, but was replaced in 2004 by West's American Law Reports Digest, which follows West's topic and key number system.

text: Other digest systems exist, including Butterworth's Digest for the

text: United Kingdom

text: (also containing references to cases decided in other

text: Commonwealth

text: countries), the Canadian Abridgment, digests associated with

text: official state reports

text: , such as in

text: California

text: and

text: Wisconsin

text: , and digests associated with topical reporters, such as the

text: Uniform Commercial Code

text: Case Digest. Most of these use a topic and section format, while some, like the U.C.C. Case Digest, use a section format based on the statute or rules being annotated. The A.L.R. Digest, accompanying the

text: American Law Reports

text: , formerly had its own classification system, but was replaced in 2004 by West's American Law Reports Digest, which follows West's topic and key number system.

text: B. cephalotes has two main ways of detecting prey: tactile cues and olfactory cues.  The olfactory cues, however, do not seem to be very specific, as the responses to the cue do not correspond strongly to preference of prey. The beetle, once in possession of its prey, holds the organism with its forelegs and tears off pieces of the organism to consume.  The mandibles are used to tear open the cuticular structures of its meal and expose the soft tissue areas within the organism. Fluid is produced in the mouth during feeding that causes the discoloration of flesh and begins the digestive process. This fluid is composed of a variety of enzymes that begin the digestive process before the prey has entered the beetle’s digestive tract.  Many samples of B. cephalotes were found to have sand in their digestive tract in addition to organisms.  Sand in the digestive tract may help the beetle grind up the tougher parts of the prey, although it has not yet been determined if the sand is ingested for this purpose.

text: B. cephalotes has two main ways of detecting prey: tactile cues and

text: olfactory

text: cues.  The olfactory cues, however, do not seem to be very specific, as the responses to the cue do not correspond strongly to preference of

text: prey

text: . The beetle, once in possession of its prey, holds the organism with its forelegs and tears off pieces of the organism to consume.  The mandibles are used to tear open the cuticular structures of its meal and expose the soft tissue areas within the organism. Fluid is produced in the mouth during feeding that causes the discoloration of flesh and begins the digestive process. This fluid is composed of a variety of enzymes that begin the digestive process before the prey has entered the beetle’s digestive tract.  Many samples of B. cephalotes were found to have sand in their digestive tract in addition to organisms.  Sand in the digestive tract may help the beetle grind up the tougher parts of the prey, although it has not yet been determined if the sand is ingested for this purpose.

text: The Double Digest series are larger versions of the Archie Digest publication line. The regular Digests were 128 pages (later 80), while the Double Digests were 256 pages (later 160), hence the name Double Digest. Jughead's Double Digest Magazine began publication in October 1989 on a quarterly basis, but was later published eleven times a year and featured several new Jughead stories along with the reprints. Jughead's Double Digest Magazine was the last monthly Jughead solo title as the 32-page Jughead comic (1949-2012), Jughead With Archie Digest (1974-2005), The Jughead Jones Digest (1977-1996) and Jughead & Friends Digest (2005-2010) have all been canceled.  The title was replaced in 2014 with the new Jughead and Archie Double Digest series, reprinting Jughead and Archie stories along with new ones.

text: A fruit allergy is a food allergy. Fruit allergies make up about ten percent of all food related allergies.

text: A fruit allergy is a

text: food allergy

text: . Fruit allergies make up about ten percent of all food related allergies.

text: A gastrolith, also called a stomach stone or gizzard stones, is a rock held inside a gastrointestinal tract. Gastroliths in some species are retained in the muscular gizzard and used to grind food in animals lacking suitable grinding teeth. In other species the rocks are ingested and pass through the digestive system and are frequently replaced. The grain size depends upon the size of the animal and the gastrolith's role in digestion. Other species use gastroliths as ballast. Particles ranging in size from sand to cobbles have been documented.

text: A gastrolith, also called a

text: stomach

text: stone or

text: gizzard

text: stones, is a

text: rock

text: held inside a

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . Gastroliths in some species are retained in the muscular

text: gizzard

text: and used to grind food in animals lacking suitable grinding

text: teeth

text: . In other species the rocks are ingested and pass through the digestive system and are frequently replaced. The

text: grain size

text: depends upon the size of the animal and the gastrolith's role in digestion. Other species use gastroliths as

text: ballast

text: . Particles ranging in size from

text: sand

text: to

text: cobbles

text: have been documented.

text: The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a component of the peripheral nervous system and is made up of two branches: the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). The SNS controls the more active responses such as increasing heart rate and blood pressure. The PNS slows down the heart rate and aids in digestion,for example. Symptoms typically arise from abnormal responses of either the sympathetic or parasympathetic systems based on situation or environment.

text: The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: (ANS) is a component of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and is made up of two branches: the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: (SNS) and the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: (PNS). The SNS controls the more active responses such as increasing heart rate and blood pressure. The PNS slows down the heart rate and aids in digestion,for example. Symptoms typically arise from abnormal responses of either the sympathetic or parasympathetic systems based on situation or environment.

text: Elimination consists in producing a system equivalent to

text: Plastic pollution does not only affect animals that live solely in oceans. Seabirds are also greatly affected. In 2004, it was estimated that seagulls in the North Sea had an average of thirty pieces of plastic in their stomachs. Seabird's often mistake trash floating on the ocean's surface as prey. Their food sources often has already ingested plastic debris, thus transferring the plastic from prey to predator. Ingested trash can obstruct and physically damage a bird’s digestive system, reducing its digestive ability and can lead to malnutrition, starvation, and death. Toxic chemicals called polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) also become concentrated on the surface of plastics at sea and are released after seabirds eat them. These chemicals can accumulate in body tissues and have serious lethal effects on a bird's reproductive ability, immune system, and hormone balance. Floating plastic debris can produce ulcers, infections and lead to death. Marine plastic pollution can even reach birds that have never been at the sea. Parents may accidentally feed their nestlings plastic, mistaking it for food. Seabird chicks are the most vulnerable to plastic ingestion since they can't regurgitate like the adult seabirds.

text: Plastic pollution does not only affect animals that live solely in oceans.

text: Seabirds

text: are also greatly affected. In 2004, it was estimated that

text: seagulls

text: in the

text: North Sea

text: had an average of thirty pieces of plastic in their stomachs. Seabird's often mistake trash floating on the ocean's surface as prey. Their food sources often has already ingested plastic debris, thus transferring the plastic from prey to predator. Ingested trash can obstruct and physically damage a bird’s digestive system, reducing its digestive ability and can lead to malnutrition, starvation, and death. Toxic chemicals called

text: polychlorinated biphenyls

text: (PCBs) also become concentrated on the surface of plastics at sea and are released after seabirds eat them. These chemicals can accumulate in body tissues and have serious lethal effects on a bird's reproductive ability, immune system, and hormone balance. Floating plastic debris can produce ulcers, infections and lead to death. Marine plastic pollution can even reach birds that have never been at the sea. Parents may accidentally feed their nestlings plastic, mistaking it for food. Seabird chicks are the most vulnerable to plastic ingestion since they can't regurgitate like the adult seabirds.

text: Cisapride is a gastroprokinetic agent, a drug that increases motility in the upper gastrointestinal tract. It acts directly as a serotonin 5-HT receptor agonist and indirectly as a parasympathomimetic. Stimulation of the serotonin receptors increases acetylcholine release in the enteric nervous system. It has been sold under the trade names Prepulsid (Janssen-Ortho) and Propulsid (in the United States). It was discovered by Janssen Pharmaceutica in 1980.  In many countries, it has been either withdrawn from the market or had its indications limited because of side-effects.

text: Cisapride is a

text: gastroprokinetic agent

text: , a

text: drug

text: that increases

text: motility

text: in the upper

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . It acts directly as a

text: serotonin

text: 5-HT receptor

text: agonist

text: and indirectly as a

text: parasympathomimetic

text: . Stimulation of the serotonin receptors increases

text: acetylcholine

text: release in the

text: enteric nervous system

text: . It has been sold under the trade names Prepulsid (Janssen-Ortho) and Propulsid (in the United States). It was discovered by

text: Janssen Pharmaceutica

text: in 1980.  In many countries, it has been either withdrawn from the market or had its indications limited because of side-effects.

text: The spiral-shaped obligate anaerobe ASF 457 can be found in small amounts in the small intestine, and in high concentration in the large intestine. This bacterium is related to G. ferrireducens, Deferribacter thermophilus, and Flexistipes sinusarabici. ASF 457 is later named Mucispirillum schaedleri. The species is related to the Flexistipes phylum with iron-reducing environmental isolates.

text: The spiral-shaped

text: obligate anaerobe

text: ASF 457 can be found in small amounts in the small intestine, and in high concentration in the large intestine. This bacterium is related to G. ferrireducens,

text: Deferribacter thermophilus

text: , and

text: Flexistipes sinusarabici

text: . ASF 457 is later named

text: Mucispirillum schaedleri

text: . The species is related to the Flexistipes phylum with iron-reducing environmental isolates.

text: Most cases of stomach bloating are due to improper diet. Gas occurs because of the bacteria in the colon and is a by-product of soluble fiber digestion. Inadequate or irregular intake of fiber and water will cause a person to experience bloating or constipation. The most common natural sources of fiber include fruits and vegetables as well as wheat or oat bran. These fibers are most likely to cause flatulence. Fiber is made by plants and is not easily digested by the human gastrointestinal tract. There are two main types of dietary fiber: soluble and insoluble fiber. Soluble fiber is prebiotic and readily fermented in the colon into gases, while insoluble fiber is metabolically inert and absorbs water as it moves through the digestive system, aiding in defecation. Most types of fiber (insoluble) are attached to body water in the intestine and increase the volume of stools.

text: Most cases of stomach bloating are due to improper

text: diet

text: . Gas occurs because of the bacteria in the colon and is a by-product of soluble fiber digestion. Inadequate or irregular intake of fiber and water will cause a person to experience bloating or constipation. The most common natural sources of fiber include fruits and vegetables as well as wheat or oat bran. These fibers are most likely to cause flatulence. Fiber is made by plants and is not easily digested by the

text: human gastrointestinal tract

text: . There are two main types of

text: dietary fiber

text: : soluble and insoluble fiber. Soluble fiber is

text: prebiotic

text: and readily fermented in the colon into gases, while insoluble fiber is metabolically inert and absorbs water as it moves through the digestive system, aiding in defecation. Most types of fiber (insoluble) are attached to

text: body water

text: in the

text: intestine

text: and increase the volume of stools.

text: In chemistry, absorption is a physical or chemical phenomenon or a process in which atoms, molecules or ions enter some bulk phase – gas, liquid or solid material. This is a different process from adsorption, since molecules undergoing absorption are taken up by the volume, not by the surface (as in the case for adsorption). A more general term is sorption, which covers absorption, adsorption, and ion exchange. Absorption is a condition in which something takes in another substance.

text: In

text: chemistry

text: , absorption is a physical or chemical

text: phenomenon

text: or a

text: process

text: in which

text: atom

text: s,

text: molecules

text: or

text: ion

text: s enter some bulk phase –

text: gas

text: liquid

text: or

text: solid

text: material. This is a different process from

text: adsorption

text: , since molecules undergoing absorption are taken up by the volume, not by the surface (as in the case for adsorption). A more general term is

text: sorption

text: , which covers absorption,

text: adsorption

text: , and

text: ion exchange

text: . Absorption is a condition in which something takes in another substance.

text: The basis of the song (and bean/fart humor in general) is the high amount of oligosaccharides present in beans. Bacteria in the large intestine digest these sugars, producing carbon dioxide and hydrogen.  These gases are expelled from the body as flatulence.

text: The basis of the song (and

text: bean/fart humor

text: in general) is the high amount of

text: oligosaccharide

text: s present in beans.

text: Bacteria

text: in the

text: large intestine

text: digest these sugars, producing

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: hydrogen

text: .  These gases are expelled from the body as

text: flatulence

text: There are a greater number of species of mesophiles than thermophiles . These bacteria are also more tolerant to changes in environmental conditions than thermophiles. Mesophilic systems are therefore considered to be more stable than thermophilicdigestion systems.As mentioned above, thermophilic digestion systems are considered to be less stable, the energy input is higher, and more energy is removed from the organic matter. However, the increased temperatures facilitate faster reaction rates and hence faster gas yields. Operation at higher temperatures facilitates greater sterilization of the end digestate. In countries where legislation, such as the Animal By-Products Regulations in the European Union, requires end products to meet certain levels of reduction in the amount of bacteria in the output material, this may be a benefit.Certain processes shred the waste finely and use a short high temperature and pressure pre-treatment (pasteurization / hygienisation) stage that significantly enhances the gas output of the following standard mesophilic stage. The hygienisation process is also applied in order to reduce the pathogenic micro-organisms in the feedstock. Hygienisation / pasteurization may be achieved by using a Landia BioChop hygienisation unit or similar method of combined heat treatment and solids maceration.A drawback of operating at thermophilic temperatures is that more heat energy input is required to achieve the correct operational temperatures. This increase in energy may not be outweighed by the increase in the outputs of biogas from the systems. It is therefore important to consider an energy balance for these systems.	 There are three principal products of anaerobic digestion: biogas, digestate and water.

text: There are a greater number of species of

text: mesophiles

text: than

text: thermophiles

text: . These

text: bacteria

text: are also more tolerant to changes in environmental conditions than

text: thermophiles

text: Mesophilic

text: systems are therefore considered to be more stable than

text: thermophilic

text: digestion systems.As mentioned above,

text: thermophilic

text: digestion systems are considered to be less stable, the energy input is higher, and more energy is removed from the organic matter. However, the increased temperatures facilitate faster reaction rates and hence faster gas yields. Operation at higher temperatures facilitates greater sterilization of the end digestate. In countries where legislation, such as the Animal By-Products Regulations in the European Union, requires end products to meet certain levels of reduction in the amount of

text: bacteria

text: in the output material, this may be a benefit.Certain processes shred the waste finely and use a short high temperature and pressure pre-treatment (pasteurization / hygienisation) stage that significantly enhances the gas output of the following standard

text: mesophilic

text: stage. The hygienisation process is also applied in order to reduce the pathogenic micro-organisms in the feedstock. Hygienisation / pasteurization may be achieved by using a Landia BioChop hygienisation unit or similar method of combined heat treatment and solids maceration.A drawback of operating at thermophilic temperatures is that more heat energy input is required to achieve the correct operational temperatures. This increase in energy may not be outweighed by the increase in the outputs of biogas from the systems. It is therefore important to consider an energy balance for these systems.	 There are three principal products of anaerobic digestion: biogas, digestate and water.

text: During this time, many of the species from the Carboniferous diversified, and many new orders developed, including: Protelytroptera, primitive relatives of Plecoptera (Paraplecoptera), Psocoptera, Mecoptera, Coleoptera, Raphidioptera, and Neuroptera. The last four being the first definitive records of the Holometabola. By the Pennsylvanian and well into the Permian, by far the most successful were primitive Blattoptera, or relatives of cockroaches. Six fast legs, two well-developed folding wings, fairly good eyes, long, well-developed antennae (olfactory), an omnivorous digestive system, a receptacle for storing sperm, a chitin skeleton that could support and protect, as well as a form of gizzard and efficient mouth parts, gave it formidable advantages over other herbivorous animals. About 90% of insects were cockroach-like insects ("Blattopterans"). The dragonflies Odonata were the dominant aerial predator and probably dominated terrestrial insect predation as well. True Odonata appeared in the Permian and all are amphibian. Their prototypes are the oldest winged fossils, go back to the Devonian, and are different from other wings in every way. Their prototypes may have had the beginnings of many modern attributes even by late Carboniferous and it is possible that they even captured small vertebrates, for some species had a wing span of 71 cm.

text: During this time, many of the species from the Carboniferous diversified, and many new orders developed, including:

text: Protelytroptera

text: , primitive relatives of

text: Plecoptera

text: (Paraplecoptera),

text: Psocoptera

text: Mecoptera

text: Coleoptera

text: Raphidioptera

text: , and

text: Neuroptera

text: . The last four being the first definitive records of the

text: Holometabola

text: . By the

text: Pennsylvanian

text: and well into the Permian, by far the most successful were primitive

text: Blattoptera

text: , or relatives of cockroaches. Six fast legs, two well-developed folding wings, fairly good eyes, long, well-developed antennae (olfactory), an omnivorous digestive system, a receptacle for storing sperm, a

text: chitin

text: skeleton that could support and protect, as well as a form of gizzard and efficient mouth parts, gave it formidable advantages over other herbivorous animals. About 90% of insects were cockroach-like insects ("Blattopterans"). The

text: dragonflies

text: Odonata

text: were the dominant aerial predator and probably dominated terrestrial insect predation as well. True Odonata appeared in the Permian and all are

text: amphibian

text: . Their prototypes are the oldest winged fossils, go back to the

text: Devonian

text: , and are different from other wings in every way. Their prototypes may have had the beginnings of many modern attributes even by late

text: Carboniferous

text: and it is possible that they even captured small vertebrates, for some species had a wing span of 71 cm.

text: Lack of dietary MACs results in a microbiota reliant upon endogenous host-derived MACs, such as mucin glycans. Different host genotypes can influence the identity of MACs available to the microbiota in multiple ways. For example, a host's genes may affect the level of mucus structures, such as the absence of alpha-1-2 fucose residues in the mucus of nonsecretor individuals who lack alpha-1-2- fucosyltransferase activity in the intestine. Similarly, a host may have genes that can determine the efficiency of digestion and absorption of carbohydrates in the small intestine. For example, lactose is accessible to the microbiota in people who are lactose intolerant, and should therefore be considered a MAC for those individuals. For nursing infants, dietary MACs that are naturally found in breast milk are known as human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs). For formula-fed infants, dietary MACs, such as galacto-oligosaccharides, are artificially added to formula. Therefore the research, discussion and quantification of MACs and their impact on a host's microbiota may be critical to determining their impact on human health.

text: Lack of dietary MACs results in a microbiota reliant upon endogenous host-derived MACs, such as mucin glycans. Different host genotypes can influence the identity of MACs available to the microbiota in multiple ways. For example, a host's genes may affect the level of mucus structures, such as the absence of alpha-1-2 fucose residues in the mucus of nonsecretor individuals who lack alpha-1-2- fucosyltransferase activity in the intestine. Similarly, a host may have genes that can determine the efficiency of digestion and absorption of carbohydrates in the small intestine. For example, lactose is accessible to the microbiota in people who are lactose intolerant, and should therefore be considered a MAC for those individuals. For nursing infants, dietary MACs that are naturally found in breast milk are known as

text: human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs)

text: . For formula-fed infants, dietary MACs, such as galacto-oligosaccharides, are artificially added to formula. Therefore the research, discussion and quantification of MACs and their impact on a host's microbiota may be critical to determining their impact on human health.

text: Among the space experiments on the medical-biological section of "The long-term program of scientific and applied research and experiments planned for the Russian segment of ISS" planned and put into effect an experiment Splankh: "Study of the structural-functional state of various parts of the gastrointestinal tract to identify the specific changes in the digestive system in a space flight". Within the MARS-500 project the crew did a 24-h electrogastroenterography study electrical activity of gastrointestinal tract using on-board gastroenterograph Splankh-1, developed by IBMP with RPC "Istok-Sistema" based on the mass-produced gastroenterograph Gastroscan-GEM.

text: Among the space experiments on the medical-biological section of "The long-term program of scientific and applied research and experiments planned for the Russian segment of

text: ISS

text: " planned and put into effect an experiment Splankh: "Study of the structural-functional state of various parts of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: to identify the specific changes in the digestive system in a space flight". Within the MARS-500 project the crew did a 24-h

text: electrogastroenterography

text: study electrical activity of gastrointestinal tract using on-board gastroenterograph Splankh-1, developed by IBMP with RPC "Istok-Sistema" based on the mass-produced gastroenterograph

text: Gastroscan-GEM

text: Tablets designed to dissolve on the buccal (cheek) mucous membrane were a precursor to the ODT. This dosage form was intended for drugs that yield low bioavailability through the digestive tract but are inconvenient to administer parenterally, such as steroids and narcotic analgesics. Absorption through the cheek allows the drug to bypass the digestive tract for rapid systemic distribution. Not all ODTs have buccal absorption and many have similar absorption and bioavailability to standard oral dosage forms with the primary route remaining GI absorption. However, a fast disintegration time and a small tablet weight can enhance absorption in the buccal area. The first ODTs disintegrated through effervescence rather than dissolution, and were designed to make taking vitamins more pleasant for children. This method was adapted to pharmaceutical use with the invention of microparticles containing a drug, which would be released upon effervescence of the tablet and swallowed by the patient. Dissolution became more effective than effervescence through improved manufacturing processes and ingredients (such as the addition of mannitol to increase binding and decrease dissolution time). Catalent Pharma Solutions (formerly Scherer DDS) in the U.K., Cima Labs and Fuisz Technologies (whose founder Richard Fuisz went on to pioneer orally soluble films, a separate but related dosage form) in the U.S. and Takeda Pharmaceutical Company in Japan led the development of ODTs.

text: Tablets designed to dissolve on the buccal (cheek)

text: mucous membrane

text: were a precursor to the ODT. This dosage form was intended for drugs that yield low

text: bioavailability

text: through the digestive tract but are inconvenient to administer parenterally, such as steroids and narcotic analgesics. Absorption through the cheek allows the drug to bypass the digestive tract for rapid systemic distribution. Not all ODTs have buccal absorption and many have similar absorption and bioavailability to standard oral dosage forms with the primary route remaining GI absorption. However, a fast disintegration time and a small tablet weight can enhance absorption in the buccal area. The first ODTs disintegrated through

text: effervescence

text: rather than dissolution, and were designed to make taking vitamins more pleasant for children. This method was adapted to pharmaceutical use with the invention of microparticles containing a drug, which would be released upon effervescence of the tablet and swallowed by the patient. Dissolution became more effective than effervescence through improved manufacturing processes and ingredients (such as the addition of

text: mannitol

text: to increase binding and decrease dissolution time).

text: Catalent Pharma Solutions

text: (formerly Scherer DDS) in the U.K., Cima Labs and Fuisz Technologies (whose founder

text: Richard Fuisz

text: went on to pioneer orally soluble films, a separate but related dosage form) in the U.S. and

text: Takeda Pharmaceutical Company

text: in Japan led the development of ODTs.

text: As with other vertebrates, the relative positions of the esophageal and duodenal openings to the stomach remain relatively constant. As a result, the stomach always curves somewhat to the left before curving back to meet the pyloric sphincter. However, lampreys, hagfishes, chimaeras, lungfishes, and some teleost fish have no stomach at all, with the esophagus opening directly into the intestine. These fish consume diets that either require little storage of food, or no pre-digestion with gastric juices, or both.

text: As with other vertebrates, the relative positions of the

text: esophageal

text: and

text: duodenal

text: openings to the

text: stomach

text: remain relatively constant. As a result, the stomach always curves somewhat to the left before curving back to meet the

text: pyloric sphincter

text: . However,

text: lamprey

text: s,

text: hagfish

text: es,

text: chimaera

text: s,

text: lungfish

text: es, and some

text: teleost

text: fish have no stomach at all, with the esophagus opening directly into the intestine. These fish consume diets that either require little storage of food, or no pre-digestion with gastric juices, or both.

text: Mastication or chewing is the process by which food is crushed and ground by teeth. It is the first step of digestion, and it increases the surface area of foods to allow more efficient break down by enzymes. During the mastication process, the food is positioned by the cheek and tongue between the teeth for grinding. The muscles of mastication move the jaws to bring the teeth into intermittent contact, repeatedly occluding and opening. As chewing continues, the food is made softer and warmer, and the enzymes in saliva begin to break down carbohydrates in the food. After chewing, the food (now called a bolus) is swallowed. It enters the esophagus and via peristalsis continues on to the stomach, where the next step of digestion occurs.

text: Mastication or chewing is the process by which

text: food

text: is

text: crushed and ground

text: by

text: teeth

text: . It is the first step of

text: digestion

text: , and it increases the surface area of foods to allow more efficient break down by

text: enzyme

text: s. During the mastication process, the food is positioned by the

text: cheek

text: and

text: tongue

text: between the teeth for grinding. The

text: muscles of mastication

text: move the

text: jaw

text: s to bring the teeth into intermittent contact, repeatedly

text: occluding

text: and opening. As chewing continues, the food is made softer and warmer, and the enzymes in saliva begin to break down

text: carbohydrates

text: in the food. After chewing, the food (now called a

text: bolus

text: ) is swallowed. It enters the

text: esophagus

text: and via

text: peristalsis

text: continues on to the stomach, where the next step of digestion occurs.

text: The buccal mass is the first part of the digestive system, and consists of the mouth and pharynx. The mouth includes a radula, and in most cases, also a pair of jaws. The pharynx can be very large, especially in carnivorous species.

text: The buccal mass is the first part of the digestive system, and consists of the mouth and pharynx. The mouth includes a

text: radula

text: , and in most cases, also a pair of jaws. The pharynx can be very large, especially in carnivorous species.

text: Sneezing can be a sign of environmental pollution (such as too much dust) or a food allergy.

text: Sneezing

text: can be a sign of environmental pollution (such as too much

text: dust

text: ) or a

text: food allergy

text: A complete edition of Cabanis's works was begun in 1825, and five volumes were published. His principal work, Rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme (On the relations between the physical and moral aspects of man, 1802), consists in part of memoirs, read in 1796 and 1797 to the Institute, and is a sketch of physiological psychology. Psychology is with Cabanis directly linked on to biology, for sensibility, the fundamental fact, is the highest grade of life and the lowest of intelligence. All the intellectual processes are evolved from sensibility, and sensibility itself is a property of the nervous system. The soul is not an entity, but a faculty; thought is the function of the brain. Just as the stomach and intestines receive food and digest it, so the brain receives impressions, digests them, and has as its organic secretion, thought.

text: A complete edition of Cabanis's works was begun in 1825, and five volumes were published. His principal work, Rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme (On the relations between the physical and moral aspects of man, 1802), consists in part of memoirs, read in 1796 and 1797 to the Institute, and is a sketch of physiological

text: psychology

text: . Psychology is with Cabanis directly linked on to

text: biology

text: , for sensibility, the fundamental fact, is the highest grade of life and the lowest of intelligence. All the intellectual processes are evolved from sensibility, and sensibility itself is a property of the

text: nervous system

text: . The

text: soul

text: is not an entity, but a faculty; thought is the function of the

text: brain

text: . Just as the

text: stomach

text: and

text: intestines

text: receive food and digest it, so the brain receives impressions, digests them, and has as its organic secretion, thought.

text: Absorption is most commonly measured by the Tellegen Absorption Scale (TAS). Several versions of this scale are available, the most recent being by Graham Jamieson, who provides a copy of his modified scale. The TAS comprises nine content clusters or subscales:

text: Emollient laxatives, also known as stool softeners, are anionic surfactants that enable additional water and fats to be incorporated in the stool, making it easier for them to move through the gastrointestinal tract.

text: Canned sardines in supermarkets may actually be sprat (such as the “brisling sardine”) or round herrings. Fish sizes vary by species. Good-quality sardines should have the head and gills removed before packing. They may also be eviscerated before packing (typically the larger varieties). If not, they should be purged of undigested or partially digested food or feces by holding the live fish in a tank long enough for them to empty their digestive systems.

text: sprat

text: (such as the

text: “brisling sardine”

text: ) or

text: round herrings

text: . Fish sizes vary by species. Good-quality sardines should have the

text: head

text: and

text: gill

text: s removed before packing. They may also be

text: eviscerated

text: feces

text: Treatment is routine and effective. Diagnosis is made by low-powered microscopic examination of the feces, which is generally replete with oocysts. Readily available drugs eliminate the protozoa or reduce them enough that the animal's immune system can clear the infection. Permanent damage to the gastrointestinal system is rare, and a dog will usually suffer no long-lasting negative effects.

text: Treatment is routine and effective. Diagnosis is made by low-powered

text: microscopic

text: examination of the feces, which is generally replete with oocysts. Readily available drugs eliminate the protozoa or reduce them enough that the animal's immune system can clear the infection. Permanent damage to the gastrointestinal system is rare, and a dog will usually suffer no long-lasting negative effects.

text: Metal phosphides have been used as rodenticides. A mixture of food and zinc phosphide is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic phosphine gas. This method of vermin control has possible use in places where rodents are immune to other common poisons. Other pesticides similar to zinc phosphide are aluminium phosphide and calcium phosphide.

text: Metal phosphides have been used as

text: rodenticides

text: . A mixture of food and zinc phosphide is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic

text: phosphine

text: gas. This method of vermin control has possible use in places where rodents are immune to other common poisons. Other pesticides similar to zinc phosphide are

text: aluminium phosphide

text: and

text: calcium phosphide

text: Unlike other food allergies, rice allergy is relatively uncommon. It has been reported worldwide but mostly in China, Japan or Korea. Because rice is a major food in Asia, people from Asia are exposed to higher allergy risk than people from other areas.

text: Unlike other food allergies, rice allergy is relatively uncommon. It has been reported worldwide but mostly in

text: China

text: Japan

text: or

text: Korea

text: . Because rice is a major food in

text: Asia

text: , people from Asia are exposed to higher allergy risk than people from other areas.

text: Agni is the "fire," that drives all digestion and metabolism in the Indian medical practice of Ayurveda. The digestive and absorption process is called Pakwagni (digestive fire).

text: Agni is the "fire," that drives all

text: digestion

text: and

text: metabolism

text: in the Indian medical practice of

text: Ayurveda

text: . The digestive and absorption process is called Pakwagni (digestive fire).

text: In the small intestine, the mucosal layer is specially adapted to provide a large surface area in order to maximize the absorption of nutrients. The expansion of the absorptive surface, 600 times beyond that of a cylindrical tube, is achieved by three anatomical factors:

text: Diagnosis of food allergies, including peanut allergy, begins with a medical history and physical examination. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases guidelines recommend that parent and patient reports of food allergy be confirmed by a doctor because "multiple studies demonstrate 50% to 90% of presumed food allergies are not allergies."

text: Diagnosis of food allergies, including peanut allergy, begins with a medical history and physical examination.

text: guidelines recommend that parent and patient reports of food allergy be confirmed by a doctor because "multiple studies demonstrate 50% to 90% of presumed food allergies are not allergies."

text: In medicine, when referring to human feces, blood in stool looks different depending on (1) how early it enters the intestines (and thus how much digestive action it has been exposed to) and on (2) how much there is (a little bit, more than a little, or a lot). This is why bright red blood in the stool has different clinical significance (and a different name) than brown or black blood in the stool. Thus the term can refer either to melena, with more blackish appearance, originating from upper gastrointestinal bleeding, or to hematochezia, with more red color, originating from lower gastrointestinal bleeding. The term "blood in stool" is usually not used to describe fecal occult blood, which refers to blood that is not visible and thus is found only after chemical testing is performed.

text: In

text: medicine

text: , when referring to

text: human feces

text: , blood in stool looks different depending on (1) how early it enters the intestines (and thus how much digestive action it has been exposed to) and on (2) how much there is (a little bit, more than a little, or a lot). This is why bright red blood in the stool has different clinical significance (and a different name) than brown or black blood in the stool. Thus the term can refer either to

text: melena

text: , with more blackish appearance, originating from

text: upper gastrointestinal bleeding

text: , or to

text: hematochezia

text: , with more red color, originating from

text: lower gastrointestinal bleeding

text: . The term "blood in stool" is usually not used to describe

text: fecal occult blood

text: , which refers to blood that is not visible and thus is found only after chemical testing is performed.

text: The Taoist Tai Chi Society claims that later in their training students note increased mobility in the spine and that the form restores proper alignment of the spine with the shoulders and pelvis through the spinal stretches and rotations that are built into the set. Additionally the society claims that the form stimulates the spinal nerves, providing a balancing effect on the nervous system. Later on in practice the student may find that the set will exercise the internal organs, possibly resulting in increased circulation, digestion and elimination. The society claims that the set strengthens the cardiovascular system, improves physical conditioning, decreases fatigue and improves endurance.

text: The Taoist Tai Chi Society claims that later in their training students note increased mobility in the spine and that the form restores proper alignment of the spine with the shoulders and

text: pelvis

text: through the spinal stretches and rotations that are built into the set. Additionally the society claims that the form stimulates the spinal nerves, providing a balancing effect on the nervous system. Later on in practice the student may find that the set will exercise the internal organs, possibly resulting in increased circulation, digestion and elimination. The society claims that the set strengthens the

text: cardiovascular system

text: , improves physical conditioning, decreases fatigue and improves endurance.

text: Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) is an endoscopic medical procedure in which a tube (PEG tube) is passed into a patient's stomach through the abdominal wall, most commonly to provide a means of feeding when oral intake is not adequate (for example, because of dysphagia or sedation). This provides enteral nutrition (making use of the natural digestion process of the gastrointestinal tract) despite bypassing the mouth; enteral nutrition is generally preferable to parenteral nutrition (which is only used when the GI tract must be avoided). The PEG procedure is an alternative to open surgical gastrostomy insertion, and does not require a general anesthetic; mild sedation is typically used. PEG tubes may also be extended into the small intestine by passing a jejunal extension tube (PEG-J tube) through the PEG tube and into the jejunum via the pylorus.

text: Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) is an

text: endoscopic

text: medical procedure

text: in which a tube (PEG tube) is passed into a patient's stomach through the

text: abdominal wall

text: , most commonly to provide a means of feeding when

text: oral

text: intake is not adequate (for example, because of

text: dysphagia

text: or

text: sedation

text: ). This provides

text: enteral

text: nutrition (making use of the natural

text: digestion

text: process of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: ) despite bypassing the mouth; enteral nutrition is generally preferable to

text: parenteral nutrition

text: (which is only used when the GI tract must be avoided). The PEG procedure is an alternative to open surgical

text: gastrostomy

text: insertion, and does not require a

text: general anesthetic

text: mild sedation

text: is typically used. PEG tubes may also be extended into the

text: small intestine

text: by passing a jejunal extension tube (PEG-J tube) through the PEG tube and into the

text: jejunum

text: via the

text: pylorus

text: From the central sinus in the collar, blood flows to a complex series of sinuses and peritoneal folds in the proboscis. This set of structures is referred to as a glomerulus and may have an excretory function, since acorn worms otherwise have no defined excretory system. From the proboscis, blood flows into a single blood vessel running underneath the digestive tract, from which smaller sinuses supply blood to the trunk, and back into the dorsal vessel.

text: From the central sinus in the collar, blood flows to a complex series of sinuses and

text: peritoneal

text: folds in the proboscis. This set of structures is referred to as a glomerulus and may have an excretory function, since acorn worms otherwise have no defined excretory system. From the proboscis, blood flows into a single blood vessel running underneath the digestive tract, from which smaller sinuses supply blood to the trunk, and back into the dorsal vessel.

