text: Halley's Comet, named after English astronomer Edmund Halley who first demonstrated its periodicity, returns to the vicinity of the Sun and Earth approximately every 76 years. Since comets are believed to be the most primordial objects in the solar system, their study is of great importance to planetary science. At the time of the 1986 return (technically, "apparition") of the comet, astronomical telescopes and related instrumentation were vastly more sensitive than for any previous apparition. Consequently, the International Halley Watch (IHW) was organized to stimulate, standardize, collect, and archive observations of the comet.

entity_name: Halley's Comet

text: Halley's Comet

text: , named after English astronomer

entity_name: Edmond Halley

text: Edmund Halley

text: who first demonstrated its periodicity, returns to the vicinity of the Sun and Earth approximately every 76 years. Since

entity_name: Comet

text: comet

text: s are believed to be the most primordial objects in the solar system, their study is of great importance to planetary science. At the time of the 1986 return (technically, "apparition") of the comet, astronomical telescopes and related instrumentation were vastly more sensitive than for any previous apparition. Consequently, the International Halley Watch (IHW) was organized to stimulate, standardize, collect, and archive observations of the comet.

text: The system became fully operational at the end of 2015. ATLAS may be expanded geographically to several other locations in both hemispheres to provide continuous coverage. Additionally, ATLAS will look for dwarf planets and supernovae.

text: The system became fully operational at the end of 2015. ATLAS may be expanded geographically to several other locations in both hemispheres to provide continuous coverage. Additionally, ATLAS will look for

entity_name: Dwarf planet

text: dwarf planets

text: and

entity_name: Supernova

text: supernovae

text: Pluto has five known moons. Its largest moon Charon is more than half the size of Pluto itself, and large enough to orbit a point outside Pluto's surface. In fact, each orbits the common barycenter between them, with Pluto's orbit entirely enclosed by Charon's; thus they form a binary system informally referred to as a double dwarf planet. Pluto's four other moons, Nix, Hydra, Kerberos, and Styx, are far smaller and orbit the Pluto–Charon system.

entity_name: Pluto

text: Pluto

text: has five known moons. Its largest moon

entity_name: Charon (moon)

text: Charon

text: is more than half the size of Pluto itself, and large enough to orbit a point outside Pluto's surface. In fact, each orbits the common

entity_name: Center of mass

text: barycenter

text: between them, with Pluto's orbit entirely enclosed by Charon's; thus they form a

entity_name: Binary system

text: binary system

text: informally referred to as a

entity_name: Double planet

text: double dwarf planet

text: . Pluto's four other moons,

entity_name: Nix (moon)

text: Nix

entity_name: Hydra (moon)

text: Hydra

entity_name: Kerberos (moon)

text: Kerberos

text: , and

entity_name: Styx (moon)

text: Styx

text: , are far smaller and orbit the Pluto–Charon system.

text: Because of its unstable nature, astronomers now consider the scattered disc to be the place of origin for most periodic comets in the Solar System, with the centaurs, a population of icy bodies between Jupiter and Neptune, being the intermediate stage in an object's migration from the disc to the inner Solar System. Eventually, perturbations from the giant planets send such objects towards the Sun, transforming them into periodic comets. Many Oort cloud objects are also thought to have originated in the scattered disc. Detached objects are not sharply distinct from scattered disc objects, and some such as Sedna have sometimes been considered to be included in this group.

text: Because of its unstable nature, astronomers now consider the scattered disc to be the place of origin for most

entity_name: List of periodic comets

text: periodic comet

text: s in the Solar System, with the

entity_name: Centaur (minor planet)

text: centaurs

text: , a population of icy bodies between Jupiter and Neptune, being the intermediate stage in an object's migration from the disc to the inner Solar System. Eventually, perturbations from the giant planets send such objects towards the Sun, transforming them into periodic comets. Many

entity_name: Oort cloud

text: Oort cloud

text: objects are also thought to have originated in the scattered disc.

entity_name: Detached object

text: Detached object

text: s are not sharply distinct from scattered disc objects, and some such as

entity_name: 90377 Sedna

text: Sedna

text: have sometimes been considered to be included in this group.

text: The time frame of the Solar System's formation has been determined using radiometric dating. Scientists estimate that the Solar System is 4.6 billion years old. The oldest known mineral grains on Earth are approximately 4.4 billion years old. Rocks this old are rare, as Earth's surface is constantly being reshaped by erosion, volcanism, and plate tectonics. To estimate the age of the Solar System, scientists use meteorites, which were formed during the early condensation of the solar nebula. Almost all meteorites (see the Canyon Diablo meteorite) are found to have an age of 4.6 billion years, suggesting that the Solar System must be at least this old.

text: The time frame of the Solar System's formation has been determined using

entity_name: Radiometric dating

text: radiometric dating

text: . Scientists estimate that the Solar System is 4.6 billion years old. The

entity_name: Oldest dated rocks

entity_section: Oldest terrestrial material

text: oldest known mineral grains

text: on

entity_name: Earth

text: Earth

text: are approximately 4.4 billion years old. Rocks this old are rare, as Earth's surface is constantly being reshaped by

entity_name: Erosion

text: erosion

entity_name: Volcanism

text: volcanism

text: , and

entity_name: Plate tectonics

text: plate tectonics

text: . To estimate the age of the Solar System, scientists use

entity_name: Meteorite

text: meteorite

text: s, which were formed during the early condensation of the solar nebula. Almost all meteorites (see the

entity_name: Canyon Diablo (meteorite)

text: Canyon Diablo meteorite

text: ) are found to have an age of 4.6 billion years, suggesting that the Solar System must be at least this old.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: The surface is covered by water ice as attested by deep absorption at 1.5 and 2 μm in the infrared spectrum and neutral (i.e. non-red) colour. Scattering models reveal that the observed water ice is, at least in a significant fraction, crystalline and organics, detected on the surface of many TNOs, are completely absent.These physical and orbital characteristics common with Haumea led to suggestion that  is a member of the Haumea collisional family. The object, together with other members of the family (, ,  and ), would be created from ice mantle ejected from the proto-Haumea as result of a collision with another large (around ) body.

text: The surface is covered by water ice as attested by deep absorption at 1.5 and 2

entity_name: Micrometre

text: μm

text: in the

entity_name: Infrared

text: infrared

entity_name: Electromagnetic spectrum

text: spectrum

text: and neutral (i.e. non-red) colour. Scattering models reveal that the observed water ice is, at least in a significant fraction, crystalline and

entity_name: Tholin

text: organics

text: , detected on the surface of many TNOs, are completely absent.These physical and orbital characteristics common with Haumea led to suggestion that  is a member of the

entity_name: Haumea family

text: Haumea collisional family

text: . The object, together with other members of the family (, ,  and ), would be created from ice mantle ejected from the proto-Haumea as result of a collision with another large (around ) body.

text: In phases of the meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut, a correlation between the concentration of Ni, the granddaughter of Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes provided evidence for the existence of Fe at the time of formation of the Solar System. Possibly the energy released by the decay of Fe, along with that released by Al, contributed to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of Ni present in extraterrestrial material may bring further insight into the origin and early history of the Solar System.

text: In phases of the meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut, a correlation between the concentration of Ni, the

entity_name: Decay product

text: granddaughter

text: of Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes provided evidence for the existence of Fe at the time of

entity_name: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

text: formation of the Solar System

text: . Possibly the energy released by the decay of Fe, along with that released by

text: Al

text: , contributed to the remelting and

entity_name: Planetary differentiation

text: differentiation

text: of

entity_name: Asteroid

text: asteroid

text: s after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of Ni present in

text: extraterrestrial

text: material may bring further insight into the origin and early history of the

entity_name: Solar System

text: Solar System

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Stellarium also provides asterisms and illustrations of constellations from ten cultures, images of nebulae (full Messier catalogue) and several realistic representations. The Milky Way, atmosphere, sunrise, planets of the solar system and their major moons are all represented in the application. Users can also display stars and other celestial objects as seen from reference points other than the Earth (e.g. Saturn, Phobos, comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught) or any other object defined in the ssystem.ini file)

text: Stellarium also provides asterisms and illustrations of

entity_name: Constellation

text: constellation

text: s from ten cultures, images of nebulae (full

entity_name: Messier object

text: Messier catalogue

text: ) and several realistic representations. The

entity_name: Milky Way

text: Milky Way

text: , atmosphere, sunrise,

entity_name: Planet

text: planet

text: s of the

text: solar system

text: and their major

entity_name: Natural satellite

text: moon

text: s are all represented in the application. Users can also display stars and other celestial objects as seen from reference points other than the Earth (e.g.

entity_name: Saturn

text: Saturn

entity_name: Phobos (moon)

text: Phobos

text: , comet

text: C/2006 P1

text: (McNaught) or any other object defined in the ssystem.ini file)

text: Jupiter's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined—this is so massive that its barycenter with the Sun lies above the Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's center. Jupiter is much larger than Earth and considerably less dense: its volume is that of about 1,321 Earths, but it is only 318 times as massive. Jupiter's radius is about 1/10 the radius of the Sun, and its mass is 0.001 times the mass of the Sun, so the densities of the two bodies are similar. A "Jupiter mass" ( or ) is often used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs. So, for example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of , while Kappa Andromedae b has a mass of .

text: Jupiter's mass is 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined—this is so massive that its

entity_name: Barycenter

text: barycenter

text: with the

entity_name: Sun

text: Sun

text: lies above the

entity_name: Photosphere

text: Sun's surface

text: at 1.068

entity_name: Solar radius

text: solar radii

text: from the Sun's center. Jupiter is much larger than Earth and considerably less dense: its volume is that of about 1,321 Earths, but it is only 318 times as massive. Jupiter's radius is about 1/10 the

text: radius of the Sun

text: , and its mass is 0.001 times the

entity_name: Solar mass

text: mass of the Sun

text: , so the densities of the two bodies are similar. A "

entity_name: Jupiter mass

text: Jupiter mass

text: " ( or ) is often used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly

entity_name: Exoplanet

text: extrasolar planet

text: s and

entity_name: Brown dwarf

text: brown dwarfs

text: . So, for example, the extrasolar planet

text: HD 209458 b

text: has a mass of , while

entity_name: Kappa Andromedae b

text: Kappa Andromedae b

text: has a mass of .

text: The Pluto–Charon system is one of the few in the Solar System whose barycenter lies outside the primary body; 617 Patroclus is a smaller example, and the Sun–Jupiter system is the only larger one. The similar sizes of Charon and Pluto has prompted some astronomers to call it a double dwarf planet. The system is also unusual among planetary systems in that each is tidally locked to the other, which means that Pluto and Charon always have the same hemisphere facing each other. From any position on either body, the other is always at the same position in the sky, or always obscured. This also means that the rotation period of each is equal to the time it takes the entire system to rotate around its barycenter.

text: The Pluto–Charon system is one of the few in the Solar System whose

text: barycenter

text: lies outside the primary body;

entity_name: 617 Patroclus

text: 617 Patroclus

text: is a smaller example, and the

entity_name: Jupiter

entity_section: Mass and size

text: Sun–Jupiter

text: system is the only larger one. The similar sizes of Charon and Pluto has prompted some astronomers to call it a

text: double dwarf planet

text: . The system is also unusual among planetary systems in that each is

entity_name: Tidal locking

text: tidally locked

text: to the other, which means that Pluto and Charon always have the same hemisphere facing each other. From any position on either body, the other is always at the same position in the sky, or always obscured. This also means that the rotation period of each is equal to the time it takes the entire system to rotate around its barycenter.

text: The objects now called "brown dwarfs" were theorized to exist in the 1960s by Shiv S. Kumar. They were originally called black dwarfs, a classification for dark substellar objects floating freely in space that were not massive enough to sustain hydrogen fusion. However: a) the term black dwarf was already in use to refer to a cold white dwarf; b) red dwarfs fuse hydrogen, and c) these objects may be luminous at visible wavelengths early in their lives. Because of this, alternate names for these objects were proposed, including planetar and substar. In 1975, Jill Tarter suggested the term "brown dwarf", using brown as an approximate color; the term was used for this kind of objects  since.

text: The objects now called "brown dwarfs" were theorized to exist in the 1960s by Shiv S. Kumar. They were originally called

entity_name: Black dwarf

text: black dwarf

text: s, a classification for dark substellar objects floating freely in space that were not massive enough to sustain hydrogen fusion. However: a) the term

text: black dwarf

text: was already in use to refer to a cold

entity_name: White dwarf

text: white dwarf

text: ; b)

entity_name: Red dwarf

text: red dwarf

text: s fuse hydrogen, and c) these objects may be luminous at visible wavelengths early in their lives. Because of this, alternate names for these objects were proposed, including

entity_section: History

text: planetar

text: and

entity_name: Substellar object

text: substar

text: . In 1975,

entity_name: Jill Tarter

text: Jill Tarter

text: suggested the term "brown dwarf", using brown as an approximate color; the term was used for this kind of objects  since.

text: Meteor was one of a pair of destroyers ordered from Thornycroft & Company as part of the 1913–14 construction programme for the Royal Navy. The two ships, Meteor and , were to a modified design tendered by Thornycroft which was more powerful and faster than the standard Admiralty design.

text: Meteor was one of a pair of destroyers ordered from

entity_name: John I. Thornycroft & Company

text: Thornycroft & Company

text: as part of the 1913–14 construction programme for the Royal Navy. The two ships, Meteor and , were to a modified design tendered by Thornycroft which was more powerful and faster than the standard

entity_name: Admiralty M-class destroyer

text: Admiralty design

method: dangnt-nlp

text: Planetesimals from the outer disc are embedded in all parts of the asteroid belt, remaining as P- and D-type asteroids. While Jupiter's resonances sweep across the asteroid belt outer disk planetesimals are captured by its inner resonances, evolve to lower eccentricities via secular resonances with in these resonances, and are released onto stable orbits as Jupiter's resonances move on. Others planetesimals are implanted in the asteroid belt during encounters with the ice giant, either directly leaving them with aphelia higher than that of the ice giant's perihelia, or by removing them from a resonance. Jumps in Jupiter's semi-major axis during its encounters with the ice giant shift the locations of its resonances, releasing some objects and capturing others. Many of those remaining after its final jump, along with others captured by the sweeping resonances as Jupiter migrates to its current location, survive as parts of the resonant populations such as the Hildas, Thule, and those in the 2:1 resonance. Objects originating in the asteroid belt can also be captured in the 2:1 resonance, along with a few among the Hilda population. The excursions the ice giant makes into the asteroid belt allows the icy planetesimals to be implanted farther into the asteroid belt, with a few reaching the inner asteroid belt with semi-major axis less than 2.5 AU. Some objects later drift into unstable resonances due to diffusion or the Yarkovsky effect and enter Earth-crossing orbits, with the Tagish Lake meteorite representing a possible fragment of an object that originated in the outer planetesimal disk. Numerical simulations of this process can roughly reproduce the distribution of P- and D-type asteroids and the size of the largest bodies, with differences such as an excess of objects smaller than 10 km being attributed to losses from collisions or the Yarkovsky effect, and the specific evolution of the planets in the model.

text: Planetesimals from the outer disc are embedded in all parts of the asteroid belt, remaining as

entity_name: P-type asteroid

text: P-

text: and

entity_name: D-type asteroid

text: D-type asteroid

text: s. While Jupiter's resonances sweep across the asteroid belt outer disk planetesimals are captured by its inner resonances, evolve to lower eccentricities via secular resonances with in these resonances, and are released onto stable orbits as Jupiter's resonances move on. Others planetesimals are implanted in the asteroid belt during encounters with the ice giant, either directly leaving them with

entity_name: Perihelion and aphelion

text: aphelia

text: higher than that of the ice giant's

text: perihelia

text: , or by removing them from a resonance. Jumps in Jupiter's semi-major axis during its encounters with the ice giant shift the locations of its resonances, releasing some objects and capturing others. Many of those remaining after its final jump, along with others captured by the sweeping resonances as Jupiter migrates to its current location, survive as parts of the resonant populations such as the Hildas,

entity_name: 279 Thule

text: Thule

text: , and those in the 2:1 resonance. Objects originating in the asteroid belt can also be captured in the 2:1 resonance, along with a few among the Hilda population. The excursions the ice giant makes into the asteroid belt allows the icy planetesimals to be implanted farther into the asteroid belt, with a few reaching the inner asteroid belt with semi-major axis less than 2.5 AU. Some objects later drift into unstable resonances due to diffusion or the

entity_name: Yarkovsky effect

text: Yarkovsky effect

text: and enter

entity_name: Near-Earth object

text: Earth-crossing orbits

text: , with the

entity_name: Tagish Lake (meteorite)

text: Tagish Lake meteorite

text: representing a possible fragment of an object that originated in the outer planetesimal disk. Numerical simulations of this process can roughly reproduce the distribution of P- and D-type asteroids and the size of the largest bodies, with differences such as an excess of objects smaller than 10 km being attributed to losses from collisions or the Yarkovsky effect, and the specific evolution of the planets in the model.

text: is a trans-Neptunian object and possible dwarf planet, a member of the scattered disc, whose orbit extends into the inner Oort cloud. Discovered by Scott Sheppard and Chad Trujillo, the object's existence was revealed on 29 August 2016.

text: is a

entity_name: Trans-Neptunian object

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: and possible

text: dwarf planet

text: , a member of the

entity_name: Scattered disc

text: scattered disc

text: , whose orbit extends into the inner

text: Oort cloud

text: . Discovered by

entity_name: Scott S. Sheppard

text: Scott Sheppard

text: and

entity_name: Chad Trujillo

text: Chad Trujillo

text: , the object's existence was revealed on 29 August 2016.

text: This list contains a selection of objects estimated to be between 100 and 200 km in radius (200 and 400 km in diameter). The largest of these may lie above the boundary for hydrostatic equilibrium, but most are irregular. Most of the trans-Neptunian objects listed with a radius smaller than 200 km have "assumed sizes based on a generic albedo of 0.09" since they are too far away to directly measure their sizes with existing instruments. Mass switches from 10 kg to 10 kg (Zg). Main-belt asteroids have orbital elements constrained by (2.0 AU < a < 3.2 AU; q > 1.666 AU) according to JPL Solar System Dynamics (JPLSSD). This list is not complete, missing many poorly known TNOs.

text: This list contains a selection of objects estimated to be between 100 and 200 km in radius (200 and 400 km in diameter). The largest of these may lie above the boundary for hydrostatic equilibrium, but most are irregular. Most of the

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s listed with a radius smaller than 200 km have "assumed sizes based on a generic

entity_name: Albedo

text: albedo

text: of 0.09" since they are too far away to directly measure their sizes with existing instruments. Mass switches from 10 kg to 10 kg (Zg).

text: Main-belt asteroid

text: s have orbital elements constrained by (2.0 AU < a < 3.2 AU; q > 1.666 AU) according to JPL Solar System Dynamics (JPLSSD). This list is not complete, missing many poorly known TNOs.

text: Researchers have found that the mineral, which has the same atomic arrangement as a man-made component of some types of concrete, forms under low pressure at a temperature of at least . These conditions of high temperature and low pressure are consistent with a hypothesis that the krotite grains found in the meteorite formed as high-temperature condensates from the solar nebula from which the solar system formed, approximately 4.6 billion years ago. Thus, they are likely to be among the earliest minerals formed in the solar system.

text: Researchers have found that the mineral, which has the same atomic arrangement as a man-made component of some types of

text: concrete

text: , forms under low

text: pressure

text: at a

text: temperature

text: of at least . These conditions of high temperature and low pressure are consistent with a hypothesis that the krotite grains found in the meteorite formed as high-temperature

text: condensate

text: s from the

text: solar nebula

text: from which the

text: solar system

text: formed, approximately 4.6 billion years ago. Thus, they are likely to be among the earliest minerals formed in the solar system.