text: The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis and propels the food through the tract. Food in the GI tract is called a bolus (ball of food) from the mouth down to the stomach. After the stomach, the food is partially digested and semi-liquid, and is referred to as chyme. In the large intestine the remaining semi-solid substance is referred to as faeces.

text: peristalsis

text: chyme

text: . In the large intestine the remaining semi-solid substance is referred to as

text: faeces

text: The same risk is reported for cats as well, although cats are less likely to ingest sweet food, with most cats having no sweet taste receptors. Complications include digestive issues, dehydration, excitability, and a slow heart rate. Later stages of theobromine poisoning include epileptic-like seizures and death. If caught early on, theobromine poisoning is treatable. Although not usual, the effects of theobromine poisoning, as stated, can become fatal.

text: The same risk is reported for cats as well, although cats are less likely to ingest sweet food, with most cats having no

text: sweet taste receptors

text: . Complications include digestive issues, dehydration, excitability, and a slow heart rate. Later stages of theobromine poisoning include

text: epileptic

text: -like

text: seizure

text: s and death. If caught early on, theobromine poisoning is treatable. Although not usual, the effects of theobromine poisoning, as stated, can become fatal.

text: In most vertebrates, digestion is a four-stage process involving the main structures of the digestive tract, starting with ingestion,  placing food into the mouth, and concluding with the excretion of undigested material through the anus. From the mouth, the food moves to the stomach, where  as bolus it is broken down chemically. It then moves to the intestine, where the process of breaking the food down into simple molecules continues and the results are absorbed as nutrients into the circulatory and lymphatic system.

text: In most vertebrates, digestion is a four-stage process involving the main structures of the

text: digestive tract

text: , starting with ingestion,  placing food into the mouth, and concluding with the excretion of undigested material through the anus. From the mouth, the food moves to the stomach, where  as

text: bolus

text: it is broken down chemically. It then moves to the intestine, where the process of breaking the food down into simple molecules continues and the results are absorbed as nutrients into the circulatory and lymphatic system.

text: There have been many eliminations which have been unusual which may involve a team being eliminated outside a Pit Stop or more than one team being eliminated.

text: Aristotle believed that the source of vital heat lies in the heart and is intimately connected to the soul. "This link is not for Aristotle simply an accidental connection, but rather the existence of vital heat is necessitated by the most basic living activity: nutrition. In De anima ii 4.416b28-29, Aristotle says: 'All food must be capable of being digested, and that whose activity causes digestion is heat. For this reason, every animate thing has heat.'". Although prominent scholars like Aristotle accepted this concept of innate heat and its role in digestion, there were others who were skeptical and retained a different point of view.  "However, if we look for antecedents of Aristotle's theories, the most important are probably to found in the Timaeus.  Here Plato shows in some detail how in respiration the 'Hot' in us is cooled by the air which enters from outside, and he relies on the cutting power of the fire, which here is identical to the 'Hot', to explain the process of digestion

text: Aristotle believed that the source of vital heat lies in the heart and is intimately connected to the soul. "This link is not for Aristotle simply an accidental connection, but rather the existence of vital heat is necessitated by the most basic living activity:

text: nutrition

text: . In De anima ii 4.416b28-29, Aristotle says: 'All food must be capable of being digested, and that whose activity causes

text: digestion

text: is heat. For this reason, every animate thing has heat.'". Although prominent scholars like Aristotle accepted this concept of innate heat and its role in digestion, there were others who were skeptical and retained a different point of view.  "However, if we look for antecedents of Aristotle's theories, the most important are probably to found in the Timaeus.  Here Plato shows in some detail how in respiration the 'Hot' in us is cooled by the air which enters from outside, and he relies on the cutting power of the fire, which here is identical to the 'Hot', to explain the process of digestion

text: Milk allergy is a food allergy, an adverse immune reaction to a food protein that is normally harmless to the nonallergic individual.

text: Milk allergy is a

text: food allergy

text: , an adverse immune reaction to a food protein that is normally harmless to the nonallergic individual.

text: Poor quality diets (those that contain a large amount of non-digestible material) have lower concentrations of nutrients, so animals must process a greater total volume of poor-quality food to extract the same amount of energy as they would from a high-quality diet. Many species respond to poor quality diets by increasing their food intake, enlarging digestive organs, and increasing the capacity of the digestive tract (e.g. prairie voles, Mongolian gerbils, Japanese quail, wood ducks, mallards). Poor quality diets also result in lower concentrations of nutrients in the lumen of the intestine, which can cause a decrease in the activity of several digestive enzymes.

text: Poor quality diets (those that contain a large amount of non-digestible material) have lower concentrations of nutrients, so animals must process a greater total volume of poor-quality food to extract the same amount of energy as they would from a high-quality diet. Many species respond to poor quality diets by increasing their food intake, enlarging digestive organs, and increasing the capacity of the digestive tract (e.g.

text: prairie vole

text: s,

text: Mongolian gerbil

text: s,

text: Japanese quail

text: wood duck

text: s,

text: mallard

text: s). Poor quality diets also result in lower concentrations of nutrients in the lumen of the intestine, which can cause a decrease in the activity of several digestive enzymes.

text: Biogas, or landfill gas, is a biofuel produced through the intermediary stage of anaerobic digestion consisting mainly of 45–90% biologically produced methane and carbon dioxide. In early 2007 a thermophilic anaerobic digestion facility was commissioned in Stornoway in the Western Isles. The Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) and the Renewable Energy Association are also leading the way towards the establishment of a digestate standard to facilitate the use of solid outputs from digesters on land. Anaerobic digestion and mechanical biological treatment facilities have been planned at a number of other locations in Scotland, such as Westray.

text: Biogas

text: , or

text: landfill gas

text: , is a biofuel produced through the intermediary stage of

text: anaerobic digestion

text: consisting mainly of 45–90% biologically produced

text: methane

text: and carbon dioxide. In early 2007 a thermophilic anaerobic digestion facility was commissioned in

text: Stornoway

text: in the

text: Western Isles

text: . The

text: Scottish Environment Protection Agency

text: (SEPA) and the Renewable Energy Association are also leading the way towards the establishment of a

text: digestate

text: standard to facilitate the use of solid outputs from digesters on land. Anaerobic digestion and

text: mechanical biological treatment

text: facilities have been planned at a number of other locations in Scotland, such as

text: Westray

text: Foodborne illness, commonly called "food poisoning", is caused by bacteria, toxins, viruses, parasites, and prions. Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal version. The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as "foreign bodies") during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution, or sale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of other contaminants. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.

text: Foodborne illness

text: , commonly called "food poisoning", is caused by

text: bacteria

text: toxin

text: s,

text: virus

text: es,

text: parasite

text: s, and

text: prion

text: s. Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal version. The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as "foreign bodies") during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution, or sale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of other contaminants. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.

text: The amount of forage a horse is given or has access to is extremely important as the equine digestive tract continuously produces acid, therefore the horse’s digestive tract must contain food most of time; if a horse is without forage for more that 3 hours, the acid in the digestive tract will build up which can cause ulcers, diarrhea, and potentially colic.  Behavioral problems can also develop because the horse is in pain from the ulcers that are a result of the low quantities of forage. The process of chewing produces saliva, which the horse uses as a natural antacid; if the horse has no hay or pasture to chew on, the antacid will not be produced and the horse will find anything to chew on to try and produce saliva, which can be the start of an oral stereotype.

text: The amount of forage a horse is given or has access to is extremely important as the equine digestive tract continuously produces acid, therefore the horse’s digestive tract must contain food most of time; if a horse is without forage for more that 3 hours, the acid in the digestive tract will build up which can cause ulcers, diarrhea, and potentially

text: colic

text: .  Behavioral problems can also develop because the horse is in pain from the ulcers that are a result of the low quantities of forage. The process of chewing produces saliva, which the horse uses as a natural antacid; if the horse has no hay or pasture to chew on, the antacid will not be produced and the horse will find anything to chew on to try and produce saliva, which can be the start of an oral stereotype.

text: Food Allergy & Research Education (FARE) is the world’s largest non-profit organization dedicated to food allergy awareness, education, research, and advocacy; the group provides information, programs, and resources about food allergies and anaphylaxis. The organization was founded in 1991 to serve as a clearinghouse for food allergy information, by a parent whose own daughter was diagnosed with milk and egg allergy.

text: In the esophagus, two types of peristalsis occur:

text: The appendix has more recently been identified as an important component of mammalian mucosal immune function, particularly B cell mediated immune responses and extrathymically derived T cells. This structure helps in the proper movement and removal of waste matter in the digestive system, contains lymphatic vessels that regulate pathogens, and lastly, might even produce early defences that prevent deadly diseases. Additionally, it is thought that this may provide more immune defences from invading pathogens and getting the lymphatic system's B and T cells to fight the viruses and bacteria that infect that portion of the bowel and training them, so that immune responses are targeted and more able to reliably and less dangerously fight off pathogens. In addition a different kind of immune cell called innate lymphoid cells function in the gut, which help the appendix maintain digestive health.

text: The appendix has more recently been identified as an important component of mammalian

text: mucosal immune function

text: , particularly

text: B cell

text: mediated immune responses and extrathymically derived

text: T cell

text: s. This structure helps in the proper movement and removal of waste matter in the digestive system, contains lymphatic vessels that regulate pathogens, and lastly, might even produce early defences that prevent deadly diseases. Additionally, it is thought that this may provide more immune defences from invading pathogens and getting the lymphatic system's B and T cells to fight the viruses and bacteria that infect that portion of the bowel and training them, so that immune responses are targeted and more able to reliably and less dangerously fight off pathogens. In addition a different kind of immune cell called innate lymphoid cells function in the gut, which help the appendix maintain digestive health.

text: In September 2015, Ferrer announced that he was diagnosed with cancer in the esophagus.

text: In September 2015, Ferrer announced that he was diagnosed with

text: cancer in the esophagus

text: An eight-year-old boy is seven stories tall because he has "a perfect digestive system": if the boy eats one pound of food, he gains one pound of body mass.  Illustrations show the various arrangements made by family and friends to take care of him.  He is sweet and well-mannered, but great effort is taken to conceal him because of the fear and hostility giants arouse.  The narrator befriends him and comes up with a plan to introduce him to the public in such a way that they will accept him, so he will not need to spend his life in concealment.

text: It has often been suggested that at least some dinosaurs used swallowed stones, known as gastroliths, to aid digestion by grinding their food in muscular gizzards, and that this was a feature they shared with birds. In 2007 Oliver Wings reviewed references to gastroliths in scientific literature and found considerable confusion, starting with the lack of an agreed and objective definition of "gastrolith". He found that swallowed hard stones or grit can assist digestion in birds that mainly feed on grain but may not be essential—and that birds that eat insects in summer and grain in winter usually get rid of the stones and grit in summer. Gastroliths have often been described as important for sauropod dinosaurs, whose diet of vegetation required very thorough digestion, but Wings concluded that this idea was incorrect: gastroliths are found with only a small percentage of sauropod fossils; where they have been found, the amounts are too small and in many cases the stones are too soft to have been effective in grinding food; most of these gastroliths are highly polished, but gastroliths used by modern animals to grind food are roughened by wear and corroded by stomach acids; hence the sauropod gastroliths were probably swallowed accidentally. On the other hand, he concluded that gastroliths found with fossils of advanced theropod dinosaurs such as Sinornithomimus and Caudipteryx resemble those of birds, and that the use of gastroliths for grinding food may have appeared early in the group of dinosaurs from which these dinosaurs and birds both evolved.

text: It has often been suggested that at least some dinosaurs used swallowed stones, known as

text: gastrolith

text: s, to aid digestion by grinding their food in muscular

text: gizzard

text: s, and that this was a feature they shared with birds. In 2007 Oliver Wings reviewed references to gastroliths in scientific literature and found considerable confusion, starting with the lack of an agreed and objective definition of "gastrolith". He found that swallowed hard stones or grit can assist digestion in birds that mainly feed on grain but may not be essential—and that birds that eat insects in summer and grain in winter usually get rid of the stones and grit in summer. Gastroliths have often been described as important for

text: sauropod

text: dinosaurs, whose diet of vegetation required very thorough digestion, but Wings concluded that this idea was incorrect: gastroliths are found with only a small percentage of sauropod fossils; where they have been found, the amounts are too small and in many cases the stones are too soft to have been effective in grinding food; most of these gastroliths are highly polished, but gastroliths used by modern animals to grind food are roughened by wear and corroded by stomach acids; hence the sauropod gastroliths were probably swallowed accidentally. On the other hand, he concluded that gastroliths found with fossils of advanced

text: theropod

text: dinosaurs such as

text: Sinornithomimus

text: and

text: Caudipteryx

text: resemble those of birds, and that the use of gastroliths for grinding food may have appeared early in the group of dinosaurs from which these dinosaurs and birds both evolved.

text: Because of malabsorption, serum levels of cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12) and tocopherol (vitamin E) may be low.  These may be supplemented, although since cyanocobalamin contains the toxic chemical cyanide, dogs that have serious cobalamin issues should instead be treated with hydroxocobalamin or methylcobalamin. Cyanocobalamin deficiency is very common in cats with EPI because about 99 percent of intrinsic factor (which is required for cyanocobalamin absorption from the intestine) is secreted by the pancreas.  In dogs, this figure is about 90 percent, and only about 50 percent of dogs have this deficiency. Cats may suffer from Vitamin K deficiencies.  If there is bacterial overgrowth in the intestine, antibiotics should be used, especially if treatment is not working.  In dogs failing to gain weight or continuing to show symptoms, modifying the diet to make it low-fiber and highly digestible may help.  Despite previous belief that low-fat diets are beneficial in dogs with EPI, more recent studies have shown that a high-fat diet may increase absorption of nutrients and better manage the disease.  However, it has been shown that different dogs respond to different dietary modifications, so the best diet must be determined on a case-by-case basis.

text: Because of malabsorption, serum levels of

text: cyanocobalamin

text: (vitamin B12) and

text: tocopherol

text: (vitamin E) may be low.  These may be supplemented, although since cyanocobalamin contains the toxic chemical

text: cyanide

text: , dogs that have serious cobalamin issues should instead be treated with

text: hydroxocobalamin

text: or

text: methylcobalamin

text: . Cyanocobalamin deficiency is very common in cats with EPI because about 99 percent of

text: intrinsic factor

text: (which is required for cyanocobalamin absorption from the intestine) is secreted by the pancreas.  In dogs, this figure is about 90 percent, and only about 50 percent of dogs have this deficiency. Cats may suffer from

text: Vitamin K

text: deficiencies.  If there is

text: bacterial overgrowth

text: in the intestine, antibiotics should be used, especially if treatment is not working.  In dogs failing to gain weight or continuing to show symptoms, modifying the diet to make it low-fiber and highly digestible may help.  Despite previous belief that low-fat diets are beneficial in dogs with EPI, more recent studies have shown that a high-fat diet may increase absorption of nutrients and better manage the disease.  However, it has been shown that different dogs respond to different dietary modifications, so the best diet must be determined on a case-by-case basis.

text: Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup". In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac-like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.

text: Some organisms, including nearly all

text: spiders

text: , simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g.,

text: enzyme

text: s) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup". In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the

text: organism

text: , digestion can be conducted to a

text: vesicle

text: or a sac-like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.

text: Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network

text: Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network

text: Although the precise shape and size of the stomach varies widely among different vertebrates, the relative positions of the oesophageal and duodenal openings remain relatively constant. As a result, the organ always curves somewhat to the left before curving back to meet the pyloric sphincter. However, lampreys, hagfishes, chimaeras, lungfishes, and some teleost fish have no stomach at all, with the oesophagus opening directly into the intestine. These animals all consume diets that either require little storage of food, or no pre-digestion with gastric juices, or both.

text: Although the precise shape and size of the stomach varies widely among different vertebrates, the relative positions of the oesophageal and duodenal openings remain relatively constant. As a result, the organ always curves somewhat to the left before curving back to meet the pyloric sphincter. However,

text: lamprey

text: s,

text: hagfish

text: es,

text: chimaera

text: s,

text: lungfish

text: es, and some

text: teleost

text: fish have no stomach at all, with the oesophagus opening directly into the intestine. These animals all consume diets that either require little storage of food, or no pre-digestion with gastric juices, or both.

text: The stomach produces gastric acid, a strongly acidic mixture consisting of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and potassium and sodium salts to enable food digestion. Constriction of the upper and lower esophageal sphincters help to prevent reflux (backflow) of gastric contents and acid into the esophagus, protecting the esophageal mucosa. In addition, the acute angle of His and the lower crura of the diaphragm helps this sphincteric action.

text: The stomach produces

text: gastric acid

text: , a strongly

text: acid

text: ic mixture consisting of

text: hydrochloric acid

text: (HCl) and

text: potassium

text: and

text: sodium

text: salts to enable food

text: digestion

text: . Constriction of the upper and lower esophageal sphincters help to prevent reflux (backflow) of gastric contents and acid into the esophagus, protecting the esophageal mucosa. In addition, the acute

text: angle of His

text: and the lower

text: crura of the diaphragm

text: helps this sphincteric action.

text: The Enviropig is a genetically modified Yorkshire pig that expresses phytase in its saliva. Grains, such as corn and wheat, have phosphorus that is bound in an naturally indigestible form known as phytic acid. Phosphorus, an essential nutrient for pigs, is then added to the diet, since it can not be broken down in the pigs digestive tract.  As a result, nearly all of the phosphorus naturally found in the grain is wasted in the feces, and can contribute to elevated levels in the soil. Phytase is an enzyme that is able to break down the otherwise indigestible phytic acid, making it available to the pig. The ability of the Enviropig to digest the phosphorus from the grains eliminates the waste of that natural phosphorus (20-60% reduction), while also eliminating the need to supplement the nutrient in feed.

text: The

text: Enviropig

text: is a genetically modified Yorkshire pig that expresses

text: phytase

text: in its saliva. Grains, such as corn and wheat, have phosphorus that is bound in an naturally indigestible form known as phytic acid.

text: Phosphorus

text: , an essential nutrient for pigs, is then added to the diet, since it can not be broken down in the pigs digestive tract.  As a result, nearly all of the phosphorus naturally found in the grain is wasted in the feces, and can contribute to elevated levels in the soil. Phytase is an enzyme that is able to break down the otherwise indigestible phytic acid, making it available to the pig. The ability of the Enviropig to digest the phosphorus from the grains eliminates the waste of that natural phosphorus (20-60% reduction), while also eliminating the need to supplement the nutrient in feed.

text: Barrett died in 1992, aged 78, of cancer of the esophagus.

text: Barrett died in 1992, aged 78, of

text: cancer

text: of the

text: esophagus

text: The stomach is a muscular organ of the gastrointestinal tract that holds food and begins the digestive process by secreting gastric juice. The most common cancers of the stomach are adenocarcinomas but other histological types have been reported. Signs vary but may include vomiting (especially if blood is present), weight loss, anemia, and lack of appetite. Bowel movements may be dark and tarry in nature. In order to determine whether cancer is present in the stomach, special X-rays and/or abdominal ultrasound may be performed. Gastroscopy, a test using an instrument called endoscope to examine the stomach, is a useful diagnostic tool that can also take samples of the suspected mass for histopathological analysis to confirm or rule out cancer. The most definitive method of cancer diagnosis is through open surgical biopsy. Most stomach tumors are malignant with evidence of spread to lymph nodes or liver, making treatment difficult. Except for lymphoma, surgery is the most frequent treatment option for stomach cancers but it is associated with significant risks.

text: The

text: stomach

text: is a muscular organ of the

text: gastrointestinal

text: tract that holds food and begins the digestive process by secreting gastric juice. The most common cancers of the stomach are

text: adenocarcinomas

text: but other histological types have been reported. Signs vary but may include vomiting (especially if blood is present), weight loss, anemia, and lack of appetite. Bowel movements may be dark and tarry in nature. In order to determine whether cancer is present in the stomach, special X-rays and/or abdominal ultrasound may be performed.

text: Gastroscopy

text: , a test using an instrument called endoscope to examine the stomach, is a useful diagnostic tool that can also take samples of the suspected mass for histopathological analysis to confirm or rule out cancer. The most definitive method of cancer diagnosis is through open surgical biopsy. Most stomach tumors are malignant with evidence of spread to lymph nodes or liver, making treatment difficult. Except for lymphoma, surgery is the most frequent treatment option for stomach cancers but it is associated with significant risks.

text: 2. The power to digest nitrogenous substances by secreting digestive matter and then absorbing them. He noted that digestion follows a similar pattern to animal processes (p. 135) in that acid is added to ferment the nutrient source(equivalent to pepsin). How they adapted this process from already existing substances in their system is explored later on in the book (p. 361).

text: 2. The power to digest nitrogenous substances by secreting digestive matter and then absorbing them. He noted that digestion follows a similar pattern to animal processes (p. 135) in that acid is added to ferment the nutrient source(equivalent to

text: pepsin

text: ). How they adapted this process from already existing substances in their system is explored later on in the book (p. 361).

text: Although the precise shape and size of the stomach varies widely among different vertebrates, the relative positions of the esophageal and duodenal openings remain relatively constant. As a result, the organ always curves somewhat to the left before curving back to meet the pyloric sphincter. However, lampreys, hagfishes, chimaeras, lungfishes, and some teleost fish have no stomach at all, with the esophagus opening directly into the anus. These animals all consume diets that either require little storage of food, or no pre-digestion with gastric juices, or both.

text: Although the precise shape and size of the stomach varies widely among different vertebrates, the relative positions of the esophageal and duodenal openings remain relatively constant. As a result, the organ always curves somewhat to the left before curving back to meet the pyloric sphincter. However,

text: lamprey

text: s,

text: hagfish

text: es,

text: chimaera

text: s,

text: lungfish

text: es, and some

text: teleost

text: fish have no stomach at all, with the esophagus opening directly into the anus. These animals all consume diets that either require little storage of food, or no pre-digestion with gastric juices, or both.

text: Jenks wrote a number of books and essays dealing with law, politics and history. He was the principal editor of A Digest of English Civil Law (1905–1917) which led to receipt of an honorary doctorate from Paris. After two further editions in his lifetime (1921 and 1938), the fourth edition (1947), edited in his place by P. H. Winfield, retained Jenks's Prolegomena, with its opening remark that a digest uses the indicative mood rather than the imperative mood of a code, and differs from an encyclopaedia in that it aims at economy of words. In the preface to the first instalment of the 1905 -17 edition, Jenks mentioned that the work had resulted from a suggestion of the President of the Berlin Society for Comparative Jurisprudence and Political Economy for a statement of English law, intended by the Society as the first of its projected series of handbooks on the legal systems of modern civilized communities, it being the Society's intention to produce a series of works to be modelled after the pattern of the German Civil Code which came into force throughout the German Empire on 1 January 1900, but departing from the arrangement of the German Code as considered advisable. Jenks's Digest was published by Butterworths, who, from 1907, were also publishing Halsbury's Laws of England as a "complete statement of the whole law of England".

text: Jenks wrote a number of books and essays dealing with law, politics and history. He was the principal editor of A Digest of English Civil Law (1905–1917) which led to receipt of an honorary doctorate from Paris. After two further editions in his lifetime (1921 and 1938), the fourth edition (1947), edited in his place by

text: P. H. Winfield

text: , retained Jenks's Prolegomena, with its opening remark that a digest uses the

text: indicative mood

text: rather than the

text: imperative mood

text: of a code, and differs from an encyclopaedia in that it aims at economy of words. In the preface to the first instalment of the 1905 -17 edition, Jenks mentioned that the work had resulted from a suggestion of the President of the Berlin Society for Comparative Jurisprudence and Political Economy for a statement of English law, intended by the Society as the first of its projected series of handbooks on the legal systems of modern civilized communities, it being the Society's intention to produce a series of works to be modelled after the pattern of the

text: German Civil Code

text: which came into force throughout the German Empire on 1 January 1900, but departing from the arrangement of the German Code as considered advisable. Jenks's Digest was published by

text: Butterworths

text: , who, from 1907, were also publishing

text: Halsbury's Laws of England

text: as a "complete statement of the whole law of England".

text: Lemurs are a diverse group of primates in terms of morphology and physiology. Some lemurs, such as the sportive lemurs and indriids, have longer hind limbs than forelimbs, making them excellent leapers. Indriids also have a specialized digestive system for folivory, exhibiting enlarged salivary glands, a spacious stomach, and an elongated caecum (lower gut) that facilitates fermentation. The hairy-eared dwarf lemur (Allocebus trichotis) reportedly has a very long tongue, allowing it to feed on nectar. Likewise, the red-bellied lemur (Eulemur rubriventer) has a feathery brush-shaped tongue, also uniquely adapted to feed on nectar and pollen. The aye-aye has evolved some traits that are unique among primates, making it stand out among the lemurs. Such traits include continuously growing, rodent-like front teeth for gnawing through wood and hard seeds; a highly mobile, filiform (filament-shaped) middle finger for extracting food from tiny holes; large, bat-like ears for detecting hollow spaces within trees; and use of self-generated acoustical cues to forage.

text: Lemurs are a diverse group of primates in terms of morphology and physiology. Some lemurs, such as the

text: sportive lemur

text: s and

text: indriid

text: s, have longer

text: hind limb

text: s than

text: forelimb

text: s, making them excellent

text: leaper

text: s. Indriids also have a specialized

text: digestive system

text: for

text: folivory

text: , exhibiting enlarged

text: salivary gland

text: s, a spacious

text: stomach

text: , and an elongated

text: caecum

text: (lower gut) that facilitates

text: fermentation

text: . The

text: hairy-eared dwarf lemur

text: (Allocebus trichotis) reportedly has a very long

text: tongue

text: , allowing it to feed on

text: nectar

text: . Likewise, the

text: red-bellied lemur

text: (Eulemur rubriventer) has a feathery brush-shaped tongue, also uniquely adapted to feed on nectar and pollen. The aye-aye has evolved some traits that are unique among primates, making it stand out among the lemurs. Such traits include continuously growing, rodent-like front teeth for gnawing through wood and hard seeds; a highly mobile, filiform (filament-shaped) middle finger for extracting food from tiny holes; large,

text: bat

text: -like ears for detecting hollow spaces within trees; and use of self-generated acoustical cues to forage.

text: After a rabbit ingests food, the food travels down the esophagus and through a small valve called the cardia.  In rabbits, this valve is very well pronounced and makes the rabbit incapable of vomiting.  The food enters the stomach after passing through the cardia.   Food then moves to the stomach and small intestine where a majority of nutrient extraction and absorption takes place.  Food then passes into the colon and eventually into the cecum.  Peristaltic muscle contractions (waves of motion) help to separate fibrous and non-fibrous particles.  The non-fibrous particles are then moved backwards up the colon, through the illeo-cecal valve, and into the cecum. Symbiotic bacteria in the cecum help to further digest the non-fibrous particles into a more metabolically manageable substance.  After as little as three hours, a soft, fecal "pellet", called a cecotrope, is expelled from the rabbit's anus.  The rabbit instinctively eats these grape-like pellets, without chewing, in exchange keeping the mucous coating intact. This coating protects the vitamin- and nutrient-rich bacteria from stomach acid, until it reaches the small intestine, where the nutrients from the cecotrope can be absorbed.

text: After a rabbit ingests food, the food travels down the esophagus and through a small valve called the

text: cardia

text: .  In rabbits, this valve is very well pronounced and makes the rabbit incapable of vomiting.  The food enters the stomach after passing through the cardia.   Food then moves to the stomach and small intestine where a majority of nutrient extraction and absorption takes place.  Food then passes into the colon and eventually into the cecum.

text: Peristaltic

text: muscle contractions (waves of motion) help to separate fibrous and non-fibrous particles.  The non-fibrous particles are then moved backwards up the colon, through the illeo-cecal valve, and into the cecum. Symbiotic bacteria in the cecum help to further digest the non-fibrous particles into a more metabolically manageable substance.  After as little as three hours, a soft, fecal "pellet", called a

text: cecotrope

text: , is expelled from the rabbit's anus.  The rabbit instinctively eats these grape-like pellets, without chewing, in exchange keeping the mucous coating intact. This coating protects the vitamin- and nutrient-rich bacteria from stomach acid, until it reaches the small intestine, where the nutrients from the

text: cecotrope

text: can be absorbed.

text: Biogas is produced as landfill gas (LFG), which is produced by the breakdown of Biodegradable waste inside a landfill due to chemical reactions and microbes, or as digested gas, produced inside an anaerobic digester. A biogas plant is the name often given to an anaerobic digester that treats farm wastes or energy crops. It can be produced using anaerobic digesters (air-tight tanks with different configurations). These plants can be fed with energy crops such as maize silage or biodegradable wastes including sewage sludge and food waste. During the process, the microorganisms transform biomass waste into biogas (mainly methane and carbon dioxide) and digestate. The biogas is a renewable energy that can be used for heating, electricity, and many other operations that use a reciprocating internal combustion engine, such as GE Jenbacher or Caterpillar gas engines. Other internal combustion engines such as gas turbines are suitable for the conversion of biogas into both electricity and heat. The digestate is the remaining inorganic matter that was  not transformed into biogas. It can be used as an agricultural fertiliser.

text: Biogas is produced as

text: landfill gas

text: (LFG), which is produced by the breakdown of

text: Biodegradable waste

text: inside a landfill due to chemical reactions and microbes, or as digested gas, produced inside an

text: anaerobic digester

text: . A biogas plant is the name often given to an

text: anaerobic digester

text: that treats farm wastes or energy crops. It can be produced using anaerobic digesters (air-tight tanks with different configurations). These plants can be fed with energy crops such as maize silage or

text: biodegradable waste

text: s including sewage sludge and food waste. During the process, the microorganisms transform biomass waste into biogas (mainly methane and carbon dioxide) and

text: digestate

text: . The biogas is a renewable energy that can be used for heating, electricity, and many other operations that use a reciprocating internal combustion engine, such as

text: GE Jenbacher

text: or

text: Caterpillar

text: gas engines. Other internal combustion engines such as gas turbines are suitable for the conversion of biogas into both electricity and heat. The digestate is the remaining inorganic matter that was  not transformed into biogas. It can be used as an agricultural fertiliser.

text: Premasticated foods allow for better infant digestion through the presence of saliva enzymes lacking in infants. Alpha-amylase from maternal saliva aids in digestion of starches fed to a baby. This may be important in the developed nations since "...milk supplements containing starch are used frequently and if these are introduced into feeds at an early stage, digestion of the starch will require the action of salivary amylase..." Children being fed mainly plant based diets by vegetarian parents also benefit from the more prevalent and different types of digestive enzymes in premasticated food. Fat digesting lingual lipase in adult saliva can also help infant digestion and fat absorption since infants generally do not produce enough of these enzymes in their digestive tracts to efficiently process the fats they consume.

text: Premasticated foods allow for better infant digestion through the presence of saliva enzymes lacking in infants.

text: Alpha-amylase

text: from maternal saliva aids in digestion of

text: starch

text: es fed to a baby. This may be important in the developed nations since "...

text: milk supplements

text: containing starch are used frequently and if these are introduced into feeds at an early stage, digestion of the starch will require the action of salivary amylase..." Children being fed mainly plant based diets by

text: vegetarian

text: parents also benefit from the more prevalent and different types of digestive enzymes in premasticated food. Fat digesting

text: lingual lipase

text: in adult saliva can also help infant digestion and fat absorption since infants generally do not produce enough of these enzymes in their digestive tracts to efficiently process the fats they consume.

text: Mouths are often depicted as small, usually rendered with one line on the face.  A fang peeking from the corner of the mouth indicates mischief or feistiness (unless, of course, the character has fangs normally).  A cat mouth (like a number "3" rotated 90° clockwise) replacing the character's normal mouth, and usually accompanied by larger eyes may also represent mischief or feistiness (a notable exception being Konata Izumi from Lucky Star, whose usual mouth shape is this).

text: Mouths are often depicted as small, usually rendered with one line on the face.  A fang peeking from the corner of the mouth indicates mischief or feistiness (unless, of course, the character has fangs normally).  A cat mouth (like a number "3" rotated 90° clockwise) replacing the character's normal mouth, and usually accompanied by larger eyes may also represent mischief or feistiness (a notable exception being

text: Konata Izumi

text: from

text: Lucky Star

text: , whose usual mouth shape is this).

text: The myenteric plexus functions as a part of the enteric nervous system (digestive system). The enteric nervous system can and does function autonomously, but normal digestive function requires communication links between this intrinsic system and the central nervous system. The ENS contains sensory receptors, primary afferent neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. The events that are controlled, at least in part, by the ENS are multiple and include motor activity, secretion, absorption, blood flow, and interaction with other organs such as the gallbladder or pancreas. These links take the form of parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers that connect either the central and enteric nervous systems or connect the central nervous system directly with the digestive tract. Through these cross connections, the gut can provide sensory information to the CNS, and the CNS can affect gastrointestinal function. Connection to the central nervous system also means that signals from outside of the digestive system can be relayed to the digestive system: for instance, the sight of appealing food stimulates secretion in the stomach.

text: Since the ATS contains a living ecosystem of microbes to digest the waste products in the water, excessive amounts of items such as bleach or antibiotics can damage the ATS environment and reduce treatment effectiveness. Non-digestible items should also be avoided, as they will build up in the system and require more frequent sludge removal.

text: Since the ATS contains a living

text: ecosystem

text: of microbes to digest the waste products in the water, excessive amounts of items such as

text: bleach

text: or

text: antibiotic

text: s can damage the ATS environment and reduce treatment effectiveness. Non-digestible items should also be avoided, as they will build up in the system and require more frequent sludge removal.

text: The enterocytes in the small intestinal mucosa contain digestive enzymes that digest specific foods while they are being absorbed through the epithelium. These enzymes include peptidase, sucrase, maltase, lactase and intestinal lipase. This is in contrast to the gastric glands of the stomach where chief cells secrete pepsinogen.

text: The

text: enterocyte

text: s in the small intestinal

text: mucosa

text: contain

text: digestive enzyme

text: s that digest specific foods while they are being absorbed through the epithelium. These enzymes include

text: peptidase

text: sucrase

text: maltase

text: lactase

text: and intestinal

text: lipase

text: . This is in contrast to the

text: gastric glands

text: of the

text: stomach

text: where

text: chief cells

text: secrete

text: pepsinogen

text: Komodo dragons eat by tearing large chunks of flesh and swallowing them whole while holding the carcass down with their forelegs. For smaller prey up to the size of a goat, their loosely articulated jaws, flexible skulls, and expandable stomachs allow them to swallow prey whole. The vegetable contents of the stomach and intestines are typically avoided. Copious amounts of red saliva the Komodo dragons produce help to lubricate the food, but swallowing is still a long process (15–20 minutes to swallow a goat). A Komodo dragon may attempt to speed up the process by ramming the carcass against a tree to force it down its throat, sometimes ramming so forcefully, the tree is knocked down. A small tube under the tongue that connects to the lungs allows it to breathe while swallowing. After eating up to 80% of its body weight in one meal, it drags itself to a sunny location to speed digestion, as the food could rot and poison the dragon if left undigested for too long. Because of their slow metabolism, large dragons can survive on as few as 12 meals a year. After digestion, the Komodo dragon regurgitates a mass of horns, hair, and teeth known as the gastric pellet, which is covered in malodorous mucus. After regurgitating the gastric pellet, it rubs its face in the dirt or on bushes to get rid of the mucus, suggesting it does not relish the scent of its own excretions.

text: MonaVie promoted that the juice had key polyphenol antioxidants from açai and other fruits in the blend; However, there is no physiological evidence that any fruit polyphenols have such actions in humans or that oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) has any relevance in the human body. Research shows that although polyphenols are good antioxidants in vitro, antioxidant effects in vivo are probably negligible or absent. As interpreted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Linus Pauling Institute and European Food Safety Authority, dietary polyphenols have little or no direct antioxidant food value after digestion. Unlike controlled test tube conditions, most polyphenols are not absorbed following digestion, and what is absorbed is metabolized and excreted.

text: MonaVie promoted that the juice had key polyphenol antioxidants from açai and other fruits in the blend; However, there is no physiological evidence that any fruit polyphenols have such actions

text: in humans

text: or that

text: oxygen radical absorbance capacity

text: (ORAC) has any relevance in the human body. Research shows that although polyphenols are good

text: antioxidant

text: s in vitro, antioxidant effects in vivo are probably negligible or absent. As interpreted by the U.S.

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: (FDA),

text: Linus Pauling Institute

text: and

text: European Food Safety Authority

text: , dietary polyphenols have little or no direct antioxidant food value after digestion. Unlike controlled test tube conditions, most polyphenols are not absorbed following digestion, and what is absorbed is metabolized and excreted.

text: Some of the gases are produced by bacteria which live in symbiosis within the large intestines of humans and other mammals. The gases are created as a by-product of the bacteria's digestion of food into relatively simpler substances. The oxygen and nitrogen component of flatus can be accounted for by aerophagy, while the CO component results from the reaction of stomach acids (HCl) with pancreatic bile (NaHCO).

text: Some of the gases are produced by

text: bacteria

text: which live in

text: symbiosis

text: within the

text: large intestine

text: s of humans and other

text: mammal

text: s. The gases are created as a by-product of the bacteria's

text: digestion

text: of food into relatively simpler substances. The oxygen and nitrogen component of flatus can be accounted for by

text: aerophagy

text: , while the CO component results from the reaction of stomach acids (

text: HCl

text: ) with pancreatic bile (

text: NaHCO

text: Conditioned satiety is thought to be acquired when a food with a given flavour is eaten on a partly full stomach and followed promptly by a mildly aversive digestive event ("bloat"). However, it is uncertain if and how this phenomenon may occur under real-life conditions as normally more than food of one given flavor is ingested during a meal. It has been widely misunderstood as an association of the sensory properties of a food with its energy content (calories) or carbohydrate content. However that is a confusion with the conditioning of simple aversion or a contrast with simple conditioned preference. Conditioned satiety has only been evidenced in experiments with rats, monkeys or humans when a flavour and fullness together have been paired with concentrated maltodextrin. When a whole meal of concentrated maltodextrin is eaten without changing its flavour, only the conditioning of preference for the flavour early in the meal is seen. Rats, monkeys and people can learn conditioned satiety within one or two pairings although in the first experiments the rats needed several days to adapt their intakes because the test food was aversively flavoured or textured. The particularity of conditioned satiety is that the time lapse between intake (and thus sensory stimulation) and the aversively conditioning after-effect is much shorter (less than 15 minutes) than that feasible for the conditioning of simple aversion to taste, odour or texture by poisoning, which can occur with a delay in postabsorptive effects of 12 or more hours.

text: Extracellular digestion is a process in which saprobionts feed by secreting enzymes through the cell membrane onto the food. The enzymes catalyze the digestion of the food into molecules small enough to be taken up by passive diffusion, transport or phagocytosis. Since digestion occurs outside the cell, it is said to be extracellular. It takes place either in the lumen of the digestive system, in a gastric cavity or other digestive organ, or completely outside the body.

text: Extracellular digestion is a process in which

text: saprobionts

text: feed by secreting

text: enzymes

text: through the

text: cell membrane

text: onto the food. The enzymes catalyze the digestion of the food into

text: molecules

text: small enough to be taken up by passive diffusion, transport or

text: phagocytosis

text: . Since

text: digestion

text: occurs outside the cell, it is said to be extracellular. It takes place either in the

text: lumen

text: of the

text: digestive system

text: , in a gastric cavity or other digestive organ, or completely outside the body.

text: Inflammation of the esophagus is known as esophagitis. Reflux of gastric acids from the stomach, infection, substances ingested (for example, corrosives), some medications (such as bisphosphonates), and food allergies can all lead to esophagitis. Esophageal candidiasis is an infection of the yeast candida albicans that may occur when a person is immunocompromised.  the cause of some forms of esophagitis, such as eosinophilic esophagitis, is not known. Esophagitis can cause painful swallowing and is usually treated by managing the cause of the esophagitis - such as managing reflux or treating infection.

text: Inflammation of the esophagus is known as

text: esophagitis

text: Reflux

text: of

text: gastric acid

text: s from the stomach, infection, substances ingested (for example,

text: corrosives

text: ), some

text: medications

text: (such as

text: bisphosphonate

text: s), and

text: food allergies

text: can all lead to esophagitis.

text: Esophageal candidiasis

text: is an infection of the yeast

text: candida albicans

text: that may occur when a person is

text: immunocompromised

text: .  the cause of some forms of esophagitis, such as

text: eosinophilic esophagitis

text: , is not known. Esophagitis can cause

text: painful swallowing

text: and is usually treated by managing the cause of the esophagitis - such as managing reflux or treating infection.

text: According to Abram Hoffer, "primitive" peoples do not consume processed foods and do not have "degenerative" diseases. In contrast, typical "Western" diets are said to be insufficient for long-term health, necessitating the use of megadose supplements of vitamins, dietary minerals, proteins, antioxidants, amino acids, ω-3 fatty acids, ω-6 fatty acids, medium-chain triglycerides, dietary fiber, short and long chain fatty acids, lipotropes, systemic and digestive enzymes, other digestive factors, and prohormones to ward off hypothetical metabolism anomalies at an early stage, before they cause disease.

text: According to Abram Hoffer, "primitive" peoples do not consume processed foods and do not have "degenerative" diseases. In contrast, typical "Western" diets are said to be insufficient for long-term health, necessitating the use of megadose supplements of

text: vitamin

text: s,

text: dietary mineral

text: s,

text: protein

text: s,

text: antioxidant

text: s,

text: amino acid

text: s,

text: ω-3 fatty acids

text: ω-6 fatty acids

text: medium-chain triglycerides

text: dietary fiber

text: , short and long chain

text: fatty acids

text: lipotropes

text: , systemic and

text: digestive enzyme

text: s, other digestive factors, and prohormones to ward off hypothetical

text: metabolism

text: anomalies at an early stage, before they cause disease.

text: The mouth is located just behind the head, after a rostrum, on the underside of the body. It has a pair of cuticular jaws, supplied by strong muscles, and often bearing minute teeth. A "basal plate" on the lower surface that bears a comb-like structure is also present. The basal plate is used to scrape smaller organisms off of the grains of sand that make up their anoxic seabed mud habitat. This bilaterally symmetrical pharynx with its complex cuticular mouth parts make them appear closely related to rotifers and their allies, together making up the Gnathifera. The ultrastructure of the jaws made of rods with electron dense core in Transmission electron microscopy sections also support their close relation with Rotifera and Micrognathozoa. The mouth opens into a blind-ending tube in which digestion takes place; there is no true anus. However, there is tissue connecting the intestine to the epidermis which may serve as an anal pore.

text: The mouth is located just behind the head, after a rostrum, on the underside of the body. It has a pair of cuticular jaws, supplied by strong muscles, and often bearing minute teeth. A "basal plate" on the lower surface that bears a comb-like structure is also present. The basal plate is used to scrape smaller organisms off of the grains of sand that make up their anoxic seabed mud habitat. This bilaterally symmetrical

text: pharynx

text: with its complex cuticular mouth parts make them appear closely related to

text: rotifer

text: s and their allies, together making up the

text: Gnathifera

text: . The ultrastructure of the jaws made of rods with electron dense core in

text: Transmission electron microscopy

text: sections also support their close relation with

text: Rotifera

text: and

text: Micrognathozoa

text: . The mouth opens into a blind-ending tube in which digestion takes place; there is no true

text: anus

text: . However, there is tissue connecting the intestine to the epidermis which may serve as an anal pore.

text: In sharks, digestion can take a long time. The food moves from the mouth to a J-shaped stomach, where it is stored and initial digestion occurs. Unwanted items may never get past the stomach, and instead the shark either vomits or turns its stomachs inside out and ejects unwanted items from its mouth. One of the biggest differences between the digestive systems of sharks and mammals is that sharks have much shorter intestines. This short length is achieved by the spiral valve with multiple turns within a single short section instead of a long tube-like intestine. The valve provides a long surface area, requiring food to circulate inside the short gut until fully digested, when remaining waste products pass into the cloaca.

text: In sharks, digestion can take a long time. The food moves from the mouth to a J-shaped stomach, where it is stored and initial digestion occurs. Unwanted items may never get past the stomach, and instead the shark either vomits or turns its stomachs inside out and ejects unwanted items from its mouth. One of the biggest differences between the digestive systems of sharks and mammals is that sharks have much shorter intestines. This short length is achieved by the

text: spiral valve

text: with multiple turns within a single short section instead of a long tube-like intestine. The valve provides a long surface area, requiring food to circulate inside the short gut until fully digested, when remaining waste products pass into the

text: cloaca

text: The process of absorption means that a substance captures and transforms energy. The absorbent distributes the material it captures throughout whole and adsorbent only distributes it through the surface.

text: Lystek developed a biosolids treatment that improves the operation of wastewater treatment plants by producing more biogas, while reducing output volumes, odors and greenhouse gas emissions. Lystek's technology uses thermal hydrolysis involving high speed shearing, alkali addition and low temperature steam to produce biofertilizer. The product can be sold as a commercial biofertilizer called LysteGro or recycled to anaerobic digesters and biological nutrient removal (BNR) systems for optimization of the wastewater treatment plant operation. The Lystek process condition disintegrates microbial cell wall/membranes and hydrolyzes complex macromolecules into simpler compounds. Recycling up to 25% of the product to the digester increases biogas yields by greater than 30 % and enhances biodegradation, reducing output of biosolids by at least 20%.

text: Lystek developed a biosolids treatment that improves the operation of wastewater treatment plants by producing more

text: biogas

text: , while reducing output volumes, odors and

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions. Lystek's technology uses

text: thermal hydrolysis

text: involving high speed shearing, alkali addition and low temperature steam to produce

text: biofertilizer

text: . The product can be sold as a commercial biofertilizer called LysteGro or recycled to anaerobic digesters and biological nutrient removal (BNR) systems for optimization of the wastewater treatment plant operation. The Lystek process condition disintegrates microbial cell wall/membranes and hydrolyzes complex macromolecules into simpler compounds. Recycling up to 25% of the product to the digester increases biogas yields by greater than 30 % and enhances biodegradation, reducing output of biosolids by at least 20%.

text: The Digest, formerly published as The English and Empire Digest, is a digest of case law. It is the "major modern work" of this kind. Its coverage is "wide" but incomplete, and it can be "complicated to use" if the user does not understand how the editions overlap. In 1994, it included cases from England and Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and other parts of the Commonwealth, and from the European Communities. More than half a million cases from more than a thousand series of law reports were summarised. The work also serves as a citator and is "valuable" because of this.

text: The Digest, formerly published as The English and Empire Digest, is a digest of

text: case law

text: . It is the "major modern work" of this kind. Its coverage is "wide" but incomplete, and it can be "complicated to use" if the user does not understand how the editions overlap. In 1994, it included cases from England and Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and other parts of the Commonwealth, and from the European Communities. More than half a million cases from more than a thousand series of law reports were summarised. The work also serves as a

text: citator

text: and is "valuable" because of this.

text: Molluscs have such diverse shapes that many textbooks base their descriptions of molluscan anatomy on a generalized or hypothetical ancestral mollusc. This generalized mollusc is unsegmented and bilaterally symmetrical with an underside consisting of a single muscular foot. Beyond that it has three further key features. Firstly, it has a muscular cloak called a mantle covering its viscera and containing a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion. A shell secreted by the mantle covers the upper surface. Secondly (apart from bivalves) it has a rasping tongue called a radula used for feeding. Thirdly, it has a nervous system including a complex digestive system using microscopic, muscle-powered hairs called cilia to exude mucus. The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords (three in bivalves). The brain, in species that have one, encircles the esophagus. Most molluscs have eyes and all have sensors detecting chemicals, vibrations, and touch. The simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization, but more complex variations occur. All produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, more complex veliger larvae, or miniature adults. The depiction is rather similar to modern monoplacophorans, and some suggest it may resemble very early molluscs.

text: Molluscs have such diverse shapes that many textbooks base their descriptions of molluscan anatomy on a generalized or hypothetical ancestral mollusc. This generalized mollusc is unsegmented and

text: bilaterally symmetrical

text: with an underside consisting of a single muscular

text: foot

text: . Beyond that it has three further key features. Firstly, it has a muscular cloak called a

text: mantle

text: covering its viscera and containing a significant cavity used for breathing and

text: excretion

text: . A

text: shell

text: secreted by the mantle covers the upper surface. Secondly (apart from bivalves) it has a rasping tongue called a

text: radula

text: used for feeding. Thirdly, it has a

text: nervous system

text: including a complex digestive system using microscopic, muscle-powered hairs called

text: cilia

text: to exude

text: mucus

text: . The generalized mollusc has two paired

text: nerve cords

text: (three in bivalves). The

text: brain

text: , in species that have one, encircles the

text: esophagus

text: . Most molluscs have

text: eyes

text: and all have sensors detecting chemicals, vibrations, and touch. The simplest type of molluscan

text: reproductive system

text: relies on

text: external fertilization

text: , but more complex variations occur. All produce

text: eggs

text: , from which may emerge

text: trochophore

text: larvae

text: , more complex

text: veliger

text: larvae, or miniature adults. The depiction is rather similar to modern

text: monoplacophora

text: ns, and some suggest it may resemble very early molluscs.

text: Alpha-gal allergies are the first food allergies to come with the possibility of delayed anaphylaxis. It is also the first food-related allergy to be associated with a carbohydrate, rather than a protein.

text: Similarly, persons with known sensitivities or allergies to food products are advised to avoid foods that contain generic "natural flavors" or to first determine the source of the flavoring before consuming the food.  Such flavors may be derived from a variety of source products that are themselves common allergens, such as dairy, soy, sesame, eggs, and nuts.

text: Similarly, persons with known

text: sensitivities

text: or

text: allergies

text: to food products are advised to avoid foods that contain generic "natural flavors" or to first determine the source of the flavoring before consuming the food.  Such flavors may be derived from a variety of source products that are themselves common

text: allergen

text: s, such as

text: dairy

text: soy

text: sesame

text: eggs

text: , and

text: nuts

text: On average humans eliminate 128 g of fresh feces per person per day with a pH value of around 6.6. Fresh feces contains around 75% water and the remaining solid fraction is 84–93% organic solids.

text: On average humans eliminate 128 g of fresh feces per person per day with a

text: pH value

text: of around 6.6. Fresh feces contains around 75% water and the remaining solid fraction is 84–93% organic solids.

text: Digest size is a magazine size, smaller than a conventional or "journal size" magazine but larger than a standard paperback book, approximately , but can also be  and . These sizes have evolved from the printing press operation end. Some printing presses refer to digest-size as a "catalog size," such as that used by Avon Products when selling house to house. The digest format was considered to be a convenient size for readers to tote around or to leave on the coffee table within easy reach.

text: Digest size is a

text: magazine

text: size, smaller than a conventional or "journal size" magazine but larger than a standard

text: paperback

text: book, approximately , but can also be  and . These sizes have evolved from the printing press operation end. Some printing presses refer to digest-size as a "catalog size," such as that used by

text: Avon Products

text: when selling house to house. The digest format was considered to be a convenient size for readers to tote around or to leave on the coffee table within easy reach.

text: People might already use plastic bags (also called flying toilets) at night to contain their feces, However, a more advanced solution of the plastic toilet bag has been provided by the Swedish company Peepoople who are producing the "Peepoo bag", a "personal, single-use, self-sanitizing, fully biodegradable toilet that prevents feces from contaminating the immediate area as well as the surrounding ecosystem". This bag is now being used in humanitarian responses, schools, and urban slums in developing countries.

text: People might already use plastic bags (also called

text: flying toilet

text: s) at night to contain their feces, However, a more advanced solution of the plastic toilet bag has been provided by the Swedish company Peepoople who are producing the "Peepoo bag", a "personal, single-use, self-sanitizing, fully biodegradable toilet that prevents feces from contaminating the immediate area as well as the surrounding ecosystem". This bag is now being used in humanitarian responses, schools, and urban slums in developing countries.

text: Nopalitos contain galactogamin gums which retard the absorption of their sugars by the digestive system and are thus considered to have a low glycemic index.  They may help in the treatment of diabetes.

text: Nopalitos contain galactogamin gums which retard the absorption of their sugars by the digestive system and are thus considered to have a low glycemic index.  They may help in the treatment of

text: diabetes

text: Another, but rarer form, is postprandial hypotension, a drastic decline in blood pressure that occurs 30 to 75 minutes after eating substantial meals.  When a great deal of blood is diverted to the intestines (a kind of "splanchnic blood pooling") to facilitate digestion and absorption, the body must increase cardiac output and peripheral vasoconstriction to maintain enough blood pressure to perfuse vital organs, such as the brain. Postprandial hypotension is believed to be caused by the autonomic nervous system not compensating appropriately, because of aging or a specific disorder.

text: Another, but rarer form, is

text: postprandial

text: hypotension, a drastic decline in blood pressure that occurs 30 to 75 minutes after eating substantial meals.  When a great deal of blood is diverted to the

text: intestines

text: (a kind of "

text: splanchnic

text: blood pooling") to facilitate

text: digestion

text: and

text: absorption

text: , the body must increase

text: cardiac output

text: and peripheral

text: vasoconstriction

text: to maintain enough blood pressure to perfuse vital organs, such as the brain. Postprandial hypotension is believed to be caused by the autonomic nervous system not compensating appropriately, because of aging or a specific disorder.

text: An analysis of 3,500 food-poisoning outbreaks between 1990 and 2003 found that contaminated produce was responsible for the greatest number of individual foodborne illnesses. The study, by the Center for Science in the Public Interest, found that produce caused 428 outbreaks and 23,857 cases of illness.

text: An analysis of 3,500

text: food-poisoning

text: outbreaks between 1990 and 2003 found that contaminated produce was responsible for the greatest number of individual foodborne illnesses. The study, by the

entity_name: Center for Science in the Public Interest

text: Center for Science in the Public Interest

text: , found that produce caused 428 outbreaks and 23,857 cases of illness.

text: Mouth to Mouth follows the lives of four young people, trying to improve their lives in a harsh and unforgiving city.

text: In the baseball elimination problem there are n teams competing in a league. At a specific stage of the league season, w is the number of wins and r is the number of games left to play for team i and r is the number of games left against team j. A team is eliminated if it has no chance to finish the season in the first place. The task of the baseball elimination problem is to determine which teams are eliminated at each point during the season. Schwartz proposed a  method which reduces this problem to maximum network flow. In this method a network is created to determine whether team k is eliminated.

text: In the

text: baseball

text: elimination problem there are n teams competing in a league. At a specific stage of the league season, w is the number of wins and r is the number of games left to play for team i and r is the number of games left against team j. A team is eliminated if it has no chance to finish the season in the first place. The task of the baseball elimination problem is to determine which teams are eliminated at each point during the season. Schwartz proposed a  method which reduces this problem to maximum network flow. In this method a network is created to determine whether team k is eliminated.

text: The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 meters long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.

text: The

text: human gastrointestinal tract

text: is around 9 meters long.

text: Food

text: digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.

text: There are two different types of arthropod excretory systems. In aquatic arthropods, the end-product of biochemical reactions that metabolise nitrogen is ammonia, which is so toxic that it needs to be diluted as much as possible with water. The ammonia is then eliminated via any permeable membrane, mainly through the gills. All crustaceans use this system, and its high consumption of water may be responsible for the relative lack of success of crustaceans as land animals. Various groups of terrestrial arthropods have independently developed a different system: the end-product of nitrogen metabolism is uric acid, which can be excreted as dry material; the Malpighian tubule system filters the uric acid and other nitrogenous waste out of the blood in the hemocoel, and dumps these materials into the hindgut, from which they are expelled as feces. Most aquatic arthropods and some terrestrial ones also have organs called nephridia ("little kidneys"), which extract other wastes for excretion as urine.

text: There are two different types of arthropod excretory systems. In aquatic arthropods, the end-product of biochemical reactions that

text: metabolise

text: nitrogen

text: is

text: ammonia

text: , which is so toxic that it needs to be diluted as much as possible with water. The ammonia is then eliminated via any permeable membrane, mainly through the gills. All crustaceans use this system, and its high consumption of water may be responsible for the relative lack of success of crustaceans as land animals. Various groups of terrestrial arthropods have independently developed a different system: the end-product of nitrogen metabolism is

text: uric acid

text: , which can be excreted as dry material; the

text: Malpighian tubule system

text: filters the uric acid and other nitrogenous waste out of the blood in the hemocoel, and dumps these materials into the hindgut, from which they are expelled as

text: feces

text: . Most aquatic arthropods and some terrestrial ones also have organs called

text: nephridia

text: ("little

text: kidney

text: s"), which extract other wastes for excretion as

text: urine

text: Coprophilous fungi release their spores to the surrounding vegetation, which is then eaten by herbivores. The spores then remain in the animal as the plants are digested, pass through the animal's intestines and are finally defecated. The fruiting bodies of the fungi then grow from the animal feces. It is essential that the spores of the species then reach new plant material; spores remaining in the feces will produce nothing. As such, some species have developed means of discharging spores a large distance. An example of this is the genus Pilobolus. Fruiting bodies of Pilobolus will suddenly rupture, sending the contents over 2 metres away.

text: Coprophilous fungi release their

text: spore

text: s to the surrounding vegetation, which is then eaten by

text: herbivore

text: s. The spores then remain in the animal as the plants are

text: digested

text: , pass through the animal's

text: intestines

text: and are finally

text: defecated

text: . The fruiting bodies of the fungi then grow from the animal feces. It is essential that the spores of the species then reach new plant material; spores remaining in the feces will produce nothing. As such, some species have developed means of discharging spores a large distance. An example of this is the genus

text: Pilobolus

text: . Fruiting bodies of Pilobolus will suddenly rupture, sending the contents over 2 metres away.

text: In flood prone locations feces containers or vaults should be located above the flood water levels. If this is not feasible, it is possible to use ferrocement walls to isolate the vault(s) from encroaching flood waters.

text: In flood prone locations feces containers or vaults should be located above the flood water levels. If this is not feasible, it is possible to use

text: ferrocement

text: walls to isolate the vault(s) from encroaching flood waters.

text: Cattle are known for regurgitating and re-chewing their food, known as cud chewing, like most ruminants.  While the animal is feeding, the food is swallowed without being chewed and goes into the rumen for storage until the animal can find a quiet place to continue the digestion process.  The food is regurgitated, a mouthful at a time, back up to the mouth, where the food, now called the cud, is chewed by the molars, grinding down the course vegetation to small particles.  The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by specialized microorganisms in the rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for decomposing cellulose and other carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel. The microbes inside the rumen also synthesize amino acids from non-protein nitrogenous sources, such as urea and ammonia. As these microbes reproduce in the rumen, older generations die and their cells continue on through the digestive tract. These cells are then partially digested in the small intestines, allowing cattle to gain a high-quality protein source. These features allow cattle to thrive on grasses and other tough vegetation.

text: Cattle are known for

text: regurgitating

text: and re-chewing their food, known as

text: cud

text: chewing, like most ruminants.  While the animal is feeding, the food is swallowed without being chewed and goes into the rumen for storage until the animal can find a quiet place to continue the digestion process.  The food is regurgitated, a mouthful at a time, back up to the mouth, where the food, now called the

text: cud

text: , is chewed by the molars, grinding down the course vegetation to small particles.  The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by specialized

text: microorganism

text: s in the rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for decomposing

text: cellulose

text: and other

text: carbohydrate

text: s into

text: volatile fatty acids

text: cattle use as their primary

text: metabolic

text: fuel. The microbes inside the rumen also synthesize

text: amino acid

text: s from non-protein

text: nitrogen

text: ous sources, such as

text: urea

text: and

text: ammonia

text: . As these microbes reproduce in the rumen, older generations die and their cells continue on through the digestive tract. These cells are then partially digested in the small intestines, allowing cattle to gain a high-quality protein source. These features allow cattle to thrive on

text: grasses

text: and other tough

text: vegetation

text: Starfish:  Primitive starfish, such as Astropecten and Luidia, swallow their prey whole and start to digest it in their cardiac stomachs.  Shell valves and other inedible materials are ejected through their mouths. The semi-digested fluid is passed into their pyloric stomachs and caeca where digestion continues and absorption occurs.  The margined sea star (Astropecten articulatus) is a well known molluscivore. It catches prey with its arms which it then takes to the mouth. The prey is then trapped by the long, moving prickles around the mouth cavity and swallowed food.

text: Starfish

text: :  Primitive starfish, such as

text: Astropecten

text: and

text: Luidia

text: , swallow their prey whole and start to digest it in their cardiac stomachs.  Shell valves and other inedible materials are ejected through their mouths. The semi-digested fluid is passed into their pyloric stomachs and caeca where digestion continues and absorption occurs.  The margined sea star (

text: Astropecten articulatus

text: ) is a well known molluscivore. It catches prey with its arms which it then takes to the mouth. The prey is then trapped by the long, moving prickles around the mouth cavity and swallowed food.

text: Ferrets are obligate carnivores. The natural diet of their wild ancestors consisted of whole small prey—i.e., meat, organs, bones, skin, feathers, and fur. Ferrets have short digestive systems and quick metabolism, so they need to eat frequently. Prepared dry foods consisting almost entirely of meat (including high-grade cat food, although specialized ferret food is increasingly available and preferable) provide the most nutritional value and are the most convenient, though some ferret owners feed pre-killed or live prey (such as mice and rabbits) to their ferrets to more closely mimic their natural diet. Ferret digestive tracts lack a cecum and the animal is largely unable to digest plant matter. Before much was known about ferret physiology, many breeders and pet stores recommended food like fruit in the ferret diet, but it is now known that such foods are inappropriate, and may in fact have negative ramifications on ferret health. Ferrets imprint on their food at around six months old. This can make introducing new foods to an older ferret a challenge, and even simply changing brands of kibble may meet with resistance from a ferret that has never eaten the food as a kit. It is therefore advisable to expose young ferrets to as many different types and flavors of appropriate food as possible.

text: Ferrets are

text: obligate carnivore

text: s. The natural diet of their wild ancestors consisted of whole small prey—i.e., meat, organs, bones, skin, feathers, and fur. Ferrets have short digestive systems and quick metabolism, so they need to eat frequently. Prepared dry foods consisting almost entirely of meat (including high-grade

text: cat food

text: , although specialized ferret food is increasingly available and preferable) provide the most nutritional value and are the most convenient, though some ferret owners feed pre-killed or live prey (such as

text: mice

text: and

text: rabbit

text: s) to their ferrets to more closely mimic their natural diet. Ferret digestive tracts lack a

text: cecum

text: and the animal is largely unable to digest plant matter. Before much was known about ferret physiology, many breeders and pet stores recommended food like fruit in the ferret diet, but it is now known that such foods are inappropriate, and may in fact have negative ramifications on ferret health. Ferrets imprint on their food at around six months old. This can make introducing new foods to an older ferret a challenge, and even simply changing brands of kibble may meet with resistance from a ferret that has never eaten the food as a kit. It is therefore advisable to expose young ferrets to as many different types and flavors of appropriate food as possible.

text: The digestive system can respond to external stimuli, such as the sight or smell of food, and cause physiological changes before the food ever enters the body. This reflex is known as the cephalic phase of digestion. The sight and smell of food are strong enough stimuli to cause salivation, gastric and pancreatic enzyme secretion, and endocrine secretion in preparation for the incoming nutrients; by starting the digestive process before food reaches the stomach, the body is able to more effectively and efficiently metabolize food into necessary nutrients. Once food hits the mouth, taste and information from receptors in the mouth add to the digestive response. Chemoreceptors and mechanorceptors, activated by chewing and swallowing, further increase the enzyme release in the stomach and intestine.

text: The

text: digestive system

text: can respond to external stimuli, such as the sight or smell of food, and cause physiological changes before the food ever enters the body. This reflex is known as the

text: cephalic phase

text: of

text: digestion

text: . The sight and smell of food are strong enough stimuli to cause salivation, gastric and pancreatic enzyme secretion, and endocrine secretion in preparation for the incoming nutrients; by starting the digestive process before food reaches the stomach, the body is able to more effectively and efficiently metabolize food into necessary nutrients. Once food hits the mouth, taste and information from receptors in the mouth add to the digestive response.

text: Chemoreceptors

text: and

text: mechanorceptors

text: , activated by chewing and swallowing, further increase the enzyme release in the stomach and intestine.

text: In tetrapods, the pharynx is much shorter, and the esophagus correspondingly longer, than in fish. In the majority of vertebrates, the esophagus is simply a connecting tube, but in some birds, which regurgitate components to feed their young, it is extended towards the lower end to form a crop for storing food before it enters the true stomach.  In ruminants, animals with four stomachs, a groove called the sulcus reticuli is often found in the esophagus, allowing milk to drain directly into the hind stomach, the abomasum. The esophagus of snakes is remarkable for the distension it undergoes when swallowing prey.

text: In

text: tetrapod

text: s, the pharynx is much shorter, and the esophagus correspondingly longer, than in fish. In the majority of vertebrates, the esophagus is simply a connecting tube, but in some

text: bird

text: s, which regurgitate components to feed their young, it is extended towards the lower end to form a

text: crop

text: for storing food before it enters the true stomach.  In

text: ruminant

text: s, animals with four stomachs, a groove called the sulcus reticuli is often found in the esophagus, allowing milk to drain directly into the hind stomach, the

text: abomasum

text: . The esophagus of

text: snake

text: s is remarkable for the distension it undergoes when swallowing prey.

text: SunButter is a brand of sunflower seed butter made from sunflower seeds and promoted for use by people with nut allergies. It is an edible food paste similar to peanut butter, mainly used as a sandwich spread by people with peanut allergies and/or tree nut allergies.SunButter is manufactured by SunGold Foods, Inc. in Fargo, North Dakota.

text: SunButter is a brand of

text: sunflower seed butter

text: made from sunflower seeds and promoted for use by people with nut allergies. It is an edible food paste similar to

text: peanut butter

text: , mainly used as a

text: sandwich

text: spread

text: by people with

text: peanut allergies

text: and/or

text: tree nut allergies

text: .SunButter is manufactured by SunGold Foods, Inc. in

text: Fargo, North Dakota

text: Foodie.fm’s recommendation system relies on a patent-pending technology which learns from a user’s eating and buying habits and suggests groceries and recipes accordingly. The system also takes into account user profile settings which specifies food allergies, personal budget and dietary restrictions.

text: Tylopoda (camels, llamas, and alpacas) and chevrotains have three-chambered stomachs, while the rest of Ruminantia have four-chambered stomachs. The handicap of a heavy digestive system has increased selective pressure towards limbs that allow the animal to quickly escape predators. Most species within Suina have a simple two-chambered stomach that allows an omnivorous diet. The babirusa, however, is an herbivore, and has extra maxillary teeth to allow for proper mastication of plant material. Most of the fermentation occurs with the help of cellulolytic microorganisms within the caecum of the large intestine. Peccaries have a complex stomach that contains four compartments. Their fore stomach has fermentation carried out by microbes and has high levels of volatile fatty acid; it has been proposed that their complex fore stomach is a means to slow digestive passage and increase digestive efficiency. Hippopotamuses have three-chambered stomachs and do not ruminate. They consume around  of grass and other plant matter each night. They may cover distances up to  to obtain food, which they digest with the help of microbes that produce cellulase. Their closest living relatives, the whales, are obligate carnivores.

text: Tylopoda (camels, llamas, and alpacas) and chevrotains have three-chambered stomachs, while the rest of Ruminantia have four-chambered stomachs. The handicap of a heavy digestive system has increased selective pressure towards limbs that allow the animal to quickly escape predators. Most species within Suina have a simple two-chambered stomach that allows an omnivorous diet. The

text: babirusa

text: , however, is an herbivore, and has extra

text: maxillary teeth

text: to allow for proper mastication of plant material. Most of the fermentation occurs with the help of cellulolytic microorganisms within the

text: caecum

text: of the

text: large intestine

text: . Peccaries have a complex stomach that contains four compartments. Their fore stomach has fermentation carried out by microbes and has high levels of

text: volatile fatty acid

text: ; it has been proposed that their complex fore stomach is a means to slow digestive passage and increase digestive efficiency. Hippopotamuses have three-chambered stomachs and do not ruminate. They consume around  of grass and other plant matter each night. They may cover distances up to  to obtain food, which they digest with the help of microbes that produce cellulase. Their closest living relatives, the whales, are

text: obligate carnivores

text: The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. It surrounds the lumen of the tract, and comes into direct contact with digested food (chyme). The mucosa itself is made up of three layers:

text: The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. It surrounds the

text: lumen

text: of the tract, and comes into direct contact with digested food (

text: chyme

text: ). The mucosa itself is made up of three layers:

text: Rousettus celebensis is a fruit-eating bat; it has big wings which allow it to carry heavy loads and also make it a good seed disperser. Its diet consists of large seeds, an uncommon feature, compared to other frugivorous bats. R. celebensis has a unique digestive system which allows it to digest certain seeds or seed coats or both.

text: A shallow crypt is a good indicator for an efficient small intestine, which requires fewer nutrients for renewal. With a low renewal rate the intestinal cells become more mature, allowing for more efficient digestive enzyme production and nutrient absorption. Research has shown increased production of enzymes such as; maltase, leucine aminopeptidase, and alkaline phosphatase with MOS.

text: A shallow crypt is a good indicator for an efficient small intestine, which requires fewer nutrients for renewal. With a low renewal rate the intestinal cells become more mature, allowing for more efficient digestive enzyme production and nutrient absorption. Research has shown increased production of enzymes such as;

text: maltase

text: leucine aminopeptidase

text: , and

text: alkaline phosphatase

text: with MOS.

text: A bolus (a small rounded mass of chewed up food) enters the stomach through the esophagus via the lower esophageal sphincter. The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin) and hydrochloric acid, which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the acidic pH of two for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall called peristalsis – reducing the volume of the fundus, before looping around the fundus and the body of stomach as the boluses are converted into chyme (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum of the small intestine, where the extraction of nutrients begins. Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into chyme anywhere between forty minutes and a few hours. The average human stomach can comfortably hold about a litre of food.