text: A much modified Gloster Meteor F8 fighter, the "prone position/prone pilot" Meteor, was used to evaluate the effects of acceleration/inertia-induced forces while flying in a prone position. Along with the Reid and Sigrist R.S.4 "Bobsleigh", the Gloster Meteor was engaged in a proof-of-concept experimental programme that proved in practice that the difficulties of operating the controls of the aircraft outweighed the advantages of sustaining higher "g" effects.

text: A much modified

text: Gloster Meteor

text: F8 fighter, the "prone position/prone pilot" Meteor, was used to evaluate the effects of acceleration/inertia-induced forces while flying in a

text: prone position

text: . Along with the

text: Reid and Sigrist R.S.4 "Bobsleigh"

text: , the Gloster Meteor was engaged in a proof-of-concept experimental programme that proved in practice that the difficulties of operating the controls of the aircraft outweighed the advantages of sustaining higher "g" effects.

text: Others have tied it to Tyche; the name proposed by John Matese and Daniel Whitmire of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette for an object they believe to be influencing the orbits of comets in the Oort cloud. In February, 2011, Whitmire and his colleagues took their hypothesis to the public in an article in The Independent, in which they named the object "Tyche" and claimed that evidence for its existence would be found once data from the WISE infrared telescope was collated, leading to a spike in calls to astronomers. The name, after the "good sister" of the Greek goddess Nemesis, was chosen to distinguish it from the similar Nemesis hypothesis as, unlike Nemesis, Matese and Whitmire do not believe that their object poses a threat to Earth. Also, this object, if it exists, would, like Nemesis, have an orbit hundreds of times longer than that proposed for Nibiru, and never come near the inner Solar System. In 2014, NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out the existence of Tyche as its proponents had defined it.

text: Others have tied it to

text: Tyche

text: ; the name proposed by John Matese and Daniel Whitmire of the

text: University of Louisiana at Lafayette

text: for an object they believe to be influencing the orbits of comets in the Oort cloud. In February, 2011, Whitmire and his colleagues took their hypothesis to the public in an article in

text: The Independent

text: , in which they named the object "Tyche" and claimed that evidence for its existence would be found once data from the

text: WISE infrared telescope

text: was collated, leading to a spike in calls to astronomers. The name, after the "good sister" of the Greek goddess

text: Nemesis

text: , was chosen to distinguish it from the similar Nemesis hypothesis as, unlike Nemesis, Matese and Whitmire do not believe that their object poses a threat to Earth. Also, this object, if it exists, would, like Nemesis, have an orbit hundreds of times longer than that proposed for Nibiru, and never come near the inner Solar System. In 2014, NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out the existence of Tyche as its proponents had defined it.

text: Consequently, the burden of building canals passed to the states. The Erie Canal in New York proved to be an early success after it was completed in 1825. The Ohio House and Senate had worked for two decades to pass legislation authorizing a canal, gaining success with the Act of February 4, 1825, which finally approved the construction of the Ohio canal system. The canal was largely state-funded, using money acquired from selling off land near where the canals were to be dug. The state government planned and built two canals in the state: the Miami and Erie Canal, from Cincinnati to Toledo, connecting the Ohio River and Lake Erie; and the Ohio and Erie Canal, which connected Cleveland, another lake port, to Portsmouth. This system provided the interior of Ohio with new travel routes that effectively extended to the major Atlantic port of New York City, as merchants could ship goods through Lake Erie, the Erie Canal and the Hudson River to New York.

text: Consequently, the burden of building canals passed to the states. The

text: Erie Canal

text: in New York proved to be an early success after it was completed in 1825. The Ohio House and Senate had worked for two decades to pass legislation authorizing a canal, gaining success with the Act of February 4, 1825, which finally approved the construction of the Ohio canal system. The canal was largely state-funded, using money acquired from selling off land near where the canals were to be dug. The state government planned and built two canals in the state: the Miami and Erie Canal, from Cincinnati to Toledo, connecting the Ohio River and Lake Erie; and the

text: Ohio and Erie Canal

text: , which connected Cleveland, another lake port, to Portsmouth. This system provided the interior of Ohio with new travel routes that effectively extended to the major Atlantic port of

text: New York City

text: , as merchants could ship goods through Lake Erie, the Erie Canal and the Hudson River to New York.

text: When a planet is found by the radial-velocity method, its orbital inclination i is unknown and can range from 0 to 90 degrees. The method is unable to determine the true mass (M) of the planet, but rather gives a lower limit for its mass, M sini. In a few cases an apparent exoplanet may be a more massive object such as a brown dwarf or red dwarf. However, the probability of a small value of i (say less than 30 degrees, which would give a true mass at least double the observed lower limit) is relatively low (1−(√3)/2 ≈ 13%) and hence most planets will have true masses fairly close to the observed lower limit.

text: When a planet is found by the

text: radial-velocity method

text: , its

text: orbital inclination

text: i is unknown and can range from 0 to 90 degrees. The method is unable to determine the

text: true mass

text: (M) of the planet, but rather gives a

text: lower limit for its mass

text: , M sini. In a few cases an apparent exoplanet may be a more massive object such as a brown dwarf or red dwarf. However, the probability of a small value of i (say less than 30 degrees, which would give a true mass at least double the observed lower limit) is relatively low (1−(√3)/2 ≈ 13%) and hence most planets will have true masses fairly close to the observed lower limit.

text: Following guidelines established by the IAU that classical Kuiper belt objects be given names of mythological beings associated with creation, in September 2006 the Caltech team submitted formal names from Hawaiian mythology to the IAU for both (136108) 2003 EL and its moons, in order "to pay homage to the place where the satellites were discovered". The names were proposed by David Rabinowitz of the Caltech team. Haumea is the tutelary goddess of the island of Hawaii, where the Mauna Kea Observatory is located. In addition, she is identified with Papa, the goddess of the earth and wife of Wākea (space), which is appropriate because 2003 EL is thought to be composed almost entirely of solid rock, without the thick ice mantle over a small rocky core typical of other known Kuiper belt objects. Lastly, Haumea is the goddess of fertility and childbirth, with many children who sprang from different parts of her body; this corresponds to the swarm of icy bodies thought to have broken off the dwarf planet during an ancient collision. The two known moons, also believed to have been born in this manner, were thus named after two of Haumea's daughters, Hiiaka and Nāmaka.

text: Following

text: guidelines

text: established by the IAU that

text: classical Kuiper belt object

text: s be given names of mythological beings associated with creation, in September 2006 the Caltech team submitted formal names from

text: Hawaiian mythology

text: to the IAU for both (136108) 2003 EL and its moons, in order "to pay homage to the place where the satellites were discovered". The names were proposed by

text: David Rabinowitz

text: of the Caltech team.

text: Haumea

text: is the

text: tutelary

text: goddess of the island of

text: Hawaii

text: , where the

text: Mauna Kea Observatory

text: is located. In addition, she is identified with

text: Papa

text: , the goddess of the earth and wife of

text: Wākea

text: (space), which is appropriate because 2003 EL is thought to be composed almost entirely of solid rock, without the thick ice mantle over a small rocky core typical of other known Kuiper belt objects. Lastly, Haumea is the goddess of fertility and childbirth, with many children who sprang from different parts of her body; this corresponds to the

text: swarm of icy bodies

text: thought to have broken off the dwarf planet during an ancient collision. The two known moons, also believed to have been born in this manner, were thus named after two of Haumea's daughters,

text: Hiiaka

text: and

text: Nāmaka

text: An astronomical body collided with Jupiter, the largest planet in the Solar System, on March 17, 2016. The object in question has not been confirmed by NASA to be an asteroid or comet, but may be so.

text: An

text: astronomical body

text: collided with

text: Jupiter

text: , the largest

text: planet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: , on March 17, 2016. The object in question has not been confirmed by

text: NASA

text: to be an

text: asteroid

text: or

text: comet

text: , but may be so.

text: Fourteen sections specialize as "Observing Sections". Moving outward from the Sun, they are by object (12): Solar, Mercury, Venus, Meteorite, Meteors, Lunar, Mars, Minor Planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Remote Planets, and Comets. By additional phenomena (2) they are: Eclipse, and Transit.

text: Fourteen sections specialize as "Observing Sections". Moving outward from the Sun, they are by object (12): Solar,

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Meteorite

text: , Meteors, Lunar,

text: Mars

text: Minor Planets

text: Jupiter

text: , Saturn, Remote Planets, and Comets. By additional phenomena (2) they are:

text: Eclipse

text: , and

text: Transit

text: The planet orbits 3.07 times further out and is 7.13 times less massive than the first companion, having a semi-amplitude of only 42 m/s. Its mass is 2.44 times that of Jupiter and its diameter is roughly the same size as Jupiter's. The orbital resonance of the planet orbiting the brown dwarf is 5:1. The eccentricity of the planet is higher than that of all the planets and dwarf planets in the Solar System except Eris, which has an eccentricity of 0.44.

text: The planet orbits 3.07 times further out and is 7.13 times less massive than the first companion, having a semi-

text: amplitude

text: of only 42 m/s. Its mass is 2.44 times that of

text: Jupiter

text: and its

text: diameter

text: is roughly the same size as Jupiter's. The

text: orbital resonance

text: of the planet orbiting the brown dwarf is 5:1. The

text: eccentricity

text: of the planet is higher than that of all the

text: planet

text: s and

text: dwarf planet

text: s in the

text: Solar System

text: except

text: Eris

text: , which has an eccentricity of 0.44.

text: One of the main problems when generating hypotheses on the formation and evolution of objects in the Solar System is the lack of samples that can be analysed in the laboratory, where a large suite of tools are available and the full body of knowledge derived from terrestrial geology can be brought to bear. Fortunately, direct samples from the Moon, asteroids and Mars are present on Earth, removed from their parent bodies and delivered as meteorites. Some of these have suffered contamination from the oxidising effect of Earth's atmosphere and the infiltration of the biosphere, but those meteorites collected in the last few decades from Antarctica are almost entirely pristine.

text: One of the main problems when generating hypotheses on the formation and evolution of objects in the Solar System is the lack of samples that can be analysed in the laboratory, where a large suite of tools are available and the full body of knowledge derived from terrestrial geology can be brought to bear. Fortunately, direct samples from the Moon,

text: asteroid

text: s and

text: Mars

text: are present on Earth, removed from their parent bodies and delivered as

text: meteorite

text: s. Some of these have suffered contamination from the

text: oxidising

text: effect of Earth's atmosphere and the infiltration of the

text: biosphere

text: , but those meteorites collected in the last few decades from

text: Antarctica

text: are almost entirely pristine.

text: Collisional formation of the family requires a progenitor some 1660 km in diameter, with a density of ~2.0 g/cm, similar to Pluto and Eris. During the formational collision, Haumea lost roughly 20% of its mass, mostly ice, and became denser.

text: Collisional formation of the family requires a progenitor some 1660 km in diameter, with a density of ~2.0 g/cm, similar to

text: Pluto

text: and

text: Eris

text: . During the formational collision, Haumea lost roughly 20% of its mass, mostly ice, and became denser.

text: When the definition of "dwarf planet" was instated at the IAU General Assembly of 2006, Ceres, Pluto and Eris were identified by name as the initial members of the dwarf planet class. However, precise regulations as to how hydrostatic equilibrium would be measured were left undefined for the time being. Without an official procedure for calculating the lower bound of size to be a "dwarf planet", no further bodies could be formally recognized as either dwarf planets or plutoids.

text: When the definition of "dwarf planet" was instated at the

text: IAU General Assembly of 2006

text: , Ceres, Pluto and Eris were identified by name as the initial members of the dwarf planet class. However, precise regulations as to how hydrostatic equilibrium would be measured were left undefined for the time being. Without an official procedure for calculating the lower bound of size to be a "dwarf planet", no further bodies could be formally recognized as either dwarf planets or plutoids.

text: In the book a sentient and powerful asteroid arrives in the solar system's asteroid belt after countless aeons of wandering interstellar space. Passing by another asteroid, the living asteroid makes its first ever encounter with other living beings - a likeable criminal involved in a life-and-death struggle with a corrupt and power-mad judge.

text: In the book a sentient and powerful

text: asteroid

text: arrives in the solar system's asteroid belt after countless aeons of wandering interstellar space. Passing by another asteroid, the living asteroid makes its first ever encounter with other living beings - a likeable criminal involved in a life-and-death struggle with a corrupt and power-mad judge.

text: Pogson believed the object to be the lost Comet Biela, but subsequent orbital calculations have suggested that this was unlikely. Neither Biela's Comet nor Pogson's object have been recovered since, and the episode remains one of the most puzzling in solar system astronomy.

text: Pogson believed the object to be the lost

text: Comet Biela

text: , but subsequent orbital calculations have suggested that this was unlikely. Neither Biela's Comet nor Pogson's object have been recovered since, and the episode remains one of the most puzzling in solar system

text: astronomy

text: Planetary surfaces are found throughout the Solar System, from the inner terrestrial planets, to the asteroid belt, the natural satellites of the gas giant planets and beyond to the Trans-Neptunian objects.  Surface conditions, temperatures and terrain vary significantly due to a number of factors including Albedo often generated by the surfaces itself.  Measures of surface conditions include surface area, surface gravity, surface temperature and surface pressure. Surface stability may be affected by erosion through Aeolian processes, hydrology, subduction, volcanism, sediment or seismic activity. Some surfaces are dynamic while others remain unchanged for millions of years.

text: Planetary surfaces are found throughout the

text: Solar System

text: , from the inner

text: terrestrial planet

text: s, to the

text: asteroid belt

text: , the natural satellites of the

text: gas giant

text: planets and beyond to the

text: Trans-Neptunian object

text: s.  Surface conditions, temperatures and

text: terrain

text: vary significantly due to a number of factors including

text: Albedo

text: often generated by the surfaces itself.  Measures of surface conditions include

text: surface area

text: surface gravity

text: surface temperature

text: and

text: surface pressure

text: . Surface stability may be affected by erosion through

text: Aeolian processes

text: hydrology

text: subduction

text: volcanism

text: sediment

text: or

text: seismic

text: activity. Some surfaces are dynamic while others remain unchanged for millions of years.

text: ) is the smallest identified dwarf planet in the Solar System, but is significantly the largest object in the asteroid belt. It was discovered on 1 January 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi, and is named after Ceres, the Roman goddess of growing plants, the harvest, and of motherly love. It was the first asteroid discovered, taking up about one-third of the entire mass of its asteroid belt. The classification of Ceres has changed more than once and has been the subject of some disagreement. Johann Elert Bode believed Ceres to be the "missing planet" he had proposed to exist between Mars and Jupiter, at a distance of 419 million km (2.8 AU) from the Sun. Ceres was assigned a planetary symbol, and remained listed as a planet in astronomy books and tables for about half a century. The 2006 debate surrounding Pluto and what constitutes a planet led to Ceres being considered for reclassification as a planet, but in the end Ceres and Pluto were classified as the first members of the new dwarf planet category.

text: ) is the smallest identified

text: dwarf planet

text: in the Solar System, but is significantly the largest object in the

text: asteroid belt

text: . It was discovered on 1 January 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi, and is named after Ceres, the Roman goddess of growing plants, the harvest, and of motherly love. It was the first asteroid discovered, taking up about one-third of the entire mass of its asteroid belt. The classification of Ceres has changed more than once and has been the subject of some disagreement.

text: Johann Elert Bode

text: believed Ceres to be the "missing planet" he had proposed to exist between

text: Mars

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: , at a distance of 419 million km (2.8

text: AU

text: ) from the Sun. Ceres was assigned a planetary symbol, and

text: remained listed as a planet

text: in astronomy books and tables for about half a century. The 2006 debate surrounding Pluto and what constitutes a

text: planet

text: led to Ceres being considered for reclassification as a planet, but in the end Ceres and Pluto were classified as the first members of the new

text: dwarf planet

text: category.

text: The sudden brightening of comet 17P/Holmes in 2007 showed the importance of the activity of the nucleus in the comet's brightness. On October 23–24, 2007, the comet suffered a sudden outburst which caused it to brighten by factor of about half a million. It unexpectedly brightened from an apparent magnitude of about 17 to about 2.8 in a period of only 42 hours, making it visible to the naked eye. All these temporarily made comet 17P the largest (by radius) object in the Solar System although its nucleus is estimated to be only about 3.4 km in diameter.

text: The sudden brightening of comet

text: in 2007 showed the importance of the activity of the nucleus in the comet's brightness. On October 23–24, 2007, the comet suffered a sudden outburst which caused it to brighten by factor of about half a million. It unexpectedly brightened from an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of about 17 to about 2.8 in a period of only 42 hours, making it visible to the naked eye. All these temporarily made comet 17P the largest (by radius) object in the Solar System although its nucleus is estimated to be only about 3.4 km in diameter.

text: The age determined from the Canyon Diablo meteorite has been confirmed by hundreds of other age determinations, from both terrestrial samples and other meteorites. The meteorite samples, however, show a spread from 4.53 to 4.58 billion years ago. This is interpreted as the duration of formation of the solar nebula and its collapse into the solar disk to form the Sun and the planets. This 50 million year time span allows for accretion of the planets from the original solar dust and meteorites.

text: The migration of the outer planets is necessary to account for the existence and properties of the Solar System's outermost regions. Beyond Neptune, the Solar System continues into the Kuiper belt, the scattered disc, and the Oort cloud, three sparse populations of small icy bodies thought to be the points of origin for most observed comets. At their distance from the Sun, accretion was too slow to allow planets to form before the solar nebula dispersed, and thus the initial disc lacked enough mass density to consolidate into a planet. The Kuiper belt lies between 30 and 55 AU from the Sun, while the farther scattered disc extends to over 100 AU, and the distant Oort cloud begins at about 50,000 AU.

text: The migration of the outer planets is necessary to account for the existence and properties of the Solar System's outermost regions.

text: Beyond Neptune

text: , the Solar System continues into the

text: Kuiper belt

text: , the

text: scattered disc

text: , and the

text: Oort cloud

text: , three sparse populations of small icy bodies thought to be the points of origin for most observed

text: comet

text: s. At their distance from the Sun, accretion was too slow to allow planets to form before the

text: solar nebula

text: dispersed, and thus the initial disc lacked enough mass density to consolidate into a planet. The Kuiper belt lies between 30 and 55 AU from the Sun, while the farther scattered disc extends to over 100 AU, and the distant Oort cloud begins at about 50,000 AU.

text: Kridsadaporn is amongst another group of bodies [Mars-crossing (MC) and/or near-Earth object (NEO) populations] that may have originated from the main asteroid belt as fragments injected into a mean-motion resonance or secular resonance, developing increasingly higher orbital eccentricity over time resulting in the perihelion distance becoming smaller than the aphelion distances of the inner planets. At their birth, near-earth asteroids (NEAs) and MC orbits are in resonance, and when their orbital eccentricity becomes large enough, to the point that their orbits cross those of the inner planets, their orbits then become modified in a random-walk fashion. This results in a complex interplay between planetary encounters and resonances which may lead to a range of unexpected outcomes including cometary-type orbits; solar collisions; or, eventual ejection from the Solar System.

text: Kridsadaporn is amongst another group of bodies [Mars-crossing (MC) and/or near-Earth object (NEO) populations] that may have originated from the

text: main asteroid belt

text: as fragments injected into a

text: mean-motion resonance

text: or

text: secular resonance

text: , developing increasingly higher orbital eccentricity over time resulting in the

text: perihelion distance

text: becoming smaller than the

text: aphelion distances

text: of the

text: inner planets

text: . At their birth, near-earth asteroids (NEAs) and MC orbits are in resonance, and when their orbital eccentricity becomes large enough, to the point that their orbits cross those of the inner planets, their orbits then become modified in a

text: random-walk fashion

text: . This results in a complex interplay between planetary encounters and resonances which may lead to a range of unexpected outcomes including cometary-type orbits; solar collisions; or, eventual ejection from the

text: Solar System

text: Comet C/2006 P1 follows a hyperbolic trajectory (with an osculating eccentricity larger than 1) during its passage through the inner Solar System, but the eccentricity will drop below 1 after it leaves the influence of the planets and it will remain bound to the Solar System as an Oort cloud comet.