text: A

text: bolus

text: (a small rounded mass of

text: chewed up

text: food) enters the stomach through the

text: esophagus

text: via the

text: lower esophageal sphincter

text: . The stomach releases

text: proteases

text: (protein-digesting enzymes such as

text: pepsin

text: ) and

text: hydrochloric acid

text: , which kills or inhibits

text: bacteria

text: and provides the acidic

text: pH

text: of two for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall called

text: peristalsis

text: – reducing the volume of the

text: fundus

text: , before looping around the fundus and the

text: body of stomach

text: as the boluses are converted into

text: chyme

text: (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the

text: pyloric sphincter

text: and into the

text: duodenum

text: of the

text: small intestine

text: , where the extraction of nutrients begins. Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into

text: chyme

text: anywhere between forty minutes and a few hours. The average human stomach can comfortably hold about a litre of food.

text: Esophagus

text: Esophagus

text: Patients are restricted of all foods; however, certain exceptions in some patients are made for tea and coffee (without milk) and given Vivonex  as the elemental diet.  Other elemental diets such as Elental can be used that provide similar results. The elemental diet provides a high nitrogen source for patients from amino acids and acts as a medical bypass. Because the diet consists of the individual dietary components of food in their simplest form, the body does not have to do work to digest them. They prevent the food from "reacting" with the gut, preventing the occurrence of symptoms. The resulting positive nitrogen balance and alterations in the bacterial flora of the gut are likely to have beneficial effects in patients, helping to alleviate the symptoms of Crohn’s. However, due to the diet's consisting of fully broken down amino acids, the digestive loading is shifted from the gut to the liver. As such, liver function (via blood tests) should be monitored.

text: The inverse or time-reversed process of absorption is thermal radiation. Much of the thermal energy in matter consists of random motion of charged particles, and this energy can be radiated away from the matter. The resulting radiation may subsequently be absorbed by another piece of matter, with the deposited energy heating the material.

text: The large intestine is the last part of the digestive system normally found in vertebrate animals. Its function is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter, and then to pass useless waste material from the body. In fish, there is no true large intestine, but simply a short rectum connecting the end of the digestive part of the gut to the cloaca. In sharks, this includes a rectal gland that secretes salt to help the animal maintain osmotic balance with the seawater. The gland somewhat resembles a caecum in structure, but is not a homologous structure.

text: The

text: large intestine

text: is the last part of the

text: digestive system

text: normally found in vertebrate animals. Its function is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter, and then to pass useless

text: waste material

text: from the body. In fish, there is no true large intestine, but simply a short rectum connecting the end of the digestive part of the gut to the cloaca. In

text: shark

text: s, this includes a rectal gland that secretes salt to help the animal maintain

text: osmotic

text: balance with the seawater. The gland somewhat resembles a caecum in structure, but is not a homologous structure.

text: The protist is about 2 to 4 micrometers long. The zoospore has two flagella which it uses to swim in its marine habitat. It is ingested by its mollusc host, which is often an oyster of the genus Crassostrea. It then becomes a trophozoite, which proliferates in the tissues of the host. P. marinus often infests the hemocytes, cells in the blood of the host. It is also often seen in the cells of the intestine, connective tissues, digestive glands, and gills. Inside the cell, the trophozoite produces a vacuole which displaces the cell nucleus. The infested cell is referred to as a signet ring cell, because it is spherical and filled with the rounded vacuole, and resembles a signet ring. The mature trophozoite undergoes binary fission and up to 16 immature trophozoites are produced. These stay in the host animal and infest its tissues, or are released into the water in the feces or from a dead host. Trophozoites in the water mature and release flagellated zoospores.

text: The protist is about 2 to 4

text: micrometers

text: long. The

text: zoospore

text: has two

text: flagella

text: which it uses to swim in its

text: marine

text: habitat. It is ingested by its

text: mollusc

text: host

text: , which is often an oyster of the genus

text: Crassostrea

text: . It then becomes a

text: trophozoite

text: , which proliferates in the tissues of the host. P. marinus often infests the

text: hemocyte

text: s, cells in the

text: blood

text: of the host. It is also often seen in the cells of the

text: intestine

text: connective tissue

text: s, digestive glands, and

text: gill

text: s. Inside the cell, the trophozoite produces a

text: vacuole

text: which displaces the

text: cell nucleus

text: . The infested cell is referred to as a

text: signet ring cell

text: , because it is spherical and filled with the rounded vacuole, and resembles a

text: signet ring

text: . The mature trophozoite undergoes

text: binary fission

text: and up to 16 immature trophozoites are produced. These stay in the host animal and infest its tissues, or are released into the water in the

text: feces

text: or from a dead host. Trophozoites in the water mature and release flagellated zoospores.

text: Amino acids that move beyond the terminal ileum in the body are less likely to be absorbed for use in protein synthesis. They may pass out of the body, or may be absorbed by bacteria, thus will not be present in the feces, and will appear to have been digested. The PDCAAS takes no account of where the proteins have been digested.

text: Amino acids that move beyond the terminal

text: ileum

text: in the body are less likely to be absorbed for use in

text: protein synthesis

text: . They may pass out of the body, or may be absorbed by

text: bacteria

text: , thus will not be present in the feces, and will appear to have been digested. The PDCAAS takes no account of where the proteins have been digested.

text: November 20, 1985—The Health Research Extension Act of 1985 (P.L. 99—158) changed the Institute's name to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. The act also established the National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Advisory Board. The law gave parallel special authorities to all Institute operating divisions, including authorization of the National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse; National Kidney, Urologic, and Hematologic Diseases Coordinating Committee; National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Data System; National Digestive Diseases Data System; Kidney and Urologic Diseases Research Centers; and Digestive Diseases Research Centers.

text: Like amygdalin, laetrile is hydrolyzed in the duodenum (alkaline) and in the intestine (enzymatically) to D-glucuronic acid and L-mandelonitrile; the latter hydrolyzes to benzaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide, that in sufficient quantities causes cyanide poisoning. Intravenous laetrile does not result in cyanide exposure. This is due to the fact that the necessary enzymes are released either upon chewing the plant material or are provided by bacteria residing in the human gastrointestinal system.

text: Like amygdalin, laetrile is hydrolyzed in the duodenum (alkaline) and in the intestine (enzymatically) to D-

text: glucuronic acid

text: and L-

text: mandelonitrile

text: ; the latter hydrolyzes to

text: benzaldehyde

text: and

text: hydrogen cyanide

text: , that in sufficient quantities causes

text: cyanide poisoning

text: . Intravenous laetrile does not result in cyanide exposure. This is due to the fact that the necessary enzymes are released either upon chewing the plant material or are provided by bacteria residing in the human gastrointestinal system.

text: The gastrointestinal tract's immune system is often referred to as gut-associated lymphoid tissue or Gut-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (GALT) and works to protect the body from invasion. The GALT is an example of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue.

text: The gastrointestinal tract's immune system is often referred to as gut-associated lymphoid tissue or Gut-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (GALT) and works to protect the body from invasion. The GALT is an example of

text: mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue

text: The Canard Digérateur, or Digesting Duck, was an automaton in the form of a duck, created by Jacques de Vaucanson in 1739.  The mechanical duck appeared to have the ability to eat kernels of grain, and to metabolize and defecate them. While the duck did not actually have the ability to do this—the food was collected in one inner container, and the pre-stored feces was "produced" from a second, so that no actual digestion took place—Vaucanson hoped that a truly digesting automaton could one day be designed.

text: The Canard Digérateur, or Digesting Duck, was an

text: automaton

text: in the form of a

text: duck

text: , created by

text: Jacques de Vaucanson

text: in 1739.  The mechanical duck appeared to have the ability to eat kernels of grain, and to metabolize and defecate them. While the duck did not actually have the ability to do this—the food was collected in one inner container, and the pre-stored feces was "produced" from a second, so that no actual digestion took place—Vaucanson hoped that a truly digesting automaton could one day be designed.

text: Amazing began as a bedsheet format magazine and remained so until October 1933, when it switched to pulp size. With the April–May 1953 issue Amazing became a digest. Seven issues in the early 1980s, from November 1980 to November 1981, were a half-inch taller than the regular digest size, but thereafter the magazine reverted to the standard digest format. In May 1991 the magazine returned to a large format, but this only lasted until the Winter 1994 issue, and the next three issues were digest-sized again. When the magazine reappeared in 1998, it was in bedsheet format and remained that size until the very end. The last issue, March 2005, was only distributed as a PDF download, never as a physical magazine. The volume numbering contained some irregularities: the numbering given in the tables above appears to be in error for the period from 1979 to 1983, but in fact it is given correctly in the table. Note also that vol. 27 no. 8 was a single issue, not two, as it seems to be from the table; it was dated Dec 1953/Jan 1954.

text: Protamine may be used as a drug to prevent obesity. Protamine has been shown to deter increases in body weight and low-density lipoprotein in high-fat diet rats. This effect occurs through the inhibition of lipase activity, an enzyme responsible for triacylglycerol digestion and absorption, resulting in a decrease in the absorption of dietary fat. No liver damage was found when the rats were treated with protamine. However, emulsification of long-chain fatty acids for digestion and absorption in the small intestine is less constant in humans than rats, which will vary the effectiveness of protamine as a drug. Furthermore, human peptidases may degrade protamine at different rates, thus further tests are required to determine protamine’s ability to prevent obesity in humans.

text: Protamine may be used as a drug to prevent obesity. Protamine has been shown to deter increases in body weight and

text: low-density lipoprotein

text: in high-fat diet rats. This effect occurs through the inhibition of

text: lipase

text: activity, an enzyme responsible for

text: triacylglycerol

text: digestion and absorption, resulting in a decrease in the absorption of dietary fat. No liver damage was found when the rats were treated with protamine. However, emulsification of long-chain fatty acids for digestion and absorption in the small intestine is less constant in humans than rats, which will vary the effectiveness of protamine as a drug. Furthermore, human peptidases may degrade protamine at different rates, thus further tests are required to determine protamine’s ability to prevent obesity in humans.

text: Absorption is strongly correlated with openness to experience. Studies using factor analysis have suggested that the fantasy, aesthetics, and feelings facets of the NEO PI-R Openness to Experience scale are closely related to absorption and predict hypnotisability, whereas the remaining three facet scales of ideas, actions, and values are largely unrelated to these constructs. Absorption is unrelated to extraversion or neuroticism. One study found a positive correlation between absorption and need for cognition. Absorption has a strong relationship to self-transcendence in the Temperament and Character Inventory.

text: Absorption is strongly correlated with

text: openness to experience

text: . Studies using

text: factor analysis

text: have suggested that the fantasy, aesthetics, and feelings facets of the NEO PI-R Openness to Experience scale are closely related to absorption and predict hypnotisability, whereas the remaining three facet scales of ideas, actions, and values are largely unrelated to these constructs. Absorption is unrelated to

text: extraversion

text: or

text: neuroticism

text: . One study found a positive correlation between absorption and

text: need for cognition

text: . Absorption has a strong relationship to

text: self-transcendence

text: in the

text: Temperament and Character Inventory

text: The motility of the gastrointestinal tract is regulated by the parasympathetic system, and blockage of this input results in diminished motility and constipation.

text: The motility of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: is regulated by the parasympathetic system, and blockage of this input results in diminished motility and

text: constipation

text: Rabbits are hindgut fermenters and therefore have an enlarged cecum.  This allows rabbits to digest, via fermentation, what they otherwise would not be able to metabolically process.  Because a rabbit has a sensitive and rather substantial gastrointestinal tract, a rabbit's diet should consist of some amount of fiber.  Without a proper diet, gastrointestinal stasis can occur and have detrimental effects on the animal. It is in the cecum that this fiber is digested.

text: Rabbits

text: are

text: hindgut fermenters

text: and therefore have an enlarged

text: cecum

text: .  This allows rabbits to digest, via

text: fermentation

text: , what they otherwise would not be able to metabolically process.  Because a rabbit has a sensitive and rather substantial gastrointestinal tract, a rabbit's diet should consist of some amount of

text: fiber

text: .  Without a proper diet, gastrointestinal stasis can occur and have detrimental effects on the animal. It is in the cecum that this fiber is digested.

text: The esophagus (American English) or oesophagus (British English) (/ᵻˈsɒfəɡəs/), commonly known as the food pipe or gullet, is an organ in vertebrates through which food passes, aided by peristaltic contractions, from the pharynx to the stomach. The esophagus is a fibromuscular tube, about 25 centimetres long in adults, which travels behind the trachea and heart, passes through the diaphragm and empties into the uppermost region of the stomach. During swallowing, the epiglottis tilts backwards to prevent food from going down the larynx and lungs. The word esophagus is the Greek word for gullet.

text: The esophagus (

text: American English

text: ) or oesophagus (

text: British English

text: ) (/ᵻˈsɒfəɡəs/), commonly known as the food pipe or gullet, is an

text: organ

text: in

text: vertebrate

text: s through which

text: food

text: passes, aided by

text: peristaltic contractions

text: , from the

text: pharynx

text: to the

text: stomach

text: . The esophagus is a

text: fibromuscular

text: tube, about 25 centimetres long in adults, which travels behind the

text: trachea

text: and

text: heart

text: , passes through the

text: diaphragm

text: and empties into the uppermost region of the stomach. During swallowing, the

text: epiglottis

text: tilts backwards to prevent food from going down the

text: larynx

text: and lungs. The word esophagus is the

text: Greek word

text: for gullet.

text: Many food allergies are caused by hypersensitivities to particular proteins in different foods.  Proteins have unique properties that allow them to become allergens, such as stabilizing forces in their tertiary and quaternary structures which prevent degradation during digestion. Many theoretically allergenic proteins cannot survive the destructive environment of the digestive tract, thus do not trigger hypersensitive reactions.

text: In more advanced species of starfish, the cardiac stomach can be everted from the organism's body to engulf and digest food. When the prey is a clam, the starfish pulls with its tube feet to separate the two valves slightly, and inserts a small section of its stomach, which releases enzymes to digest the prey. The stomach and the partially digested prey are later retracted into the disc. Here the food is passed on to the pyloric stomach, which always remains inside the disc. Because of this ability to digest food outside the body, starfish can hunt prey much larger than their mouths.

text: Burping (also known as belching, ructus, erupt or eructation) is the release of gas from the digestive tract (mainly esophagus and stomach) through the mouth.

text: Burping (also known as belching, ructus, erupt or eructation) is the release of

text: gas

text: from the digestive tract (mainly

text: esophagus

text: and

text: stomach

text: ) through the

text: mouth

text: A true predator can commonly be known as one that kills and eats another living thing. Whereas other types of predator all harm their prey in some way, this form kills them. Predators may hunt actively for prey in pursuit predation, or sit and wait for prey to approach within striking distance, as in ambush predators. Some predators kill large prey and dismember or chew it prior to eating it, such as a jaguar or a human; others may eat their (usually much smaller) prey whole, as does a bottlenose dolphin swallowing a fish, or a snake, duck or stork swallowing a frog. Some animals that kill both large and small prey for their size (domestic cats and dogs are prime examples) may do either depending upon the circumstances; either would devour a large insect whole but dismember a rabbit.  Some predation entails venom that subdues a prey creature before the predator ingests the prey by killing, which the box jellyfish does, or disabling it, found in the behavior of the cone shell. In some cases, the venom, as in rattlesnakes and some spiders, contributes to the digestion of the prey item even before the predator begins eating. In other cases, the prey organism may die in the mouth or digestive system of the predator. Baleen whales, for example, eat millions of microscopic plankton at once, the prey being broken down well after entering the whale. Seed predation and egg predation are other forms of true predation, as seeds and eggs represent potential organisms. Predators of this classification need not eat prey entirely. For example, some predators cannot digest bones, while others can. Some may eat only part of an organism, as in grazing (see below), but still consistently cause its direct death.

text: A true predator can commonly be known as one that kills and eats another living thing. Whereas other types of predator all harm their prey in some way, this form kills them. Predators may hunt actively for prey in

text: pursuit predation

text: , or sit and wait for prey to approach within striking distance, as in

text: ambush predator

text: s. Some predators kill large prey and dismember or chew it prior to eating it, such as a

text: jaguar

text: or a

text: human

text: ; others may eat their (usually much smaller) prey whole, as does a

text: bottlenose dolphin

text: swallowing a fish, or a

text: snake

text: duck

text: or

text: stork

text: swallowing a

text: frog

text: . Some animals that kill both large and small prey for their size (domestic

text: cat

text: s and

text: dog

text: s are prime examples) may do either depending upon the circumstances; either would devour a large insect whole but dismember a rabbit.  Some predation entails

text: venom

text: that subdues a prey creature before the predator ingests the prey by killing, which the

text: box jellyfish

text: does, or disabling it, found in the behavior of the

text: cone shell

text: . In some cases, the venom, as in

text: rattlesnake

text: s and some

text: spider

text: s, contributes to the digestion of the prey item even before the predator begins eating. In other cases, the prey organism may die in the mouth or

text: digestive system

text: of the predator.

text: Baleen whale

text: s, for example, eat millions of microscopic plankton at once, the prey being broken down well after entering the whale.

text: Seed predation

text: and egg predation are other forms of true predation, as

text: seed

text: s and

text: egg

text: s represent potential organisms. Predators of this classification need not eat prey entirely. For example, some predators cannot digest

text: bone

text: s, while others can. Some may eat only part of an organism, as in grazing (see below), but still consistently cause its direct death.

text: Allergy to soy is common, and the food is listed with other foods that commonly cause allergy, such as milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, shellfish. The problem has been reported among younger children, and the diagnosis of soy allergy is often based on symptoms reported by parents and results of skin tests or blood tests for allergy. Only a few reported studies have attempted to confirm allergy to soy by direct challenge with the food under controlled conditions. It is very difficult to give a reliable estimate of the true prevalence of soy allergy in the general population. To the extent that it does exist, soy allergy may cause cases of urticaria and angioedema, usually within minutes to hours of ingestion. In rare cases, true anaphylaxis may also occur. The reason for the discrepancy is likely that soy proteins, the causative factor in allergy, are far less potent at triggering allergy symptoms than the proteins of peanut and shellfish. An allergy test that is positive demonstrates that the immune system has formed IgE antibodies to soy proteins. However, this is only a factor when soy proteins reach the blood without being digested, in sufficient quantities to reach a threshold to provoke actual symptoms.

text: Allergy to soy is common, and the food is listed with other foods that commonly cause allergy, such as milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, shellfish. The problem has been reported among younger children, and the diagnosis of soy allergy is often based on symptoms reported by parents and results of skin tests or blood tests for allergy. Only a few reported studies have attempted to confirm allergy to soy by direct challenge with the food under controlled conditions. It is very difficult to give a reliable estimate of the true prevalence of soy allergy in the general population. To the extent that it does exist, soy allergy may cause cases of

text: urticaria

text: and

text: angioedema

text: , usually within minutes to hours of ingestion. In rare cases, true

text: anaphylaxis

text: may also occur. The reason for the discrepancy is likely that soy proteins, the causative factor in

text: allergy

text: , are far less potent at triggering allergy symptoms than the proteins of peanut and shellfish. An allergy test that is positive demonstrates that the immune system has formed IgE antibodies to soy proteins. However, this is only a factor when soy proteins reach the blood without being digested, in sufficient quantities to reach a threshold to provoke actual symptoms.

text: Some scholars hypothesize that the Three Worms may have originated from the observation of parasites in human excrement. Campany (2002: 166) interprets the Hou Hanshu story about Master Xie Yuanyi telling Fei Changfang that he would never become a xian-immortal because he refused to eat "terribly foul-smelling excrement full of the three worms", figuratively denoting the prerequisite of expelling the Three Worms from his body. Arthur (2013: 79) observes that, "Likely evidence for these worms was plentiful in people's feces, especially those of starving people, because many intestinal worms will evacuate the digestive system if they are not able to ingest enough sustenance. Otherwise, when intestinal parasites grow large, portions of them will break off and be evacuated with the feces, thus providing additional tangible evidence of their existence."

text: The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine.  Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine.

text: The amount of feces produced, and its character can be helpful, although as changes often occur relatively distant to the anus, changes may not be seen for some time. In areas where sand colic is known to be common, or if the history suggests it may be a possibility, faeces can be examined for the presence of sand, often by mixing it in water and allowing the sand to settle out over 20 minutes. However, sand is sometimes present in a normal horse's feces, so the quantity of sand present must be assessed. Testing the feces for parasite load may also help diagnose colic secondary to parasitic infection.

text: The amount of

text: feces

text: produced, and its character can be helpful, although as changes often occur relatively distant to the anus, changes may not be seen for some time. In areas where sand colic is known to be common, or if the history suggests it may be a possibility, faeces can be examined for the presence of sand, often by mixing it in water and allowing the sand to settle out over 20 minutes. However, sand is sometimes present in a normal horse's feces, so the quantity of sand present must be assessed. Testing the feces for parasite load may also help diagnose colic secondary to parasitic infection.

text: The biogas digester program is an effort to motivate an introduction of appropriate and sustainable energy generation for the agricultural sector as well as promoting a holistic approach to nutrient balancing and soil management. The organization reinvests funds from the commercial biogas digester program into the installation of family size rural household digesters to replace the need for the gathering of wood fuel for meal preparation and heating.

text: The

text: biogas digester

text: program is an effort to motivate an introduction of appropriate and sustainable energy generation for the agricultural sector as well as promoting a holistic approach to nutrient balancing and soil management. The organization reinvests funds from the commercial biogas digester program into the installation of family size rural household digesters to replace the need for the gathering of wood fuel for meal preparation and heating.

text: In 2015, NYIT was awarded a nearly $0.5 million grant from National Institutes of Health to develop an implantable wireless system to study the body's gastric and digestive systems.

text: Endoscopy: the esophageal mucosa can be visualized directly by passing a thin, lighted tube with a tiny camera known as an endoscope attached through the mouth to examine the esophagus and stomach.  In this way, evidence of esophageal inflammation can be detected, and biopsies taken if necessary. Since an endoscopy allows a doctor to visually inspect the upper digestive tract the procedure may help identify any additional damage to the tract that may not have been detected otherwise.

text: Endoscopy

text: : the esophageal mucosa can be visualized directly by passing a thin, lighted tube with a tiny camera known as an endoscope attached through the mouth to examine the esophagus and stomach.  In this way, evidence of esophageal inflammation can be detected, and biopsies taken if necessary. Since an endoscopy allows a doctor to visually inspect the upper digestive tract the procedure may help identify any additional damage to the tract that may not have been detected otherwise.

text: Proteins constitute 90-95% of venom's dry weight and they are responsible for almost all of its biological effects. Among hundreds, even thousands of proteins found in venom, there are toxins, neurotoxins in particular, as well as nontoxic proteins (which also have pharmacological properties), and many enzymes, especially hydrolytic ones. Enzymes (molecular weight 13-150 KDa) make-up 80-90% of viperid and 25-70% of elapid venoms: digestive hydrolases, L-amino acid oxidase, phospholipases, thrombin-like pro-coagulant, and kallikrein-like serine proteases and metalloproteinases (hemorrhagins), which damage vascular endothelium. Polypeptide toxins (molecular weight 5-10 KDa) include cytotoxins, cardiotoxins, and postsynaptic neurotoxins (such as α-bungarotoxin and α-Cobratoxin), which bind to acetylcholine receptors at neuromuscular junctions. Compounds with low molecular weight (up to 1.5 KDa) include metals, peptides, lipids, nucleosides, carbohydrates, amines, and oligopeptides, which inhibit angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and potentiate bradykinin (BPP). Inter- and intra-species variation in venom chemical composition is geographical and ontogenic. Phosphodiesterases interfere with the prey's cardiac system, mainly to lower the blood pressure. Phospholipase A2 causes hemolysis by lysing the phospholipid cell membranes of red blood cells. Amino acid oxidases and proteases are used for digestion. Amino acid oxidase also triggers some other enzymes and is responsible for the yellow colour of the venom of some species. Hyaluronidase increases tissue permeability to accelerate absorption of other enzymes into tissues. Some snake venoms carry fasciculins, like the mambas (Dendroaspis), which inhibit cholinesterase to make the prey lose muscle control.

text: Proteins

text: constitute 90-95% of venom's dry weight and they are responsible for almost all of its biological effects. Among hundreds, even thousands of proteins found in venom, there are toxins,

text: neurotoxin

text: s in particular, as well as nontoxic proteins (which also have pharmacological properties), and many enzymes, especially hydrolytic ones. Enzymes (

text: molecular weight

text: 13-150 KDa) make-up 80-90% of viperid and 25-70% of elapid venoms: digestive hydrolases, L-amino acid oxidase, phospholipases, thrombin-like pro-coagulant, and kallikrein-like serine proteases and

text: metalloproteinases

text: (hemorrhagins), which damage vascular endothelium.

text: Polypeptide

text: toxins (molecular weight 5-10 KDa) include

text: cytotoxin

text: s,

text: cardiotoxin

text: s, and postsynaptic neurotoxins (such as

text: α-bungarotoxin

text: and

text: α-Cobratoxin

text: ), which bind to

text: acetylcholine receptor

text: s at neuromuscular junctions. Compounds with low molecular weight (up to 1.5 KDa) include metals, peptides, lipids, nucleosides, carbohydrates, amines, and oligopeptides, which inhibit angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and potentiate bradykinin (BPP). Inter- and intra-species variation in venom chemical composition is geographical and ontogenic.

text: Phosphodiesterase

text: s interfere with the prey's cardiac system, mainly to lower the

text: blood pressure

text: Phospholipase A2

text: causes

text: hemolysis

text: by lysing the

text: phospholipid

text: cell membranes

text: of

text: red blood cells

text: . Amino acid

text: oxidase

text: s and

text: protease

text: s are used for digestion. Amino acid oxidase also triggers some other enzymes and is responsible for the yellow colour of the venom of some species.

text: Hyaluronidase

text: increases tissue permeability to accelerate absorption of other enzymes into tissues. Some snake venoms carry

text: fasciculin

text: s, like the

text: mamba

text: s (Dendroaspis), which inhibit

text: cholinesterase

text: to make the prey lose muscle control.

text: Snorlax has a cream colored face, hands and feet, while the rest of its body is Teal in color. Its head is also large, and it has two small pointed teeth sticking out from its lower jaw. Its feet are extremely large compared to most Pokémon, assisting its balance when it chooses to stand. Its arms are short, but are long enough for Snorlax to grab its food and eat it. Snorlax has been said to weigh over 1,000 pounds and for a time was considered the heaviest known Pokémon. Having an enormous appetite, it will devour almost anything, even moldy and rotten food. The digestive juices in Snorlax's stomach can dissolve any kind of poison. It is such a docile Pokémon that children use its large, expansive belly as a place to play. Snorlax has a pre-evolution, Munchlax, which is obtained when breeding a Snorlax that is holding a certain item.

text: Snorlax has a cream colored face, hands and feet, while the rest of its body is Teal in color. Its head is also large, and it has two small pointed teeth sticking out from its lower jaw. Its feet are extremely large compared to most Pokémon, assisting its balance when it chooses to stand. Its arms are short, but are long enough for Snorlax to grab its food and eat it. Snorlax has been said to weigh over 1,000 pounds and for a time was considered the heaviest known Pokémon. Having an enormous appetite, it will devour almost anything, even moldy and rotten food. The digestive juices in Snorlax's stomach can dissolve any kind of poison. It is such a docile Pokémon that children use its large, expansive belly as a place to play. Snorlax has a pre-evolution,

text: Munchlax

text: , which is obtained when breeding a Snorlax that is holding a certain item.

text: Later that year, he created two additional automata, The Tambourine Player and The Digesting Duck, which is considered his masterpiece. The duck had over 400 moving parts in each wing alone, and could flap its wings, drink water, digest grain, and defecate.  Although Vaucanson's duck supposedly demonstrated digestion accurately, his duck actually contained a hidden compartment of "digested food", so that what the duck defecated was not the same as what it ate; the duck would eat a mixture of water and seed and excrete a mixture of bread crumbs and green dye that appeared to the onlooker indistinguishable from real excrement. Although such "frauds" were sometimes controversial, they were common enough because such scientific demonstrations needed to entertain the wealthy and powerful to attract their patronage. Vaucanson is credited as having invented the world's first flexible rubber tube while in the process of building the duck's intestines. Despite the revolutionary nature of his automata, he is said to have tired quickly of his creations and sold them in 1743.

text: Later that year, he created two additional automata, The Tambourine Player and

text: The Digesting Duck

text: , which is considered his masterpiece. The duck had over 400 moving parts in each wing alone, and could flap its wings, drink water, digest grain, and defecate.  Although Vaucanson's duck supposedly demonstrated digestion accurately, his duck actually contained a hidden compartment of "digested food", so that what the duck defecated was not the same as what it ate; the duck would eat a mixture of water and seed and excrete a mixture of bread crumbs and green dye that appeared to the onlooker indistinguishable from real excrement. Although such "frauds" were sometimes controversial, they were common enough because such scientific demonstrations needed to entertain the wealthy and powerful to attract their patronage. Vaucanson is credited as having invented the world's first flexible rubber tube while in the process of building the duck's intestines. Despite the revolutionary nature of his automata, he is said to have tired quickly of his creations and sold them in 1743.

text: The small intestine is  long and holds  to . This is the major digestive organ where 50 to 70 percent of all nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. Bile from the liver acts here, combined with enzymes from the pancreas and small intestine itself.  Equids do not have a gall bladder, so bile flows constantly, an adaptation to a slow but steady supply of food, and another reason for providing fodder to horses in several small feedings.

text: The

text: small intestine

text: is  long and holds  to . This is the major digestive organ where 50 to 70 percent of all nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream.

text: Bile

text: from the

text: liver

text: acts here, combined with

text: enzyme

text: s from the

text: pancreas

text: and small intestine itself.  Equids do not have a

text: gall bladder

text: , so bile flows constantly, an adaptation to a slow but steady supply of food, and another reason for providing

text: fodder

text: to horses in several small feedings.

text: Triclosan has been associated with a higher risk of food allergy. This may be because exposure to bacteria reduces allergies, as predicted by the hygiene hypothesis and not toxicology of the triclosan itself. This would also occur with chlorhexidine gluconate and PCMX, among other antibacterial agents. Other studies have linked triclosan to allergic contact dermatitis in some individuals. Additionally, triclosan concentrations have been associated with allergic sensitization, especially inhalant and seasonal allergens, rather than food allergens.

text: Triclosan has been associated with a higher risk of

text: food allergy

text: . This may be because exposure to bacteria reduces

text: allergies

text: , as predicted by the

text: hygiene hypothesis

text: and not toxicology of the triclosan itself. This would also occur with

text: chlorhexidine

text: gluconate and

text: PCMX

text: , among other antibacterial agents. Other studies have linked triclosan to allergic

text: contact dermatitis

text: in some individuals. Additionally, triclosan concentrations have been associated with allergic sensitization, especially inhalant and seasonal allergens, rather than food allergens.

text: Symptoms of allergy are visible as eczema. This symptom is often justified to be food allergy (e.g. to milk), meanwhile the reason is contact the earring (precisely Ni ions) with Lymphatic system.Ceasing of wearing earrings by children doesn't result in vanishing allergy symptoms. Immune system remembers the presence of Ni ions that existed in someone's blood and lymph. Even though the children ceased wearing earrings, it can appear as an allergic reaction to:

text: Symptoms of allergy are visible as

text: eczema

text: . This symptom is often justified to be

text: food allergy

text: (e.g. to milk), meanwhile the reason is contact the earring (precisely Ni ions) with

text: Lymphatic system

text: .Ceasing of wearing earrings by children doesn't result in vanishing allergy symptoms.

text: Immune system

text: remembers the presence of Ni ions that existed in someone's

text: blood

text: and

text: lymph

text: . Even though the children ceased wearing earrings, it can appear as an allergic reaction to:

text: Fructose malabsorption, formerly named "dietary fructose intolerance" (DFI), is a digestive disorder in which absorption of fructose is impaired by deficient fructose carriers in the small intestine's enterocytes. This results in an increased concentration of fructose in the entire intestine.

text: Fructose malabsorption, formerly named "dietary fructose intolerance" (DFI), is a digestive disorder in which absorption of

text: fructose

text: is impaired by deficient

text: fructose carrier

text: s in the small intestine's

text: enterocyte

text: s. This results in an increased concentration of

text: fructose

text: in the entire intestine.

text: There are no special features of the digestive system of Anostoma depressum.

text: When prey is swallowed, it is liquefied in the pharynx by enzymes and by muscular contractions of the pharynx. The resulting slurry is wafted through the canal system by the beating of the cilia, and digested by the nutritive cells. The ciliary rosettes in the canals may help to transport nutrients to muscles in the mesoglea. The anal pores may eject unwanted small particles, but most unwanted matter is regurgitated via the mouth.

text: When prey is swallowed, it is liquefied in the

text: pharynx

text: by

text: enzyme

text: s and by muscular contractions of the pharynx. The resulting slurry is wafted through the canal system by the beating of the

text: cilia

text: , and digested by the nutritive cells. The ciliary rosettes in the canals may help to transport nutrients to muscles in the mesoglea. The

text: anal

text: pores may eject unwanted small particles, but most unwanted matter is regurgitated via the mouth.

text: The term message integrity code (MIC) is frequently substituted for the term MAC, especially in communications, where the acronym MAC traditionally stands for Media Access Control address. However, some authors use MIC to refer to a message digest, which is different from a MAC -- a message digest does not use secret keys. This lack of security means that any message digest intended for use gauging message integrity should be encrypted or otherwise be protected against tampering. Message digest algorithms are created such that a given message will always produce the same message digest assuming the same algorithm is used to generate both.  Conversely, MAC algorithms are designed to produce matching MACs only if the same message, secret key and initialization vector are input to the same algorithm.  Message digests do not use secret keys and, when taken on their own, are therefore a much less reliable gauge of message integrity than MACs. Because MACs use secret keys, they do not necessarily need to be encrypted to provide the same level of assurance.

text: The term message integrity code (MIC) is frequently substituted for the term MAC, especially in communications, where the acronym MAC traditionally stands for

text: Media Access Control address

text: . However, some authors use MIC to refer to a

text: message digest

text: , which is different from a MAC -- a message digest does not use secret keys. This lack of security means that any message digest intended for use gauging message integrity should be encrypted or otherwise be protected against tampering. Message digest algorithms are created such that a given message will always produce the same message digest assuming the same algorithm is used to generate both.  Conversely, MAC algorithms are designed to produce matching MACs only if the same message, secret key and

text: initialization vector

text: are input to the same algorithm.  Message digests do not use secret keys and, when taken on their own, are therefore a much less reliable gauge of message integrity than MACs. Because MACs use secret keys, they do not necessarily need to be encrypted to provide the same level of assurance.

text: The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place. The small intestine has three distinct regions – the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct, controlled by the sphincter of Oddi.  The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food.

text: The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: between the

text: stomach

text: and the

text: large intestine

text: , and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place. The small intestine has three distinct regions – the

text: duodenum

text: jejunum

text: , and

text: ileum

text: . The duodenum receives

text: bile

text: and

text: pancreatic juice

text: through the

text: pancreatic duct

text: , controlled by the

text: sphincter of Oddi

text: .  The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of

text: nutrient

text: s and

text: mineral

text: s from food.

text: An insect uses its digestive system to extract nutrients and other substances from the food it consumes. Most of this food is ingested in the form of macromolecules and other complex substances like proteins, polysaccharides, fats and nucleic acids. These macromolecules must be broken down by catabolic reactions into smaller molecules like amino acids and simple sugars before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion.

text: macromolecule

text: s and other complex substances like

text: protein

text: s,

text: polysaccharide

text: s,

text: fat

text: s and

text: nucleic acid

text: catabolic reactions

text: into smaller molecules like

text: amino acid

text: s and

text: simple sugar

text: s before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion.

text: The toxin is effective against small blood vessels, such as found in the digestive tract, the kidney, and lungs, but not against large vessels such as the arteries or major veins. A specific target for the toxin appears to the vascular endothelium of the glomerulus. This is the filtering structure that is a key to the function of the kidney. Destroying these structures leads to kidney failure and the development of the often deadly and frequently debilitating hemolytic uremic syndrome. Food poisoning with Shiga toxin often also has effects on the lungs and the nervous system.

text: The toxin is effective against small blood vessels, such as found in the

text: digestive tract

text: , the

text: kidney

text: , and

text: lungs

text: , but not against large vessels such as the

text: arteries

text: or major

text: veins

text: . A specific target for the toxin appears to the vascular endothelium of the

text: glomerulus

text: . This is the filtering structure that is a key to the function of the kidney. Destroying these structures leads to kidney failure and the development of the often deadly and frequently debilitating hemolytic uremic syndrome.

text: Food poisoning

text: with Shiga toxin often also has effects on the lungs and the

text: nervous system

text: Compositions of the antivenom can be classified as whole IgG, or fragments of IgG.  Whole antibody products consist of the entire antibody molecule, often immunoglobulin G (IgG), whereas antibody fragments are derived by digesting the whole IgG into Fab (monomeric binding) or F(ab')2 (dimeric binding).  The fragment antigen binding, or Fab, is the selective antigen binding region.  An antibody, such as IgG, can be digested by papain to produce three fragments: two Fab fragments and one Fc fragment.  An antibody can also be digested by pepsin to produce two fragments: a F(ab') fragment and a pFc' fragment.The fragment antigen-binding (Fab fragment) is a region on an antibody that binds to antigens, such as venoms.  The molecular size of Fab is approximately 50kDa, making it smaller than F(ab') which is approximately 110kDa.  These size differences greatly affect the tissue distribution and rates of elimination.

text: Compositions of the antivenom can be classified as whole IgG, or fragments of IgG.  Whole antibody products consist of the entire antibody

text: molecule

text: , often

text: immunoglobulin G

text: (IgG), whereas antibody fragments are derived by digesting the whole

text: IgG

text: into

text: Fab

text: (monomeric binding) or F(ab')2 (dimeric binding).  The

text: fragment antigen binding

text: , or Fab, is the selective antigen binding region.  An antibody, such as IgG, can be digested by

text: papain

text: to produce three fragments: two Fab fragments and one Fc fragment.  An antibody can also be digested by

text: pepsin

text: to produce two fragments: a F(ab') fragment and a pFc' fragment.The fragment antigen-binding (Fab fragment) is a region on an

text: antibody

text: that binds to

text: antigens

text: , such as venoms.  The molecular size of Fab is approximately 50kDa, making it smaller than F(ab') which is approximately 110kDa.  These size differences greatly affect the tissue distribution and rates of elimination.

text: A negative-calorie food is food that requires more food energy to be digested than the food provides. Its thermic effect or specific dynamic action—the caloric "cost" of digesting the food—would be greater than its food energy content. Despite its recurring popularity in dieting guides, there is no scientific evidence supporting the idea that any food is calorically negative. While some chilled beverages are calorically negative, the effect is minimal and drinking large amounts of water can be dangerous.

text: A negative-calorie food is

text: food

text: that requires more

text: food energy

text: to be

text: digested

text: than the food provides. Its thermic effect or

text: specific dynamic action

text: —the caloric "cost" of digesting the food—would be greater than its food energy content. Despite its recurring popularity in

text: dieting

text: guides, there is no scientific evidence supporting the idea that any food is calorically negative. While some

text: chilled beverages

text: are calorically negative, the effect is minimal and drinking large amounts of water

text: can be dangerous

text: It is not easy finding a mate in this zone. Some species depend on bioluminescence. Others are hermaphrodites, which doubles their chances of producing both eggs and sperm when an encounter occurs. The female anglerfish releases pheromones to attract tiny males. When a male finds her, he bites on to her and never lets go. When a male of the anglerfish species Haplophryne mollis bites into the skin of a female, he releases an enzyme that digests the skin of his mouth and her body, fusing the pair to the point where the two circulatory systems join up. The male then atrophies into nothing more than a pair of gonads. This extreme sexual dimorphism ensures that, when the female is ready to spawn, she has a mate immediately available.

text: It is not easy finding a mate in this zone. Some species depend on

text: bioluminescence

text: . Others are

text: hermaphrodite

text: s, which doubles their chances of producing both eggs and sperm when an encounter occurs. The female anglerfish releases

text: pheromone

text: s to attract tiny males. When a male finds her, he bites on to her and never lets go. When a male of the anglerfish species

text: Haplophryne mollis

text: bites into the skin of a female, he releases an

text: enzyme

text: that digests the skin of his mouth and her body, fusing the pair to the point where the two circulatory systems join up. The male then atrophies into nothing more than a pair of

text: gonads

text: . This extreme

text: sexual dimorphism

text: ensures that, when the female is ready to spawn, she has a mate immediately available.

text: The dispersion of food fat into micelles thus provides a greatly increased surface area for the action of the enzyme pancreatic lipase, which actually digests the triglycerides, and is able to reach the fatty core through gaps between the bile salts. A triglyceride is broken down into two fatty acids and a monoglyceride, which are absorbed by the villi on the intestine walls. After being transferred across the intestinal membrane, the fatty acids reform into triglycerides, before being absorbed into the lymphatic system through lacteals.  Without bile salts, most of the lipids in food would be excreted in faeces, undigested.

text: The dispersion of food fat into micelles thus provides a greatly increased surface area for the action of the enzyme

text: pancreatic lipase

text: , which actually digests the triglycerides, and is able to reach the fatty core through gaps between the bile salts. A triglyceride is broken down into two fatty acids and a

text: monoglyceride

text: , which are absorbed by the

text: villi

text: on the intestine walls. After being transferred across the intestinal membrane, the fatty acids reform into triglycerides, before being absorbed into the lymphatic system through

text: lacteal

text: s.  Without bile salts, most of the lipids in food would be excreted in faeces, undigested.

text: A large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut flora that help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey. This gut flora is made up of cellulose-digesting protozoans or bacteria living in the herbivores' intestines.

text: A large percentage of

text: herbivores

text: have mutualistic

text: gut flora

text: that help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey. This gut flora is made up of cellulose-digesting

text: protozoans

text: Like the reptiles, birds are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous waste from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia through the ureters into the intestine. Birds do not have a urinary bladder or external urethral opening and (with exception of the ostrich) uric acid is excreted along with faeces as a semisolid waste.  However, birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. They also excrete creatine, rather than creatinine like mammals. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the bird's cloaca. The cloaca is a multi-purpose opening: waste is expelled through it, most birds mate by joining cloaca, and females lay eggs from it. In addition, many species of birds regurgitate pellets. Males within Palaeognathae (with the exception of the kiwis), the Anseriformes (with the exception of screamers), and in rudimentary forms in Galliformes (but fully developed in Cracidae) possess a penis, which is never present in Neoaves. The length is thought to be related to sperm competition. When not copulating, it is hidden within the proctodeum compartment within the cloaca, just inside the vent. The digestive system of birds is unique, with a crop for storage and a gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth. Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight. Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein from many parts of their bodies, including protein from the intestines, as additional energy during migration.

text: Like the

text: reptile

text: s, birds are primarily uricotelic, that is, their

text: kidney

text: s extract nitrogenous waste from their bloodstream and excrete it as

text: uric acid

text: instead of

text: urea

text: or

text: ammonia

text: through the ureters into the intestine. Birds do not have a

text: urinary bladder

text: or external urethral opening and (with exception of the

text: ostrich

text: ) uric acid is excreted along with faeces as a semisolid waste.  However, birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. They also excrete

text: creatine

text: , rather than

text: creatinine

text: like mammals. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the bird's

text: cloaca

text: . The cloaca is a multi-purpose opening: waste is expelled through it, most birds mate by

text: joining cloaca

text: , and females lay eggs from it. In addition, many species of birds regurgitate

text: pellets

text: . Males within

text: Palaeognathae

text: (with the exception of the

text: kiwi

text: s), the

text: Anseriformes

text: (with the exception of

text: screamer

text: s), and in rudimentary forms in

text: Galliformes

text: (but fully developed in

text: Cracidae

text: ) possess a

text: penis

text: , which is never present in

text: Neoaves

text: . The length is thought to be related to

text: sperm competition

text: . When not copulating, it is hidden within the

text: proctodeum

text: compartment within the cloaca, just inside the vent. The

text: digestive system

text: of birds is unique, with a

text: crop

text: for storage and a

text: gizzard

text: that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth. Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight. Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein from many parts of their bodies, including protein from the intestines, as additional energy during migration.

text: In birds and crocodilians, the stomach is divided into two regions. Anteriorly is a narrow tubular region, the proventriculus, lined by fundic glands, and connecting the true stomach to the crop. Beyond lies the powerful muscular gizzard, lined by pyloric glands, and, in some species, containing stones that the animal swallows to help grind up food.

text: In

text: bird

text: s and

text: crocodilian

text: s, the stomach is divided into two regions. Anteriorly is a narrow tubular region, the

text: proventriculus

text: , lined by fundic glands, and connecting the true stomach to the

text: crop

text: . Beyond lies the powerful muscular

text: gizzard

text: , lined by pyloric glands, and, in some species, containing stones that the animal swallows to help grind up food.

text: It works with the mouth, ears and nose, as well as a number of other parts of the body. Its pharynx is connected to the mouth, allowing speech to occur, and food and liquid to pass down the throat. It is joined to the nose by the nasopharynx at the top of the throat, and to ear by its Eustachian tube. The throat's trachea carries inhaled air to the bronchi of the lungs. The esophagus carries food through the throat to the stomach. Adenoids and tonsils help prevent infection and are composed of lymph tissue. The larynx contains vocal chords, the epiglottis (preventing food/liquid inhalation), and an area known as the subglottic larynx—the narrowest section of the upper part of the throat. In the larynx, the vocal cords consist of two membranes that act according to the pressure of the air.

text: It works with the mouth, ears and nose, as well as a number of other parts of the body. Its pharynx is connected to the mouth, allowing speech to occur, and food and liquid to pass down the throat. It is joined to the nose by the

text: nasopharynx

text: at the top of the throat, and to ear by its

text: Eustachian tube

text: . The throat's trachea carries inhaled air to the

text: bronchi

text: of the lungs. The esophagus carries food through the throat to the stomach. Adenoids and tonsils help prevent infection and are composed of lymph tissue. The larynx contains vocal chords, the epiglottis (preventing food/liquid inhalation), and an area known as the subglottic larynx—the narrowest section of the upper part of the throat. In the larynx, the vocal cords consist of two membranes that act according to the pressure of the air.

text: As bile acids are made from endogenous cholesterol, disruption of the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids will lower cholesterol. Bile acid sequestrants bind bile acids in the gut, preventing reabsorption. In so doing, more endogenous cholesterol is shunted into the production of bile acids, thereby lowering cholesterol levels. The sequestered bile acids are then excreted in the feces.

text: As bile acids are made from endogenous cholesterol, disruption of the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids will lower cholesterol.

text: Bile acid sequestrant

text: s bind bile acids in the gut, preventing reabsorption. In so doing, more endogenous cholesterol is shunted into the production of bile acids, thereby lowering cholesterol levels. The sequestered bile acids are then excreted in the feces.

text: The digestive tract of Scipionyx is generally short but wide. The overall length of the intestines — shorter than what was expected — indicates Scipionyx could process food very efficiently. The efficiency would be improved by the visible intestine folds, the plicae circulares, enlarging the absorption surface. Dal Sasso & Maganuco emphasised that a short tract does not necessarily imply that the processing time was short too; retention could have been prolonged to optimise digestion. Most extant vertebrate predators are capable of extracting about 75% of the energetic value of the prey flesh.

text: Ash and/or sawdust are usually added to the feces chamber of a UDDT to speed the composting process. Of the two, ash decreases microbial activity faster.

text: Ash and/or sawdust are usually added to the feces chamber of a

text: UDDT

text: to speed the composting process. Of the two, ash decreases

text: microbial

text: activity faster.

text: Rarely, food allergies can lead to a medical emergency, such as anaphylactic shock, hypotension (low blood pressure), and loss of consciousness. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is peanut, although latex products can induce similar reactions. Initial treatment is with epinephrine (adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an Epi-pen or Twinject.

text: Rarely, food allergies can lead to a

text: medical emergency

text: , such as

text: anaphylactic shock

text: hypotension

text: (low blood pressure), and loss of consciousness. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is peanut, although

text: latex

text: products can induce similar reactions. Initial treatment is with

text: epinephrine

text: (adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an

text: Epi-pen

text: or

text: Twinject

text: Anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW) has been found to be in a number of LCA analysis studies to be more environmentally effective, than landfill, incineration or pyrolysis. The resulting biogas (methane) though must be used for cogeneration (electricity and heat preferably on or close to the site of production) and can be used with a little upgrading in gas combustion engines or turbines. With further upgrading to synthetic natural gas it can be injected into the natural gas network or further refined to hydrogen for use in stationary cogeneration fuel cells. Its use in fuel cells eliminates the pollution from products of combustion. There is a large variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies varying in complexity from simple home compost heaps, to small town scale batch digesters, industrial-scale, enclosed-vessel digestion of mixed domestic waste (see mechanical biological treatment). Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic or anaerobic methods, though hybrids of the two methods also exist.

text: Anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of

text: municipal solid waste

text: (MSW) has been found to be in a number of LCA analysis studies to be more environmentally effective, than landfill, incineration or

text: pyrolysis

text: . The resulting biogas (methane) though must be used for cogeneration (electricity and heat preferably on or close to the site of production) and can be used with a little upgrading in gas combustion engines or turbines. With further upgrading to synthetic natural gas it can be injected into the natural gas network or further refined to

text: hydrogen

text: for use in stationary cogeneration fuel cells. Its use in fuel cells eliminates the pollution from products of combustion. There is a large variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies varying in complexity from simple home compost heaps, to small town scale batch digesters, industrial-scale, enclosed-vessel digestion of mixed domestic waste (see

text: mechanical biological treatment

text: ). Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as being

text: aerobic

text: or

text: anaerobic

text: methods, though hybrids of the two methods also exist.

text: One of the most common food allergies is a sensitivity to peanuts, a member of the bean family.  Peanut allergies may be severe, but children with peanut allergies sometimes outgrow them.  Tree nuts, including cashews, Brazil nuts, hazelnuts, macadamia nuts, pecans, pistachios, pine nuts, coconuts, and walnuts, are also common allergens.  Sufferers may be sensitive to one particular tree nut or to many different ones.  Also, seeds, including sesame seeds and poppy seeds, contain oils where protein is present, which may elicit an allergic reaction.

text: One of the most common food allergies is a sensitivity to peanuts, a member of the

text: bean

text: family.  Peanut allergies may be severe, but children with peanut allergies sometimes outgrow them.  Tree nuts, including cashews, Brazil nuts, hazelnuts, macadamia nuts,

text: pecans

text: pistachios

text: pine nuts

text: coconuts

text: , and

text: walnut

text: s, are also common allergens.  Sufferers may be sensitive to one particular tree nut or to many different ones.  Also,

text: seeds

text: , including

text: sesame seeds

text: and

text: poppy seeds

text: , contain oils where protein is present, which may elicit an allergic reaction.

text: A stomacher is a decorated triangular panel that fills in the front opening of a woman's gown or bodice.  The stomacher may be boned, as part of a corset, or may cover the triangular front of a corset. If simply decorative, the stomacher lies over the triangular front panel of the stays, being either stitched or pinned into place, or held in place by the lacings of the gown's bodice.

text: A stomacher is a decorated triangular panel that fills in the front opening of a woman's

text: gown

text: or

text: bodice

text: .  The stomacher may be boned, as part of a

text: corset

text: , or may cover the triangular front of a corset. If simply decorative, the stomacher lies over the triangular front panel of the stays, being either stitched or pinned into place, or held in place by the lacings of the gown's bodice.

text: According to the manufacturer's website, the benefits of Yakult consumption are supported by an array of scientific studies. Those could range from maintenance of gut flora, "modulation" of the immune system, regulation of bowel habits and constipation and finally effects on some gastrointestinal infections.Although the number of scientific papers is large, most of them are based on in vitro and in vivo experiments, with some human clinical trials done on cohorts and with daily consumption of 40–100 billions of probiotic L. casei Shirota, far above the single bottle concentration of approximately 6.5 billion.In 2010, an EFSA panel concluded that a cause and effect relationship has not been established between the consumption of Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota and maintenance of the upper respiratory tract defence against pathogens by maintaining immune defences.In September 2014, University College London published the results of testing using stomach fluids from pigs. The tests found that Yakult had sufficient bacteria, but "fell short" as the bacteria were unable to survive in the stomach. Yakult responded by claiming that independent studies had shown the bacteria do better in the human digestive system.

text: According to the manufacturer's website, the benefits of Yakult consumption are supported by an array of scientific studies. Those could range from maintenance of

text: gut flora

text: , "modulation" of the

text: immune system

text: , regulation of bowel habits and

text: constipation

text: and finally effects on some

text: gastrointestinal infection

text: s.Although the number of scientific papers is large, most of them are based on

text: in vitro

text: and in vivo experiments, with some human clinical trials done on cohorts and with daily consumption of 40–100 billions of probiotic L. casei Shirota, far above the single bottle concentration of approximately 6.5 billion.In 2010, an

text: EFSA

text: panel concluded that a cause and effect relationship has not been established between the consumption of Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota and maintenance of the upper respiratory tract defence against pathogens by maintaining immune defences.In September 2014, University College London published the results of testing using stomach fluids from pigs. The tests found that Yakult had sufficient bacteria, but "fell short" as the bacteria were unable to survive in the stomach. Yakult responded by claiming that independent studies had shown the bacteria do better in the human digestive system.

text: In a bird's digestive system, the crop is an expanded, muscular pouch near the gullet or throat.  It is a part of the digestive tract, essentially an enlarged part of the esophagus.  As with most other organisms that have a crop, the crop is used to temporarily store food.  Not all birds have a crop.  In adult doves and pigeons, the crop can produce crop milk to feed newly hatched birds.

text: In a bird's digestive system, the crop is an expanded, muscular pouch near the

text: gullet

text: or throat.  It is a part of the digestive tract, essentially an enlarged part of the

text: esophagus

text: .  As with most other organisms that have a crop, the crop is used to temporarily store food.  Not all birds have a crop.  In adult doves and pigeons, the crop can produce

text: crop milk

text: to feed newly hatched birds.

text: In humans, one of the first signs of decomposition is a yellow-green discolorization of the abdomen in the area of the cecum due to the build up of gases from bacteria and autolysis of cells.  Clostridium cadaveris, C. welchii, E. coli, and B. aerogenes are found in large numbers after death due to nutrient supply for anaerobic bacteria allowing for optimal organismal growth.  In initial stages of decomposition bacteria feed on both intestinal contents and intestinal tissues, prolific colonization occurs allowing digestive enzymes and anaerobic bacteria such as C. cadaveris to breach the intestinal tract invading other tissues and organs.  Translocation and proliferation of gut flora such as C. cadaveris allow for these organisms to serve as bacterial indicators for time of death in individuals.

text: Food-borne bacteria, in large enough numbers, may cause food poisoning, symptoms similar to gastroenteritis or "stomach flu" (a misnomer, as true influenza primarily affects the respiratory system).  Some of the symptoms include stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and fever. Food-borne illness becomes more dangerous in certain populations, such as people with weakened immune systems, young children, the elderly, and pregnant women.  In Canada, there are approximately 11 million cases of food-borne disease per year. These symptoms can begin as early as shortly after and as late as weeks after consumption of the contaminated food.

text: Food-borne bacteria, in large enough numbers, may cause

text: food poisoning

text: , symptoms similar to

text: gastroenteritis

text: or "stomach flu" (a misnomer, as true

text: influenza

text: primarily affects the respiratory system).  Some of the symptoms include stomach cramps,

text: nausea

text: vomiting

text: diarrhea

text: , and

text: fever

text: . Food-borne illness becomes more dangerous in certain populations, such as people with weakened immune systems, young children, the elderly, and pregnant women.  In Canada, there are approximately 11 million cases of food-borne disease per year. These symptoms can begin as early as shortly after and as late as weeks after consumption of the contaminated food.

text: The solitary lymphatic nodules of the large intestine are most abundant in the cecum and vermiform process, but are irregularly scattered also over the rest of the intestine.

text: The solitary lymphatic nodules of the large intestine are most abundant in the

text: cecum

text: and

text: vermiform process

text: , but are irregularly scattered also over the rest of the intestine.

text: In a physiological context, fasting may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight, or to the metabolic state achieved after complete digestion and absorption of a meal. Several metabolic adjustments occur during fasting, and some diagnostic tests are used to determine a fasting state.  For example, a person is assumed to be fasting after 8–12 hours from their last meal. Metabolic changes toward the fasting state begin after absorption of a meal (typically 3–5 hours after a meal); "post-absorptive state" is synonymous with this usage, in contrast to the postprandial state of ongoing digestion.

text: In a physiological context, fasting may refer to the

text: metabolic

text: status of a person who has not eaten overnight, or to the metabolic state achieved after complete

text: digestion

text: and absorption of a meal. Several metabolic adjustments occur during fasting, and some

text: diagnostic test

text: s are used to determine a fasting state.  For example, a person is assumed to be fasting after 8–12 hours from their last meal. Metabolic changes toward the fasting state begin after absorption of a meal (typically 3–5 hours after a meal); "post-absorptive state" is synonymous with this usage, in contrast to the

text: postprandial

text: state of ongoing digestion.

text: Jaws allow fish to eat a wide variety of food, including plants and other organisms. Fish ingest food through the mouth and break it down in the esophagus. In the stomach, food is further digested and, in many fish, processed in finger-shaped pouches called pyloric caeca, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. Organs such as the liver and pancreas add enzymes and various chemicals as the food moves through the digestive tract. The intestine completes the process of digestion and nutrient absorption.

text: Jaws allow fish to eat a wide variety of food, including plants and other organisms. Fish ingest food through the mouth and break it down in the

text: esophagus

text: . In the stomach, food is further digested and, in many fish, processed in finger-shaped pouches called

text: pyloric caeca

text: , which secrete digestive

text: enzyme

text: s and absorb nutrients. Organs such as the

text: liver

text: and

text: pancreas

text: add enzymes and various chemicals as the food moves through the digestive tract. The intestine completes the process of digestion and nutrient absorption.

text: Cooking also increases the digestibility of some foods because many foods, such as grains, are inedible when raw, and some are poisonous. For example, kidney beans are toxic when raw or improperly cooked due to the presence of phytohaemagglutinin, which can be inactivated after cooking for at least ten minutes at . A slow cooker however may not reach the desired temperature and cases of poisoning from red beans cooked in a slow cooker have been reported.

text: Cooking also increases the digestibility of some foods because many foods, such as grains, are inedible when raw, and some are poisonous. For example,

text: kidney bean

text: s are toxic when raw or improperly cooked due to the presence of

text: phytohaemagglutinin

text: , which can be inactivated after cooking for at least ten minutes at . A

text: slow cooker

text: however may not reach the desired temperature and cases of poisoning from red beans cooked in a slow cooker have been reported.

text: To facilitate the digestion of grasses and other plants, Baird’s pocket gophers utilize bacteria in their digestive system, which contains cellulase. Like other mammals or rodents, Baird's pocket gophers re-ingests fecal pellets, which benefits them during the winter and the rainier seasons of the year. The re-ingestion of fecal pellets increases the efficiency of food utilization, which is useful when plants are scarce in these seasons.

text: To facilitate the digestion of grasses and other plants, Baird’s pocket gophers utilize bacteria in their digestive system, which contains

text: cellulase

text: . Like other mammals or rodents, Baird's pocket gophers

text: re-ingests fecal pellets

text: , which benefits them during the winter and the rainier seasons of the year. The re-ingestion of fecal pellets increases the efficiency of food utilization, which is useful when plants are scarce in these seasons.

text: The treatments for throat cancer can also be harmful to the digestive system as well as other body systems. Radiation therapy can lead to nausea and vomiting, which can deprive a body of vital fluids (although these may be obtained through intravenous fluids if necessary). Frequent vomiting can lead to an electrolyte imbalance which has serious consequences for the proper functioning of the heart. Frequent vomiting can also upset the balance of stomach acids which has a negative impact on the digestive system, especially the lining of the stomach and esophagus.

text: The treatments for throat cancer can also be harmful to the digestive system as well as other body systems. Radiation therapy can lead to

text: nausea

text: and

text: vomiting

text: , which can deprive a body of vital fluids (although these may be obtained through intravenous fluids if necessary). Frequent vomiting can lead to an electrolyte imbalance which has serious consequences for the proper functioning of the heart. Frequent vomiting can also upset the balance of stomach acids which has a negative impact on the digestive system, especially the lining of the stomach and esophagus.

text: In asymptomatic infections the amoeba lives by eating and digesting bacteria and food particles in the gut, a part of the gastrointestinal tract. It does not usually come in contact with the intestine itself due to the protective layer of mucus that lines the gut. Disease occurs when amoeba comes in contact with the cells lining the intestine. It then secretes the same substances it uses to digest bacteria, which include enzymes that destroy cell membranes and proteins. This process can lead to penetration and digestion of human tissues, resulting first in flask-shaped ulcers in the intestine. Entamoeba histolytica ingests the destroyed cells by phagocytosis and is often seen with red blood cells (a process known as erythrophagocytosis) inside when viewed in stool samples.  Especially in Latin America, a granulomatous mass (known as an amoeboma) may form in the wall of the ascending colon or rectum due to long-lasting immunological cellular response, and is sometimes confused with cancer.

text: In asymptomatic infections the amoeba lives by eating and digesting bacteria and food particles in the gut, a part of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . It does not usually come in contact with the intestine itself due to the protective layer of mucus that lines the gut. Disease occurs when amoeba comes in contact with the cells lining the intestine. It then secretes the same substances it uses to digest bacteria, which include

text: enzyme

text: s that destroy

text: cell membrane

text: s and

text: protein

text: s. This process can lead to penetration and digestion of human

text: tissue

text: s, resulting first in flask-shaped

text: ulcers

text: in the intestine.

text: Entamoeba histolytica

text: ingests the destroyed cells by

text: phagocytosis

text: and is often seen with

text: red blood cells

text: (a process known as erythrophagocytosis) inside when viewed in stool samples.  Especially in

text: Latin America

text: , a

text: granuloma

text: tous mass (known as an

text: amoeboma

text: ) may form in the wall of the

text: ascending colon

text: or

text: rectum

text: due to long-lasting

text: immunological

text: cellular response, and is sometimes confused with

text: cancer

text: The digestive system of the horse evolved for its grazing lifestyle, where it would almost constantly eat small amounts of roughage throughout the day. Unlike carnivores, who produce stomach acid during meals, horses constantly secrete acid to help digest this source of grass, leading up to 9 gallons produced per day. Unchecked, the stomach acid can lower the pH to levels that will damage the gastric mucosa, leading to ulcers.

text: The digestive system of the horse evolved for its grazing lifestyle, where it would almost constantly eat small amounts of roughage throughout the day. Unlike

text: carnivore

text: s, who produce

text: stomach acid

text: during meals, horses constantly secrete acid to help digest this source of grass, leading up to 9 gallons produced per day. Unchecked, the stomach acid can lower the

text: pH

text: to levels that will damage the gastric mucosa, leading to ulcers.

text: Some people develop a hypersensitivity to products and foods containing iodine. Applications of tincture of iodine or Betadine can cause rashes, sometimes severe. Parenteral use of iodine-based contrast agents (see above) can cause reactions ranging from a mild rash to fatal anaphylaxis. Such reactions have led to the misconception (widely held, even among physicians) that some people are allergic to iodine itself; even allergies to iodine-rich seafood have been so construed. In fact, there has never been a confirmed report of a true iodine allergy, and an allergy to elemental iodine or simple iodide salts is theoretically impossible. Hypersensitivity reactions to products and foods containing iodine are apparently related to their other molecular components; thus, a person who has demonstrated an allergy to one food or product containing iodine may not be have an allergic reaction to another. Patients with various food allergies (shellfish, egg, milk, etc.) or asthma are more likely to suffer reactions to contrast media containing iodine.  As with all medications, the patient's allergy history should be questioned and consulted before any containing iodine are administered.

text: Some people develop a

text: hypersensitivity

text: to products and foods containing iodine. Applications of tincture of iodine or Betadine can cause rashes, sometimes severe.

text: Parenteral

text: use of iodine-based contrast agents (see above) can cause reactions ranging from a mild rash to fatal

text: anaphylaxis

text: . Such reactions have led to the misconception (widely held, even among physicians) that some people are allergic to iodine itself; even allergies to iodine-rich seafood have been so construed. In fact, there has never been a confirmed report of a true iodine allergy, and an allergy to elemental iodine or simple iodide salts is theoretically impossible. Hypersensitivity reactions to products and foods containing iodine are apparently related to their other molecular components; thus, a person who has demonstrated an allergy to one food or product containing iodine may not be have an allergic reaction to another. Patients with various food allergies (shellfish, egg, milk, etc.) or asthma are more likely to suffer reactions to contrast media containing iodine.  As with all medications, the patient's allergy history should be questioned and consulted before any containing iodine are administered.

text: Predatory species use their cnidocytes to poison or entangle prey, and those with venomous nematocysts may start digestion by injecting digestive enzymes. The "smell" of fluids from wounded prey makes the tentacles fold inwards and wipe the prey off into the mouth. In medusae the tentacles round the edge of the bell are often short and most of the prey capture is done by "oral arms", which are extensions of the edge of the mouth and are often frilled and sometimes branched to increase their surface area. Medusae often trap prey or suspended food particles by swimming upwards, spreading their tentacles and oral arms and then sinking. In species for which suspended food particles are important, the tentacles and oral arms often have rows of cilia whose beating creates currents that flow towards the mouth, and some produce nets of mucus to trap particles. Their digestion is both intra and extracellular.

text: Predatory species use their

text: cnidocyte

text: s to poison or entangle prey, and those with venomous

text: nematocyst

text: s may start digestion by injecting digestive

text: enzyme

text: s. The "smell" of fluids from wounded prey makes the tentacles fold inwards and wipe the prey off into the mouth. In medusae the tentacles round the edge of the bell are often short and most of the prey capture is done by "oral arms", which are extensions of the edge of the mouth and are often frilled and sometimes branched to increase their surface area. Medusae often trap prey or suspended food particles by swimming upwards, spreading their tentacles and oral arms and then sinking. In species for which suspended food particles are important, the tentacles and oral arms often have rows of

text: cilia

text: whose beating creates currents that flow towards the mouth, and some produce nets of

text: mucus

text: to trap particles. Their digestion is both intra and extracellular.

text: In the postprandium, there is digestion of food in the gastrointestinal tract, followed by uptake and various metabolic processes, mainly anabolic ones (building organic molecules from smaller units). The postprandium is characterized by an increased activity of the parasympathetic nervous system, putting the body in a state of "rest and digest".

text: In the postprandium, there is

text: digestion

text: of food in the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , followed by uptake and various

text: metabolic

text: processes, mainly

text: anabolic

text: ones (building organic molecules from smaller units). The postprandium is characterized by an increased activity of the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: , putting the body in a state of "rest and digest".

text: Cassowaries commonly eat cassowary plums, hence the name. The plums' sap is poisonous to most animals, including humans, but not to cassowaries, which consume the fruit with no ill effects, because of their short and fast digestive system, which passes the fruit relatively intact. The cassowary's stomach also contains a unique combination of digestive enzymes, making it immune to the toxins. The cassowary and the cassowary plum have a mutually beneficial  symbiotic relationship. The plum provides food for the cassowary, while the cassowary spreads the seeds of the tree. The bird eats the plums whole and passes them out mostly intact. The cassowary's stomach is said to massage the fruit, helping it grow. Cassowary plums are more likely to grow once they have been through a cassowary.

text: Cassowaries commonly eat cassowary plums, hence the name. The plums' sap is poisonous to most animals, including humans, but not to cassowaries, which consume the fruit with no ill effects, because of their short and fast digestive system, which passes the fruit relatively intact. The cassowary's stomach also contains a unique combination of digestive enzymes, making it immune to the toxins. The cassowary and the cassowary plum have a mutually beneficial

text: symbiotic

text: relationship. The plum provides food for the cassowary, while the cassowary spreads the seeds of the tree. The bird eats the plums whole and passes them out mostly intact. The cassowary's stomach is said to massage the fruit, helping it grow. Cassowary plums are more likely to grow once they have been through a cassowary.

text: B. ovatus has been used in animal studies as a mode of microbial drug delivery due to its xylanase operon. Operons exist in bacteria to control gene expression and are composed of a DNA sequence containing an operator followed by the genes of interest. The operator in the xylanase operon prevents transcription of genes when bound to a repressor protein. The B. ovatus xylanase operon only functions in the presence of the starch, xylan, which removes the repressor and enables production of whichever proteins correlate with the genes located after the operator. For microbial drug delivery, the genes after the operator include those inserted as part of the genetic modification.  Xylan is non-digestible to human gastric acid or digestive enzymes, so a predictable quantity of dietary xylan will reach the recombinant B. ovatus in the gut, hypothetically allowing for a precise quantity of drug to be produced by the recombinant B. ovatus. In mice, recombinant B. ovatus strains containing genes for growth factors TGF-β and KGF-2 within the xylanase operon have successfully treated ulcerative colitis (UC). The secreted drugs from B. ovatus are applied topically to the epithelial lining, affecting local tissues rather than acting systemically. Systemic administration of these growth factors could otherwise cause tumors and increased vascularization of tissues. When administered microbially, TGF-β and KGF-2 facilitate tissue repair only in the colon where they are released.