text: Comet C/2006 P1 follows a

text: hyperbolic trajectory

text: (with an

text: osculating eccentricity

text: larger than 1) during its passage through the inner

text: Solar System

text: , but the eccentricity will drop below 1 after it leaves the influence of the planets and it will remain bound to the Solar System as an

text: Oort cloud

text: comet.

text: There are a number of more or less distinct asteroid groups outside the asteroid belt, distinguished either by mean distance from the Sun, or particular combinations of several orbital elements:

text: Achieving these objectives would reduce the cost of planning and deploying solar energy systems, improve efficiency of solar energy systems through more accurate and complete solar resource information, and increase the value of the solar energy produced by solar technologies.

text: If Pluto's orbit is chaotic, then technically the whole Solar System is chaotic, because each body, even one as small as Pluto, affects the others to some extent through gravitational interactions.

text: qmake is a utility that automates the generation of Makefiles. Makefiles are used by the program make to build executable programs from source code; therefore qmake is a make-makefile tool, or makemake for short.

text: qmake is a

text: utility

text: that automates the generation of

text: Makefile

text: s. Makefiles are used by the program

text: make

text: to build executable programs from source code; therefore qmake is a make-makefile tool, or

text: makemake

text: for short.

text: This list contains all known stars and brown dwarfs at a distance of up to 5 parsecs (16.3 light-years) from the Solar System. In addition to the Solar System, there are another 56 stellar systems currently known lying within this distance. These systems contain a total of 60 hydrogen-fusing stars (of which 50 are red dwarfs), 13 brown dwarfs, and 4 white dwarfs. Despite the relative proximity of these objects to Earth, only nine of them have an apparent magnitude less than 6.5, which means only about 12% of these objects can be observed with the naked eye. Besides the Sun, only three are first-magnitude stars: Alpha Centauri, Sirius, and Procyon. All of these objects are located in the Local Bubble, a region within the Orion–Cygnus Arm of the Milky Way.

text: This list contains all known stars and

text: brown dwarf

text: s at a distance of up to 5

text: parsec

text: s (16.3

text: light-year

text: s) from the

text: Solar System

text: . In addition to the Solar System, there are another 56

text: stellar systems

text: currently known lying within this distance. These systems contain a total of 60 hydrogen-fusing

text: star

text: s (of which 50 are

text: red dwarf

text: s), 13

text: brown dwarf

text: s, and 4

text: white dwarf

text: s. Despite the relative proximity of these objects to Earth, only nine of them have an

text: apparent magnitude

text: less than 6.5, which means only about 12% of these objects can be observed with the

text: naked eye

text: . Besides the Sun, only three are

text: first-magnitude stars

text: Alpha Centauri

text: Sirius

text: , and

text: Procyon

text: . All of these objects are located in the

text: Local Bubble

text: , a region within the

text: Orion–Cygnus Arm

text: of the

text: Milky Way

text: , provisionally known as 2005 TB, is a trans-Neptunian object (TNO) with an absolute magnitude of 4.4, making it a likely dwarf planet.

text: provisionally known

text: as 2005 TB, is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: (TNO) with an

text: absolute magnitude

text: of 4.4, making it a

text: likely dwarf planet

text: The Allende meteorite is the largest carbonaceous chondrite ever found on Earth. The fireball was witnessed at 01:05 on February 8, 1969, falling over the Mexican state of Chihuahua. After breaking up in the atmosphere, an extensive search for pieces was conducted and it is often described as "the best-studied meteorite in history". The Allende meteorite is notable for possessing abundant, large calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions, which  are among the oldest objects formed in the Solar System.

text: The Allende meteorite is the largest

text: carbonaceous chondrite

text: ever found on

text: Earth

text: . The

text: fireball

text: was witnessed at 01:05 on February 8, 1969, falling over the

text: Mexican state

text: of

text: Chihuahua

text: . After breaking up in the

text: atmosphere

text: , an extensive search for pieces was conducted and it is often described as "the best-studied

text: meteorite

text: in history". The Allende meteorite is notable for possessing abundant, large

text: calcium-aluminium-rich inclusion

text: s, which  are among the oldest objects formed in the

text: Solar System

text: Hypothetical astronomical objects have been speculated to exist both inside and outside of the Solar System, and speculation has included different kinds of stars, planets, and other astronomical objects.

text: Hypothetical astronomical objects have been speculated to exist both inside and outside of the

text: Solar System

text: , and speculation has included different kinds of stars, planets, and other astronomical objects.

text: Haumea has an orbital period of 284 Earth years, a perihelion of 35 AU, and an orbital inclination of 28°. It passed aphelion in early 1992, and is currently more than 50 AU from the Sun. Haumea's orbit has a slightly greater eccentricity than that of the other members of its collisional family. This is thought to be due to Haumea's weak 7:12 orbital resonance with Neptune gradually modifying its initial orbit over the course of a billion years, through the Kozai effect, which allows the exchange of an orbit's inclination for increased eccentricity.

text: Haumea has an

text: orbital period

text: of 284 Earth years, a

text: perihelion

text: of 35

text: AU

text: , and an

text: orbital inclination

text: of 28°. It passed

text: aphelion

text: in early 1992, and is currently more than 50 AU from the Sun. Haumea's orbit has a slightly greater

text: eccentricity

text: than that of the other members of

text: its collisional family

text: . This is thought to be due to Haumea's weak 7:12 orbital resonance with Neptune gradually modifying its initial orbit over the course of a billion years, through the

text: Kozai effect

text: , which allows the exchange of an orbit's inclination for increased eccentricity.

text: In the war's aftermath, a science called psychodynamics is created.  Like Isaac Asimov's psychohistory, psychodynamics can be used to predict and guide the future course of social evolution.  An organization called the Psychotechnic Institute is founded in the 1970s that uses psychodynamics to influence government policy and popular attitudes, with the goal of redirecting society towards greater rationality and internationalism.  The Psychotechnic Institute assists a reborn United Nations based in Rio de Janeiro to become a world government, and also encourages space colonization.  The Order of Planetary Engineers is established on the Moon with the goal of assisting in the terraforming of the Solar System.  Early in the 22nd century, as the settlements on the Moon, Venus, Mars, and the Asteroid Belt grow in importance, the United Nations is succeeded by the Solar Union.

text: In the war's aftermath, a science called psychodynamics is created.  Like

text: Isaac Asimov

text: 's

text: psychohistory

text: , psychodynamics can be used to predict and guide the future course of social evolution.  An organization called the Psychotechnic Institute is founded in the 1970s that uses psychodynamics to influence government policy and popular attitudes, with the goal of redirecting society towards greater rationality and internationalism.  The Psychotechnic Institute assists a reborn

text: United Nations

text: based in

text: Rio de Janeiro

text: to become a

text: world government

text: , and also encourages

text: space colonization

text: .  The Order of Planetary Engineers is established on the

text: Moon

text: with the goal of assisting in the

text: terraforming

text: of the

text: Solar System

text: .  Early in the 22nd century, as the settlements on the Moon,

text: Venus

text: Mars

text: , and the

text: Asteroid Belt

text: grow in importance, the United Nations is succeeded by the Solar Union.

text: Though Pluto is the largest Kuiper belt object discovered, Neptune's moon Triton, which is slightly larger than Pluto, is similar to it both geologically and atmospherically, and is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object. Eris (see above) is about the same size as Pluto (though more massive) but is not strictly considered a member of the Kuiper belt population. Rather, it is considered a member of a linked population called the scattered disc.

text: Though Pluto is the largest Kuiper belt object discovered, Neptune's moon

text: Triton

text: , which is slightly larger than Pluto, is similar to it both geologically and atmospherically, and is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object. Eris (

text: see above

text: ) is about the same size as Pluto (though more massive) but is not strictly considered a member of the Kuiper belt population. Rather, it is considered a member of a linked population called the

text: scattered disc

text: Several ellipsoid-model calculations of Haumea's dimensions have been made. The first model produced after Haumea's discovery was calculated from ground-based observations of Haumea's light curve at optical wavelengths: it provided a total length of 1,960 to 2,500 km and a visual albedo (p) greater than 0.6. The most likely shape is a triaxial ellipsoid with approximate dimensions of 2,000 x 1,500 x 1,000 km, with an albedo of 0.71. Observations by the Spitzer Space Telescope give a diameter of  and an albedo of , from photometry at infrared wavelengths of 70 μm. Subsequent light-curve analyses have suggested an equivalent circular diameter of 1,450 km. In 2010 an analysis of measurements taken by Herschel Space Telescope together with the older Spitzer Telescope measurements yielded a new estimate of the equivalent diameter of Haumea—about 1300 km. These independent size estimates overlap at an average geometric mean diameter of roughly 1,400 km. This makes Haumea one of the largest trans-Neptunian objects discovered, smaller than , , probably , and possibly , and larger than , , and .

text: Several ellipsoid-model calculations of Haumea's dimensions have been made. The first model produced after Haumea's discovery was calculated from

text: ground-based

text: observations of Haumea's

text: light curve

text: at

text: optical

text: wavelengths: it provided a total length of 1,960 to 2,500 km and a

text: visual

text: albedo

text: (p) greater than 0.6. The most likely shape is a triaxial ellipsoid with approximate dimensions of 2,000 x 1,500 x 1,000 km, with an albedo of 0.71. Observations by the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: give a diameter of  and an albedo of , from

text: photometry

text: at

text: infrared

text: wavelengths of 70 μm. Subsequent light-curve analyses have suggested an equivalent circular diameter of 1,450 km. In 2010 an analysis of measurements taken by

text: Herschel Space Telescope

text: together with the older Spitzer Telescope measurements yielded a new estimate of the equivalent diameter of Haumea—about 1300 km. These independent size estimates overlap at an average

text: geometric mean

text: diameter of roughly 1,400 km. This makes Haumea one of the largest trans-Neptunian objects discovered, smaller than , , probably , and possibly , and larger than , , and .

text: 98P/Takamizawa is a periodic comet in the solar system.

text: 98P/Takamizawa is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: solar system

text: Detached objects have perihelia much larger than Neptune's aphelion. They often have highly elliptical, very large orbits with semi-major axes of up to a few hundred astronomical units (AU, the radius of Earth's orbit). Such orbits cannot have been created by gravitational scattering by the giant planets (in particular, Neptune). Instead, a number of explanations have been put forward, including an encounter with a passing star or a distant planet-sized object, or Neptune itself (which may once have had a much more eccentric orbit, from which it could have tugged the objects to their current orbit) or ejected planets (present in the early Solar System that were ejected).

text: Detached objects have perihelia much larger than Neptune's aphelion. They often have highly

text: elliptical

text: , very large orbits with

text: semi-major axes

text: of up to a few hundred

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU, the radius of Earth's orbit). Such orbits cannot have been created by gravitational

text: scattering

text: by the

text: giant planet

text: s (in particular, Neptune). Instead, a number of explanations have been put forward, including an encounter with a passing star or a distant planet-sized object, or Neptune itself (which may once have had a much more eccentric orbit, from which it could have tugged the objects to their current orbit) or ejected planets (present in the early Solar System that were ejected).

text: The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) classifies the asteroid as a member of the Eunomia family, a large group of S-type asteroids and the most prominent family in the intermediate main-belt, while, based on its concurring orbital elements, Alvarez-Candal from the Universidad Nacional de Córdoba and others, group the asteroid into the Maria family, which is named after its namesake, the asteroid 170 Maria. It is an old-type asteroid family, about  years old, located near the area of a 3:1 resonances with Jupiter that supplies near-Earth asteroids to the inner Solar System (also see Kirkwood gap). It is estimated that every 100 million years, about 37 to 75 Maria asteroids larger than 1 kilometer become near-Earth objects.

text: The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) classifies the asteroid as a member of the

text: Eunomia family

text: , a large group of

text: S-type

text: asteroids and the most prominent family in the intermediate main-belt, while, based on its concurring orbital elements, Alvarez-Candal from the Universidad Nacional de Córdoba and others, group the asteroid into the

text: Maria family

text: , which is named after its namesake, the asteroid

text: 170 Maria

text: . It is an old-type asteroid family, about  years old, located near the area of a 3:1

text: resonances

text: with Jupiter that supplies near-Earth asteroids to the inner Solar System (also see

text: Kirkwood gap

text: ). It is estimated that every 100 million years, about 37 to 75 Maria asteroids larger than 1 kilometer become

text: near-Earth object

text: s.

text: A very different Comet was introduced in Supergirl #14 (October 1997). This version was originally introduced as a hero with flight and cold-generation powers. Comet's appearance was unclear, as when using his powers he was surrounded by an aura of cold that made him resemble an actual comet. Comet looked like a man with three fingers, horse-like legs, long white hair, and a star mark on his forehead. There was a lot of speculation about who Comet was, but it was revealed that Comet was Andrea Martinez, a bisexual stand-up comic, who like her friend Linda Danvers (who could turn into Supergirl), could shape-shift between her human and super-powered forms (however, Comet's change also involved changing gender, from the female Andrea to the male Comet).

text: A very different Comet was introduced in

text: Supergirl

text: #14 (October 1997). This version was originally introduced as a hero with flight and cold-generation powers. Comet's appearance was unclear, as when using his powers he was surrounded by an aura of cold that made him resemble an actual comet. Comet looked like a man with three fingers, horse-like legs, long white hair, and a star mark on his forehead. There was a lot of speculation about who Comet was, but it was revealed that Comet was Andrea Martinez, a

text: bisexual

text: stand-up comic, who like her friend

text: Linda Danvers

text: (who could turn into

text: Supergirl

text: ), could shape-shift between her human and super-powered forms (however, Comet's change also involved changing gender, from the female Andrea to the male Comet).

text: 101 Helena is a rocky main-belt asteroid. It was discovered by Canadian-American astronomer J. C. Watson on August 15, 1868, and was named after Helen of Troy in Greek mythology. Radar observations were made of this object on Oct 7 and 19, 2001 from the Arecibo Observatory. Analysis of the data gave an estimated ellipsoidal diameter of 71×63×63 ± 16% km. The diameter estimated from IRAS infrared measurements is 66 km. It is classified as an S-type asteroid in the Tholen system.

text: 101 Helena is a rocky

text: main-belt

text: asteroid

text: . It was discovered by Canadian-American astronomer

text: J. C. Watson

text: on August 15, 1868, and was named after

text: Helen of Troy

text: in

text: Greek mythology

text: . Radar observations were made of this object on Oct 7 and 19, 2001 from the

text: Arecibo Observatory

text: . Analysis of the data gave an estimated ellipsoidal diameter of 71×63×63 ± 16% km. The diameter estimated from

text: IRAS

text: infrared measurements is 66 km. It is classified as an

text: S-type asteroid

text: in the

text: Tholen system

text: From its discovery in 1846 until the subsequent discovery of Pluto in 1930, Neptune was the farthest known planet. When Pluto was discovered it was considered a planet, and Neptune thus became the penultimate known planet, except for a 20-year period between 1979 and 1999 when Pluto's elliptical orbit brought it closer to the Sun than Neptune. The discovery of the Kuiper belt in 1992 led many astronomers to debate whether Pluto should be considered a planet or as part of the Kuiper belt. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union defined the word "planet" for the first time, reclassifying Pluto as a "dwarf planet" and making Neptune once again the outermost known planet in the Solar System.

text: From its discovery in 1846 until the subsequent

text: discovery of Pluto

text: in 1930, Neptune was the farthest known planet. When Pluto was discovered it was considered a planet, and Neptune thus became the penultimate known planet, except for a 20-year period between 1979 and 1999 when Pluto's elliptical orbit brought it closer to the Sun than Neptune. The discovery of the

text: Kuiper belt

text: in 1992 led many astronomers to debate whether Pluto should be considered a planet or as part of the Kuiper belt. In 2006, the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: defined the word "planet" for the first time

text: , reclassifying Pluto as a "

text: dwarf planet

text: " and making Neptune once again the outermost known planet in the Solar System.

text: Haumea is the largest member of its collisional family, a group of astronomical objects with similar physical and orbital characteristics thought to have formed when a larger progenitor was shattered by an impact. This family is the first to be identified among TNOs and includes—beside Haumea and its moons— (≈364 km),  (≈174 km),  (≈200 km),  (≈230 km), and  (≈252 km). Brown and colleagues proposed that the family were a direct product of the impact that removed Haumea's ice mantle, but a second proposal suggests a more complicated origin: that the material ejected in the initial collision instead coalesced into a large moon of Haumea, which was later shattered in a second collision, dispersing its shards outwards. This second scenario appears to produce a dispersion of velocities for the fragments that is more closely matched to the measured velocity dispersion of the family members.

text: Haumea is the largest member of its

text: collisional family

text: , a group of astronomical objects with similar physical and orbital characteristics thought to have formed when a larger progenitor was shattered by an impact. This family is the first to be identified among TNOs and includes—beside Haumea and its moons— (≈364 km),  (≈174 km),  (≈200 km),  (≈230 km), and  (≈252 km). Brown and colleagues proposed that the family were a direct product of the impact that removed Haumea's ice mantle, but a second proposal suggests a more complicated origin: that the material ejected in the initial collision instead coalesced into a large moon of Haumea, which was later shattered in a second collision, dispersing its shards outwards. This second scenario appears to produce a dispersion of velocities for the fragments that is more closely matched to the measured velocity dispersion of the family members.

text: , also written 2013 FY27, is a trans-Neptunian object that belongs to the scattered disc (like Eris). Its discovery was announced on 31 March 2014. It has an absolute magnitude (H) of 3.0, which makes it very likely to be a dwarf planet. Assuming an albedo of 0.15, it would be approximately  in diameter. It is the ninth-intrinsically-brightest known trans-Neptunian object, and is the largest unnumbered minor planet as of October 2015.

text: , also written 2013 FY27, is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: that belongs to the

text: scattered disc

text: (like

text: Eris

text: ). Its discovery was announced on 31 March 2014. It has an

text: absolute magnitude (H)

text: of 3.0, which makes it

text: very likely to be a dwarf planet

text: . Assuming an

text: albedo

text: of 0.15, it would be approximately  in diameter. It is the ninth-intrinsically-brightest known trans-Neptunian object, and is the largest

text: unnumbered

text: minor planet

text: as of October 2015.

text: It was predicted that on 30 November 2013,  might occult a star for slightly less than a minute. However, the possibility to observe this occultation was judged as small. The precise duration that a Solar System object occults a star provides a precise way to determine its diameter, if observed from multiple locations.

text: It was predicted that on 30 November 2013,  might

text: occult

text: a star for slightly less than a minute. However, the possibility to observe this occultation was judged as small. The precise duration that a Solar System object occults a star provides a precise way to determine its diameter, if observed from multiple locations.

text: Samples of iron meteorite from Canyon Diablo (Meteor Crater) Arizona were found to have the least radiogenic composition of any material in the solar system. The U/Pb ratio was so low that no radiogenic decay was detected in the isotopic composition. As illustrated in figure 1, this point defines the lower (left) end of the isochron. Therefore, troilite found in Canyon Diablo represents the primeval lead isotope composition of the solar system, dating back to 4.55 +/- 0.07 Byr.

text: Samples of

text: iron meteorite

text: from

text: Canyon Diablo

text: Meteor Crater

text: ) Arizona were found to have the least radiogenic composition of any material in the solar system. The U/Pb ratio was so low that no radiogenic decay was detected in the isotopic composition. As illustrated in figure 1, this point defines the lower (left) end of the isochron. Therefore, troilite found in Canyon Diablo represents the primeval lead isotope composition of the solar system, dating back to 4.55 +/- 0.07 Byr.