text: B. ovatus has been used in animal studies as a mode of microbial drug delivery due to its

text: xylanase

text: operon

text: . Operons exist in bacteria to control

text: gene expression

text: and are composed of a DNA sequence containing an

text: operator

text: followed by the genes of interest. The operator in the xylanase operon prevents

text: transcription

text: of genes when bound to a

text: repressor protein

text: . The B. ovatus xylanase operon only functions in the presence of the starch,

text: xylan

text: , which removes the repressor and enables production of whichever proteins correlate with the genes located after the operator. For microbial drug delivery, the genes after the operator include those inserted as part of the genetic modification.  Xylan is non-

text: digestible

text: to human

text: gastric acid

text: or

text: digestive enzyme

text: s, so a predictable quantity of dietary xylan will reach the recombinant B. ovatus in the gut, hypothetically allowing for a precise quantity of drug to be produced by the recombinant B. ovatus. In

text: mice

text: , recombinant B. ovatus strains containing genes for

text: growth factor

text: s TGF-β and KGF-2 within the xylanase operon have successfully treated

text: ulcerative colitis

text: (UC). The secreted drugs from B. ovatus are applied topically to the epithelial lining, affecting local tissues rather than acting systemically. Systemic administration of these growth factors could otherwise cause

text: tumors

text: and increased

text: vascularization

text: of tissues. When administered microbially, TGF-β and KGF-2 facilitate tissue repair only in the colon where they are released.

text: Every day, seven liters of fluid are secreted by the digestive system. This fluid is composed of four primary components: ions, digestive enzymes, mucus, and bile. About half of these fluids are secreted by the salivary glands, pancreas, and liver, which compose the accessory organs and glands of the digestive system. The rest of the fluid is secreted by the GI epithelial cells.

text: The mistletoebird has a small muscularized stomach and short alimentary canal where the amount of mechanical grinding and chemical digestion is minimized. This enables a clear passage and quick exit of the mistletoe fruit seeds through the mistletoebird's digestive system. In comparison, the non-specialized fruit eating birds that they compete with for the mistletoe berry, such as the spiny-cheeked honeyeater (Acanthagenys rufogularis) have a more complex digestive system that takes longer for the fruit seeds to pass and in the process the seeds are subjected to more mechanical and chemical action in the gut. It takes between 4–25 minutes for the mistletoe seed to pass through the mistletoebird. In a scientific study in South Australia with the grey mistletoe (A. quandang), it took 2.3 times longer for the mistletoe seeds to pass through the digestive system of a spiny-cheeked honeyeater (A. rufogularis) than it did through the mistletoebird and five months after seed deposit, 43% more seedlings had established from seeds defecated by mistletoebirds than from seeds passed by the honeyeater.  The mistletoesbird’s modified gastrointestinal tract is in the same plane. This facilitates rapid passage of the large number of berries consumed. Comparing the frugivore mistletoebird with a similar sized insectivore; the inland thornbill (Acanthiza inornata), where both their body masses are approximately 7 g. The mean length of the gizzard in the mistletoebird is 4.3 mm and 13.5 in the thornbill. The mean length of the small intestine is 55 mm in the mistletoebird and 88 mm in the thornbill.

text: The mistletoebird has a small muscularized stomach and short

text: alimentary canal

text: where the amount of mechanical grinding and chemical digestion is minimized. This enables a clear passage and quick exit of the mistletoe fruit seeds through the mistletoebird's digestive system. In comparison, the non-specialized fruit eating birds that they compete with for the mistletoe berry, such as the

text: spiny-cheeked honeyeater

text: (Acanthagenys rufogularis) have a more complex digestive system that takes longer for the fruit seeds to pass and in the process the seeds are subjected to more mechanical and chemical action in the gut. It takes between 4–25 minutes for the mistletoe seed to pass through the mistletoebird. In a scientific study in South Australia with the grey mistletoe (A. quandang), it took 2.3 times longer for the mistletoe seeds to pass through the digestive system of a

text: spiny-cheeked honeyeater

text: (A. rufogularis) than it did through the mistletoebird and five months after seed deposit, 43% more seedlings had established from seeds defecated by mistletoebirds than from seeds passed by the honeyeater.  The mistletoesbird’s modified

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: is in the same plane. This facilitates rapid passage of the large number of berries consumed. Comparing the frugivore mistletoebird with a similar sized

text: insectivore

text: ; the

text: inland thornbill

text: (Acanthiza inornata), where both their body masses are approximately 7 g. The mean length of the gizzard in the mistletoebird is 4.3 mm and 13.5 in the thornbill. The mean length of the small intestine is 55 mm in the mistletoebird and 88 mm in the thornbill.

text: Control of the digestive system is also maintained by ENS, which can be thought of as a digestive brain that can help to regulate motility, secretion and growth. Sensory information from the digestive system can be received, integrated and acted upon by the enteric system alone. When this occurs, the reflex is called a short reflex. Although this may be the case in several situations, the ENS can also work in conjunction with the CNS; vagal afferents from the viscera are received by the medulla, efferents are affected by the vagus nerve. When this occurs, the reflex is called vagovagal reflex.  The myenteric plexus and submucosal plexus are both located in the gut wall and receive sensory signals from the lumen of the gut or the CNS.

text: Control of the digestive system is also maintained by ENS, which can be thought of as a digestive brain that can help to regulate motility, secretion and growth. Sensory information from the digestive system can be received, integrated and acted upon by the enteric system alone. When this occurs, the reflex is called a short reflex. Although this may be the case in several situations, the ENS can also work in conjunction with the CNS; vagal afferents from the viscera are received by the medulla, efferents are affected by the

text: vagus nerve

text: . When this occurs, the reflex is called

text: vagovagal reflex

text: .  The

text: myenteric plexus

text: and

text: submucosal plexus

text: are both located in the gut wall and receive sensory signals from the lumen of the gut or the CNS.

text: Most of the digestion of food takes place in the small intestine.

text: Most of the digestion of food takes place in the

text: small intestine

text: Most aquatic habitats are occupied by fish or other animals requiring certain minimum dissolved oxygen concentrations to survive.  Dissolved oxygen concentrations may be measured directly in wastewater, but the amount of oxygen potentially required by other chemicals in the wastewater is termed an oxygen demand.  Dissolved or suspended oxidizable organic material in wastewater will be used as a food source.  Finely divided material is readily available to microorganisms whose populations will increase to digest the amount of food available.  Digestion of this food requires oxygen, so the oxygen content of the water will ultimately be decreased by the amount required to digest the dissolved or suspended food.  Oxygen concentrations may fall below the minimum required by aquatic animals if the rate of oxygen utilization exceeds replacement by atmospheric oxygen.

text: Most aquatic habitats are occupied by

text: fish

text: or other animals requiring certain minimum dissolved

text: oxygen

text: concentrations to survive.

text: Dissolved oxygen

text: concentrations may be measured directly in wastewater, but the amount of oxygen potentially required by other chemicals in the wastewater is termed an oxygen demand.  Dissolved or suspended

text: oxidizable

text: organic material in wastewater will be used as a food source.  Finely divided material is readily available to microorganisms whose populations will increase to digest the amount of food available.  Digestion of this food requires oxygen, so the oxygen content of the water will ultimately be decreased by the amount required to digest the dissolved or suspended food.  Oxygen concentrations may fall below the minimum required by aquatic animals if the rate of oxygen utilization exceeds replacement by atmospheric oxygen.

text: When food particles are sufficiently reduced in size and composition, they are absorbed by the intestinal wall and transported to the bloodstream. Some food material is passed from the small intestine to the large intestine. In the large intestine, bacteria break down proteins and starches in chyme that were not digested fully in the small intestine.

text: When food particles are sufficiently reduced in size and composition, they are absorbed by the intestinal wall and transported to the bloodstream. Some food material is passed from the small intestine to the

text: large intestine

text: . In the large intestine, bacteria break down proteins and starches in chyme that were not digested fully in the small intestine.

text: The magazine's original concept was similar to that of Reader's Digest, but aimed at children.  The publisher stated in the first issue that "Just as the Reader's Digest reprints the best from adult magazines and books, so The Children's Digest will reprint the best stories, comics, and other features from children's magazines and books published throughout the world." Content included fiction pieces, nonfiction articles, puzzles, and comics, mostly reprinted or adapted from other publications but occasionally original to Children's Digest.

text: The magazine's original concept was similar to that of

text: Reader's Digest

text: , but aimed at children.  The publisher stated in the first issue that "Just as the Reader's Digest reprints the best from adult magazines and books, so The Children's Digest will reprint the best stories, comics, and other features from children's magazines and books published throughout the world." Content included fiction pieces, nonfiction articles, puzzles, and comics, mostly reprinted or adapted from other publications but occasionally original to Children's Digest.

text: A 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) report concluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes. According to the WHO and CDC, in the USA alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.

text: A 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) report concluded that about 30% of reported

text: food poisoning

text: outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes. According to the

text: WHO

text: and

text: CDC

text: , in the USA alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.

text: In vertebrates, the first part of the digestive system is the buccal cavity, commonly known as the mouth. The buccal cavity of a fish is separated from the opercular cavity by the gills. Water flows in through the mouth, passes over the gills and exits via the operculum or gill slits. Nearly all fish have jaws and may seize food with them but most feed by opening their jaws, expanding their pharynx and sucking in food items. The food may be held or chewed by teeth located in the jaws, on the roof of the mouth, on the pharynx or on the gill arches.

text: In vertebrates, the first part of the digestive system is the

text: buccal cavity

text: , commonly known as the mouth. The buccal cavity of a fish is separated from the opercular cavity by the gills. Water flows in through the mouth, passes over the gills and exits via the

text: operculum

text: or

text: gill slit

text: s. Nearly all fish have

text: jaws

text: and may seize food with them but most feed by opening their jaws, expanding their pharynx and sucking in food items. The food may be held or chewed by teeth located in the jaws, on the roof of the mouth, on the pharynx or on the

text: gill arch

text: es.

text: Once processed and digested by the stomach, the milky chyme is squeezed through the pyloric sphincter into the small intestine. Once past the stomach, a typical peristaltic wave only lasts for a few seconds, travelling at only a few centimeters per second. Its primary purpose is to mix the chyme in the intestine rather than to move it forward in the intestine. Through this process of mixing and continued digestion and absorption of nutrients, the chyme gradually works its way through the small intestine to the large intestine.

text: Once processed and digested by the stomach, the milky chyme is squeezed through the

text: pyloric sphincter

text: into the

text: small intestine

text: . Once past the stomach, a typical peristaltic wave only lasts for a few seconds, travelling at only a few centimeters per second. Its primary purpose is to mix the chyme in the intestine rather than to move it forward in the intestine. Through this process of mixing and continued digestion and absorption of nutrients, the chyme gradually works its way through the small intestine to the

text: large intestine

text: The intestines of a shark are much shorter than those of mammals.  Sharks have compensated for this problem by having a spiral valve, or a scroll valve, inside the intestine to increase the absorbent surface of the intestine. By keeping digestible material in the ileum for an extended period maximum nutrient absorption is ensured. For this reason, many sharks and related fish feed very infrequently. The food passes into the comparatively short colon of the shark almost fully digested, and then out the cloaca and vent.

text: The intestines of a shark are much shorter than those of mammals.  Sharks have compensated for this problem by having a spiral valve, or a scroll valve, inside the intestine to increase the absorbent surface of the intestine. By keeping

text: digestible

text: material in the ileum for an extended period maximum nutrient absorption is ensured. For this reason, many sharks and related

text: fish

text: feed very infrequently. The food passes into the comparatively short

text: colon

text: of the shark almost fully digested, and then out the

text: cloaca

text: and vent.

text: Gastrointestinal diseases refer to diseases involving the gastrointestinal tract, namely the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and rectum, and the accessory organs of digestion, the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

text: Gastrointestinal diseases refer to diseases involving the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , namely the

text: esophagus

text: stomach

text: small intestine

text: large intestine

text: and

text: rectum

text: , and the

text: accessory organs of digestion

text: , the

text: liver

text: gallbladder

text: , and

text: pancreas

text: Digestion typically begins in the stomach when pepsinogen is converted to pepsin by the action of hydrochloric acid, and continued by trypsin and chymotrypsin in the small intestine.Before the absorption in the small intestine, most proteins are already reduced to single amino acid or peptides of several amino acids. Most peptides longer than four amino acids are not absorbed. Absorption into the intestinal absorptive cells is not the end. There, most of the peptides are broken into single amino acids.

text: Digestion typically begins in the stomach when

text: pepsinogen

text: is converted to

text: pepsin

text: by the action of

text: hydrochloric acid

text: , and continued by

text: trypsin

text: and

text: chymotrypsin

text: in the small intestine.Before the absorption in the

text: small intestine

text: , most proteins are already reduced to single amino acid or peptides of several amino acids. Most peptides longer than four amino acids are not absorbed. Absorption into the

text: intestinal absorptive cells

text: is not the end. There, most of the peptides are broken into single amino acids.

text: The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in joules or calories (sometimes called "kilocalories" and on other rare occasions written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram., though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-digestible material such as cellulose), seems also to be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain unclear.

text: The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and

text: energy

text: joule

text: s or

text: calorie

text: s (sometimes called "kilocalories" and on other rare occasions written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram., though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-digestible material such as cellulose), seems also to be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain unclear.

text: A typical myzostomid has a flattened, rounded shape, with a thin edge drawn out into delicate radiating hairs called cirri. The dorsal surface is smooth, with five pairs of parapodia on the bottom surface. These parapodia are armed with supporting and hooked setae, by means of which the worm adheres to its host. Beyond the parapodia are four pairs of organs, often called suckers. These organs are probably of sensory nature, and are comparable to the lateral sense organs of capitellids. The mouth and cloacal opening are generally at opposite ends of the bottom surface. The former leads to a protrusible pharynx, from which the esophagus opens into a wide intestinal chamber with branching lateral diverticula. There appears to be no vascular system. The nervous system consists of a circumoesophageal nerve, with scarcely differentiated brain, joining below a large ganglionic mass, no doubt representing many fused ganglia. The dorsoventral and the parapodial muscles are much developed, while the coelom is reduced mostly to branched spaces in which the genital products ripen.

text: A typical myzostomid has a flattened, rounded shape, with a thin edge drawn out into delicate radiating hairs called

text: cirri

text: . The dorsal surface is smooth, with five pairs of

text: parapodia

text: on the bottom surface. These parapodia are armed with supporting and hooked

text: seta

text: e, by means of which the worm adheres to its host. Beyond the parapodia are four pairs of organs, often called suckers. These organs are probably of sensory nature, and are comparable to the lateral sense organs of capitellids. The mouth and

text: cloaca

text: l opening are generally at opposite ends of the bottom surface. The former leads to a protrusible

text: pharynx

text: , from which the

text: esophagus

text: opens into a wide intestinal chamber with branching lateral

text: diverticula

text: . There appears to be no vascular system. The nervous system consists of a circumoesophageal nerve, with scarcely differentiated brain, joining below a large ganglionic mass, no doubt representing many fused

text: ganglia

text: . The dorsoventral and the parapodial muscles are much developed, while the

text: coelom

text: is reduced mostly to branched spaces in which the genital products ripen.

text: Lost Dimension also features a visual novel-like system where the choices of the player determine the fate of the game's story, as well as its characters. One of the characters amongst the group  is a traitor, and who it is varies from game to game. A system randomly selects the traitor at the start of each floor, and the player must use deductive skills to find out who the traitor is. During the "Judgement" phase of the game, the player has to pick out a character to be eliminated from the group. It is best to eliminate the traitor, though if the player chooses wrongly an innocent character may be killed. To determine who the traitor is, protagonist Sho Kasugai uses his ability, "Vision", to look into the future to obtain hints on the traitor's identity. The player can also look into the thoughts of the different characters, as well as question them. Eliminating allies is necessary to climb the pillar, with one team member being eliminated per floor.

text: Lost Dimension also features a

text: visual novel

text: -like system where the choices of the player determine the fate of the game's story, as well as its characters. One of the characters amongst the group  is a traitor, and who it is varies from game to game. A system randomly selects the traitor at the start of each floor, and the player must use deductive skills to find out who the traitor is. During the "Judgement" phase of the game, the player has to pick out a character to be eliminated from the group. It is best to eliminate the traitor, though if the player chooses wrongly an innocent character may be killed. To determine who the traitor is, protagonist Sho Kasugai uses his ability, "Vision", to look into the future to obtain hints on the traitor's identity. The player can also look into the thoughts of the different characters, as well as question them. Eliminating allies is necessary to climb the pillar, with one team member being eliminated per floor.

text: The ECI effectively represents efficiencies of both digestion (approximate digestibility or AD) and metabolic efficiency, or how well digested food is converted to mass (efficiency of conversion of digested food or ECD). The formula for the efficiency of food fuel is thus:

text: The ECI effectively represents efficiencies of both

text: digestion

text: (approximate digestibility or AD) and

text: metabolic efficiency

text: , or how well digested food is converted to mass (efficiency of conversion of digested food or ECD). The formula for the efficiency of food fuel is thus:

text: While some seeds are edible, others are harmful, poisonous or deadly.  Plants and seeds often contain chemical compounds to discourage herbivores and seed predators.  In some cases, these compounds simply taste bad (such as in mustard), but other compounds are toxic or break down into toxic compounds within the digestive system.  Children, being smaller than adults, are more susceptible to poisoning by plants and seeds.

text: While some seeds are edible, others are harmful, poisonous or deadly.  Plants and seeds often contain

text: chemical compounds

text: to discourage

text: herbivores

text: and

text: seed predators

text: .  In some cases, these compounds simply taste bad (such as in

text: mustard

text: ), but other compounds are toxic or break down into toxic compounds within the

text: digestive system

text: .  Children, being smaller than adults, are more susceptible to poisoning by plants and seeds.

text: Bowel obstruction, also known as intestinal obstruction, is a mechanical or functional obstruction of the intestines which prevents the normal movement of the products of digestion. Either the small bowel or large bowel may be affected. Symptoms include abdominal pain, vomiting, bloating, and not passing gas. Mechanical obstruction is the cause of about 5 to 15% of cases of severe abdominal pain of sudden onset requiring admission to hospital.

text: Bowel obstruction, also known as intestinal obstruction, is a mechanical or

text: functional obstruction

text: of the

text: intestine

text: s which prevents the normal movement of the products of

text: digestion

text: . Either the

text: small bowel

text: or

text: large bowel

text: may be affected. Symptoms include

text: abdominal pain

text: vomiting

text: bloating

text: , and not passing

text: gas

text: . Mechanical obstruction is the cause of about 5 to 15% of cases of

text: severe abdominal pain of sudden onset

text: requiring admission to hospital.

text: Promoter bashing is often done with deletions from either the 5' or 3' end of the DNA strand; this assay is easier to perform based on repeated restriction digestion and gel-purifying fragments of specific sizes. It is often easiest to ligate the promoter into the reporter, generate a large amount of the reporter construct using PCR or growth in bacteria, and then perform serial restriction digests on this sample. The ability of upstream promoters can be easily assayed by removing segments from the 5' end, and the same for the 3' end of the strand for downstream promoters.

text: Promoter bashing is often done with deletions from either the

text: or

text: end of the DNA strand; this assay is easier to perform based on repeated

text: restriction digestion

text: and

text: gel-purifying

text: fragments of specific sizes. It is often easiest to ligate the promoter into the reporter, generate a large amount of the reporter construct using PCR or growth in bacteria, and then perform serial restriction digests on this sample. The ability of upstream promoters can be easily assayed by removing segments from the 5' end, and the same for the 3' end of the strand for downstream promoters.

text: Insects have mouth parts in various shapes depending on their feeding habits. Labrum is the "upper lip" which is in the front area of the head and is the most exterior part.  A pair of mandible is found on backside of the labrum flanking the side of the mouth, succeeded by a pair of maxillae each of which is known as maxilliary palp. At the back side of the mouth is the labium or lower lip. There is also an extra mouth part in some insects which is termed as hypopharynx which is usually located between the maxillac.

text: Insects have mouth parts in various shapes depending on their feeding habits.

text: Labrum

text: is the "upper lip" which is in the front area of the head and is the most exterior part.  A pair of mandible is found on backside of the labrum flanking the side of the mouth, succeeded by a pair of

text: maxillae

text: each of which is known as

text: maxilliary palp

text: . At the back side of the mouth is the

text: labium

text: or lower lip. There is also an extra mouth part in some insects which is termed as

text: hypopharynx

text: which is usually located between the

text: maxillac

text: When he isn't working, Duty involves himself with charitable causes including the Disney's Friends for Change initiative, which benefits environmental charities through the Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund, the Starlight Children's Foundation, which is dedicated to improving the quality of life for children with chronic and life-threatening medical conditions, UCLA Mattel Children’s Hospital, which is dedicated to researching and treating pediatric diseases, the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, which is dedicated to improving the quality of life for those living with cystic fibrosis, and St. Jude Children's Hospital, which is dedicated to providing treatment to children with cancer and other catastrophic illnesses.  He is also involved with the Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network (FAAN).  FAAN is a non-profit organization that provides information, programs and resources about food allergies and anaphylaxis.

text: When he isn't working, Duty involves himself with charitable causes including the

text: Disney's Friends for Change

text: initiative, which benefits environmental charities through the Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund, the

text: Starlight Children's Foundation

text: , which is dedicated to improving the quality of life for children with chronic and life-threatening medical conditions,

text: UCLA Mattel Children’s Hospital

text: , which is dedicated to researching and treating pediatric diseases, the

text: Cystic Fibrosis Foundation

text: , which is dedicated to improving the quality of life for those living with

text: cystic fibrosis

text: , and

text: St. Jude Children's Hospital

text: , which is dedicated to providing treatment to children with

text: cancer

text: and other

text: catastrophic illness

text: es.  He is also involved with the

text: Food Allergy and Anaphylaxis Network

text: (FAAN).  FAAN is a non-profit organization that provides information, programs and resources about food allergies and anaphylaxis.

text: rBST is present in milk from both rBST-treated and untreated cows, but it is destroyed in the digestive system and even if directly injected, has not been found to have any direct effect on humans. Researchers have found that "IGF-1 in milk is not denatured by pasteurization and the extent to which intact, active IGF-1 is absorbed through the human digestive tract remains still however uncertain" implicating that an extensive study on the nature of IGF-1 in relation to rBST milk is required.

text: Ouzo can colloquially be referred to as a particularly strong drink, the cause of this being its sugar content.  Sugar delays ethanol absorption in the stomach, and may thus mislead the drinker into thinking that they can drink more as they do not feel tipsy early on.  Then the cumulative effect of ethanol appears and the drinker becomes inebriated rather quickly.   This is why it is generally considered poor form to drink ouzo "dry hammer" ("ξεροσφύρι", xerosfýri, an idiomatic expression that means "drinking alcohol without eating anything") in Greece.  The presence of food, especially fats or oils, in the upper digestive system prolongs the absorption of ethanol and ameliorates alcohol intoxication.

text: Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.

text: Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors.

text: pH

text: plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic.

text: Saliva

text: controls pH in this region of the digestive tract.

text: Salivary amylase

text: is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into

text: monosaccharides

text: . Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.

text: Animal intestines contain a large population of gut flora. In humans, the four dominant phyla are Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. They are essential to digestion and are also affected by food that is consumed.  Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing vitamin B; and defending against some infectious diseases.

text: Animal

text: intestine

text: s contain a large population of

text: gut flora

text: . In humans, the four dominant

text: phyla

text: are

text: Firmicutes

text: Bacteroidetes

text: Actinobacteria

text: , and

text: Proteobacteria

text: . They are essential to

text: digestion

text: and are also affected by food that is consumed.  Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing

text: vitamin B

text: ; and defending against some infectious diseases.

text: If the active ingredient of a tablet is sensitive to acid, or is irritant to the stomach lining, an enteric coating can be used, which is resistant to stomach acid, and dissolves in the less acidic area of the intestines. Enteric coatings are also used for medicines that can be negatively affected by taking a long time to reach the small intestine, where they are absorbed. Coatings are often chosen to control the rate of dissolution of the drug in the gastrointestinal tract. Some drugs will be absorbed better at different points in the digestive system. If the highest percentage of absorption of a drug takes place in the stomach, a coating that dissolves quickly and easily in acid will be selected. If the rate of absorption is best in the large intestine or colon, then a coating that is acid resistant and dissolves slowly would be used to ensure it reached that point before dispersing.

text: If the active ingredient of a tablet is sensitive to acid, or is irritant to the stomach lining, an

text: enteric coating

text: can be used, which is resistant to

text: stomach

text: acid, and dissolves in the less acidic area of the intestines. Enteric coatings are also used for medicines that can be negatively affected by taking a long time to reach the

text: small intestine

text: , where they are absorbed. Coatings are often chosen to control the rate of dissolution of the drug in the gastrointestinal tract. Some drugs will be absorbed better at different points in the digestive system. If the highest percentage of absorption of a drug takes place in the stomach, a coating that dissolves quickly and easily in acid will be selected. If the rate of absorption is best in the large intestine or colon, then a coating that is acid resistant and dissolves slowly would be used to ensure it reached that point before dispersing.

text: A stomacher may also be a piece or set of jewellery to ornament a stomacher or bodice.

text: A stomacher may also be a piece or set of

text: jewellery

text: to ornament a stomacher or bodice.

text: Paramecia feed on microorganisms like bacteria, algae, and yeasts. To gather food, the Paramecium uses its cilia to sweep prey organisms, along with some water, through the oral groove, and into the mouth opening.  The food passes through the cell mouth into the gullet. When enough food has accumulated at the gullet base, it forms a vacuole in the cytoplasm, which then begins circulating through the cell. As it moves along, enzymes from the cytoplasm enter the vacuole to digest the contents; digested nutrients then pass into the cytoplasm, and the vacuole shrinks. When the vacuole, with its fully digested contents, reaches the anal pore, it ruptures, expelling its waste contents to the environment.

text: Paramecia feed on microorganisms like bacteria, algae, and yeasts. To gather food, the Paramecium uses its cilia to sweep prey organisms, along with some water, through the oral groove, and into the mouth opening.  The food passes through the cell mouth into the gullet. When enough food has accumulated at the gullet base, it forms a

text: vacuole

text: in the cytoplasm, which then begins circulating through the cell. As it moves along, enzymes from the cytoplasm enter the vacuole to digest the contents; digested nutrients then pass into the cytoplasm, and the vacuole shrinks. When the vacuole, with its fully digested contents, reaches the anal pore, it ruptures, expelling its waste contents to the environment.

text: (α-D-Mannans), which are built of α-(1,2)- and α-(1,3)- D-mannose branches (from 1 to 5 rings long), which are attached to long α-(1,6)-D-mannose chains. This specific combination of various functionalities involves mannan oligosacharides-protein conjugates and highly hydrophilic and structurally variable 'brush-like' mannan oligosaccharides structures that can fit to various receptors of animal digestive tracts, and to the receptors on the surface of bacterial membranes, impacts these molecules bioactivity. Mannan oligosacharides-protein conjugates are involved in interactions with the animal's immune system and as result enhance immune system activity. They also play a role in animal antioxidant and antimutagenic defense.

text: (α-D-Mannans), which are built of α-(1,2)- and α-(1,3)- D-mannose branches (from 1 to 5 rings long), which are attached to long α-(1,6)-D-mannose chains. This specific combination of various functionalities involves mannan oligosacharides-protein conjugates and highly hydrophilic and structurally variable 'brush-like' mannan oligosaccharides structures that can fit to various receptors of animal digestive tracts, and to the receptors on the surface of bacterial membranes, impacts these molecules bioactivity. Mannan oligosacharides-protein conjugates are involved in interactions with the animal's immune system and as result enhance immune system activity. They also play a role in animal antioxidant and

text: antimutagenic

text: defense.

text: The Digestive system characteristics are as follows. The buccal mass is small. The jaw is smooth. The stomach is very simple with weak muscles (as is the case in the majority of land snails). (These anatomical characteristics also include the family Staffordiidae which was considered part of the Dyakiidae at the time the study was done).

text: The

text: Digestive system

text: characteristics are as follows. The buccal mass is small. The jaw is smooth. The stomach is very simple with weak muscles (as is the case in the majority of land snails). (These anatomical characteristics also include the family

text: Staffordiidae

text: which was considered part of the Dyakiidae at the time the study was done).

text: The effects of HSAN2 on the autonomic nervous system are more variable. Some infants with HSAN2 have trouble sucking, which makes it difficult for them to eat. People with HSAN2 may experience episodes in which breathing slows or stops for short periods (apnea); digestive problems such as the backflow of stomach acids into the esophagus (gastroesophageal reflux); or slow eye blink or gag reflexes. Affected individuals may also have weak deep tendon reflexes, such as the reflex being tested when a doctor taps the knee with a hammer.

text: Anaerobic digesters can be designed and engineered to operate using a number of different configurations and can be categorized into batch vs. continuous process mode, mesophilic vs. thermophilic temperature conditions, high vs. low portion of solids, and single stage vs. multistage processes. More initial build money and a larger volume of the batch digester is needed to handle the same amount of waste as a continuous process digester. Higher heat energy is demanded in a thermophilic system compared to a mesophilic system and has a larger gas output capacity and higher methane gas content. For solids content, low will handle up to 15% solid content. Above this level is considered high solids content and can also be known as dry digestion. In a single stage process, one reactor houses the four anaerobic digestion steps. A multistage process utilizes two or more reactors for digestion to separate the methanogenesis and hydrolysis phases.

text: The essential oil obtained by steam distillation of ground nutmeg is used widely in the perfumery and pharmaceutical industries. This volatile fraction typically contains 60-80% d-camphene by weight, as well as quantities of d-pinene, limonene, d-borneol, l-terpineol, geraniol, safrol, and myristicin. In its pure form, myristicin is a toxin, and consumption of excessive amounts of nutmeg can result in myristicin poisoning.  The oil is colourless or light yellow, and smells and tastes of nutmeg. It contains numerous components of interest to the oleochemical industry, and is used as a natural food flavouring in baked goods, syrups, beverages, and sweets. It is used to replace ground nutmeg, as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, for instance, in toothpaste, and as a major ingredient in some cough syrups. In traditional medicine, nutmeg and nutmeg oil were used for disorders related to the nervous and digestive systems.

text: The essential oil obtained by

text: steam distillation

text: of ground nutmeg is used widely in the

text: perfumery

text: and

text: pharmaceutical

text: industries. This volatile fraction typically contains 60-80% d-

text: camphene

text: by weight, as well as quantities of d-

text: pinene

text: limonene

text: , d-

text: borneol

text: , l-

text: terpineol

text: geraniol

text: safrol

text: , and

text: myristicin

text: . In its pure form, myristicin is a

text: toxin

text: , and consumption of excessive amounts of nutmeg can result in myristicin poisoning.  The oil is colourless or light yellow, and smells and tastes of nutmeg. It contains numerous components of interest to the

text: oleochemical

text: industry, and is used as a natural food flavouring in

text: baked goods

text: , syrups, beverages, and sweets. It is used to replace ground nutmeg, as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, for instance, in

text: toothpaste

text: , and as a major ingredient in some

text: cough syrup

text: s. In traditional medicine, nutmeg and

text: nutmeg oil

text: were used for disorders related to the nervous and digestive systems.

text: A Swiss system is used for competitions with a large number of entrants, so that a full round-robin is not feasible, but it is not desired to eliminate any competitors before the end of the tournament. Round-robin pairings are suitable for a small number of competitors and rounds, as most or all players will play each other; the underlying assumption is that the player who has played all possible opponents and ends with the highest score, must be the winner.  Knockout, or elimination, pairings rapidly reduces the number of competitors, but may not necessarily result in the best possible competitor winning, as good competitors might have a bad day or eliminate and exhaust each other if they meet in early rounds. Swiss systems intend to provide a clear winner with a limited number of rounds and a potentially unlimited number of opponents. A Swiss system draw should result in a clear winner, without having to play all opponents as in round robin, and without a single bad result terminating participation.

text: Systemic administration is a route of administration of medication, nutrition or other substance into the circulatory system so that the entire body is affected. Administration can take place via enteral administration (absorption of the drug through the gastrointestinal tract) or parenteral administration (generally injection, infusion, or implantation).

text: Systemic administration is a

text: route of administration

text: of medication, nutrition or other substance into the

text: circulatory system

text: so that the entire body is affected. Administration can take place via

text: enteral

text: administration (absorption of the drug through the gastrointestinal tract) or

text: parenteral

text: administration (generally injection, infusion, or implantation).

text: It is good practice to not store passwords in cleartext. Instead when checking a whole password it is common to store the result of passing the password to a cryptographic hash function. As the user doesn't supply the whole password it cannot be verified against a stored digest of the whole password. Some have suggested storing the digest of each combination of letters that could be requested but they note that this results in generating and storing a large amount of digests. A better solution in terms of storage space and security is using a secret sharing scheme.

text: It is good practice to not store passwords in

text: cleartext

text: . Instead when checking a whole password it is common to store the result of passing the password to a

text: cryptographic hash function

text: . As the user doesn't supply the whole password it cannot be verified against a stored digest of the whole password. Some have suggested storing the digest of each combination of letters that could be requested but they note that this results in generating and storing a large amount of digests. A better solution in terms of storage space and security is using a

text: secret sharing

text: scheme.

text: gari: esophagus

text: gari: esophagus

text: A system on a module (SOM) is a Board level circuit that integrates a system function in a single module. This is analogous to a system as referred to in the life sciences as in the human body - digestive-system, and nervous system that go to form functional humans or organisms. The organism being an equivalent of a computer, robot, automotive etc. It may integrate digital and analog functions on a single board.  A typical application is in the area of embedded systems. Unlike a Single Board computer, SOM serves a special function like a SoC. The device integrated on the SOM typically requires a high level of interconnection for reasons such as speed, timing, bus-width etc., in a highly integrated module. There are benefits in building an SOM, as for SoC, one notable result is to reduce the cost of the base board or the main PCB.  A major advantage of SOM is design-reuse and that it can be integrated into many embedded computer applications.

text: A system on a module (SOM) is a Board level circuit that integrates a system function in a single module. This is analogous to a system as referred to in the life sciences as in the human body - digestive-system, and nervous system that go to form functional humans or organisms. The organism being an equivalent of a computer,

text: robot

text: automotive

text: etc. It may integrate digital and analog functions on a single board.  A typical application is in the area of

text: embedded systems

text: . Unlike a Single Board computer, SOM serves a special function like a

text: SoC

text: . The device integrated on the SOM typically requires a high level of interconnection for reasons such as speed, timing, bus-width etc., in a highly integrated module. There are benefits in building an SOM, as for SoC, one notable result is to reduce the cost of the base board or the main PCB.  A major advantage of SOM is design-reuse and that it can be integrated into many embedded computer applications.