text: Being distant from the Sun and major planets, Kuiper belt objects are thought to be relatively unaffected by the processes that have shaped and altered other Solar System objects; thus, determining their composition would provide substantial information on the makeup of the earliest Solar System. However, due to their small size and extreme distance from Earth, the chemical makeup of KBOs is very difficult to determine. The principal method by which astronomers determine the composition of a celestial object is spectroscopy. When an object's light is broken into its component colors, an image akin to a rainbow is formed. This image is called a spectrum. Different substances absorb light at different wavelengths, and when the spectrum for a specific object is unravelled, dark lines (called absorption lines) appear where the substances within it have absorbed that particular wavelength of light. Every element or compound has its own unique spectroscopic signature, and by reading an object's full spectral "fingerprint", astronomers can determine what it is made of.

text: Being distant from the Sun and major planets, Kuiper belt objects are thought to be relatively unaffected by the processes that have shaped and altered other Solar System objects; thus, determining their composition would provide substantial information on the makeup of the earliest Solar System. However, due to their small size and extreme distance from Earth, the chemical makeup of KBOs is very difficult to determine. The principal method by which astronomers determine the composition of a celestial object is

text: spectroscopy

text: . When an object's light is broken into its component colors, an image akin to a rainbow is formed. This image is called a

text: spectrum

text: . Different substances absorb light at different wavelengths, and when the spectrum for a specific object is unravelled, dark lines (called

text: absorption line

text: s) appear where the substances within it have absorbed that particular wavelength of light. Every

text: element

text: or

text: compound

text: has its own unique spectroscopic signature, and by reading an object's full spectral "fingerprint", astronomers can determine what it is made of.

text: The phase angle is defined as the angle between the observer, the observed object and the source of light.  In the case of the solar system, the light source is the Sun, and the observer is situated on Earth. At zero phase angle, the sun is directly behind the observer and the object is directly ahead, fully illuminated.

text: Haumea is a plutoid, a dwarf planet beyond Neptune's orbit. Its classification as a dwarf planet means it is presumed to be massive enough to have been rounded by its own gravity into a shape in hydrostatic equilibrium, but not massive enough to have cleared its neighbourhood of similar objects.  Haumea appears to have a triaxial ellipsoid shape resulting its rapid rotation complicated by tidal interactions with its moons.  This contrasts with the simpler oblate shape typically assumed by less rapidly rotating astronomical bodies such as the Earth, Jupiter (or a water balloon tossed with moderate spin).  Like the earth, Haumea is flattened at the poles (indeed much more so), but its equator, instead of being round like the Earth's, is elliptical, with two big bulges 180 degrees apart in longitude, buoyed up, as it were, by the greater centrifugal force they experience by virtue of being farther from the axis of rotation.  In other words, Haumea is spinning so fast that if it spun much faster these bulges would distort into a dumbbell shape and split the planet in two. Haumea was initially listed as a classical Kuiper belt object in 2006 by the Minor Planet Center, but no longer. The nominal trajectory suggests that it is in the weak 7:12 resonance with Neptune (orbiting the Sun 7 times for every 12 orbits of Neptune), because its perihelion distance of 35 AU is near the limit of stability with Neptune. There are precovery images of Haumea dating back to March 22, 1955 from the Palomar Mountain Digitized Sky Survey. Further observations of the orbit will be required to verify its dynamic status.

text: Haumea is a

text: plutoid

text: , a

text: dwarf planet

text: beyond Neptune's orbit. Its classification as a dwarf planet means it is presumed to be massive enough to have been rounded by its own gravity into a shape in hydrostatic equilibrium, but not massive enough to have

text: cleared its neighbourhood

text: of similar objects.  Haumea appears to have a triaxial

text: ellipsoid

text: shape resulting its rapid

text: rotation

text: complicated by tidal interactions with its moons.  This contrasts with the simpler

text: oblate

text: shape typically assumed by less rapidly rotating astronomical bodies such as the Earth, Jupiter (or a

text: water balloon

text: tossed with moderate spin).  Like the earth, Haumea is flattened at the poles (indeed much more so), but its equator, instead of being round like the Earth's, is elliptical, with two big bulges 180 degrees apart in longitude, buoyed up, as it were, by the greater centrifugal force they experience by virtue of being farther from the axis of rotation.  In other words, Haumea is spinning so fast that if it spun much faster these bulges would distort into a dumbbell shape and split the planet in two. Haumea was initially listed as a classical Kuiper belt object in 2006 by the

text: Minor Planet Center

text: , but no longer. The nominal trajectory suggests that it is in the weak 7:12

text: resonance with Neptune

text: (orbiting the Sun 7 times for every 12 orbits of Neptune), because its

text: perihelion

text: distance of 35 AU is near the

text: limit of stability

text: with Neptune. There are

text: precovery

text: images of Haumea dating back to March 22, 1955 from the

text: Palomar Mountain

text: Digitized Sky Survey

text: . Further observations of the orbit will be required to verify its dynamic status.

text: Simulations by the Deep Ecliptic Survey (DES) show this object may be removed (ejected) from the Solar System over the next 10 million years.

text: Simulations by the

text: Deep Ecliptic Survey

text: (DES) show this object may be removed (ejected) from the Solar System over the next 10 million years.

text: The issue of a clear definition for planet came to a head in January 2005 with the discovery of the trans-Neptunian object Eris, a body more massive than the smallest then-accepted planet, Pluto. In its August 2006 response, the International Astronomical Union (IAU), recognised by astronomers as the world body responsible for resolving issues of nomenclature, released its decision on the matter during a meeting in Prague in the Czech republic. This definition, which applies only to the Solar System, states that a planet is a body that orbits the Sun, is massive enough for its own gravity to make it round, and has "cleared its neighbourhood" of smaller objects around its orbit. Under this new definition, Pluto and the other trans-Neptunian objects do not qualify as planets. The IAU's decision has not resolved all controversies, and while many scientists have accepted the definition, some in the astronomical community have rejected it outright.

text: The issue of a clear definition for planet came to a head in January 2005 with the discovery of the

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: Eris

text: , a body more massive than the smallest then-accepted planet,

text: Pluto

text: . In its August 2006 response, the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU), recognised by astronomers as the world body responsible for resolving issues of

text: nomenclature

text: , released

text: its decision

text: on the matter during a meeting in

text: Prague

text: in the

text: Czech republic

text: . This definition, which applies only to the Solar System, states that a planet is a body that orbits the Sun, is

text: mass

text: ive enough for its

text: own gravity to make it round

text: , and has "

text: cleared its neighbourhood

text: " of smaller objects around its orbit. Under this new definition, Pluto and the other trans-Neptunian objects do not qualify as planets. The IAU's decision has not resolved all controversies, and while many scientists have accepted the definition, some in the astronomical community have rejected it outright.

text: Particles which are affected primarily by radiation pressure are known as "beta meteoroids". They are generally less than 1.4 × 10 g and are pushed outward from the Sun into interstellar space.

text: The asteroid belt formed from the primordial solar nebula as a group of planetesimals. Planetesimals are the smaller precursors of the protoplanets. Between Mars and Jupiter, however, gravitational perturbations from Jupiter imbued the protoplanets with too much orbital energy for them to accrete into a planet. Collisions became too violent, and instead of fusing together, the planetesimals and most of the protoplanets shattered. As a result, 99.9% of the asteroid belt's original mass was lost in the first 100 million years of the Solar System's history. Some fragments eventually found their way into the inner Solar System, leading to meteorite impacts with the inner planets. Asteroid orbits continue to be appreciably perturbed whenever their period of revolution about the Sun forms an orbital resonance with Jupiter. At these orbital distances, a Kirkwood gap occurs as they are swept into other orbits.

text: The asteroid belt formed from the primordial

text: solar nebula

text: as a group of

text: planetesimal

text: s. Planetesimals are the smaller precursors of the

text: protoplanet

text: s. Between Mars and Jupiter, however,

text: gravitational

text: perturbations from Jupiter imbued the protoplanets with too much orbital energy for them to

text: accrete

text: into a planet. Collisions became too violent, and instead of fusing together, the planetesimals and most of the protoplanets shattered. As a result, 99.9% of the asteroid belt's original mass was lost in the first 100 million years of the Solar System's history. Some fragments eventually found their way into the inner

text: Solar System

text: , leading to meteorite impacts with the inner planets. Asteroid orbits continue to be appreciably

text: perturbed

text: whenever their period of revolution about the Sun forms an

text: orbital resonance

text: with Jupiter. At these orbital distances, a

text: Kirkwood gap

text: occurs as they are swept into other orbits.

text: A non-satellite body fulfilling only the first two of these criteria is classified as a "dwarf planet". According to the IAU, "planets and dwarf planets are two distinct classes of objects". A non-satellite body fulfilling only the first criterion is termed a "small Solar System body" (SSSB).  Initial drafts planned to include dwarf planets as a subcategory of planets, but because this could have led to the addition of several dozens of planets into the Solar System, this draft was eventually dropped. The definition was a controversial one,  and has drawn both support and criticism from different astronomers, but has remained in use.

text: A non-

text: satellite

text: body fulfilling only the first two of these criteria is classified as a "

text: dwarf planet

text: ". According to the IAU, "planets and dwarf planets are two distinct classes of objects". A non-satellite body fulfilling only the first criterion is termed a "

text: small Solar System body

text: " (SSSB).  Initial drafts planned to include dwarf planets as a subcategory of planets, but because this could have led to the addition of several dozens of planets into the

text: Solar System

text: , this draft was eventually dropped. The definition was a controversial one,  and has drawn both support and criticism from different

text: astronomers

text: , but has remained in use.

text: Hiʻiaka orbits Haumea nearly circularly every 49 days. Namaka orbits Haumea in 18 days in a moderately elliptical, non-Keplerian orbit, and as of 2008 was inclined 13° with respect to Hiʻiaka, which perturbs its orbit. Because the impact that created the moons of Haumea is thought to have occurred in the early history of the Solar System, over the following billions of years it should have been tidally damped into a more circular orbit. Namaka's orbit has likely been disturbed by orbital resonances with the more-massive Hiʻiaka due to converging orbits as they moved outward from Haumea due to tidal dissipation. They may have been caught in and then escaped from orbital resonance several times; they currently are in or at least close to an 8:3 resonance. This resonance strongly perturbs Namaka's orbit, which has a current precession of its argument of periapsis by about −6.5° per year, a precession period of 55 years.

text: Hiʻiaka orbits Haumea nearly circularly every 49 days. Namaka orbits Haumea in 18 days in a moderately elliptical,

text: non-Keplerian

text: orbit, and as of 2008 was inclined 13° with respect to Hiʻiaka, which

text: perturbs

text: its orbit. Because the impact that created the moons of Haumea is thought to have occurred in the early history of the Solar System, over the following billions of years it should have been

text: tidally damped

text: into a more circular orbit. Namaka's orbit has likely been disturbed by

text: orbital resonance

text: s with the more-massive Hiʻiaka due to converging orbits as they moved outward from Haumea due to

text: tidal dissipation

text: . They may have been caught in and then escaped from orbital resonance several times; they currently are in or at least close to an 8:3

text: resonance

text: . This resonance strongly perturbs Namaka's orbit, which has a current

text: precession

text: of its

text: argument of periapsis

text: by about −6.5° per year, a precession period of 55 years.

text: Kamacite sulfurization has been done experimentally in laboratory conditions. Sulfurization resulted in three distinct phases: a mono-sulfide solid solution (Fe,Ni,Co)1-xS, a pentlandite phase (Fe,Ni,Co)9-xS8, as well as a P-rich phase. This was done in a lab to construct conditions concurrent with that of the solar nebula. With this information it would be possible to extract information about the thermodynamic, kinetic, and physical conditions of the early solar system. This still remains speculatory as many of the sulfides in meteorites are unstable and have been destroyed. Kamacite also alters to tochilinite (Fe2+5-6(Mg, Fe2+)5S6(OH)10). This is useful for giving clues as to how much the meteorite as a whole has been altered. Kamacite to tochilinite alteration can be seen in petrologic microscopes, scanning electron microscope, and electron microprobe analysis. This can be used to allow researchers to easily index the amount of alteration that has taken place in the sample. This index can be later referenced when analyzing other areas of the meteorite where alteration is not as clear.

text: Kamacite sulfurization has been done experimentally in laboratory conditions. Sulfurization resulted in three distinct phases: a mono-sulfide

text: solid solution

text: (Fe,Ni,Co)1-xS, a pentlandite phase (Fe,Ni,Co)9-xS8, as well as a P-rich phase. This was done in a lab to construct conditions concurrent with that of the solar nebula. With this information it would be possible to extract information about the thermodynamic, kinetic, and physical conditions of the early solar system. This still remains speculatory as many of the sulfides in meteorites are unstable and have been destroyed. Kamacite also alters to tochilinite (Fe2+5-6(Mg, Fe2+)5S6(OH)10). This is useful for giving clues as to how much the meteorite as a whole has been altered. Kamacite to tochilinite alteration can be seen in petrologic microscopes, scanning electron microscope, and electron microprobe analysis. This can be used to allow researchers to easily index the amount of alteration that has taken place in the sample. This index can be later referenced when analyzing other areas of the meteorite where alteration is not as clear.

text: Ethan Siegel, who is deeply skeptical of the existence of an undiscovered new planet in the Solar System, nevertheless speculates that at least one super-Earth, which have been commonly discovered in other planetary systems but have not been discovered in the Solar System, might have been ejected from the inner Solar System due to the inward migration of Jupiter in the early Solar System. Hal Levison thinks that the chance of an ejected object ending up in the inner Oort cloud is only about 2%, and speculates that many objects must have been thrown past the Oort cloud if one has entered a stable orbit.

text: Ethan Siegel, who is deeply skeptical of the existence of an undiscovered new planet in the Solar System, nevertheless speculates that at least one

text: super-Earth

text: , which have been commonly discovered in other planetary systems but have not been discovered in the Solar System, might have been

text: ejected

text: from the inner Solar System due to the inward migration of Jupiter in the early Solar System.

text: Hal Levison

text: thinks that the chance of an ejected object ending up in the inner

text: Oort cloud

text: is only about 2%, and speculates that many objects must have been thrown past the Oort cloud if one has entered a stable orbit.

text: The cause of the X-ray emission is thought to be a combination of two mechanisms.  Interactions between energetic solar wind particles and cometary material evaporating from the nucleus is likely to contribute significantly to this effect. Reflection of solar X-rays is seen in other Solar System objects such as the Moon, but a simple calculation assuming even the highest x-ray reflectivity possible per molecule or dust grain is not able to explain the majority of the observed flux from Hyakutake, as the comet's atmosphere is very tenuous and diffuse. Observations of comet C/1999 S4 (LINEAR) with the Chandra satellite in 2000 determined that X-rays observed from that comet were produced predominantly by charge exchange collisions between highly charged carbon, oxygen and nitrogen minor ions in the solar wind, and neutral water, oxygen and hydrogen in the comet's coma.

text: The cause of the X-ray emission is thought to be a combination of two mechanisms.  Interactions between energetic solar wind particles and cometary material evaporating from the nucleus is likely to contribute significantly to this effect. Reflection of solar X-rays is seen in other Solar System objects such as the

text: Moon

text: , but a simple calculation assuming even the highest x-ray reflectivity possible per molecule or dust grain is not able to explain the majority of the observed flux from Hyakutake, as the comet's atmosphere is very tenuous and diffuse. Observations of comet

text: C/1999 S4 (LINEAR)

text: with the

text: Chandra satellite

text: in 2000 determined that X-rays observed from that comet were produced predominantly by charge exchange collisions between highly charged

text: carbon

text: oxygen

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: minor ions in the solar wind, and neutral water, oxygen and hydrogen in the comet's coma.

text: Most meteorites date from the oldest times in the solar system and are by far the oldest material available on our planet. Despite their age, they are fairly vulnerable to terrestrial environment: water, salt, oxygen attack the meteorites as soon they reach the ground.

text: However, more recently the relatively bright object  has been discovered. It has a relatively high orbital inclination, but at the time of Tombaugh's discovery of Pluto, Makemake was only a few degrees from the ecliptic near the border of Taurus and Auriga at an apparent magnitude of 16. This position was also very near the galactic equator, making it almost impossible to find such an object within the dense concentration of background stars of the Milky Way.  In the fourteen years of looking for planets, Tombaugh looked for motion in 90 million star images.

text: However, more recently the relatively bright object  has been discovered. It has a relatively high orbital

text: inclination

text: , but at the time of Tombaugh's discovery of Pluto, Makemake was only a few degrees from the ecliptic near the border of

text: Taurus

text: and

text: Auriga

text: at an apparent magnitude of 16. This position was also very near the

text: galactic equator

text: , making it almost impossible to find such an object within the dense concentration of background stars of the

text: Milky Way

text: .  In the fourteen years of looking for planets, Tombaugh looked for motion in 90 million star images.

text: The initial 1949 Meteor was introduced on June 25, 1948, at the same time the Ford Deluxe and Custom series were introduced across North America, and shared the new postwar full-sized Ford bodies, chassis, and powertrains but with unique trim. It used a Mercury grille and was powered by a , 239 CID flathead V8 similar to that used in 1946-53 U.S. Ford passenger cars. Meteor, as well as the Canadian Ford, kept the flathead V8 engine through 1954. The new OHV V8 which US Fords offered beginning in 1954 was not introduced in Canada until the 1955 model year. The following year, Ford of Canada introduced a six-cylinder engine for Canadian Ford and Meteor cars. Meteor models continued to use the Ford body with unique items such as grilles, taillights, and moldings. The 1952-54 Meteors used Mercury instrument panels and dashboards. In mid-1954, some Niagara and Rideau models began using Ford instrument panels and dashes. These cars were named Niagara Special and Rideau Special and were priced around C$67 less than regular Niagaras or Rideaus.

text: The dynamic method is a procedure for the determination of the masses of asteroids.  The procedure gets its name from its use of the Newtonian laws of the dynamics, or motion, of asteroids as they move around the Solar System.  The procedure works by taking multiple position measurements to determine the gravitational deflection caused when two or more asteroids move past each other.  The method relies on the fact that the large number of known asteroids means they will occasionally move past one another at very close distances.  If at least one of the two interacting bodies is large enough, its gravitational influence on the other can reveal its mass.  The accuracy of the determined mass is limited by the precision and timing of the appropriate astrometric observations being made to determine the gravitational deflection caused by a given interaction.

text: The dynamic method is a procedure for the determination of the

text: mass

text: es of

text: asteroid

text: s.  The procedure gets its name from its use of the

text: Newtonian

text: laws of the dynamics, or motion, of asteroids as they move around the Solar System.  The procedure works by taking multiple position measurements to determine the gravitational deflection caused when two or more asteroids move past each other.  The method relies on the fact that the large number of known asteroids means they will occasionally move past one another at very close distances.  If at least one of the two interacting bodies is large enough, its gravitational influence on the other can reveal its mass.  The accuracy of the determined mass is limited by the precision and timing of the appropriate

text: astrometric

text: observations being made to determine the gravitational deflection caused by a given interaction.

text: Minor planets that have been given a number but not a name keep their provisional designation, e.g. (29075) 1950 DA. Because modern discovery techniques are finding vast numbers of new asteroids, they are increasingly being left unnamed. The earliest discovered to be left unnamed was for a long time (3360) 1981 VA, now 3360 Syrinx; as of September 2008, this distinction is held by (3708). On rare occasions, a small object's provisional designation may become used as a name in itself: the still unnamed  gave its "name" to a group of objects that became known as Classical Kuiper belt objects ("cubewanos").

text: Minor planets that have been given a number but not a name keep their provisional designation, e.g.

text: (29075) 1950 DA

text: . Because modern discovery techniques are finding vast numbers of new asteroids, they are increasingly being left unnamed. The earliest discovered to be left unnamed was for a long time

text: (3360) 1981 VA

text: , now

text: 3360 Syrinx

text: ; as of September 2008, this distinction is held by (3708). On rare occasions, a small object's provisional designation may become used as a name in itself: the still unnamed  gave its "name" to a group of objects that became known as

text: Classical Kuiper belt object

text: s ("cubewanos").

text: Formal minor planet designations are number–name combinations overseen by the Minor Planet Center, a branch of the IAU. They are used for dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies such as asteroids, but not comets. They are assigned to a body once its orbit is secured, and are unrelated to provisional designations, which are automatically assigned when an object is discovered.

text: Formal minor planet designations are number–name combinations overseen by the

text: Minor Planet Center

text: , a branch of the

text: IAU

text: . They are used for

text: dwarf planet

text: s and

text: small Solar System bodies

text: such as

text: asteroid

text: s, but not

text: comet

text: s. They are assigned to a body once its orbit is secured, and are unrelated to

text: provisional designation

text: s, which are automatically assigned when an object is discovered.

text: The Fukang meteorite is a meteorite that was found in the mountains near Fukang, China in 2000. It is a pallasite—a type of stony–iron meteorite with olivine crystals. It is estimated to be 4.5 billion years old.

text: The Fukang meteorite is a

text: meteorite

text: that was found in the mountains near

text: Fukang

text: China

text: in 2000. It is a

text: pallasite

text: —a type of

text: stony–iron meteorite

text: with

text: olivine

text: crystals. It is estimated to be 4.5 billion years old.

text: Some mainframe games that did not appear in 101 BASIC Computer Games have still had a lasting impact. One such game was Space Travel, developed by Ken Thompson in 1969, which simulates travel in the Solar System. The player flies their ship around a two-dimensional scale model of the solar system with no objectives other than to attempt to land on various planets and moons. The player can move and turn the ship, and adjust the overall speed by adjusting the scale of the simulation. The ship is affected by the single strongest gravitational pull of the astronomical bodies. The game was developed at Bell Labs, and was ported during 1969 from the Multics operating system to the GECOS operating system on the GE 635 computer, and then to the PDP-7 minicomputer. While porting the game to the PDP-7, Thompson developed ideas for his own operating system, which later formed the core of the Unix operating system. Space Travel never spread beyond Bell Labs or had an effect on future games, leaving its primary legacy as part of the original push for the development of Unix.

text: Some mainframe games that did not appear in 101 BASIC Computer Games have still had a lasting impact. One such game was

text: Space Travel

text: , developed by

text: Ken Thompson

text: in 1969, which

text: simulates

text: travel in the

text: Solar System

text: . The player flies their ship around a two-dimensional scale model of the solar system with no objectives other than to attempt to land on various planets and moons. The player can move and turn the ship, and adjust the overall speed by adjusting the scale of the simulation. The ship is affected by the single strongest

text: gravitational pull

text: of the astronomical bodies. The game was developed at Bell Labs, and was ported during 1969 from the

text: Multics

text: operating system

text: to the

text: GECOS

text: operating system on the

text: GE 635

text: computer, and then to the

text: minicomputer. While porting the game to the PDP-7, Thompson developed ideas for his own operating system, which later formed the core of the

text: Unix

text: operating system. Space Travel never spread beyond Bell Labs or had an effect on future games, leaving its primary legacy as part of the original push for the development of Unix.

text: The majority of known asteroids orbit within the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, generally in relatively low-eccentricity (i.e. not very elongated) orbits. This belt is now estimated to contain between 1.1 and 1.9 million asteroids larger than  in diameter, and millions of smaller ones. These asteroids may be remnants of the protoplanetary disk, and in this region the accretion of planetesimals into planets during the formative period of the Solar System was prevented by large gravitational perturbations by Jupiter.

text: The majority of known asteroids orbit within the asteroid belt between the orbits of

text: Mars

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: , generally in relatively low-

text: eccentricity

text: (i.e. not very elongated) orbits. This belt is now estimated to contain between 1.1 and 1.9 million asteroids larger than  in diameter, and millions of smaller ones. These asteroids may be remnants of the

text: protoplanetary disk

text: , and in this region the

text: accretion

text: of

text: planetesimal

text: s into planets during the formative period of the Solar System was prevented by large gravitational perturbations by

text: Jupiter

text: The same spotlight also illuminates the unique Salish Sea "stories" from several sciences. Biologists recognize that the marine waters off Cattle Point DARK SKY Star Park are critical habitat for the Orcas of the Salish Sea. The sea is also a good habitat for the Giant Pacific Octopus; and, in the Southern Salish Sea, the greatly overfished Pacific Herring - resulting in the relatively low abundance of birds; Ornithologists appreciate the Marbled Murrelets, and Rhinoceros Auklets which are of great interest to visiting birdwatchers especially flying by day and night, in and out of the DARK SKY star park; noting that Cattle Point is surrounded by the historic Victoria Harbour Migratory Bird Sanctuary (est. Oct.27, 1923). This was established to control hunting in 1923, and now harbours amazing urban life; geologists note that the Orrery's SUN sits on top of the Leech River/Devils Mountain fault line ; and archaeologists celebrate the large number of archaeological sites from the SUN to MERCURY (i.e. within the Star park down along the seafront to the mouth of Bowker Creek), all part of an ancient Lkwungen seaport known as Sitchanalth hypothesized to have been destroyed by the great Tsunami of 930AD.  The Orrery quickly evolved from being contained within the Star Park, to taking on a size previously unimagined by the volunteers. It is now over  in size reaching out to communities along the Salish Sea's North West Pacific edge and then up along the West coast of Vancouver Island. As an example, the furthest "planet" PLUTO is located in Bamfield. The most distant "object" in the Solar System is the Oort Cloud and has been positioned (approximately, virtually and symbolically) at the Canadian Embassy in Beijing. This effectively serves to illustrate the enormous distances involved in the solar system. "The Salish Sea Walk of the Planets" name symbolizes the fictional journey of the Coast Salish riding inbound inside a long period Comet from Proxima Centauri to Earth many thousands of years ago.

text: The same spotlight also illuminates the unique

text: Salish Sea

text: "stories" from several sciences. Biologists recognize that the marine waters off Cattle Point DARK SKY Star Park are critical habitat for the

text: Orcas of the Salish Sea

text: . The sea is also a good habitat for

text: the Giant Pacific Octopus

text: ; and, in the Southern Salish Sea, the greatly overfished

text: Pacific Herring

text: - resulting in the relatively low abundance of birds;

text: Ornithologists

text: appreciate the

text: Marbled Murrelets

text: , and

text: Rhinoceros Auklets

text: which are of great interest to

text: visiting birdwatchers

text: especially flying by day and night, in and out of the DARK SKY star park; noting that Cattle Point is surrounded by the historic

entity_name: List of Migratory Bird Sanctuaries of Canada

text: Victoria Harbour Migratory Bird Sanctuary (est. Oct.27, 1923)

text: . This was established to control hunting in 1923, and now harbours amazing urban life; geologists note that the Orrery's SUN sits on top of the

text: Leech River/Devils Mountain fault line

text: ; and archaeologists celebrate the large number of

text: archaeological site

text: s from the SUN to MERCURY (i.e. within the Star park down along the seafront to the mouth of Bowker Creek), all part of an ancient Lkwungen seaport known as Sitchanalth hypothesized to have been destroyed by the great Tsunami of 930AD.  The Orrery quickly evolved from being contained within the Star Park, to taking on a size previously unimagined by the volunteers. It is now over  in size reaching out to communities along the Salish Sea's North West Pacific edge and then up along the West coast of Vancouver Island. As an example, the furthest "planet" PLUTO is located in Bamfield. The most distant "object" in the Solar System is

text: the Oort Cloud

text: and has been positioned (approximately, virtually and symbolically) at the Canadian Embassy in

text: Beijing

text: . This effectively serves to illustrate the enormous distances involved in the solar system. "The Salish Sea Walk of the Planets" name symbolizes the fictional journey of

text: the Coast Salish

text: riding inbound inside a long period Comet from

text: Proxima Centauri

text: to Earth many thousands of years ago.

text: Tyche was a proposed gas giant to be located in the Solar System's Oort cloud. It was first proposed in 1999 by astrophysicists John Matese, Patrick Whitman and Daniel Whitmire of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. They argued that evidence of Tyche's existence could be seen in a supposed bias in the points of origin for long-period comets. In 2013, Matese and Whitmire re-evaluated the comet data and noted that Tyche, if it existed, would be detectable in the archive of data that was collected by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) telescope. In 2014, NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out any object with Tyche's characteristics, indicating that Tyche as hypothesized by Matese, Whitman, and Whitmire does not exist.

text: Tyche

text: was a proposed

text: gas giant

text: to be located in the

text: Solar System

text: 's

text: Oort cloud

text: . It was first proposed in 1999 by astrophysicists John Matese, Patrick Whitman and Daniel Whitmire of the

text: University of Louisiana at Lafayette

text: . They argued that evidence of Tyche's existence could be seen in a supposed bias in the points of origin for

text: long-period comet

text: s. In 2013, Matese and Whitmire re-evaluated the comet data and noted that Tyche, if it existed, would be detectable in the archive of data that was collected by

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: (WISE) telescope. In 2014, NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out any object with Tyche's characteristics, indicating that Tyche as hypothesized by Matese, Whitman, and Whitmire does not exist.

text: is a bright Kuiper belt object in the outer Solar System estimated to be about  in diameter. It is a large member of the Haumea family that was discovered on October 15, 2002 by the Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT) program.

text: is a bright

text: Kuiper belt object

text: in the outer

text: Solar System

text: estimated to be about  in diameter. It is a large member of the

text: Haumea family

text: that was discovered on October 15, 2002 by the

text: Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking

text: (NEAT) program.

text: The Galilean moons are the four largest moons of Jupiter—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. They were discovered by Galileo Galilei around January 1610 and were the first group of objects found to orbit another planet. Their names derive from the lovers of Zeus. They are among the largest objects in the Solar System with the exception of the Sun and the eight planets, with radii larger than any of the dwarf planets. Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System, and is even bigger than the planet Mercury. The three inner moons—Io, Europa, and Ganymede—are in a 4:2:1 orbital resonance with each other.

text: The Galilean moons are the four largest

text: moons of Jupiter

text: Io

text: Europa

text: Ganymede

text: , and

text: Callisto

text: . They were discovered by

text: Galileo Galilei

text: around January 1610 and were the first group of objects found to orbit another planet. Their names derive from the lovers of

text: Zeus

text: . They are among

text: the largest objects

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: with the exception of the

text: Sun

text: and the eight

text: planet

text: s, with radii larger than any of the

text: dwarf planet

text: s. Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System, and is even bigger than the planet

text: Mercury

text: . The three inner moons—Io, Europa, and Ganymede—are in a 4:2:1

text: orbital resonance

text: with each other.

text: Pluto, in comics, may refer to:

text: Pluto, in comics, may refer to:

text: Other Solar System planets and moons with atmospheres of similar composition include Earth, Titan, Pluto and, possibly, .

text: Other Solar System planets and moons with atmospheres of similar composition include

text: Earth

text: Titan

text: Pluto

text: and, possibly, .

text: Moons have come to exist around most planets and many other Solar System bodies. These natural satellites originated by one of three possible mechanisms:

text: Moons have come to exist around most planets and many other Solar System bodies. These

text: natural satellite

text: s originated by one of three possible mechanisms:

text: Even planets in more stable orbits of a binary star system would suffer other kinds of problems according to her such as climatic problems. As an example, a planet in a binary star system orbiting the larger star would be drawn closer to its gravitational field, causing the planet to endure heat of great temperatures during this period. As the planet passes its larger star and reaches the orbit of its smaller star, the gravitational field of that star would give the planet more distance from it. The distance (perhaps along with the smaller solar projection of the star) would send the planet into extreme frigid temperatures.

text: Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. The discipline is an overlap of astronomy and chemistry.  The word "astrochemistry" may be applied to both the Solar System and the interstellar medium. The study of the abundance of elements and isotope ratios in Solar System objects, such as meteorites, is also called cosmochemistry, while the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation is sometimes called molecular astrophysics. The formation, atomic and chemical composition, evolution and fate of molecular gas clouds is of special interest, because it is from these clouds that solar systems form.

text: Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of

text: chemical element

text: s and

text: molecule

text: s in the universe, and their interaction with

text: radiation

text: . The discipline is an overlap of

text: astronomy

text: and

text: chemistry

text: .  The word "astrochemistry" may be applied to both the

text: Solar System

text: and the

text: interstellar medium

text: . The study of the abundance of elements and

text: isotope

text: ratios in Solar System objects, such as

text: meteorite

text: s, is also called

text: cosmochemistry

text: , while the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with radiation is sometimes called molecular astrophysics. The formation, atomic and chemical composition, evolution and fate of

text: molecular gas clouds

text: is of special interest, because it is from these clouds that solar systems form.

text: The 2003 Microsoft video game Freelancer features a Colorado solar system including the 'Silverton' asteroid field.

text: The 2003 Microsoft video game

text: Freelancer

text: features a Colorado solar system including the 'Silverton' asteroid field.

text: Pluto first appeared as a nameless bloodhound tracking the escaped convict Mickey in the film The Chain Gang (September 1930). A month and a half later, Pluto appeared as Minnie Mouse's dog named Rover who comes along with her and Mickey on a picnic. By his third appearance, in The Moose Hunt (1931), Pluto is Mickey's pet, now named "Pluto".

text: Pluto first appeared as a nameless

text: bloodhound

text: tracking the escaped convict Mickey in the film

text: The Chain Gang

text: (September 1930). A month and a half later, Pluto appeared as Minnie Mouse's dog named Rover who comes along with her and Mickey on a picnic. By his third appearance, in The Moose Hunt (1931), Pluto is Mickey's pet, now named "Pluto".

text: Like nearly all extrasolar planets discovered prior to 2008, PSR B1620-26 b was originally detected through the Doppler shifts its orbit induces on radiation from the star it orbits (in this case, changes in the apparent pulsation period of the pulsar). In the early 1990s, a group of astronomers led by Donald Backer, who were studying what they thought was a binary pulsar, determined that a third object was needed to explain the observed Doppler shifts. Within a few years, the gravitational effects of the planet on the orbit of the pulsar and white dwarf had been measured, giving an estimate of the mass of the third object that was too small for it to be a star. The conclusion that the third object was a planet was announced by Stephen Thorsett and his collaborators in 1993.

text: Like nearly all

text: extrasolar planet

text: s discovered prior to 2008, PSR B1620-26 b was originally detected through the

text: Doppler shift

text: s its orbit induces on radiation from the star it orbits (in this case, changes in the apparent pulsation period of the pulsar). In the early 1990s, a group of astronomers led by

text: Donald Backer

text: , who were studying what they thought was a binary pulsar, determined that a third object was needed to explain the observed Doppler shifts. Within a few years, the gravitational effects of the planet on the orbit of the pulsar and white dwarf had been measured, giving an estimate of the mass of the third object that was too small for it to be a star. The conclusion that the third object was a planet was announced by

text: Stephen Thorsett

text: and his collaborators in 1993.

text: KOI-74b is a hot compact object orbiting KOI-74. It was discovered in 2010 by the Kepler Mission and came to attention because of its small size (its radius is only 4.3% of the solar radius) and high temperature of . The orbit of KOI-74b around the main star takes 5.18875 days to complete. Analysis of relativistic boosting of light in the Kepler data indicates that it is likely to be a low mass white dwarf of approximately 0.22 solar masses, resulting from an earlier phase of mass transfer in a binary system when the object underwent its giant phase.

text: KOI-74b is a hot compact object orbiting KOI-74. It was discovered in 2010 by the

text: Kepler Mission

text: and came to attention because of its small size (its radius is only 4.3% of the

text: solar radius

text: ) and high temperature of . The orbit of KOI-74b around the main star takes 5.18875 days to complete. Analysis of relativistic boosting of light in the Kepler data indicates that it is likely to be a low mass

text: white dwarf

text: of approximately 0.22 solar masses, resulting from an earlier phase of

text: mass transfer

text: in a binary system when the object underwent its

text: giant phase

text: Gerteiny was a research assistant to the late Charles Ammoun, Lebanon's Ambassador to UNESCO, on the Apartheid Project, a managing editor at Grolier, Inc., and he developed, produced and hosted "As History Unfolds," a political discussion series on the University of Bridgeport (U.B-TV) public channel. Gerteiny served also as consultant on Mauritanian Affairs to the Peace Corps, to the PKNO-AURA, 1973 Solar Eclipse expedition to Mauritania, as well as to the Arizona State University's Meteoritic Institute, concerning their Chinguetti meteorite research planning project. He was a Senior Research Fulbright Scholar in Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco where he studied the determinants of these nations foreign policies, and later served twice on the National Screening Committee for Fulbright Grants to the MENA region.

text: Gerteiny was a research assistant to the late Charles Ammoun, Lebanon's Ambassador to

text: UNESCO

text: , on the Apartheid Project, a managing editor at Grolier, Inc., and he developed, produced and hosted "As History Unfolds," a political discussion series on the

text: University of Bridgeport

text: (U.B-TV) public channel. Gerteiny served also as consultant on Mauritanian Affairs to the Peace Corps, to the PKNO-AURA, 1973 Solar Eclipse expedition to Mauritania, as well as to the Arizona State University's Meteoritic Institute, concerning their Chinguetti meteorite research planning project. He was a Senior Research Fulbright Scholar in Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco where he studied the determinants of these nations foreign policies, and later served twice on the National Screening Committee for Fulbright Grants to the MENA region.

text: In addition to showing how the inner solar system formed, Wetherill's work provided the basis for a model of a giant-impact origin for the Moon and the core of Mercury. It also led to explanations for the isotopic abundances of present-day planetary atmospheres. Recently, Wetherill has shown that Jupiter plays an important role in the evolution of the Solar System; by ejecting comets from the solar system, it offers a protective presence to the inner planets. Wetherill's theoretical work supports discussions on the origins of the Solar System as well as on extrasolar planets.

text: In addition to showing how the inner solar system formed, Wetherill's work provided the basis for a model of a giant-impact origin for the

text: Moon

text: and the core of Mercury. It also led to explanations for the isotopic abundances of present-day planetary atmospheres. Recently, Wetherill has shown that

text: Jupiter

text: plays an important role in the evolution of the

text: Solar System

text: ; by ejecting

text: comets

text: from the solar system, it offers a protective presence to the inner planets. Wetherill's theoretical work supports discussions on the origins of the Solar System as well as on

text: extrasolar planets

text: A series of simulations by Gomes et al. start with a Solar System where the giant planets are in a tight orbital configuration.  This configuration is in itself stable, but assuming a rich trans-Neptunian belt, stray transneptunians interacted with these planets, causing them to migrate slowly during a time of several hundred million years. Jupiter is predicted to migrate inward, whereas the other planets go outwards. By this migration, the Solar System became catastrophically unstable when Jupiter and Saturn reached a 2:1 orbital resonance, causing the outer Solar System to reconfigure rapidly to a wide jovian system. As these planets migrated, resonances would be "swept" through the asteroid belt and Kuiper belt. These resonances would increase the orbital eccentricity of the objects, allowing them to enter the inner Solar System and impact with the terrestrial planets.

text: A series of simulations by Gomes et al. start with a

text: Solar System

text: where the giant planets are in a tight orbital configuration.  This configuration is in itself stable, but assuming a rich

text: trans-Neptunian belt

text: , stray transneptunians interacted with these planets, causing them to migrate slowly during a time of several hundred million years. Jupiter is predicted to migrate inward, whereas the other planets go outwards. By this migration, the Solar System became catastrophically unstable when Jupiter and Saturn reached a 2:1

text: orbital resonance

text: , causing the outer Solar System to reconfigure rapidly to a wide jovian system. As these planets migrated, resonances would be "swept" through the asteroid belt and Kuiper belt. These resonances would increase the

text: orbital eccentricity

text: of the objects, allowing them to enter the inner Solar System and impact with the terrestrial planets.