text: For endoscopic ultrasound of the upper digestive tract, a probe is inserted into the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum during a procedure called esophagogastroduodenoscopy.  Among other uses, it allows for screening for pancreatic cancer, esophageal cancer, and gastric cancer, as well as benign tumors of the upper gastrointestinal tract.  It also allows for characterization and biopsy of any focal lesions found in the upper gastrointestinal tract, such as esophageal tuberculosis. This is done by inserting a needle through the stomach lining into the target. Less commonly this procedure is used to identify malformations and masses in the bile ducts and pancreatic ducts.

text: For endoscopic ultrasound of the upper

text: digestive tract

text: , a probe is inserted into the

text: esophagus

text: stomach

text: , and

text: duodenum

text: during a procedure called

text: esophagogastroduodenoscopy

text: .  Among other uses, it allows for screening for

text: pancreatic cancer

text: esophageal cancer

text: , and

text: gastric cancer

text: , as well as benign tumors of the upper gastrointestinal tract.  It also allows for characterization and biopsy of any focal lesions found in the upper gastrointestinal tract, such as esophageal tuberculosis. This is done by inserting a needle through the stomach lining into the target. Less commonly this procedure is used to identify malformations and masses in the

text: bile duct

text: s and

text: pancreatic duct

text: s.

text: Absorption can facilitate the experience of both positive and negative emotions. Positive experiences facilitated by absorption include the enjoyment of music, art, and natural beauty (e.g. sunsets) and pleasant forms of daydreaming. Absorption has also been linked to forms of maladjustment, such as nightmare frequency and anxiety sensitivity (fear of one's own anxiety symptoms), and dissociative symptoms. Absorption may act to amplify minor somatic symptoms, leading to an increased risk of conditions associated with hypersensitivity to internal bodily sensations, such as somatoform disorders and panic disorder. People may have a particular risk of the aforementioned problems when they are prone to both  high absorption and to personality traits associated with negative emotionality.

text: Absorption can facilitate the experience of both positive and negative emotions. Positive experiences facilitated by absorption include the enjoyment of music, art, and natural beauty (e.g. sunsets) and pleasant forms of

text: daydreaming

text: . Absorption has also been linked to forms of maladjustment, such as

text: nightmare

text: frequency and anxiety sensitivity (fear of one's own anxiety symptoms), and

text: dissociative

text: symptoms. Absorption may act to amplify minor somatic symptoms, leading to an increased risk of conditions associated with hypersensitivity to internal bodily sensations, such as

text: somatoform disorders

text: and

text: panic disorder

text: . People may have a particular risk of the aforementioned problems when they are prone to both  high absorption and to personality traits associated with negative emotionality.

text: In the human digestive system, mucus is used as a lubricant for materials that must pass over membranes, e.g., food passing down the esophagus. Mucus is extremely important in the intestinal tract. It forms an essential layer in the colon and in the small intestine that helps reduce intestinal inflammation by decreasing bacterial interaction with intestinal epithelial cells. A layer of mucus along the inner walls of the stomach is vital to protect the cell linings of that organ from the highly acidic environment within it.  Mucus is not digested in the intestinal tract. Mucus is also secreted from glands within the rectum due to stimulation of the mucous membrane within.

text: In the human digestive system, mucus is used as a lubricant for materials that must pass over membranes, e.g., food passing down the

text: esophagus

text: . Mucus is extremely important in the intestinal tract. It forms an essential layer in the colon and in the small intestine that helps reduce intestinal inflammation by decreasing bacterial interaction with intestinal epithelial cells. A layer of mucus along the inner walls of the

text: stomach

text: is vital to protect the cell linings of that organ from the highly acidic environment within it.  Mucus is not digested in the intestinal tract. Mucus is also secreted from glands within the rectum due to stimulation of the mucous membrane within.

text: Elephants, hippos, koalas and pandas are born with sterile intestines, and require bacteria obtained from eating the feces of their mothers to digest vegetation.

text: Elephants

text: hippos

text: koala

text: s and

text: panda

text: s are born with sterile intestines, and require bacteria obtained from eating the feces of their mothers to digest vegetation.

text: Fluoroscopy can be used to examine the digestive system using a substance which is opaque to X-rays (usually barium sulfate or gastrografin), which is introduced into the digestive system either by swallowing or as an enema. This is normally as part of a double contrast technique, using positive and negative contrast.  Barium sulfate coats the walls of the digestive tract (positive contrast), which allows the shape of the digestive tract to be outlined as white or clear on an X-ray.  Air may then be introduced (negative contrast), which looks black on the film. The barium meal is an example of a contrast agent swallowed to examine the upper digestive tract. Note that while soluble barium compounds are very toxic, the insoluble barium sulfate is non-toxic because its low solubility prevents the body from absorbing it.

text: Fluoroscopy can be used to examine the

text: digestive system

text: using a substance which is opaque to X-rays (usually

text: barium sulfate

text: or

text: gastrografin

text: ), which is introduced into the digestive system either by swallowing or as an

text: enema

text: . This is normally as part of a double contrast technique, using positive and negative contrast.  Barium sulfate coats the walls of the digestive tract (positive contrast), which allows the shape of the digestive tract to be outlined as white or clear on an X-ray.  Air may then be introduced (negative contrast), which looks black on the film. The barium meal is an example of a contrast agent swallowed to examine the upper digestive tract. Note that while soluble

text: barium

text: compounds are very toxic, the insoluble

text: barium sulfate

text: is non-toxic because its low solubility prevents the body from absorbing it.

text: Escherichia coli ( Anglicized to ; commonly abbreviated E. coli) is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms (endotherms). Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some serotypes are pathogenic and can cause serious food poisoning in humans, and are occasionally responsible for product recalls. E. coli are also responsible for a majority of cases of urinary tract infections. The harmless strains are part of the normal flora of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K, and by preventing the establishment of pathogenic bacteria within the intestine.

text: Escherichia coli (

text: Anglicized

text: to ; commonly abbreviated E. coli) is a

text: gram-negative

text: rod-shaped

text: bacterium

text: that is commonly found in the lower

text: intestine

text: of

text: warm-blooded

text: organisms (endotherms). Most E. coli

text: strain

text: s are harmless, but some

text: serotype

text: s are

text: pathogenic

text: and can cause serious

text: food poisoning

text: in

text: human

text: s, and are occasionally responsible for

text: product recall

text: s. E. coli are also responsible for a majority of cases of

text: urinary tract infections

text: . The harmless strains are part of the

text: normal flora

text: of the

text: gut

text: vitamin K

text: , and by preventing the establishment of

text: pathogenic bacteria

text: within the intestine.

text: In the large intestine (or colon), the peristaltic wave, or mass movement, is continuous and progressive; it advances steadily toward the anal end of the tract, pushing waste material in front of the wave. When these movements are vigorous enough to pass fecal masses into the rectum, they are followed by the desire to defecate. If feces are passed to the rectum and not evacuated from the body, they are returned to the last segment of the colon for longer storage by reverse peristaltic waves. Peristaltic waves are particularly important in helping to remove gas from the large intestine and in controlling bacterial growth by mechanically acting as a cleansing agent that dislodges and removes potential colonies of bacteria.

text: In the

text: large intestine

text: (or colon), the peristaltic wave, or mass movement, is continuous and progressive; it advances steadily toward the anal end of the tract, pushing waste material in front of the wave. When these movements are vigorous enough to pass fecal masses into the rectum, they are followed by the desire to defecate. If feces are passed to the rectum and not evacuated from the body, they are returned to the last segment of the colon for longer storage by reverse peristaltic waves. Peristaltic waves are particularly important in helping to remove gas from the large intestine and in controlling bacterial growth by mechanically acting as a cleansing agent that dislodges and removes potential colonies of bacteria.

text: The empty space between the pubic bones and the intestines has by G.S. Paul and David Martill been hypothesised to have been the location of a large air-sac. Dal Sasso & Maganuco however, rejected this interpretation because with living birds the air-sac of the posterior abdomen does not force the intestines forwards. They considered the space more likely to have been filled by a large yolk-sac. Air-sacs were nevertheless probable given the pneumatisation of the vertebrae. Vertebrae without pneumatopores would have indicated the boundaries between three air-sac systems: those of the neck base, the lungs, and the abdomen. The double rib heads would indicate a rather stiff thorax, ventilated by the gastralia. A system of hook-like uncinate processes on the ribs as with the Maniraptoriformes, allowing the ribcage to move flexibly, in articulation with an ossified sternum, was absent in Scipionyx.

text: The empty space between the pubic bones and the intestines has by G.S. Paul and

text: David Martill

text: been hypothesised to have been the location of a large air-sac. Dal Sasso & Maganuco however, rejected this interpretation because with living birds the air-sac of the posterior abdomen does not force the intestines forwards. They considered the space more likely to have been filled by a large yolk-sac. Air-sacs were nevertheless probable given the pneumatisation of the vertebrae. Vertebrae without pneumatopores would have indicated the boundaries between three air-sac systems: those of the neck base, the lungs, and the abdomen. The double rib heads would indicate a rather stiff thorax, ventilated by the gastralia. A system of hook-like uncinate processes on the ribs as with the

text: Maniraptoriformes

text: , allowing the ribcage to move flexibly, in articulation with an ossified sternum, was absent in Scipionyx.

text: The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. that is surrounding the lumen, or open space within the tube. This layer comes in direct contact with digested food (chyme). The mucosa is made up of:

text: The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. that is surrounding the

text: lumen

text: , or open space within the tube. This layer comes in direct contact with digested food (

text: chyme

text: ). The mucosa is made up of:

text: Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (sometimes upper GI, UGI bleed, Upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage, gastrorrhagia) is gastrointestinal bleeding in the upper gastrointestinal tract, commonly defined as bleeding arising from the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum. Blood may be observed in vomit (hematemesis) or in altered form in the stool (melena). Depending on the severity of the blood loss, there may be symptoms of insufficient circulating blood volume and shock. As a result, upper gastrointestinal bleeding is considered a medical emergency and typically requires hospital care for urgent diagnosis and treatment. Upper gastrointestinal bleeding can be caused by peptic ulcers, gastric erosions, esophageal varices, and some rarer causes such as gastric cancer.

text: Upper gastrointestinal bleeding (sometimes upper GI, UGI bleed, Upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage, gastrorrhagia) is

text: gastrointestinal bleeding

text: in the

text: upper gastrointestinal tract

text: , commonly defined as bleeding arising from the

text: esophagus

text: stomach

text: , or

text: duodenum

text: . Blood may be observed in

text: vomit

text: hematemesis

text: ) or in altered form in the stool (

text: melena

text: ). Depending on the severity of the blood loss, there may be symptoms of

text: insufficient circulating blood volume

text: and

text: shock

text: . As a result, upper gastrointestinal bleeding is considered a

text: medical emergency

text: and typically requires

text: hospital

text: care for urgent diagnosis and treatment. Upper gastrointestinal bleeding can be caused by

text: peptic ulcer

text: s,

text: gastric erosion

text: s,

text: esophageal varices

text: , and some rarer causes such as

text: gastric cancer

text: The gastrointestinal tract has a form of general histology with some differences that reflect the specialization in functional anatomy. The GI tract can be divided into four concentric layers in the following order:

text: TGEV infects pigs. However, in young pigs, the mortality rate is close to 100%. The pathology of TGEV is similar to that of other coronaviruses. Coronaviruses enter the host by first attaching to the host cell using the spike glycoprotein. The S protein interacts with the porcine aminopeptidase N (pAPN), a cellular receptor, to aide in its entry. The same cell receptor is also a point of contact for Human Coronaviruses. A domain in the S spike protein is recognized by pAPN, and transfection of pAPN occurs to nonpermissive cells and infects them with TGEV. Once the virus infects the host, it multiplies in the cell lining of the small intestine resulting in the loss of absorptive cells that in turn leads to shortening of villi. The infected swine then has reduced capability for digesting food and die from dehydration.

text: Digestive system: The channel leading from mouth to the buccal mass is very short and constricted; and, just before it opens into the buccal mass, it receives on either side below, a very slender duct from a large, much folliculated, salivary gland. These glands lie beneath the stomach and extend almost halfway down the body. That on the right side is considerably less than the other, and is somewhat tubular, — distinctly so towards its termination; the one on the left side is much complicated in form, being irregularly and extensively sacculated. The position of these glands is unusual, but there are also other species like Doto fragilis, that open into the channel of the mouth in advance of the buccal mass.

text: Digestive system

text: : The channel leading from mouth to the buccal mass is very short and constricted; and, just before it opens into the buccal mass, it receives on either side below, a very slender duct from a large, much folliculated,

text: salivary gland

text: . These glands lie beneath the stomach and extend almost halfway down the body. That on the right side is considerably less than the other, and is somewhat tubular, — distinctly so towards its termination; the one on the left side is much complicated in form, being irregularly and extensively sacculated. The position of these glands is unusual, but there are also other species like

text: Doto fragilis

text: , that open into the channel of the mouth in advance of the buccal mass.

text: When foods with a high glycemic index are consumed, the carbohydrates in the food are more easily digested than low glycemic index foods. Hence, more glucose is available for absorption. It should not be misunderstood that glucose is absorbed more rapidly because, once formed, glucose is absorbed at the same rate. It is only available in higher amounts due to the ease of digestion of high glycemic index foods. In individuals with normal carbohydrate metabolism, insulin levels rise concordantly to drive glucose into the body's tissues and maintain blood glucose levels in the normal range. Insulin stimulates the uptake of valine, leucine, and isoleucine into skeletal muscle, but not uptake of tryptophan. This lowers the ratio of these branched-chain amino acids in the bloodstream relative to tryptophan (an aromatic amino acid), making tryptophan preferentially available to the large neutral amino acid transporter at the blood–brain barrier. Uptake of tryptophan by the brain thus increases. In the brain, tryptophan is converted to serotonin, which is then converted to melatonin. Increased brain serotonin and melatonin levels result in sleepiness.

text: When foods with a high

text: glycemic index

text: are consumed, the carbohydrates in the food are more easily digested than low glycemic index foods. Hence, more glucose is available for absorption. It should not be misunderstood that glucose is absorbed more rapidly because, once formed, glucose is absorbed at the same rate. It is only available in higher amounts due to the ease of digestion of high glycemic index foods. In individuals with normal

text: carbohydrate metabolism

text: insulin

text: levels rise concordantly to drive glucose into the body's tissues and maintain blood glucose levels in the normal range. Insulin stimulates the uptake of

text: valine

text: leucine

text: , and

text: isoleucine

text: into

text: skeletal muscle

text: , but not uptake of

text: tryptophan

text: . This lowers the ratio of these

text: branched-chain amino acids

text: in the bloodstream relative to tryptophan (an

text: aromatic amino acid

text: ), making tryptophan preferentially available to the

text: large neutral amino acid transporter

text: at the blood–brain barrier. Uptake of tryptophan by the brain thus increases. In the brain, tryptophan is converted to

text: serotonin

text: , which is then converted to

text: melatonin

text: . Increased brain serotonin and melatonin levels result in sleepiness.

text: Composting toilets are designed to treat only toilet waste, rather than general residential waste water, and are typically used with water-free toilets rather than the flush toilets associated with the above types of aerobic treatment systems. These systems treat the waste as a moist solid, rather than in liquid suspension, and therefore separate urine from feces during treatment to maintain the correct moisture content in the system. An example of a composting toilet is the clivus multrum (Latin for 'inclined chamber'), which consists of an inclined chamber that separates urine and feces and a fan to provide positive ventilation and prevent odors from escaping through the toilet. Within the chamber, the urine and feces are independently broken down not only by aerobic bacteria, but also by fungi, arthropods, and earthworms.  Treatment times are very long, with a minimum time between removals of solid waste of a year; during treatment the volume of the solid waste is decreased by 90 percent, with most being converted into water vapor and carbon dioxide. Pathogens are eliminated from the waste by the long durations in inhospitable conditions in the treatment chamber.

text: Composting toilets are designed to treat only toilet waste, rather than general residential waste water, and are typically used with water-free toilets rather than the

text: flush toilet

text: s associated with the above types of aerobic treatment systems. These systems treat the waste as a moist solid, rather than in liquid suspension, and therefore separate

text: urine

text: from

text: feces

text: during treatment to maintain the correct moisture content in the system. An example of a composting toilet is the

text: clivus multrum

text: Latin

text: for 'inclined chamber'), which consists of an inclined chamber that separates urine and feces and a fan to provide positive ventilation and prevent odors from escaping through the toilet. Within the chamber, the urine and feces are independently broken down not only by aerobic bacteria, but also by

text: fungi

text: arthropods

text: , and

text: earthworm

text: s.  Treatment times are very long, with a minimum time between removals of solid waste of a year; during treatment the volume of the solid waste is decreased by 90 percent, with most being converted into water vapor and carbon dioxide. Pathogens are eliminated from the waste by the long durations in inhospitable conditions in the treatment chamber.

text: Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue. Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares, which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ. They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction. From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger-like pieces of tissue called villi (Latin for "shaggy hair"). The individual epithelial cells also have finger-like projections known as microvilli. The functions of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients, and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.

text: Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either

text: diffusion

text: or active transport. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar

text: epithelial

text: tissue. Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called

text: plicae circulares

text: , which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ. They are distinct from

text: rugae

text: which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction. From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger-like pieces of tissue called

text: villi

text: Latin

text: for "shaggy hair"). The individual epithelial cells also have finger-like projections known as

text: microvilli

text: . The functions of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of

text: nutrient

text: s, and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.

text: The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.

text: The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by

text: gut

text: bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.

text: Conditions caused by food allergies are classified into three groups according to the mechanism of the allergic response:

text: Rabbits are hindgut digesters. This means that most of their digestion takes place in their large intestine and cecum. In rabbits, the cecum is about 10 times bigger than the stomach and it along with the large intestine makes up roughly 40% of the rabbit's digestive tract. The unique musculature of the cecum allows the intestinal tract of the rabbit to separate fibrous material from more digestible material; the fibrous material is passed as feces, while the more nutritious material is encased in a mucous lining as a cecotrope. Cecotropes, sometimes called "night feces", are high in minerals, vitamins and proteins that are necessary to the rabbit's health. Rabbits eat these to meet their nutritional requirements; the mucous coating allows the nutrients to pass through the acidic stomach for digestion in the intestines. This process allows rabbits to extract the necessary nutrients from their food.

text: Rabbits are

text: hindgut

text: digesters. This means that most of their digestion takes place in their

text: large intestine

text: and

text: cecum

text: . In rabbits, the cecum is about 10 times bigger than the stomach and it along with the large intestine makes up roughly 40% of the rabbit's digestive tract. The unique musculature of the cecum allows the intestinal tract of the rabbit to separate fibrous material from more digestible material; the fibrous material is passed as feces, while the more nutritious material is encased in a mucous lining as a

text: cecotrope

text: . Cecotropes, sometimes called "night feces", are high in

text: mineral

text: s,

text: vitamin

text: s and

text: protein

text: s that are necessary to the rabbit's health. Rabbits eat these to meet their nutritional requirements; the mucous coating allows the nutrients to pass through the acidic stomach for digestion in the intestines. This process allows rabbits to extract the necessary nutrients from their food.

text: Since both the digestive system and the respiratory system are connected by the pharynx, there are many problems and diseases that occur when the body is unable to regulate passage of food and air into the appropriate tracts. Perhaps the most preventable cause of damage to these reflexes originates from smoking. One study has shown that, when compared to non-smokers, the threshold volumes (in other words the lowest volume at which one of these reflexes is triggered) for both the pharyngo-upper esophageal sphincter contractile reflex and reflexive pharyngeal swallowing is increased.

text: After applying the feces, one or two drops of hydrogen peroxide are then dripped on to the other side of the film, and it is observed for a rapid blue color change.

text: After applying the feces, one or two drops of

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: are then dripped on to the other side of the film, and it is observed for a rapid blue color change.

text: A monogastric digestive system works as soon as the food enters the mouth.  Saliva moistens the food and begins the digestive process. After being swallowed, the food passes from the esophagus into the stomach, where stomach acid and enzymes help to break down the food. Bile salts stored in the gall bladder empty the contents of the stomach into the small intestines where most fats are broken down. The pancreas secretes enzymes and alkali to neutralize the stomach acid.

text: The approaches below treat human excrement as a waste rather than a resource. Composting toilets use bacteria to decompose human feces into useful, odourless, sanitary compost. The process is sanitary because soil bacteria eat the human pathogens as well as most of the mass of the waste.  Nevertheless, most health authorities forbid direct use of "humanure" for growing food. The risk is microbial and viral contamination.  In a dry composting toilet, the waste is evaporated or digested to gas (mostly carbon dioxide) and vented, so a toilet produces only a few pounds of compost every six months.  To control the odor, modern toilets use a small fan to keep the toilet under negative pressure, and exhaust the gasses to a vent pipe.

text: The approaches below treat human excrement as a waste rather than a resource.

text: Composting toilet

text: s use bacteria to decompose human

text: feces

text: into useful, odourless, sanitary compost. The process is sanitary because soil bacteria eat the human pathogens as well as most of the mass of the waste.  Nevertheless, most health authorities forbid direct use of "

text: humanure

text: " for growing food. The risk is microbial and viral contamination.  In a dry composting toilet, the waste is evaporated or digested to gas (mostly carbon dioxide) and vented, so a toilet produces only a few pounds of compost every six months.  To control the odor, modern toilets use a small fan to keep the toilet under negative pressure, and exhaust the gasses to a vent pipe.

text: A more substantial alternative to liquid diets is the mechanical soft diet, which accepts all types of liquids plus puréed or softened solid foods, such as overcooked pasta, scrambled eggs, bananas and cheesecake.  For people who cannot swallow at all, a liquid diet may be delivered to the stomach or intestines through a feeding tube instead.  When food cannot be delivered to the digestive tract, e.g., if the digestive tract needs to be empty in preparation for gastrointestinal surgery, then parenteral nutrition (nutrients by intravenous infusion) is the primary choice.

text: A more substantial alternative to liquid diets is the mechanical

text: soft diet

text: , which accepts all types of liquids plus

text: puréed

text: or softened solid foods, such as overcooked pasta, scrambled eggs, bananas and cheesecake.  For people who cannot swallow at all, a liquid diet may be delivered to the stomach or intestines through a

text: feeding tube

text: instead.  When food cannot be delivered to the digestive tract, e.g., if the digestive tract needs to be empty in preparation for gastrointestinal surgery, then

text: parenteral nutrition

text: (nutrients by

text: intravenous infusion

text: ) is the primary choice.

text: Human feces (or faeces in British English; ) are the feces (solid or semisolid metabolic waste) of the human digestive system, including bacteria. They vary significantly in appearance (i.e. size, color, texture), according to the state of the digestive system, diet and general health. Normally human feces are semisolid, with a mucus coating. Small pieces of harder, less moist feces can sometimes be seen impacted on the distal (leading) end. This is a normal occurrence when a prior bowel movement is incomplete, and feces are returned from the rectum to the intestine, where water is absorbed.

text: Human feces (or faeces in

text: British English

text: ; ) are the

text: feces

text: (solid or semisolid

text: metabolic waste

text: ) of the

text: human digestive system

text: , including

text: bacteria

text: . They vary significantly in appearance (i.e. size, color, texture), according to the state of the

text: digestive system

text: diet

text: and general

text: health

text: . Normally human feces are semisolid, with a

text: mucus

text: coating. Small pieces of harder, less moist feces can sometimes be seen impacted on the

text: distal

text: (leading) end. This is a normal occurrence when a prior

text: bowel movement

text: is incomplete, and feces are returned from the

text: rectum

text: to the

text: intestine

text: , where water is absorbed.

text: A 2012 chicken meat study found 60% of home cooks were at risk of food poisoning by washing whole poultry before it was cooked, which can spread bacteria around the kitchen. A further 16% of those surveyed incorrectly tasted chicken to see if it was cooked properly rather than using a safe meat thermometer.

text: Similar to other rodenticides, the preparation requires 3–7 days to be effective. Rather than killing rodents through internal haemorrhaging as anticoagulants do, PCC affects a rodent’s digestive system, causing acute dehydration due to its extremely absorptive nature (corn cob has been used in applications such as oil spills in water bodies, seed drying and de-icing). Physiological digestive pathways are disrupted, preventing normal regulation of water and salt levels, leading to hypovolemic circulatory shock through reduced blood volume and blood pressure, oxygen deprivation of the blood, and ultimately death.

text: In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.

text: In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the

text: gut flora

text: to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as

text: feces

text: to be removed by defecation via the

text: anal canal

text: and

text: anus

text: Paul advises Timothy that he should not drink water only, but should use a little wine for the sake of his stomach and frequent infirmities. Some have suggested this advice is particularly in reference to purifying low quality drinking water, while others suggest it was simply intended to help his digestion and general sickliness. Abstentionists generally regard this passage as a positive example of abstention from wine and see Paul's instructions as exceptional and purely for the sake of health, while other interpreters suggest that Timothy was "upright in his aims" but here guilty of an "excess of severity" or that he felt inappropriately bound by a Hellenistic custom that younger men should not drink.

text: Paul advises

text: Timothy

text: that he should not drink water only, but should use a little wine for the sake of his stomach and frequent infirmities. Some have suggested this advice is particularly in reference to purifying low quality drinking water, while others suggest it was simply intended to help his digestion and general sickliness. Abstentionists generally regard this passage as a positive example of abstention from wine and see Paul's instructions as exceptional and purely for the sake of health, while other interpreters suggest that Timothy was "upright in his aims" but here guilty of an "excess of severity" or that he felt inappropriately bound by a Hellenistic custom that younger men should not drink.

text: The characteristic feature is an anterior rhyncus or holdfast that is separate from the digestive system. They also differ from other digeneans in the configuration of the digestive systems and genitalia. The intestine is simple and saccular; they have no acetabulum.

text: IMUS (also known as integrated manure utilization system) is an anaerobic digestion technology that converts organic material into biogas that is used to produce electricity, heat and nutrients.  The technology uses waste such as municipal waste, cow manure, sand laden feed lot waste, and food processing waste.    The technology can be integrated with other industrial process, such as municipal facilities, open pen feedlots, food processing, and ethanol plants. The technology was developed in 1999 by Himark BioGas.

text: IMUS (also known as integrated manure utilization system) is an

text: anaerobic digestion

text: technology that converts

text: organic material

text: into

text: biogas

text: that is used to produce

text: electricity

text: heat

text: and

text: nutrients

text: .  The technology uses waste such as municipal waste, cow manure, sand laden feed lot waste, and food processing waste.    The technology can be integrated with other industrial process, such as municipal facilities, open pen feedlots, food processing, and ethanol plants. The technology was developed in 1999 by

text: Himark BioGas

text: As well as its role in supplying digestive enzymes, saliva has a cleansing action for the teeth and mouth. It also has an immunological role in supplying antibodies to the system, such as immunoglobulin A. This is seen to be key in preventing infections of the salivary glands, importantly that of parotitis.

text: As well as its role in supplying

text: digestive enzyme

text: s, saliva has a cleansing action for the teeth and mouth. It also has an

text: immunological

text: role in supplying antibodies to the system, such as

text: immunoglobulin A

text: . This is seen to be key in preventing

text: infection

text: s of the salivary glands, importantly that of

text: parotitis

text: Heliamphora uncinata is a species of Marsh Pitcher Plant endemic to Venezuela. This species of carnivorous plant is known as a pitcher plant. Individuals use tube like leaves to trap insects that slip into the bottom. At the bottom of the "pitcher" there are digestive juices which slowly digest the prey item to give the plant additional nutrients. The pitchers of this species are around 25–35 cm long, and are 8–10 cm wide at the opening. The pitcher mouth is circular in shape and the back is raised to form the lid. It is known only from the type collection, which was made in a narrow canyon on Amurí-tepui. There it grows at an elevation of approximately 1850 m on sandstone cliff faces in shady conditions. It is also found in humus pockets and cracks at this location. The only other species in the genus known to have a similar growth habit is H. exappendiculata. These two taxa also share a number of morphological features and appear to be closely related. These shared morphological features include: the shape of pitchers, the general growth pattern, and appearance of nectaries (nectar producing organs).

text: Heliamphora uncinata is a species of

text: Marsh Pitcher Plant

text: endemic

text: to

text: Venezuela

text: . This species of carnivorous plant is known as a pitcher plant. Individuals use tube like leaves to trap insects that slip into the bottom. At the bottom of the "pitcher" there are digestive juices which slowly digest the prey item to give the plant additional nutrients. The pitchers of this species are around 25–35 cm long, and are 8–10 cm wide at the opening. The pitcher mouth is circular in shape and the back is raised to form the lid. It is known only from the type collection, which was made in a narrow canyon on Amurí-tepui. There it grows at an elevation of approximately 1850 m on

text: sandstone

text: cliff faces in shady conditions. It is also found in humus pockets and cracks at this location. The only other species in the genus known to have a similar growth habit is

text: H. exappendiculata

text: . These two

text: taxa

text: also share a number of morphological features and appear to be closely related. These shared morphological features include: the shape of pitchers, the general growth pattern, and appearance of nectaries (nectar producing organs).

text: Neurogastroenterology encompasses the study of the brain, the gut, and their interactions with relevance to the understanding and management of gastrointestinal motility and functional gastrointestinal disorders.  Specifically, neurogastroenterology focuses on the functions, malfunctions, and the malformations of the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions of the digestive tract.

text: Neurogastroenterology encompasses the study of the brain, the gut, and their interactions with relevance to the understanding and management of gastrointestinal

text: motility

text: and functional gastrointestinal disorders.  Specifically, neurogastroenterology focuses on the functions, malfunctions, and the malformations of the

text: sympathetic

text: parasympathetic

text: , and

text: enteric

text: divisions of the digestive tract.

text: So far, no fossil of Plateosaurus has been found with gastroliths (gizzard stones) in the stomach area. The old, widely cited idea that all large dinosaurs, implicitly also Plateosaurus, swallowed gastroliths to digest food because of their relatively limited ability to deal with food orally has been refuted by a study on gastrolith abundance, weight, and surface structure in fossils compared to alligators and ostriches by Oliver Wings. The use of gastroliths for digestion seems to have developed on the line from basal theropods to birds, with a parallel development in Psittacosaurus.

text: So far, no fossil of Plateosaurus has been found with

text: gastrolith

text: s (

text: gizzard

text: stones) in the stomach area. The old, widely cited idea that all large dinosaurs, implicitly also Plateosaurus, swallowed gastroliths to digest food because of their relatively limited ability to deal with food orally has been refuted by a study on gastrolith abundance, weight, and surface structure in fossils compared to alligators and ostriches by Oliver Wings. The use of gastroliths for digestion seems to have developed on the line from basal theropods to birds, with a parallel development in

text: Psittacosaurus

text: The digestive system is supplied by the celiac artery. The celiac artery is the first major branch from the abdominal aorta, and is the only major artery that nourishes the digestive organs.

text: The digestive system is supplied by the

text: celiac artery

text: . The celiac artery is the first major branch from the

text: abdominal aorta

text: , and is the only major artery that nourishes the digestive organs.

text: Most food digestion takes place in the small intestine. Segmentation contractions act to mix and move the chyme more slowly in the small intestine allowing more time for absorption (and these continue in the large intestine). In the duodenum, pancreatic lipase is secreted together with a co-enzyme, colipase to further digest the fat content of the chyme. From this breakdown, smaller particles of emulsified fats called chylomicrons are produced. There are also digestive cells called enterocytes lining the intestines (the majority being in the small intestine). They are unusual cells in that they have villi on their surface which in turn have innumerable microvilli on their surface. All these villi make for a greater surface area, not only for the absorption of chyme but also for its further digestion by large numbers of digestive enzymes present on the microvilli.

text: Most food digestion takes place in the small intestine.

text: Segmentation contractions

text: act to mix and move the chyme more slowly in the small intestine allowing more time for absorption (and these continue in the large intestine). In the duodenum, pancreatic lipase is secreted together with a

text: co-enzyme

text: colipase

text: to further digest the fat content of the chyme. From this breakdown, smaller particles of emulsified fats called

text: chylomicron

text: s are produced. There are also digestive cells called

text: enterocyte

text: s lining the intestines (the majority being in the small intestine). They are unusual cells in that they have

text: villi

text: on their surface which in turn have innumerable

text: microvilli

text: on their surface. All these villi make for a greater surface area, not only for the absorption of chyme but also for its further digestion by large numbers of digestive enzymes present on the microvilli.

text: The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or alimentary canal) is an organ system within humans and other animals which takes in food, digests it to extract and absorb energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste as feces and urine. The mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines are part of the human alimentary canal.

text: The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or alimentary canal) is an

text: organ

text: system within humans and other

text: animal

text: s which takes in food,

text: digests

text: it to extract and absorb energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste as

text: feces

text: and

text: urine

text: . The

text: mouth

text: oesophagus

text: , stomach, and intestines are part of the human alimentary canal.

text: Randhir Sud, an Indian gastroenterologist and the Chairman of the Medanta Institute of Digestive and Hepatobiliary Sciences, is known to be one of the pioneers of Gastro Intestinal oncology in India. He is a former co-chairman of the department of gastroenterology at Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi.

text: Randhir Sud, an Indian gastroenterologist and the Chairman of the

text: Medanta Institute of Digestive and Hepatobiliary Sciences

text: , is known to be one of the pioneers of Gastro Intestinal oncology in India. He is a former co-chairman of the department of gastroenterology at

text: Sir Ganga Ram Hospital

text: , New Delhi.

text: The planarian has very simple organ systems. The digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, and a gastrovascular cavity. The mouth is located in the center of the underside of the body. Digestive enzymes are secreted from the mouth to begin external digestion. The pharynx connects the mouth to the gastrovascular cavity. This structure branches throughout the body allowing nutrients from food to reach all extremities. Planaria eat living or dead small animals that they suck up with their muscular mouths. Food passes from the mouth through the pharynx into the intestines where it is digested by the cells lining the intestines. Then its nutrients diffuse to the rest of the body.

text: The planarian has very simple organ systems. The digestive system consists of a

text: mouth

text: pharynx

text: , and a gastrovascular cavity. The mouth is located in the center of the underside of the body. Digestive enzymes are secreted from the mouth to begin external digestion. The pharynx connects the mouth to the gastrovascular cavity. This structure branches throughout the body allowing nutrients from food to reach all extremities. Planaria eat living or dead small animals that they suck up with their muscular mouths. Food passes from the mouth through the pharynx into the intestines where it is digested by the cells lining the intestines. Then its nutrients

text: diffuse

text: to the rest of the body.

text: Mouth breathing (also termed open-mouth breathing or a mouth breathing habit) is breathing through the mouth rather than the nose.