text: The Apollo 14 Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE) was placed on the lunar surface as part of the Apollo 14 ALSEP package. The PSE was designed to detect vibrations and tilting of the lunar surface and measure changes in gravity at the instrument location. The vibrations are due to internal seismic sources (moonquakes) and external (meteoroids and impacts from the spent S-IVB and LM ascent stages). The primary objective of the experiment was to use these data to determine the internal structure, physical state, and tectonic activity of the Moon. The secondary objectives were to determine the number and mass of meteoroids that strike the Moon and record tidal deformations of the lunar surface.

text: The Apollo 14 Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE) was placed on the lunar surface as part of the

text: Apollo 14

entity_name: Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package

text: ALSEP

text: package. The PSE was designed to detect vibrations and tilting of the lunar surface and measure changes in gravity at the instrument location. The vibrations are due to internal seismic sources (

text: moonquakes

text: ) and external (

text: meteoroids

text: and impacts from the spent

text: S-IVB

text: and

text: LM

text: ascent stages). The primary objective of the experiment was to use these data to determine the internal structure, physical state, and

text: tectonic

text: activity of the Moon. The secondary objectives were to determine the number and mass of meteoroids that strike the Moon and record

text: tidal

text: deformations of the lunar surface.

text: However, it is becoming increasingly common for the term "asteroid" to be restricted to minor planets of the inner Solar System. Therefore, this article will restrict itself for the most part to the classical asteroids: objects of the asteroid belt, Jupiter trojans, and near-Earth objects.

text: However, it is becoming increasingly common for the term "asteroid" to be restricted to minor planets of the inner Solar System. Therefore, this article will restrict itself for the most part to the classical asteroids: objects of the

text: asteroid belt

text: Jupiter trojan

text: s, and

text: near-Earth object

text: s.

text: The Greek writer Lucian (ca. 125–after 180 AD) suggests that Pluto's love for his wife gave the ruler of the underworld a special sympathy or insight into lovers parted by death. In one of Lucian's Dialogues of the Dead, Pluto questions Protesilaus, the first Greek hero killed in the Trojan War, who wishes to return to the world of the living. "You are then in love with life?" Pluto asks. "Such lovers we have here in plenty; but they love an object, which none of them can obtain." Protesilaus explains, like an Orpheus in reverse, that he has left behind a young bride whose memory even the Lethe's waters of forgetting have not erased from him. Pluto assures him that death will reunite them someday, but Protesilaus argues that Pluto himself should understand love and its impatience, and reminds the king of his grant to Orpheus and to Alcestis, who took her husband's place in death and then was permitted at the insistence of Heracles to return to him. When Persephone intercedes for the dead warrior, Pluto grants the request at once, though allowing only one day for the reunion.

text: The Greek writer

text: Lucian

text: (ca. 125–after 180 AD) suggests that Pluto's love for his wife gave the ruler of the underworld a special sympathy or insight into lovers parted by death. In one of Lucian's Dialogues of the Dead, Pluto questions

text: Protesilaus

text: , the first Greek hero killed in the

text: Trojan War

text: , who wishes to return to the world of the living. "You are then in love with life?" Pluto asks. "Such lovers we have here in plenty; but they love an object, which none of them can obtain." Protesilaus explains, like an Orpheus in reverse, that he has left behind a young bride whose memory even the

text: Lethe

text: 's waters of forgetting have not erased from him. Pluto assures him that death will reunite them someday, but Protesilaus argues that Pluto himself should understand love and its impatience, and reminds the king of his grant to Orpheus and to

text: Alcestis

text: , who took her husband's place in death and then was permitted at the insistence of

text: Heracles

text: to return to him. When Persephone intercedes for the dead warrior, Pluto grants the request at once, though allowing only one day for the reunion.

text: None of these claims has ever been substantiated after more than forty years of observation. It has been surmised, however, that some of these objects—and other alleged intra-Mercurial objects—may exist, being nothing more than previously unknown comets or small asteroids. Today, the search continues for these so-called vulcanoid asteroids, which are thought to exist in the region where Vulcan was once sought. None have been found yet and searches have ruled out any such asteroids larger than about 6 km. Neither SOHO nor STEREO has detected a planet inside the orbit of Mercury.

text: None of these claims has ever been substantiated after more than forty years of observation. It has been surmised, however, that some of these objects—and other alleged intra-Mercurial objects—may exist, being nothing more than previously unknown comets or small asteroids. Today, the search continues for these so-called

text: vulcanoid asteroid

text: s, which are thought to exist in the region where Vulcan was once sought. None have been found yet and searches have ruled out any such asteroids larger than about 6 km. Neither

text: SOHO

text: nor

text: STEREO

text: has detected a planet inside the orbit of Mercury.

text: This is a list of trans-Neptunian objects (TNO) in the Solar System, along with a list of their moons. A trans-Neptunian object is any minor planet in the Solar System that orbits the Sun at a greater distance on average than Neptune.

text: This is a list of trans-Neptunian objects (TNO) in the Solar System, along with a list of their moons. A

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: is any

text: minor planet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: that

text: orbit

text: s the

text: Sun

text: at a greater distance on average than

text: Neptune

text: Asteroids are minor planets, especially those of the inner Solar System. The larger ones have also been called planetoids. These terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not show the disc of a planet and was not observed to have the characteristics of an active comet. As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered and found to have volatile-based surfaces that resemble those of comets, they were often distinguished from asteroids of the asteroid belt. In this article, the term "asteroid" refers to the minor planets of the inner Solar System including those co-orbital with Jupiter.

text: Asteroids are

text: minor planet

text: s, especially those of the

text: inner Solar System

text: . The larger ones have also been called planetoids. These terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the

text: Sun

text: that did not show the disc of a planet and was not observed to have the characteristics of an active

text: comet

text: . As

text: minor planets in the outer Solar System

text: were discovered and found to have volatile-based surfaces that resemble those of comets, they were often distinguished from asteroids of the

text: asteroid belt

text: . In this article, the term "asteroid" refers to the minor planets of the inner Solar System including those co-orbital with

text: Jupiter

text: = 0°) for the orbiting object. This allows the object to spend the maximum possible amount of its orbital period in the Earth's shadow, and results in extremely reduced absorption of solar energy.  At a LEO of 280 kilometers, the object is in sunlight through 59% of its orbit (approximately 53 minutes in Sunlight, and 37 minutes in shadow.) On the other extreme, an object launched into an orbit parallel to the terminator  results in a beta angle of 90 degrees (

text: = 0°) for the orbiting object. This allows the object to spend the maximum possible amount of its

text: orbital period

text: in the Earth's shadow, and results in extremely reduced absorption of solar energy.  At a LEO of 280 kilometers, the object is in sunlight through 59% of its orbit (approximately 53 minutes in Sunlight, and 37 minutes in shadow.) On the other extreme, an object launched into an orbit parallel to the

text: terminator

text: results in a beta angle of 90 degrees (

text: 41P/Tuttle–Giacobini–Kresák is a periodic comet in the Solar System.

text: 41P/Tuttle–Giacobini–Kresák is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: This makes Eris around the same size as Pluto, which is  across. It also indicates an albedo of 0.96, higher than that of any other large body in the Solar System except Enceladus. It is speculated that the high albedo is due to the surface ices being replenished because of temperature fluctuations as Eris's eccentric orbit takes it closer and farther from the Sun.

text: This makes Eris around the same size as Pluto, which is  across. It also indicates an

text: albedo

text: of 0.96, higher than that of any other large body in the Solar System except

text: Enceladus

text: . It is speculated that the high albedo is due to the surface ices being replenished because of temperature fluctuations as Eris's eccentric orbit takes it closer and farther from the Sun.

text: Various dynamical groups of asteroids have been discovered orbiting in the inner Solar System. Their orbits are perturbed by the gravity of other bodies in the Solar System and by the Yarkovsky effect. Significant populations include:

text: Various dynamical groups of asteroids have been discovered orbiting in the inner Solar System. Their orbits are perturbed by the gravity of other bodies in the Solar System and by the

text: Yarkovsky effect

text: . Significant populations include:

text: In the end stages of planet formation, a planet (as so defined) will have "cleared the neighbourhood" of its own orbital zone, meaning it has become gravitationally dominant, and there are no other bodies of comparable size other than its satellites or those otherwise under its gravitational influence. A large body that meets the other criteria for a planet but has not cleared its neighbourhood is classified as a dwarf planet. This includes Pluto, which is constrained in its orbit by the gravity of Neptune and shares its orbital neighbourhood with Kuiper belt objects. The IAU's definition does not attach specific numbers or equations to this term, but all the planets have cleared their neighbourhoods to a much greater extent (by orders of magnitude) than any dwarf planet, or any candidate for dwarf planet.

text: In the end stages of

text: planet formation

text: , a

text: planet

text: (as so defined) will have "cleared the neighbourhood" of its own orbital zone, meaning it has become gravitationally dominant, and there are no other bodies of comparable size other than its

text: satellites

text: or those otherwise under its gravitational influence. A large body that meets the other criteria for a planet but has not cleared its neighbourhood is classified as a

text: dwarf planet

text: . This includes

text: Pluto

text: , which is constrained in its orbit by the gravity of

text: Neptune

text: and shares its orbital neighbourhood with

text: Kuiper belt

text: objects. The IAU's definition does not attach specific numbers or equations to this term, but all the planets have cleared their neighbourhoods to a much greater extent (by

text: orders of magnitude

text: ) than any dwarf planet, or any candidate for dwarf planet.

text: There is no official definition of 'cubewano' or 'classical KBO'. However, the terms are normally used to refer to objects free from significant perturbation from Neptune, thereby excluding KBOs in orbital resonance with Neptune (resonant trans-Neptunian objects). The Minor Planet Center (MPC) and the Deep Ecliptic Survey (DES) do not list cubewanos (classical objects) using the same criteria. Many TNOs classified as cubewanos by the MPC are classified as ScatNear (possibly scattered by Neptune) by the DES. Dwarf planet Makemake is such a borderline classical cubewano/scatnear object.  may be an inner cubewano near the plutinos. Furthermore, there is evidence that the Kuiper belt has an 'edge', in that an apparent lack of low-inclination objects beyond 47–49 AU was suspected as early as 1998 and shown with more data in 2001. Consequently, the traditional usage of the terms is based on the orbit’s semi-major axis, and includes objects situated between the 2:3 and 1:2 resonances, that is between 39.4 and 47.8 AU (with exclusion of these resonances and the minor ones in-between).

text: There is no official definition of 'cubewano' or 'classical KBO'. However, the terms are normally used to refer to objects free from significant perturbation from Neptune, thereby excluding KBOs in orbital resonance with Neptune (

text: resonant trans-Neptunian object

text: s). The

text: Minor Planet Center

text: (MPC) and the

text: Deep Ecliptic Survey

text: (DES) do not list cubewanos (classical objects) using the same criteria. Many TNOs classified as cubewanos by the MPC are classified as ScatNear (possibly

text: scattered

text: by Neptune) by the DES. Dwarf planet

text: Makemake

text: is such a borderline classical cubewano/scatnear object.  may be an inner cubewano near the

text: plutino

text: s. Furthermore, there is evidence that the Kuiper belt has an 'edge', in that an apparent lack of low-inclination objects beyond 47–49 AU was suspected as early as 1998 and shown with more data in 2001. Consequently, the traditional usage of the terms is based on the orbit’s semi-major axis, and includes objects situated between the 2:3 and 1:2 resonances, that is between 39.4 and 47.8 AU (with exclusion of these resonances and the minor ones in-between).

text: Himalia (  or  ; ) is the largest irregular satellite of Jupiter, the sixth largest overall in size, and only the four Galilean moons of Jupiter have greater mass. It was discovered by Charles Dillon Perrine at the Lick Observatory on 3 December 1904 and is named after the nymph Himalia, who bore three sons of Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter). It is one of the largest planetary moons in the Solar System not imaged in detail, and the largest not including the moons of Neptune and several trans-Neptunian objects, particularly that of the second-largest-but-most-massive dwarf planet, Eris.

text: Himalia (  or  ; ) is the largest

text: irregular

text: satellite

text: of

text: Jupiter

text: , the sixth largest overall in size, and only the four

text: Galilean moons

text: of Jupiter have greater mass. It was discovered by

text: Charles Dillon Perrine

text: at the

text: Lick Observatory

text: on 3 December 1904 and is named after the

text: nymph

text: Himalia

text: , who bore three sons of

text: Zeus

text: (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter). It is one of the largest planetary moons in the Solar System not imaged in detail, and the largest not including the moons of Neptune and several trans-Neptunian objects, particularly

text: that of the second-largest-but-most-massive dwarf planet, Eris

text: Eris is a trans-Neptunian dwarf planet (plutoid). Its orbital characteristics more specifically categorize it as a scattered-disk object (SDO), or a TNO that has been "scattered" from the Kuiper belt into more-distant and unusual orbits following gravitational interactions with Neptune as the Solar System was forming. Although its high orbital inclination is unusual among the known SDOs, theoretical models suggest that objects that were originally near the inner edge of the Kuiper belt were scattered into orbits with higher inclinations than objects from the outer belt. Inner-belt objects are expected to be generally more massive than outer-belt objects, and so astronomers expect to discover more large objects like Eris in high-inclination orbits, which have traditionally been neglected.

text: Eris is a

text: trans-Neptunian

text: dwarf planet

text: plutoid

text: ). Its orbital characteristics more specifically categorize it as a

text: scattered-disk object

text: (SDO), or a TNO that has been "scattered" from the

text: Kuiper belt

text: into more-distant and unusual

text: orbit

text: s following gravitational interactions with

text: Neptune

text: as the

text: Solar System

text: was forming. Although its high orbital inclination is unusual among the known SDOs, theoretical models suggest that objects that were originally near the inner edge of the Kuiper belt were scattered into orbits with higher inclinations than objects from the outer belt. Inner-belt objects are expected to be generally more massive than outer-belt objects, and so astronomers expect to discover more large objects like Eris in high-inclination orbits, which have traditionally been neglected.

text: The International Astronomical Union (IAU) currently recognizes five dwarf planets: , Pluto, , , and . Brown criticizes this official recognition: "A reasonable person might think that this means that there are five known objects in the solar system which fit the IAU definition of dwarf planet, but this reasonable person would be nowhere close to correct."It is suspected that another hundred or so known objects in the Solar System are dwarf planets. Estimates are that up to 200 dwarf planets may be found when the entire region known as the Kuiper belt is explored, and that the number may exceed 10,000 when objects scattered outside the Kuiper belt are considered. Individual astronomers recognize several of these, and in August 2011 Mike Brown published a list of 390 candidate objects, ranging from "nearly certain" to "possible" dwarf planets. Brown currently identifies eleven known objects—the five accepted by the IAU plus , , , ,  and —as "virtually certain", with another dozen highly likely. Stern states that there are more than a dozen known dwarf planets.

text: The

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) currently recognizes five dwarf planets: ,

text: Pluto

text: , , , and . Brown criticizes this official recognition: "A reasonable person might think that this means that there are five known objects in the solar system which fit the IAU definition of dwarf planet, but this reasonable person would be nowhere close to correct."It is suspected that another

text: hundred or so known objects

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: are dwarf planets. Estimates are that up to 200 dwarf planets may be found when the entire region known as the

text: Kuiper belt

text: is explored, and that the number may exceed 10,000 when objects scattered outside the Kuiper belt are considered. Individual astronomers recognize several of these, and in August 2011 Mike Brown published a list of 390 candidate objects, ranging from "nearly certain" to "possible" dwarf planets. Brown currently identifies eleven known objects—the five accepted by the IAU plus , , , ,  and —as "virtually certain", with another dozen highly likely. Stern states that there are more than a dozen known dwarf planets.

text: The primary objective of Pin Bot is to score points by hitting targets and completing simple objectives.  The rules of the game are for the most part identical to those of the pinball machine: The player starts with a lit marker set on Pluto and advances through the solar system by hitting various lit targets.  Reaching a certain flashing checkpoint planet (Saturn, Jupiter or Mars) awards a Special, which in this version lights an Extra Ball.  Reaching the Sun also awards a Special, lighting another Extra Ball.

text: The primary objective of Pin Bot is to score points by hitting targets and completing simple objectives.  The rules of the game are for the most part identical to those of the pinball machine: The player starts with a lit marker set on

text: Pluto

text: and advances through the

text: solar system

text: by hitting various lit targets.  Reaching a certain flashing checkpoint planet (Saturn, Jupiter or Mars) awards a Special, which in this version lights an Extra Ball.  Reaching the

text: Sun

text: also awards a Special, lighting another Extra Ball.

text: To serve its intended purposes, a fingerprinting algorithm must be able to capture the identity of a file with virtual certainty.  In other words, the probability of a collision — two files yielding the same fingerprint — must be negligible, compared to the probability of other unavoidable causes of fatal errors (such as the system being destroyed by war or by a meteorite): say, 10 or less.

text: To serve its intended purposes, a fingerprinting algorithm must be able to capture the identity of a file with virtual certainty.  In other words, the probability of a collision — two files yielding the same fingerprint — must be negligible, compared to the probability of other unavoidable causes of fatal errors (such as the system being destroyed by

text: war

text: or by a

text: meteorite

text: ): say, 10 or less.

text: The Erie Water Works was incorporated in 1865 as the Erie Water and Gas Company to provide drinking water and fire hydrant water for the city of Erie, Pennsylvania. The Water Works, also known as the Erie City Water Authority, replaced the Erie Water Systems. Its board of commissioners operates independently of the city government.

text: The Erie Water Works was incorporated in 1865 as the Erie Water and Gas Company to provide drinking water and

text: fire hydrant

text: water for the city of

text: Erie, Pennsylvania

text: . The Water Works, also known as the Erie City Water Authority, replaced the Erie Water Systems. Its board of commissioners operates independently of the city government.

text: 14P/Wolf is a periodic comet in the Solar System.

text: 14P/Wolf is a periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: The Crab Nebula was first identified in 1731 by John Bevis. The nebula was independently rediscovered in 1758 by Charles Messier as he was observing a bright comet. Messier catalogued it as the first entry in his catalogue of comet-like objects; in 1757, Alexis Clairaut reexamined the calculations of Edmund Halley and predicted the return of Halley's Comet in late 1758. The exact time of the comet's return required the consideration of perturbations to its orbit caused by planets in the Solar System such as Jupiter, which Clairaut and his two colleagues Jérôme Lalande and Nicole-Reine Lepaute carried out more precisely than Halley, finding that the comet should appear in the constellation of Taurus. It is in searching in vain for the comet that Charles Messier found the Crab nebula, which he at first thought to be Halley's comet. After some observation, noticing that the object that he was observing was not moving across the sky, Messier concluded that the object was not a comet. Messier then realised the usefulness of compiling a catalogue of celestial objects of a cloudy nature, but fixed in the sky, to avoid incorrectly cataloguing them as comets.

text: The Crab Nebula was first identified in 1731 by

text: John Bevis

text: . The nebula was independently rediscovered in 1758 by

text: Charles Messier

text: as he was observing a bright

text: comet

text: . Messier catalogued it as the first entry in his

text: catalogue

text: of comet-like objects; in 1757,

text: Alexis Clairaut

text: reexamined the calculations of

text: Edmund Halley

text: and predicted the return of

text: Halley's Comet

text: in late 1758. The exact time of the comet's return required the consideration of perturbations to its orbit caused by planets in the Solar System such as Jupiter, which Clairaut and his two colleagues

text: Jérôme Lalande

text: and

text: Nicole-Reine Lepaute

text: carried out more precisely than Halley, finding that the comet should appear in the

text: constellation

text: of

text: Taurus

text: . It is in searching in vain for the comet that

text: Charles Messier

text: found the Crab nebula, which he at first thought to be Halley's comet. After some observation, noticing that the object that he was observing was not moving across the sky, Messier concluded that the object was not a comet. Messier then realised the usefulness of compiling a catalogue of celestial objects of a cloudy nature, but fixed in the sky, to avoid incorrectly cataloguing them as comets.