text: When the lophophore is extended, cilia (little hairs) on the sides of the tentacles draw water down between the tentacles and out at the base of the lophophore. Shorter cilia on the inner sides of the tentacles flick food particles into a groove in a circle under and just inside the tentacles, and cilia in the groove push the particles into the mouth. Phoronids direct their lophophores into the water current, and quickly reorient to maximize the food-catching area when currents change. Their diet includes algae, diatoms, flagellates, peridinians, small invertebrate larvae, and detritus. Unwanted material can be excluded by closing the epistome (lid above the mouth) or be rejected by the tentacles, whose cilia can switch into reverse. The gut uses cilia and muscles to move food towards the stomach and secretes enzymes that digest some of the food, but the stomach digests the majority of the food. Phoronids also absorb amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) through their skins, mainly in summer. Solid wastes are moved up the intestine and out through the anus, which is outside and slightly below the lophophore.

text: When the lophophore is extended,

text: cilia

text: (little hairs) on the sides of the tentacles draw water down between the tentacles and out at the base of the lophophore. Shorter cilia on the inner sides of the tentacles flick food particles into a groove in a circle under and just inside the tentacles, and cilia in the groove push the particles into the mouth. Phoronids direct their lophophores into the water current, and quickly reorient to maximize the food-catching area when currents change. Their diet includes

text: algae

text: diatom

text: s,

text: flagellate

text: s,

text: peridinian

text: s, small invertebrate larvae, and detritus. Unwanted material can be excluded by closing the epistome (lid above the mouth) or be rejected by the tentacles, whose cilia can switch into reverse. The gut uses cilia and muscles to move food towards the stomach and secretes

text: enzyme

text: s that digest some of the food, but the stomach digests the majority of the food. Phoronids also absorb

text: amino acid

text: s (the building blocks of

text: protein

text: s) through their skins, mainly in summer. Solid wastes are moved up the intestine and out through the

text: anus

text: , which is outside and slightly below the lophophore.

text: Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Monosaccharides  include glucose, fructose and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose; purified sucrose, for instance, is used as table sugar. Polysaccharides, which include starch and glycogen, are often referred to as 'complex' carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple-branched chains of sugar units. The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and absorb since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption. The spike in blood glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be related to some of the heart and vascular diseases, which have become more common in recent times. Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than in the past, perhaps leading to more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not clear.

text: Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Monosaccharides  include

text: glucose

text: fructose

text: and

text: galactose

text: . Disaccharides include

text: sucrose

text: lactose

text: , and

text: maltose

text: ; purified

text: sucrose

text: , for instance, is used as table sugar. Polysaccharides, which include

text: starch

text: and

text: glycogen

text: , are often referred to as 'complex' carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple-branched chains of sugar units. The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and absorb since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption. The spike in

text: blood glucose

text: levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be related to some of the heart and vascular diseases, which have become more common in recent times. Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than in the past, perhaps leading to more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not clear.

text: Digestion, or precipitate ageing, happens when a freshly formed precipitate is left, usually at a higher temperature, in the solution from which it precipitates. It results in cleaner and bigger particles. The physico-chemical process underlying digestion is called Ostwald ripening.

text: Digestion, or precipitate ageing, happens when a freshly formed precipitate is left, usually at a higher

text: temperature

text: , in the solution from which it precipitates. It results in cleaner and bigger particles. The physico-chemical process underlying digestion is called

text: Ostwald ripening

text: An earlier name for this genus was Gasterostomum, given by von Siebold in 1848 to all adult trematodes with a ventral mouth.  Odhner (1905) established two suborders of digenean trematodes called Gasterostomata and Protostomata. The two genera in Gasterostomata were Gasterostomum (now Bucephalus) and Prosorhynchus, of which the former has an anterior sucker separate from its digestive tract and the latter has an anterior rhynchus. Members of the genus Bucephalus are also sometimes referred to as "gasterostomes."

text: Gerda Boyesen developed, among other things, the theory that the dismantling of psychological stress is also connected with the digestive system. She came to the conclusion that certain massage techniques could bring to completion the expression of unwanted feelings, or "incomplete cycles," and this release of emotional charge would entail similar noises from the intestines as during digestion of food. Boyesen called these noises psychoperistalsis. This process of "digesting" psychological problems is often accompanied by new insights. For this reason she was often called "the lady with the stethoscope" in body psychotherapeutic circles as she used the stethoscope to get a clearer impression of the bowel noises of her clients. She could allegedly differentiate a multiplicity of peristaltic noises, diagnostically arrange and make inferences on the subconscious processes of the clients. To Boyesen it was a good sign when the client's "psychoperistalsis" was in a particular way at the end of a session. That meant it was resolving somewhat and would be able to organize anew without the old restrictive pattern. Biodynamic massage is also practiced as a therapy separate to Biodynamic Psychotherapy.

text: Gerda Boyesen developed, among other things, the theory that the dismantling of psychological stress is also connected with the

text: digestive system

text: . She came to the conclusion that certain

text: massage

text: techniques could bring to completion the expression of unwanted feelings, or "incomplete cycles," and this release of emotional charge would entail similar noises from the intestines as during

text: digestion

text: of food. Boyesen called these

text: noises

text: psychoperistalsis. This process of "digesting" psychological problems is often accompanied by new insights. For this reason she was often called "the lady with the stethoscope" in body psychotherapeutic circles as she used the

text: stethoscope

text: to get a clearer impression of the bowel noises of her clients. She could allegedly differentiate a multiplicity of

text: peristaltic

text: noises, diagnostically arrange and make inferences on the

text: subconscious

text: processes of the clients. To Boyesen it was a good sign when the client's "psychoperistalsis" was in a particular way at the end of a session. That meant it was resolving somewhat and would be able to organize anew without the old restrictive pattern.

text: Biodynamic massage

text: is also practiced as a therapy separate to Biodynamic Psychotherapy.

text: Since a microbe is a living organism, it maintains some of the same properties that humans do to survive. Porphyromonas have a life cycle, they have a digestive system, and they reproduce. Bacteria have to eat to survive; they also have to eliminate wastes and are constantly reproducing. Naturally, bacteria are always present in the oral cavity. However, when plaque is not removed on a daily basis, trouble begins.

text: The second edition of Hong Kong Action Theatre! uses the Tri-Stat System.

text: The second edition of Hong Kong Action Theatre! uses the

text: Tri-Stat System

text: The digestive system begins with Aristotle’s Lantern where the food enters the body of the sea urchin. An esophagus extends from the mouth through the center of Aristotle’s Lantern, where it joins up with an intestine. The intestine is arranged in little bundles that adhere to the inside of the test in a counter-clockwise circuit around Aristotle’s Lantern. Once the intestine gets back to itself, it doubles over itself and reverses directions in a second clockwise direction. Digestive enzymes are produced by the intestinal walls and breakdown of food is almost completely extracellular. From the intestine, what is left of the food moves out of the intestine into the short rectum, and out the anus. S. droebachiensis gets its green color from the pigments of its plant food.

text: The digestive system begins with Aristotle’s Lantern where the food enters the body of the sea urchin. An esophagus extends from the mouth through the center of Aristotle’s Lantern, where it joins up with an intestine. The intestine is arranged in little bundles that adhere to the inside of the test in a counter-clockwise circuit around Aristotle’s Lantern. Once the intestine gets back to itself, it doubles over itself and reverses directions in a second clockwise direction.

text: Digestive enzyme

text: s are produced by the intestinal walls and breakdown of food is almost completely extracellular. From the intestine, what is left of the food moves out of the intestine into the short rectum, and out the anus. S. droebachiensis gets its green color from the pigments of its plant food.

text: The Wandering Jew () is an 1844 novel by the French writer Eugène Sue.

text: The Wandering Jew () is an 1844 novel by the French writer

text: Eugène Sue

text: In many birds, the esophagus is largely a mere gravity chute, and in such events as a seagull swallowing a fish or a stork swallowing a frog, swallowing consists largely of the bird lifting its head with its beak pointing up and guiding the prey with tongue and jaws so that the prey slides inside and down.

text: In many birds, the esophagus is largely a mere

text: gravity chute

text: , and in such events as a

text: seagull

text: swallowing a fish or a

text: stork

text: swallowing a

text: frog

text: , swallowing consists largely of the bird lifting its head with its beak pointing up and guiding the prey with tongue and jaws so that the prey slides inside and down.

text: Some animals, particularly ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help of symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts, such as Trichonympha. In humans, cellulose acts as a hydrophilic bulking agent for feces and is often referred to as a "dietary fiber".

text: Some animals, particularly

text: ruminant

text: s and

text: termite

text: s, can

text: digest

text: cellulose with the help of

text: symbiotic

text: micro-organisms that live in their guts, such as

text: Trichonympha

text: . In humans, cellulose acts as a

text: hydrophilic

text: bulking agent for

text: feces

text: and is often referred to as a "

text: dietary fiber

text: Understanding how daunting Zen often seems, simple, practical and accessible instruction is available, beginning with the bi-monthly Zen for Beginners program.  Understanding how difficult is the continuation of Zen practice, Still Mind Zendo offers strong challenge and the support of caring and like-minded people. In addition to daily zazen (except for Sunday and Monday when the center is closed), weekend and week retreats (sesshin), study sessions and related workshops are offered.

text: Forrest retired to Claremont, and died in 1917. He was buried at Karrakatta Cemetery.

text: Forrest retired to

text: Claremont

text: , and died in 1917. He was buried at

text: Karrakatta Cemetery

text: and a son, whom they adopted from her brother Prince Fatafehi ʻAlaivahamamaʻo Tukuʻaho (27 September 1979 - 17 February 2004) :

text: There were already wrestling styles among Native Americans varying from tribe and nation by the 15th and 16th centuries, when the first Europeans settled. The English and French who settled on the North American continent sought out wrestling as a popular pastime. Soon, there were local champions in every settlement, with contests between them on a regional level. The colonists in what would become the United States started out with something more akin to Greco-Roman wrestling, but soon found that style too restrictive in favor of a style which a greater allowance of holds.

text: There were already wrestling styles among

text: Native Americans

text: varying from tribe and nation by the 15th and 16th centuries, when the first

text: Europe

text: ans settled. The

text: English

text: and

text: French

text: who settled on the North American continent sought out wrestling as a popular pastime. Soon, there were local champions in every settlement, with contests between them on a regional level. The colonists in what would become the

text: United States

text: started out with something more akin to Greco-Roman wrestling, but soon found that style too restrictive in favor of a style which a greater allowance of holds.

text: Prior to surgery, the patient is given a medical examination, receives certain pre-operative tests, and their physical status is rated according to the ASA physical status classification system. If these results are satisfactory, the patient signs a consent form and is given a surgical clearance. If the procedure is expected to result in significant blood loss, an autologous blood donation may be made some weeks prior to surgery. If the surgery involves the digestive system, the patient may be instructed to perform a bowel prep by drinking a solution of polyethylene glycol the night before the procedure. Patients are also instructed to abstain from food or drink (an NPO order after midnight on the night before the procedure), to minimize the effect of stomach contents on pre-operative medications and reduce the risk of aspiration if the patient vomits during or after the procedure.

text: Prior to surgery, the patient is given a

text: medical examination

text: , receives certain pre-operative tests, and their

text: physical status

text: is rated according to the

entity_name: ASA physical status classification system

text: ASA physical status classification system

text: . If these results are satisfactory, the patient signs a consent form and is given a surgical clearance. If the procedure is expected to result in significant blood loss, an

text: autologous

text: blood donation

text: may be made some weeks prior to surgery. If the surgery involves the

text: digestive system

text: , the patient may be instructed to perform a

text: bowel prep

text: by drinking a solution of

text: polyethylene glycol

text: the night before the procedure. Patients are also instructed to abstain from food or drink (an

text: NPO order

text: after midnight on the night before the procedure), to minimize the effect of stomach contents on pre-operative medications and reduce the risk of aspiration if the patient vomits during or after the procedure.

text: Full Blown Chaos is a metalcore band from Floral Park, Queens, New York. According to the band, their whole direction "is to keep a wide range of music, not to necessarily pigeonhole ourselves into metal or hardcore". They are well respected in the New York scene, and are generally considered to be a part of the NYHC movement.

text: Full Blown Chaos is a

text: metalcore

text: band from

text: Floral Park, Queens

text: New York

text: . According to the band, their whole direction "is to keep a wide range of music, not to necessarily pigeonhole ourselves into metal or hardcore". They are well respected in the New York scene, and are generally considered to be a part of the

text: NYHC

text: movement.

text: 2. C.T. White, 1870–73

text: 2. C.T. White, 1870–73

text: Drosera anglica is a perennial herb which forms an upright, stemless rosette of generally linear-spatulate leaves. As is typical for sundews, the laminae are densely covered with stalked mucilaginous glands, each tipped with a clear droplet of a viscous fluid used for trapping insects. The lamina, which is  long, is held semi-erect by a long petiole, bringing the total leaf size to 30–95 mm. Plants are green, coloring red in bright light. In all populations except those in Kaua'i, D. anglica forms winter resting buds called hibernacula. These consist of a knot of tightly curled leaves at ground level, which unfurl in spring at the end of the dormancy period. The root system is weak and penetrates only a few centimeters, serving mainly as an anchor and for water absorption. Nitrogen is in short supply in bogs and trapping and digesting insects provides an alternate source.

text: Drosera anglica is a

text: perennial

text: herb which forms an upright, stemless

text: rosette

text: of generally

text: linear-spatulate

text: leaves. As is typical for

text: sundew

text: s, the laminae are densely covered with stalked

text: mucilaginous glands

text: , each tipped with a clear droplet of a viscous fluid used for trapping insects. The lamina, which is  long, is held semi-erect by a long petiole, bringing the total leaf size to 30–95 mm. Plants are green, coloring red in bright light. In all populations except those in

text: Kaua'i

text: , D. anglica forms winter resting buds called

text: hibernacula

text: . These consist of a knot of tightly curled leaves at ground level, which unfurl in spring at the end of the

text: dormancy

text: period. The root system is weak and penetrates only a few centimeters, serving mainly as an anchor and for water absorption. Nitrogen is in short supply in bogs and trapping and digesting insects provides an alternate source.

text: Thomas' projects have won major awards, including the Oscar, Emmy, IGN, Telly, Aurora and several G.A.N.G. awards. He is considered the father of game music Grammy eligibility, and was honored in 2013 with the Game Audio Network Guild's Annual Recognition Award.

text: Thomas' projects have won major awards, including the Oscar,

text: Emmy

text: IGN

text: , Telly,

text: Aurora

text: and several G.A.N.G. awards. He is considered the father of game music

text: Grammy

text: eligibility, and was honored in 2013 with the Game Audio Network Guild's Annual Recognition Award.

text: The first DAS Conference was held in 1992, in Suceava, Romania.

text: The first DAS Conference was held in 1992, in

text: Suceava

text: Romania

text: Luke is immediately cured and Sarah Jane is relieved to see him well again. Rani and Clyde return with K-9 and they come clean about Clyde's attempts to use K-9 for cheating on the biology exam. Sarah Jane tells Clyde that he does not need to cheat and needs to have more faith in his own abilities. Enraged at their plans being ruined, the Blathereen teleport to the attic and threaten to destroy everyone. Mr Smith generates the same frequency, destroying the partially digested Rakweed in their stomachs. The resultant build-up of methane gas in the Blathereens' stomachs causes them to explode. Clyde is told to clean up the mess and they all later celebrate with a barbecue.

text: The human digestive system manufactures nitrites, which is thought to be what prevents botulism, which would thrive in the anaerobic conditions and temperature range of the digestive system (gut).

text: The

text: human digestive system

text: manufactures nitrites, which is thought to be what prevents

text: botulism

text: , which would thrive in the

text: anaerobic

text: conditions and temperature range of the digestive system (

text: gut

text: Taos Ski Valley lies to the northwest of Wheeler Peak, while both the town of Taos and Taos Pueblo are about  to the southwest.

text: Taos Ski Valley

text: lies to the northwest of Wheeler Peak, while both the town of

text: Taos

text: and

text: Taos Pueblo

text: are about  to the southwest.

text: XHPSP received its concession on October 4, 1994. It has been owned by Radiorama for its entire existence.

text: The first of these monuments was the largest.  The cornerstone was laid for the Myles Standish Monument in Duxbury in 1872, with a crowd of ten thousand people attending the ceremonies.  It was finished in 1898, the third tallest monument to an individual in the United States. It is surpassed only by the first dedicated Washington Monument (178 feet) in Baltimore, Maryland (finished in 1829) and the Washington Monument (555 feet) in Washington, D.C. (dedicated in 1885).  The top of the monument is  overall, and at the top stands a  statue of Standish.

text: The first of these monuments was the largest.  The cornerstone was laid for the

entity_name: Myles Standish Monument State Reservation

text: Myles Standish Monument

text: in Duxbury in 1872, with a crowd of ten thousand people attending the ceremonies.  It was finished in 1898, the third tallest monument to an individual in the United States. It is surpassed only by the first dedicated Washington Monument (178 feet) in Baltimore, Maryland (finished in 1829) and the Washington Monument (555 feet) in Washington, D.C. (dedicated in 1885).  The top of the monument is  overall, and at the top stands a  statue of Standish.

text: The matter caused much discussion about could lonely people be somehow helped or otherwise act to prevent such events. The social bureau was blamed for only having paid his rent and not checking his living conditions or whether he was even alive. On the other hand, some people said that officials shouldn't interfere with people's private lives unless necessary. There are very many cases in apartment buildings in big cities where people sometimes interact very little with their neighbours living in the same building.

text: Muawiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem in 661.

text: Muawiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in

text: Jerusalem

text: in 661.

text: Mateo wrote the songs "Desde que te Fuiste" and "Aunque Me Mientas" for the platinum selling album "Primera Fila" by the Mexican singer Alejandra Guzmán.

text: Mateo wrote the songs "Desde que te Fuiste" and "

text: Aunque Me Mientas

text: " for the platinum selling album "Primera Fila" by the Mexican singer

text: Alejandra Guzmán

text: Located in the outskirts of Moscow, the original village of Mitino merged into the city in 1985.

text: (Iz gevorn zeyer freylekh, Elimeylekh,)

text: (Iz gevorn zeyer freylekh, Elimeylekh,)

text: On 1 January 2001, she was awarded the Centenary Medal, "for long and dedicated voluntary service to welfare at local, state and national levels".

text: On 1 January 2001, she was awarded the

text: Centenary Medal

text: , "for long and dedicated voluntary service to welfare at local, state and national levels".

text: Among his film productions are A Man Called Horse (1970) and Man in the Wilderness (1971).

text: Among his film productions are

text: A Man Called Horse

text: (1970) and

text: Man in the Wilderness

text: The stereoselective synthesis of seven benzylated proanthocyanidin trimers (epicatechin-(4β-8)-epicatechin-(4β-8)-epicatechin trimer (procyanidin C1), catechin-(4α-8)-catechin-(4α-8)-catechin trimer (procyanidin C2), epicatechin-(4β-8)-epicatechin-(4β-8)-catechin trimer and epicatechin-(4β-8)-catechin-(4α-8)-epicatechin trimer derivatives) can be achieved with TMSOTf-catalyzed condensation reaction, in excellent yields. Deprotection of (+)-catechin and (−)-epicatechin trimers derivatives gives four natural procyanidin trimers in good yields.

text: The stereoselective synthesis of seven benzylated proanthocyanidin trimers (epicatechin-(4β-8)-epicatechin-(4β-8)-epicatechin trimer (

text: procyanidin C1

text: ), catechin-(4α-8)-catechin-(4α-8)-catechin trimer (

text: procyanidin C2

text: ), epicatechin-(4β-8)-epicatechin-(4β-8)-catechin trimer and epicatechin-(4β-8)-catechin-(4α-8)-epicatechin trimer derivatives) can be achieved with TMSOTf-catalyzed condensation reaction, in excellent yields. Deprotection of (+)-catechin and (−)-epicatechin trimers derivatives gives four natural procyanidin trimers in good yields.

text: Lev has been the recipient of several secular and ecclesiastical awards.  In 1992, he was made an honorary citizen of Novgorod the Great. On March 30, 2006, President Vladimir Putin awarded him the Order For Merit to the Fatherland, 4th class (За заслуги перед Отечеством» IV степени). He has also received the Order of Honour (Знак Почёта), the Order of Sergius of Radonezh, 4th class (Орден преподобного Сергия Радонежского III степени), and the Order of St. Prince Daniel of Moscow (Орден св. блгв. кн. Даниила Московского). In 2004, he was a recipient of the Yaroslav the Wise Medal, 1st class (Медалью Ярослава Мудрого I степени) awarded by Novgorod State University.

text: Lev has been the recipient of several secular and ecclesiastical awards.  In 1992, he was made an honorary citizen of

text: Novgorod the Great

text: . On March 30, 2006, President

text: Vladimir Putin

text: awarded him the

text: Order For Merit to the Fatherland

text: , 4th class (За заслуги перед Отечеством» IV степени). He has also received the

text: Order of Honour

text: (Знак Почёта), the Order of

text: Sergius of Radonezh

text: , 4th class (Орден преподобного Сергия Радонежского III степени), and the

text: Order of St. Prince Daniel of Moscow

text: (Орден св. блгв. кн. Даниила Московского). In 2004, he was a recipient of the

text: Yaroslav the Wise

text: Medal, 1st class (Медалью Ярослава Мудрого I степени) awarded by

entity_name: Yaroslav-the-Wise Novgorod State University

text: Novgorod State University

text: The microsite and rankings closed in March 2002 with the demise of Dreamarena.

text: It was established in the 14th century as a sloboda assigned to the Annunciation Monastery. The latter was established by Saint Sergius of Radonezh, who lived in the area between 1354 and 1358. For most of its history, the abbey remained heavily dependent upon the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, which lies  to the west. After the monastery was disbanded in 1764, the sloboda was granted municipal rights in 1778. Thereafter, Kirzhach, as many other towns in the vicinity, developed primarily as a textile center.

text: It was established in the 14th century as a

text: sloboda

text: assigned to the Annunciation Monastery. The latter was established by Saint

text: Sergius of Radonezh

text: , who lived in the area between 1354 and 1358. For most of its history, the abbey remained heavily dependent upon the

text: Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius

text: , which lies  to the west. After the monastery was disbanded in 1764, the sloboda was granted municipal rights in 1778. Thereafter, Kirzhach, as many other towns in the vicinity, developed primarily as a

text: textile

text: center.

text: Che led off the broadcast on the premiere episode, and Jost has led off each broadcast since.  Starting with the October 4, 2014 episode hosted by Sarah Silverman, each anchor tells at least one extended joke per segment.

text: Che led off the broadcast on the premiere episode, and Jost has led off each broadcast since.  Starting with the October 4, 2014 episode hosted by

text: Sarah Silverman

text: , each anchor tells at least one extended joke per segment.

text: Writer's Digest also sponsors several in-house contests annually, including the Writer's Digest International Self-Published Book Awards and their Annual Writing Competition for short stories.

text: Writer's Digest also

text: sponsor

text: s several in-house contests annually, including the Writer's Digest International

text: Self-Published

text: Book Awards and their Annual Writing Competition for

text: short stories

text: In 1996 he turned his attention to the sanitation problems that plague much of the world's population.  This resulted in his invention of the "trickling filter" system which treats septic tank waste on site, in response to his concern that septic tanks were being pumped out and dumped, untreated, into the environment.  In 2004, he began experiments with a revolutionary invention that would treat human waste in a "digester box" that uses Mother Nature as a model for decomposing fecal material.  He tested the digester in a variety of sites, including middle-class homes, schools, and office buildings and confirmed that fecal material could be processed without emitting odors and without sludge build-up.  As of 2006, he was selling Biofil Digesters and 2008 saw the official launch of his current company, Biological Filters and Composters, Ltd.  As of July 2013, his company has installed over 4,500 Biofil Digesters, and the demand for his "clean and green" sanitation solution is growing.

text: In 1996 he turned his attention to the sanitation problems that plague much of the world's population.  This resulted in his invention of the "trickling filter" system which treats

text: septic tank

text: waste on site, in response to his concern that septic tanks were being pumped out and dumped, untreated, into the environment.  In 2004, he began experiments with a revolutionary invention that would treat human waste in a "digester box" that uses Mother Nature as a model for decomposing fecal material.  He tested the digester in a variety of sites, including middle-class homes, schools, and office buildings and confirmed that fecal material could be processed without emitting odors and without sludge build-up.  As of 2006, he was selling Biofil Digesters and 2008 saw the official launch of his current company, Biological Filters and Composters, Ltd.  As of July 2013, his company has installed over 4,500 Biofil Digesters, and the demand for his "clean and green" sanitation solution is growing.

text: Methamphetamine is metabolized by the liver enzyme CYP2D6, so CYP2D6 inhibitors will prolong the elimination half-life of methamphetamine. Methamphetamine also interacts with monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), since both MAOIs and methamphetamine increase plasma catecholamines; therefore, concurrent use of both is dangerous.  Methamphetamine may decrease the effects of sedatives and depressants and increase the effects of antidepressants and other stimulants as well.  Methamphetamine may counteract the effects of antihypertensives and antipsychotics due to its effects on the cardiovascular system and cognition respectively.  The pH of gastrointestinal content and urine affects the absorption and excretion of methamphetamine.  Specifically, acidic substances will reduce the absorption of methamphetamine and increase urinary excretion, while alkaline substances do the opposite.  Due to the effect pH has on absorption, proton pump inhibitors, which reduce gastric acid, are known to interact with methamphetamine.

text: Methamphetamine is metabolized by the liver enzyme

text: , so

text: CYP2D6 inhibitors

text: will prolong the

text: elimination half-life

text: of methamphetamine. Methamphetamine also interacts with

text: monoamine oxidase inhibitors

text: (MAOIs), since both MAOIs and methamphetamine increase plasma catecholamines; therefore, concurrent use of both is dangerous.  Methamphetamine may decrease the effects of

text: sedative

text: s and

text: depressant

text: s and increase the effects of

text: antidepressant

text: s and other

text: stimulant

text: s as well.  Methamphetamine may counteract the effects of

text: antihypertensives

text: and

text: antipsychotic

text: s due to its effects on the cardiovascular system and cognition respectively.  The

text: pH

text: of gastrointestinal content and urine affects the absorption and excretion of methamphetamine.  Specifically, acidic substances will reduce the absorption of methamphetamine and increase urinary excretion, while alkaline substances do the opposite.  Due to the effect pH has on absorption,

text: proton pump inhibitor

text: s, which reduce

text: gastric acid

text: , are known to interact with methamphetamine.

text: Many countries have a language policy designed to favor or discourage the use of a particular language or set of languages. Although nations historically have used language policies most often to promote one official language at the expense of others, many countries now have policies 3designed to protect and promote Wjgregional and ethnic languages whose viability is threatened. Indeed, whilst the existence of linguistic minorities within their jurisdiction has often been considered to be a potential threat to internal cohesion, States also understand that providing language rights to minorities may be more in their long term interest, as a means of gaining citizens’ trust in the central government.

text: Many countries have a language policy designed to favor or discourage the use of a particular

text: language

text: or set of languages. Although nations historically have used language policies most often to promote one

text: official language

text: at the expense of others, many countries now have policies 3designed to protect and promote Wjgregional and ethnic languages whose viability is threatened. Indeed, whilst the existence of linguistic

text: minorities

text: within their jurisdiction has often been considered to be a potential threat to internal cohesion, States also understand that providing language rights to minorities may be more in their long term interest, as a means of gaining citizens’ trust in the central government.

text: From Statistics and Gazetteer of New-Hampshire, 1875:

text: After retiring, at age 82 Frank Holton sold the company to employee William Kull. The company was run from that point forward by sales manager Elliot Kehl, though Kull would retain the title CEO until he died in 1944.

text: Echium plantagineum, commonly known as purple viper's-bugloss or Paterson's curse, is a species of Echium native to western and southern Europe (from southern England south to Iberia and east to the Crimea), northern Africa, and southwestern Asia (east to Georgia). It has also been introduced to Australia, South Africa and United States, where it is an invasive weed. Due to a high concentration of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, it is poisonous to grazing livestock, especially those with simple digestive systems, like horses. The toxins accumulate in the liver, and death results from too much Paterson's curse in the diet.

text: Echium plantagineum, commonly known as purple viper's-bugloss or Paterson's curse, is a species of

text: Echium

text: native to western and southern

text: Europe

text: (from southern

text: England

text: south to

text: Iberia

text: and east to the

text: Crimea

text: ), northern

text: Africa

text: , and southwestern

text: Asia

text: (east to

text: Georgia

text: ). It has also been introduced to

text: Australia

text: South Africa

text: and

text: United States

text: , where it is an invasive weed. Due to a high concentration of

text: pyrrolizidine alkaloid

text: s, it is

text: poisonous

text: to grazing livestock, especially those with simple digestive systems, like horses. The toxins accumulate in the liver, and death results from too much Paterson's curse in the diet.

text: A limit case has been reached in Bolivia, with anaerobic digestion in temperature working conditions of less than 10 °C. The anaerobic process is very slow, taking more than three times the normal mesophilic time process. In experimental work at University of Alaska Fairbanks, a 1,000 litre digester using psychrophiles harvested from "mud from a frozen lake in Alaska" has produced 200–300 litres of methane per day, about 20 to 30% of the output from digesters in warmer climates. Mesophilic species outnumber thermophiles, and they are also more tolerant to changes in environmental conditions than thermophiles. Mesophilic systems are, therefore, considered to be more stable than thermophilic digestion systems. In contrast, while thermophilic digestion systems are considered less stable, their energy input is higher, with more biogas being removed from the organic matter in an equal amount of time. The increased temperatures facilitate faster reaction rates, and thus faster gas yields. Operation at higher temperatures facilitates greater pathogen reduction of the digestate. In countries where legislation, such as the Animal By-Products Regulations in the European Union, requires digestate to meet certain levels of pathogen reduction there may be a benefit to using thermophilic temperatures instead of mesophilic.

text: A limit case has been reached in

text: Bolivia

text: , with anaerobic digestion in temperature working conditions of less than 10 °C. The anaerobic process is very slow, taking more than three times the normal mesophilic time process. In experimental work at

text: University of Alaska Fairbanks

text: , a 1,000 litre digester using

text: psychrophiles

text: harvested from "mud from a frozen lake in Alaska" has produced 200–300 litres of methane per day, about 20 to 30% of the output from digesters in warmer climates. Mesophilic species outnumber thermophiles, and they are also more tolerant to changes in environmental conditions than thermophiles. Mesophilic systems are, therefore, considered to be more stable than thermophilic digestion systems. In contrast, while thermophilic digestion systems are considered less stable, their energy input is higher, with more biogas being removed from the organic matter in an equal amount of time. The increased temperatures facilitate faster reaction rates, and thus faster gas yields. Operation at higher temperatures facilitates greater pathogen reduction of the digestate. In countries where legislation, such as the

text: Animal By-Products Regulations

text: in the European Union, requires digestate to meet certain levels of pathogen reduction there may be a benefit to using thermophilic temperatures instead of mesophilic.

text: As Israel's national security advisor, he participated in high-level talks with U.S. officials about the Iranian nuclear program and led efforts to restore relations with Turkey after the Gaza flotilla raid incident.

text: As Israel's national security advisor, he participated in high-level talks with U.S. officials about the

text: Iranian nuclear program

text: and led efforts to restore relations with

text: Turkey

text: after the

text: Gaza flotilla raid

text: incident.

text: In 2005, there were calls to delete the word "Sindh" and substitute it with the word Kashmir. The argument was that Sindh was no longer a part of India, having become part of Pakistan as a result of the Partition of 1947. Opponents of this proposal hold that the word "Sindh" refers to the Indus and to Sindhi culture, and that Sindhi people are an integral part of India's cultural fabric. The Supreme Court of India declined to change the national anthem and the wording remains unchanged.

text: In 2005, there were calls to delete the word "Sindh" and substitute it with the word

text: Kashmir

text: . The argument was that

text: Sindh

text: was no longer a part of India, having become part of Pakistan as a result of the

text: Partition

text: of 1947. Opponents of this proposal hold that the word "Sindh" refers to the

text: Indus

text: and to

text: Sindhi

text: culture, and that Sindhi people are an integral part of India's cultural fabric. The

text: Supreme Court of India

text: declined to change the national anthem and the wording remains unchanged.

text: The all-fiction digest-sized companion, Night Cry, makes a cameo in The Simpsons 300th episode, "Barting Over".  On occasion, the magazine and digest reprinted often-anthologized short stories, introducing a new generation of horror aficionados to classic short stories by veteran writers, such as "The Voice in the Night" by William Hope Hodgson, and "The Bookshop" by Nelson Bond.

text: The all-fiction

text: digest-sized

text: companion,

text: Night Cry

text: , makes a cameo in

text: The Simpsons

text: 300th episode, "

text: Barting Over

text: ".  On occasion, the magazine and digest reprinted often-anthologized short stories, introducing a new generation of horror aficionados to classic short stories by veteran writers, such as "

text: The Voice in the Night

text: " by

text: William Hope Hodgson

text: , and "The Bookshop" by

text: Nelson Bond

text: Despite its taxonomic classification as a carnivoran, the giant panda's diet is primarily herbivorous, consisting almost exclusively of bamboo. However, the giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes, and thus derives little energy and little protein from consumption of bamboo. Its ability to digest cellulose is ascribed to the microbes in its gut. Pandas are born with sterile intestines, and require bacteria obtained from their mother's feces to digest vegetation. The giant panda is a "highly specialized" animal with "unique adaptations", and has lived in bamboo forests for millions of years. The average giant panda eats as much as 9 to 14 kg (20 to 30 lb) of bamboo shoots a day to compensate for its low level of energy digestibility. Ingestion of such a large quantity of material is possible because of the rapid passage of large amounts of indigestible plant material through the short, straight digestive tract. It is also noted, however, that such rapid passage of digesta limits the potential of microbial digestion in the gastrointestinal tract, limiting alternative forms of digestion. Given this voluminous diet, the giant panda defecates up to 40 times a day. The limited energy input imposed on it by its diet has affected the panda's behavior. The giant panda tends to limit its social interactions and avoids steeply sloping terrain to limit its energy expenditures.

text: Despite its

text: taxonomic

text: classification as a

text: carnivora

text: n, the giant panda's

text: diet

text: is primarily

text: herbivorous

text: , consisting almost exclusively of bamboo. However, the giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes, and thus derives little energy and little protein from consumption of bamboo. Its ability to digest

text: cellulose

text: is ascribed to the microbes in its gut. Pandas are born with sterile intestines, and require bacteria obtained from their mother's feces to digest vegetation. The giant panda is a "highly specialized" animal with "unique adaptations", and has lived in bamboo forests for millions of years. The average giant panda eats as much as 9 to 14 kg (20 to 30 lb) of bamboo shoots a day to compensate for its low level of energy digestibility. Ingestion of such a large quantity of material is possible because of the rapid passage of large amounts of indigestible plant material through the short, straight digestive tract. It is also noted, however, that such rapid passage of digesta limits the potential of microbial digestion in the gastrointestinal tract, limiting alternative forms of digestion. Given this voluminous diet, the giant panda defecates up to 40 times a day. The limited energy input imposed on it by its diet has affected the panda's behavior. The giant panda tends to limit its social interactions and avoids steeply sloping terrain to limit its energy expenditures.