text: The meteorite was found to contain some of the oldest material in the solar system. Two 10-micron diamond grains (xenoliths) were found in the meteorite recovered before the rain fell. In primitive meteorites like Sutter's Mill, some grains survive from what existed in the cloud of gas, dust and ice that formed the solar system.

text: The meteorite was found to contain some of the oldest material in the

text: solar system

text: . Two 10-micron diamond grains (

text: xenolith

text: s) were found in the meteorite recovered before the rain fell. In primitive meteorites like Sutter's Mill, some grains survive from what existed in the cloud of gas, dust and ice that formed the solar system.

text: The jumping-Jupiter scenario specifies an evolution of giant-planet migration described by the Nice model, in which an ice giant (Uranus, Neptune, or an additional Neptune-mass planet) is scattered inward by Saturn and outward by Jupiter, causing the step-wise separation of their orbits. The jumping-Jupiter scenario was proposed by Ramon Brasser, Alessandro Morbidelli, Rodney Gomes, Kleomenis Tsiganis, and Harold Levison after their studies revealed that the smooth divergent migration of Jupiter and Saturn resulted in an inner Solar System significantly different from the current Solar System. The sweeping of secular resonances through the inner Solar System during the migration excited the eccentricities of the terrestrial planets beyond current values and left an asteroid belt with an excessive ratio of high- to low-inclination objects. The step-wise separation of Jupiter and Saturn described in the jumping-Jupiter scenario can allow these resonances to quickly cross the inner Solar System without altering orbits excessively, although the terrestrial planets remain sensitive to its passage. The jumping-Jupiter scenario also results in a number of other differences with the original Nice model. The fraction of lunar impactors from the core of the asteroid belt during the Late Heavy Bombardment is significantly reduced, most of the Jupiter trojans are captured during Jupiter's encounters with the ice giant, as are Jupiter's irregular satellites. In the jumping-Jupiter scenario, the likelihood of preserving four giant planets on orbits resembling their current ones appears to increase if the early Solar System originally contained an additional ice giant, which was later ejected by Jupiter into interstellar space. However, this remains an atypical result, as is the preservation of the current orbits of the terrestrial planets.

text: The jumping-Jupiter scenario specifies an evolution of giant-

text: planet migration

text: described by the

text: Nice model

text: , in which an

text: ice giant

text: (Uranus, Neptune, or an

text: additional Neptune-mass planet

text: ) is scattered inward by Saturn and outward by Jupiter, causing the step-wise separation of their

text: orbit

text: s. The jumping-Jupiter scenario was proposed by Ramon Brasser, Alessandro Morbidelli, Rodney Gomes, Kleomenis Tsiganis, and Harold Levison after their studies revealed that the smooth divergent migration of Jupiter and Saturn resulted in an

text: inner Solar System

text: significantly different from the current Solar System. The sweeping of

text: secular resonance

text: s through the inner Solar System during the migration excited the

text: eccentricities

text: of the

text: terrestrial planet

text: s beyond current values and left an

text: asteroid belt

text: with an excessive ratio of high- to low-

text: inclination

text: objects. The step-wise separation of Jupiter and Saturn described in the jumping-Jupiter scenario can allow these resonances to quickly cross the inner Solar System without altering orbits excessively, although the terrestrial planets remain sensitive to its passage. The jumping-Jupiter scenario also results in a number of other differences with the original Nice model. The fraction of lunar impactors from the core of the asteroid belt during the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: is significantly reduced, most of the

text: Jupiter trojan

text: s are captured during Jupiter's encounters with the ice giant, as are Jupiter's

text: irregular satellites

text: . In the jumping-Jupiter scenario, the likelihood of preserving four giant planets on orbits resembling their current ones appears to increase if the early

text: Solar System

text: originally contained an

text: additional ice giant

text: , which was later ejected by Jupiter into

text: interstellar space

text: . However, this remains an atypical result, as is the preservation of the current orbits of the terrestrial planets.

text: Lead researcher Ivan Ramirez explained the significance of finding solar siblings in a press release for the University of Texas at which he works. "We want to know where we were born. If we can figure out in what part of the galaxy the Sun formed, we can constrain conditions on the early solar system. That could help us understand why we are here." He also said there was a "small, but not zero" chance that planets with life might orbit solar sibling stars, because during the frequent collisions during planetary formation material might have travelled from one system to another. He said the siblings might be "key candidates" in the search for extraterrestrial life. A scenario for transfer of life by this means might require life or a precursor molecule to be shielded from radiation for millions of years, dormant within an outgoing chunk of planetary debris one meter or more in diameter that is produced by a meteorite impact, until this new meteorite impacts on a different planet. Such an unlikely event might have transferred life from another planet to Earth or vice versa.

text: Lead researcher Ivan Ramirez explained the significance of finding solar siblings in a press release for the

text: University of Texas

text: at which he works. "We want to know where we were born. If we can figure out in what part of the galaxy the Sun formed, we can constrain conditions on the early solar system. That could help us understand why we are here." He also said there was a "small, but not zero" chance that planets with life might orbit solar sibling stars, because during the frequent collisions during planetary formation material might have travelled from one system to another. He said the siblings might be "key candidates" in the search for extraterrestrial life. A scenario for transfer of life by this means might require life or a precursor molecule to be shielded from radiation for millions of years, dormant within an outgoing chunk of planetary debris one meter or more in diameter that is produced by a meteorite impact, until this new meteorite impacts on a different planet. Such an unlikely event might have transferred life from another planet to Earth or vice versa.

text: The Bench Crater meteorite is a meteorite discovered on the Moon by Apollo 12 astronauts in 1969.  It was the first meteorite to be discovered on a solar system body other than the Earth. It is listed as a carbonaceous chondrite by the Meteoritical Society.

text: The Bench Crater meteorite is a

text: meteorite

text: discovered on the

text: Moon

text: by

text: Apollo 12

text: astronauts

text: in 1969.  It was the first meteorite to be discovered on a

text: solar system

text: body other than the Earth. It is listed as a

text: carbonaceous chondrite

text: by the

text: Meteoritical Society

text: Models of Solar System objects indicate the presence of liquid water in their internal differentiation.

text: Pluto is the largest and most-massive member of the Kuiper belt and the largest and the second-most-massive known TNO, surpassed only by Eris in the scattered disc. Originally considered a planet, Pluto's status as part of the Kuiper belt caused it to be reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006. It is compositionally similar to many other objects of the Kuiper belt, and its orbital period is characteristic of a class of KBOs, known as "plutinos", that share the same 2:3 resonance with Neptune.

text: Pluto is the largest and most-massive member of the Kuiper belt and the largest and the second-most-massive known TNO, surpassed only by Eris in the scattered disc. Originally considered a planet, Pluto's status as part of the Kuiper belt caused it to be reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006. It is compositionally similar to many other objects of the Kuiper belt, and its orbital period is characteristic of a class of KBOs, known as "

text: plutino

text: s", that share the same 2:3

text: resonance

text: with Neptune.

text: In India, eri was mostly used for the preparation of winter shawls for men and women. The thermal property of Eri silk makes it a suitable fabric for shawls, jackets, blankets, bed spreads. Dress materials and baby dresses are also made from Eri silk fabric, because of its soft texture and moisture absorbent quality. Nowadays very fine (up to 210-nm) eri spun yarns are available, which enables weavers to weave very fine clothing, including traditional sari dress materials.

text: A second proposal suggests a more complicated origin for the family: that the material ejected in the initial collision instead coalesced into a large moon of Haumea, which gradually increased its distance from Haumea through tidal evolution, and was then later shattered in a second collision, dispersing its shards outwards. This second scenario produces a velocity dispersion of ~190 m/s, considerably closer to the measured ~140 m/s velocity dispersion of the family members; it also avoids the difficulty of the observed ~140 m/s dispersion being much less than the ~900 m/s escape velocity of Haumea.

text: A second proposal suggests a more complicated origin for the family: that the material ejected in the initial collision instead coalesced into a large moon of Haumea, which gradually increased its distance from Haumea through

text: tidal evolution

text: , and was then later shattered in a second collision, dispersing its shards outwards. This second scenario produces a velocity dispersion of ~190 m/s, considerably closer to the measured ~140 m/s velocity dispersion of the family members; it also avoids the difficulty of the observed ~140 m/s dispersion being much less than the ~900 m/s escape velocity of Haumea.

text: Heinrich Olbers discovered Pallas in 1802, the year after the discovery of Ceres. He proposed that the two objects were the remnants of a destroyed planet. He sent a letter with his proposal to the English astronomer William Herschel, suggesting that a search near the locations where the orbits of Ceres and Pallas intersected might reveal more fragments. These orbital intersections were located in the constellations of Cetus and Virgo. Olbers commenced his search in 1802, and on 29 March 1807 he discovered Vesta in the constellation Virgo—a coincidence, because Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta are not fragments of a larger body. Because the asteroid Juno had been discovered in 1804, this made Vesta the fourth object to be identified in the region that is now known as the asteroid belt. The discovery was announced in a letter addressed to German astronomer Johann H. Schröter dated 31 March. Because Olbers already had credit for discovering a planet (Pallas; at the time, the asteroids were considered to be planets), he gave the honor of naming his new discovery to German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, whose orbital calculations had enabled astronomers to confirm the existence of Ceres, the first asteroid, and who had computed the orbit of the new planet in the remarkably short time of 10 hours. Gauss decided on the Roman virgin goddess of home and hearth, Vesta.

text: Heinrich Olbers discovered

text: Pallas

text: in 1802, the year after the discovery of

text: Ceres

text: . He proposed that the two objects were the remnants of a

text: destroyed planet

text: . He sent a letter with his proposal to the English astronomer

text: William Herschel

text: , suggesting that a search near the locations where the orbits of Ceres and Pallas intersected might reveal more fragments. These orbital intersections were located in the

text: constellation

text: s of

text: Cetus

text: and

text: Virgo

text: . Olbers commenced his search in 1802, and on 29 March 1807 he discovered Vesta in the constellation Virgo—a coincidence, because Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta are not fragments of a larger body. Because the asteroid

text: Juno

text: had been discovered in 1804, this made Vesta the fourth object to be identified in the region that is now known as the

text: asteroid belt

text: . The discovery was announced in a letter addressed to German astronomer

text: Johann H. Schröter

text: dated 31 March. Because Olbers already had credit for discovering a planet (Pallas; at the time, the asteroids were considered to be planets), he gave the honor of naming his new discovery to German mathematician

text: Carl Friedrich Gauss

text: , whose orbital calculations had enabled astronomers to confirm the existence of Ceres, the first asteroid, and who had computed the orbit of the new planet in the remarkably short time of 10 hours. Gauss decided on the

text: Roman

text: virgin goddess of home and hearth,

text: Vesta

text: The meteorite was formed from nebular dust and gas during the early formation of the Solar System.  It is a "stone" meteorite, as opposed to an "iron," or "stony iron," the other two general classes of meteorite.  Most Allende stones are covered, in part or in whole, by a black, shiny crust created as the stone descended at great speed through the atmosphere as it was falling towards the earth from space.  This causes the exterior of the stone to become very hot, melting it, and forming a glassy "fusion crust."

text: From the Helium isotope abundance data, the cosmic D/H value is estimated to be around 20 ppm which is much lower than the terrestrial D/H ratio of 150 ppm. The enrichment of D/H from the proto-solar reservoir occurs for most of the planets except for Jupiter and Saturn, the massive gaseous planets. The D/H ratios of the atmospheres of Venus and Mars are ~2 × 10 and ~8 × 10 respectively. The D/H ratios of Uranus and Neptune is larger than that of protosolar reservoir by a factor of around 3 due to their Deuterium-rich icy cores. The D/H ratios for comets are much larger than the values for the planets in the solar system with δD value of around 1000‰.

text: From the

text: Helium

text: isotope abundance data, the cosmic D/H value is estimated to be around 20 ppm which is much lower than the terrestrial D/H ratio of 150 ppm. The enrichment of D/H from the proto-solar reservoir occurs for most of the planets except for Jupiter and Saturn, the massive gaseous planets. The D/H ratios of the atmospheres of

text: Venus

text: and Mars are ~2 × 10 and ~8 × 10 respectively. The D/H ratios of Uranus and Neptune is larger than that of protosolar reservoir by a factor of around 3 due to their Deuterium-rich icy cores. The D/H ratios for comets are much larger than the values for the planets in the solar system with δD value of around 1000‰.

text: In Galileo’s day the prevailing model of the universe was based on the assertion by the Greek astronomer Ptolemy almost 15 centuries earlier that all celestial objects revolve around Earth (see Ptolemaic system). Observation of the phases of Venus was inconsistent with this view but was consistent with the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus’s idea that the solar system is centered on the Sun. Galileo’s observation of the phases of Venus provided the first direct observational evidence for Copernican theory.

text: Deuterium is destroyed in the interiors of stars faster than it is produced. Other natural processes are thought to produce only an insignificant amount of deuterium. Nearly all deuterium found in nature was produced in the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago, as the basic or primordial ratio of hydrogen-1 (protium) to deuterium (about 26 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms) has its origin from that time. This is the ratio found in the gas giant planets, such as Jupiter (see references 2,3 and 4). However, other astronomical bodies are found to have different ratios of deuterium to hydrogen-1. This is thought to be as a result of natural isotope separation processes that occur from solar heating of ices in comets. Like the water-cycle in Earth's weather, such heating processes may enrich deuterium with respect to protium.  The analysis of deuterium/protium ratios in comets found results very similar to the mean ratio in Earth's oceans (156 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogens). This reinforces theories that much of Earth's ocean water is of cometary origin.  The deuterium/protium ratio of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, as measured by the Rosetta space probe, is about three times that of earth water. This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet.

text: Deuterium is destroyed in the interiors of stars faster than it is produced. Other natural processes are thought to produce only an insignificant amount of deuterium. Nearly all deuterium found in nature was produced in the

text: Big Bang

text: 13.8 billion years ago, as the basic or primordial ratio of hydrogen-1 (protium) to deuterium (about 26 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogen atoms) has its origin from that time. This is the ratio found in the gas giant planets, such as Jupiter (see references 2,3 and 4). However, other astronomical bodies are found to have different ratios of deuterium to hydrogen-1. This is thought to be as a result of natural isotope separation processes that occur from solar heating of ices in comets. Like the water-cycle in Earth's weather, such heating processes may enrich deuterium with respect to protium.  The analysis of deuterium/protium ratios in comets found results very similar to the mean ratio in Earth's oceans (156 atoms of deuterium per million hydrogens). This reinforces theories that much of Earth's ocean water is of cometary origin.  The deuterium/protium ratio of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, as measured by the

text: Rosetta space probe

text: , is about three times that of earth water. This figure is the highest yet measured in a comet.

text: The Moon, on the other hand, is a natural laboratory for regolith processes and weathering on anhydrous airless bodies- modification and alteration by meteoroid and micrometeoroid impacts, the implantation of solar and interstellar charged particles, radiation damage, spallation, exposure to ultraviolet radiation, and so on. Knowledge of the processes that create and modify the lunar regolith is essential to understanding the compositional and structural attributes of other airless planet and asteroid regoliths.

text: PLUTO was a materials testing nuclear reactor housed at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment, a former Royal Air Force airfield at Harwell, Oxfordshire in the United Kingdom. It was one of five reactors on the site. The site was selected as the scientific center for research and development of UK's expanding nuclear programs. Designed by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA), the reactor was built by Head Wrightson Processes Ltd, an industrial firm in Teesside, England. PLUTO was one of two high flux reactors; the first, DIDO, was its prototype. PLUTO was the second of three DIDO class reactors to become operational. PLUTO and DIDO were located at Harwell; the third, Dounreay (DMTR) in Caithness, Scotland.The development of multi-purpose type PLUTO reactors gave rise to many countries building their own materials testing reactors based on DIDO's design. On 27 October 1957, the PLUTO reactor was commissioned and operated for thirty three years before decommissioning in 1990.

text: PLUTO was a materials testing

text: nuclear reactor

text: housed at the

text: Atomic Energy Research Establishment

text: , a former Royal Air Force airfield at

text: Harwell, Oxfordshire

text: in the

text: United Kingdom

text: . It was one of five reactors on the site. The site was selected as the scientific center for research and development of UK's expanding nuclear programs. Designed by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA), the reactor was built by

text: Head Wrightson Processes Ltd

text: , an industrial firm in Teesside, England. PLUTO was one of two high flux reactors; the first, DIDO, was its prototype. PLUTO was the second of three DIDO class reactors to become operational. PLUTO and DIDO were located at Harwell; the third, Dounreay (DMTR) in Caithness, Scotland.The development of multi-purpose type PLUTO reactors gave rise to many countries building their own materials testing reactors based on DIDO's design. On 27 October 1957, the PLUTO reactor was commissioned and operated for thirty three years before decommissioning in 1990.

text: The fall of the Albareto's meteorite is documented in a document  "Della caduta di un sasso dall'aria" of the natural philosopher Domenico Troili. Troili didn't realize the extraterrestrial origin of the object but provided with his treatise one of the first chronicles of the fall of a meteorite.

text: The fall of the Albareto's meteorite is documented in a document  "Della caduta di un sasso dall'aria" of the natural philosopher

text: Domenico Troili

text: . Troili didn't realize the extraterrestrial origin of the object but provided with his treatise one of the first chronicles of the fall of a meteorite.

text: By October 2010, over 33,500 new asteroids and comets were discovered, and nearly 154,000 Solar System objects were observed by WISE.

text: By October 2010, over 33,500 new asteroids and comets were discovered, and over 154,000 Solar System objects were observed by WISE. While active it found dozens of previously unknown asteroids every day.  In total, it captured more than 2.7 million images during its primary mission.

text: By the beginning of 1930, Tombaugh's search had reached the constellation of Gemini. On 18 February 1930, after searching for nearly a year and examining nearly 2 million stars, Tombaugh discovered a moving object on photographic plates taken on 23 January and 29 January of that year. A lesser-quality photograph taken on January 21 confirmed the movement. Upon confirmation, Tombaugh walked into Slipher's office and declared, "Doctor Slipher, I have found your Planet X." The object lay just six degrees from one of two locations for Planet X  Lowell had suggested; thus it seemed he had at last been vindicated. After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs, news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13, 1930. The new object was later precovered on photographs dating back to 19 March 1915. The decision to name the object Pluto was intended in part to honour Percival Lowell, as his initials made up the word's first two letters. After discovering Pluto, Tombaugh continued to search the ecliptic for other distant objects. He found hundreds of  variable stars and asteroids, as well as two comets, but no further planets.

text: By the beginning of 1930, Tombaugh's search had reached the constellation of Gemini. On 18 February 1930, after searching for nearly a year and examining nearly 2 million stars, Tombaugh discovered a moving object on photographic plates taken on 23 January and 29 January of that year. A lesser-quality photograph taken on January 21 confirmed the movement. Upon confirmation, Tombaugh walked into Slipher's office and declared, "Doctor Slipher, I have found your Planet X." The object lay just six degrees from one of two locations for Planet X  Lowell had suggested; thus it seemed he had at last been vindicated. After the observatory obtained further confirmatory photographs, news of the discovery was telegraphed to the

text: Harvard College Observatory

text: on March 13, 1930. The new object was later

text: precovered

text: on photographs dating back to 19 March 1915. The decision to name the object Pluto was intended in part to honour Percival Lowell, as his initials made up the word's first two letters. After discovering Pluto, Tombaugh continued to search the ecliptic for other distant objects. He found hundreds of

text: variable star

text: s and

text: asteroids

text: , as well as two

text: comet

text: s, but no further planets.

text: According to this definition, there are eight known planets in the Solar System.  The definition distinguishes planets from smaller bodies and is not useful outside the Solar System, where smaller bodies cannot be found yet. Extrasolar planets, or exoplanets, are covered separately under a complementary 2003 draft guideline for the definition of planets, which distinguishes them from dwarf stars, which are larger.

text: According to this definition, there are

text: eight known planets

text: in the Solar System.  The definition distinguishes planets from smaller bodies and is not useful outside the Solar System, where smaller bodies cannot be found yet.

text: Extrasolar planet

text: s, or exoplanets, are covered separately under a complementary 2003 draft guideline for the definition of planets, which distinguishes them from dwarf stars, which are larger.

text: Astrologically speaking, Pluto is called "the great renewer", and is considered to represent the part of a person that destroys in order to renew, through bringing buried, but intense needs and drives to the surface, and expressing them, even at the expense of the existing order. A commonly used keyword for Pluto is "transformation". It is associated with power and personal mastery, and the need to cooperate and share with another, if each is not to be destroyed. Pluto governs big business and wealth, mining, surgery and detective work, and any enterprise that involves digging under the surface to bring the truth to light. Pluto is also associated with Tuesday, alongside Mars.

text: In 1980, in his paper On the existence of a comet belt beyond Neptune, Fernández proposed that periodic comets arrived too frequently into the inner Solar System to be accounted for solely by having arrived from the Oort cloud, and that a trans-Neptunian belt of comets at around 50 AU would be required to explain them.  Subsequent computer models by Martin Duncan, Tom Quinn and Scott Tremaine in Canada supported the view, and led eventually to the discovery of the Kuiper belt. Many astronomers, including David Jewitt, who discovered the belt, believe that Fernández deserves more credit than anyone else, including Gerard Kuiper, for predicting its existence.   He has subsequently published many papers on the trans-Neptunian population.

text: In 1980, in his paper On the existence of a comet belt beyond Neptune, Fernández proposed that

text: periodic comet

text: s arrived too frequently into the inner Solar System to be accounted for solely by having arrived from the

text: Oort cloud

text: , and that a trans-Neptunian belt of comets at around 50 AU would be required to explain them.  Subsequent computer models by Martin Duncan, Tom Quinn and

text: Scott Tremaine

text: in Canada supported the view, and led eventually to the discovery of the

text: Kuiper belt

text: . Many astronomers, including

text: David Jewitt

text: , who discovered the belt, believe that Fernández deserves more credit than anyone else, including

text: Gerard Kuiper

text: , for predicting its existence.   He has subsequently published many papers on the

text: trans-Neptunian

text: population.

text: The Water Works, also known as the Erie City Water Authority, took over the Erie Water Systems as of 1 January 1992. The Erie Times-News suggests that the Water Authority replaced the Water System in 1989.

text: In it McCarthy explores the lives of immorbid humans in the near future.  Nanotechnology has created wellstone, programmable matter that can emulate nearly any other form of matter, and nanotech fax machines that can not only fabricate objects on demand, but store and retrieve human bodies (with minds intact), cure disease or reverse aging, or be used as teleporters.  Ultradense exotic matter known as collapsium makes gravity engineering and faster-than-light communication possible.  Humanity has formed a solar system-wide society based on monarchy.

text: In it McCarthy explores the lives of

text: immorbid

text: humans in the near future.

text: Nanotechnology

text: has created wellstone,

text: programmable matter

text: that can emulate nearly any other form of matter, and nanotech

text: fax machine

text: s that can not only fabricate objects on demand, but store and retrieve human bodies (with minds intact), cure disease or reverse aging, or be used as

text: teleporter

text: s.  Ultradense

text: exotic matter

text: known as collapsium makes gravity engineering and

text: faster-than-light communication

text: possible.  Humanity has formed a solar system-wide society based on

text: monarchy

text: Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds.

text: Enceladus

text: , a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Another notable high-albedo body is

text: Eris

text: , with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and

text: asteroid belt

text: have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical

text: comet nucleus

text: has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily

text: space weathered

text: surface containing some

text: organic compound

text: s.

text: is its orbital angular velocity. That of Jupiter contributes the bulk of the Solar System's angular momentum, 60.3%. Then comes Saturn at 24.5%, Neptune at 7.9%, and Uranus at 5.3%. The Sun forms a counterbalance to all of the planets, so it is near the barycenter when Jupiter is on one side and the other three jovian planets are diametrically opposite on the other side, but the Sun moves to 2.17 solar radii away from the barycenter when all jovian planets are in line on other side. The orbital angular momenta of the Sun and all non-jovian planets, moons, and small Solar System bodies, as well as the axial rotation momenta of all bodies, including the Sun, total only about 2%.

text: is its orbital angular velocity. That of Jupiter contributes the bulk of the Solar System's angular momentum, 60.3%. Then comes Saturn at 24.5%, Neptune at 7.9%, and Uranus at 5.3%. The

text: Sun

text: forms a counterbalance to all of the planets, so it is near the barycenter when Jupiter is on one side and the other three jovian planets are diametrically opposite on the other side, but the Sun moves to 2.17 solar radii away from the barycenter when all jovian planets are in line on other side. The orbital angular momenta of the Sun and all non-jovian planets, moons, and

text: small Solar System bodies

text: , as well as the axial rotation momenta of all bodies, including the Sun, total only about 2%.

text: A putative Solar System planet located millennia ago in the Main Asteroid Belt and destroyed by "warring forces from Yuggoth and Shaggai".

text: A putative

text: Solar System

text: planet located millennia ago in the

text: Main Asteroid Belt

text: and destroyed by "warring forces from Yuggoth and Shaggai".

text: Earth, Moon, and Planets focuses on original research articles on formation of stars and planets, evolution of the Solar System including its origin, and the evolution of extra-solar systems including their origins. The focus also includes asteroids, comets, meteoroids, and near-Earth objects, Earth impact hazards, the Solar System-Earth relationship, and related topics. Research coverage encompasses physical and chemical properties of the above-mentioned celestial bodies, and their related chaotic behavior.

text: Earth, Moon, and Planets focuses on

text: original research

text: articles on

text: formation of stars

text: and

text: planets

text: , evolution of the

text: Solar System

text: including its origin, and the evolution of extra-solar systems including their origins. The focus also includes

text: asteroid

text: s,

text: comet

text: s,

text: meteoroid

text: s, and near-Earth objects, Earth impact hazards, the Solar System-Earth relationship, and related topics. Research coverage encompasses

text: physical

text: and

text: chemical properties

text: of the above-mentioned celestial bodies, and their related chaotic behavior.

text: Hygiea is the main member of the Hygiea family and contains almost all the mass  (well over 90%) in this family. It is the largest of the class of dark C-type asteroids that are dominant in the outer asteroid belt—which lie beyond the Kirkwood gap at 2.82 AU. Hygiea appears to have a noticeably oblate spheroid shape, with an average diameter of 444 ± 35 km and a semimajor axis ratio of 1.11. This is much more than for the other objects in the "big four"—2 Pallas, 4 Vesta and the dwarf planet Ceres. Aside from being the smallest of the four, Hygiea, like Ceres, has a relatively low density, which is more comparable to the icy satellites of Jupiter or Saturn than to the terrestrial planets or the stony asteroids.

text: Hygiea is the main member of the

text: Hygiea family

text: and contains almost all the mass  (well over 90%) in this family. It is the largest of the class of dark

text: C-type asteroid

text: s that are dominant in the outer

text: asteroid belt

text: —which lie beyond the

text: Kirkwood gap

text: at 2.82 AU. Hygiea appears to have a noticeably

text: oblate spheroid

text: shape, with an average diameter of 444 ± 35 km and a semimajor axis ratio of 1.11. This is much more than for the other objects in the "

text: big four

text: 2 Pallas

text: 4 Vesta

text: and the

text: dwarf planet

text: Ceres

text: . Aside from being the smallest of the four, Hygiea, like Ceres, has a relatively low density, which is more comparable to the icy satellites of

text: Jupiter

text: or

text: Saturn

text: than to the

text: terrestrial planet

text: s or the stony asteroids.

text: In this initial model the number of planetesimals that would reach the Moon is consistent with the crater record from the LHB. Impacts onto Jupiter's moons are sufficient to trigger Ganymede's differentiation but not Callisto's. However, significant differences with observations have also been identified. The orbital distribution of the surviving asteroid belt has an excess of high inclination objects due to the secular resonances exciting inclinations and also removing low inclination objects. During Jupiter and Saturn's slow approach to the 2:1 resonance leading up to the LHB Mars's eccentricity can reach a level that results in the destabilization of the inner Solar System. The eccentricities of the other terrestrial planets can also be excited beyond current levels by sweeping secular resonances. In the outer Solar System the impacts of icy planetesimals onto Saturn's inner moons are sufficient to vaporize their ice. These issue provided motivations for modifications to the initial Nice model.

text: In this initial model the number of

text: planetesimal

text: s that would reach the Moon is consistent with the crater record from the LHB. Impacts onto Jupiter's moons are sufficient to trigger Ganymede's differentiation but not Callisto's. However, significant differences with observations have also been identified. The orbital distribution of the surviving asteroid belt has an excess of high inclination objects due to the secular resonances exciting inclinations and also removing low inclination objects. During Jupiter and Saturn's slow approach to the 2:1 resonance leading up to the LHB Mars's eccentricity can reach a level that results in the destabilization of the inner Solar System. The eccentricities of the other terrestrial planets can also be excited beyond current levels by sweeping secular resonances. In the outer Solar System the impacts of icy planetesimals onto Saturn's inner moons are sufficient to vaporize their ice. These issue provided motivations for modifications to the initial Nice model.

text: In a 2009 interview with the Discovery Channel, Mike Brown noted that, while it is not impossible that the Sun has a distant planetary companion, such an object would have to be lying very far from the observed regions of the Solar System to have no detectable gravitational effect on the other planets. A Mars-sized object could lie undetected at 300 AU (10 times the distance of Neptune); a Jupiter-sized object at 30,000 AU. To travel 1000 AU in two years, an object would need to be moving at 2400 km/s – faster than the galactic escape velocity. At that speed, any object would be shot out of the Solar System, and then out of the Milky Way galaxy into intergalactic space.

text: In a 2009 interview with the

text: Discovery Channel

text: , Mike Brown noted that, while it is not impossible that the Sun has a distant planetary companion, such an object would have to be lying very far from the observed regions of the Solar System to have no detectable gravitational effect on the other planets. A Mars-sized object could lie undetected at 300

text: AU

text: (10 times the distance of Neptune); a Jupiter-sized object at 30,000 AU. To travel 1000 AU in two years, an object would need to be moving at 2400 km/s – faster than the galactic

text: escape velocity

text: . At that speed, any object would be shot out of the Solar System, and then out of the

text: Milky Way

text: galaxy into intergalactic space.

text: Below is a list of artificial objects leaving the Solar System. All of these objects are space probes and their upper stages launched by NASA. It does not include those missions that went into orbit around planets, or into orbit around the Sun because they are not leaving the Solar System.

text: Below is a list of artificial objects leaving the

text: Solar System

text: . All of these objects are space probes and their upper stages launched by

text: NASA

text: . It does not include those missions that went into orbit around planets, or into orbit around the Sun because they are not leaving the Solar System.

text: A comet and its dust allow investigation of the Solar System beyond the main planetary orbits. Comets are distinguished by their orbits; long period comets have long elliptical orbits, randomly inclined to the plane of the Solar System, and with periods greater than 200 years. Short period comets are usually inclined less than 30 degrees to the plane of the Solar System, revolve around the Sun in the same counterclockwise direction as the planets orbit, and have periods less than 200 years.

text: A comet and its dust allow investigation of the Solar System beyond the main planetary orbits. Comets are distinguished by their orbits; long period comets have long elliptical orbits, randomly inclined to the plane of the Solar System, and with periods greater than 200 years.

text: Short period comets

text: are usually inclined less than 30 degrees to the plane of the Solar System, revolve around the Sun in the same counterclockwise direction as the planets orbit, and have periods less than 200 years.

text: 174567 Varda  (Quenya: ), provisional designation , is a trans-Neptunian object with an absolute magnitude of 3.5. It is highly likely to be a dwarf planet.

text: 174567 Varda  (

text: Quenya

text: provisional designation

text: , is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: with an

text: absolute magnitude

text: of 3.5. It is highly likely to be a

text: dwarf planet

text: In the early 2000s many new, relatively large planetary bodies were found beyond Pluto, and with orbits extending hundreds of AU out past the heliosheath (90–1000 AU). The NASA probe New Horizons may explore this area now that it has performed its Pluto flyby in 2015 (Pluto's orbit ranges from about 29–49 AU). Some of these large objects past Pluto include 136199 , 136108 , 136472 , and 90377 Sedna. Sedna comes as close as 76 AU, but travels out as far as 961 AU at aphelion, and minor planet  goes out past 1060 AU at aphelion. Bodies like these affect how the Solar System is understood, and traverse an area previously only in the domain of interstellar missions or precursor probes. After the discoveries, the area is also in the domain of interplanetary probes; some of the discovered bodies may become targets for exploration missions, an example of which is preliminary work on a probe to Haumea and its moons (at 35–51 AU). Probe mass, power source, and propulsion systems are key technology areas for this type of mission. In addition, a probe beyond 550 AU could use the Sun itself as a gravitational lens to observe targets outside the Solar System, such as planetary systems around other nearby stars, although many challenges to this mission have been noted.

text: In the early 2000s many new, relatively large planetary bodies were found beyond Pluto, and with orbits extending hundreds of AU out past the heliosheath (90–1000 AU). The NASA probe New Horizons may explore this area now that it has performed its Pluto flyby in 2015 (Pluto's orbit ranges from about 29–49 AU). Some of these large objects past Pluto include 136199 , 136108 , 136472 , and

text: 90377 Sedna

text: . Sedna comes as close as 76 AU, but travels out as far as 961 AU at aphelion, and minor planet  goes out past 1060 AU at aphelion. Bodies like these affect how the Solar System is understood, and traverse an area previously only in the domain of interstellar missions or precursor probes. After the discoveries, the area is also in the domain of interplanetary probes; some of the discovered bodies may become targets for exploration missions, an example of which is preliminary work on a probe to Haumea and its moons (at 35–51 AU). Probe mass, power source, and propulsion systems are key technology areas for this type of mission. In addition, a probe beyond 550 AU could use the Sun itself as a

text: gravitational lens

text: to observe targets outside the Solar System, such as planetary systems around other nearby stars, although many challenges to this mission have been noted.

text: The extra-solar environment is chosen by Leinster in order to convey the feeling of an ever-expanding frontier - Sol's own Asteroid Belt has become "tame", as did the rings of Saturn, and the rough adventurous types move further on. (Leinster's  historical model is obviously the recurring Gold Rush of the Nineteenth Century, drawing adventurers in 1840s from the settled East Coast to wild California, and in 1890s from settled California to the wild Klondike.)

text: The extra-solar environment is chosen by Leinster in order to convey the feeling of an ever-expanding frontier - Sol's own

text: Asteroid Belt

text: has become "tame", as did the rings of

text: Saturn

text: , and the rough adventurous types move further on. (Leinster's  historical model is obviously the recurring

text: Gold Rush

text: of the Nineteenth Century, drawing adventurers in 1840s from the settled East Coast to wild California, and in 1890s from settled California to the wild

text: Klondike

text: Most meteoroids come from the asteroid belt, having been perturbed by the gravitational influences of planets, but others are particles from comets, giving rise to meteor showers. Some meteoroids are pieces of planets or moons, such as Mars or our moon, that have been thrown into space by an impact.

text: Most meteoroids come from the

text: asteroid belt

text: , having been perturbed by the gravitational influences of planets, but others are particles from

text: comet

text: s, giving rise to

text: meteor shower

text: s. Some meteoroids are pieces of planets or moons, such as Mars or

text: our moon

text: , that have been thrown into space by an impact.

text: The Comets were followed the next season by the Kansas City Attack of the National Professional Soccer League; this team was known as the "Kansas City Comets" from 2001–2005. In 2010 the Missouri Comets, based in nearby Independence, joined the new Major Indoor Soccer League, carrying on the legacy of the original Comets.

text: The Comets were followed the next season by the

text: Kansas City Attack

text: of the

entity_name: National Professional Soccer League (1984–2001)

text: National Professional Soccer League

text: ; this team was known as the "Kansas City Comets" from 2001–2005. In 2010 the

text: Missouri Comets

text: , based in nearby

text: Independence

text: , joined the new

text: Major Indoor Soccer League

text: , carrying on the legacy of the original Comets.

text: Estimating the sizes of asteroids from observations is difficult due to their irregular shapes, varying albedo (reflectivity), and small angular diameter. For example, pure C-type asteroids are much darker than most. Asteroids with only one or two axes measured may have a falsely inflated geometric mean diameter if the unknown second and/or third axis is noticeably smaller than the primary axis. Asteroid 16 Psyche has an IRAS diameter of 253 km, yet has a more recent and accurate geometric mean of only 186 km.

text: Estimating the sizes of asteroids from observations is difficult due to their irregular shapes, varying

text: albedo

text: reflectivity

text: ), and small

text: angular diameter

text: . For example, pure

text: C-type asteroid

text: s are much darker than most. Asteroids with only one or two axes measured may have a falsely inflated

text: geometric mean

text: diameter if the unknown second and/or third axis is noticeably smaller than the primary axis. Asteroid

text: 16 Psyche

text: has an

text: IRAS

text: diameter of 253 km, yet has a more recent and accurate

text: geometric mean

text: of only 186 km.

text: Hiʻiaka is the larger, outer moon of the dwarf planet Haumea.

text: Hiʻiaka is the larger, outer

text: moon of

text: the

text: dwarf planet

text: Haumea

text: During its period of migration, Neptune is thought to have captured a large KBO, Triton, which is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit (it orbits opposite to Neptune's rotation). This suggests that, unlike the large moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, which are thought to have coalesced from rotating discs of material around their young parent planets, Triton was a fully formed body that was captured from surrounding space. Gravitational capture of an object is not easy: it requires some mechanism to slow down the object enough to be caught by the larger object's gravity. A possible explanation is that Triton was part of a binary when it encountered Neptune. (Many KBOs are members of binaries. See below.) Ejection of the other member of the binary by Neptune could then explain Triton's capture. Triton is only 14% larger than Pluto, and spectral analysis of both worlds shows that their surfaces are largely composed of similar materials, such as methane and carbon monoxide. All this points to the conclusion that Triton was once a KBO that was captured by Neptune during its outward migration.

text: During its period of migration, Neptune is thought to have captured a large KBO,

text: Triton

text: , which is the only large moon in the Solar System with a

text: retrograde orbit

text: (it orbits opposite to Neptune's rotation). This suggests that, unlike the large moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, which are thought to have coalesced from rotating discs of material around their young parent planets, Triton was a fully formed body that was captured from surrounding space. Gravitational capture of an object is not easy: it requires some mechanism to slow down the object enough to be caught by the larger object's gravity. A possible explanation is that Triton was part of a binary when it encountered Neptune. (Many KBOs are members of binaries. See

text: below

text: .) Ejection of the other member of the binary by Neptune could then explain Triton's capture. Triton is only 14% larger than Pluto, and spectral analysis of both worlds shows that their surfaces are largely composed of similar materials, such as

text: methane

text: and

text: carbon monoxide

text: . All this points to the conclusion that Triton was once a KBO that was captured by Neptune during its

text: outward migration

text: In October 2010, NASA extended the mission by one month with a program called Near-Earth Object WISE (NEOWISE). Due to its success, the program was extended a further three months. The focus was to look for asteroids and comets close to Earth orbit, using the remaining post-cryogenic detection capability (two of four detectors on WISE work without cryogen). In February 2011, NASA announced that NEOWISE had discovered many new objects in the Solar System, including twenty comets. During its primary and extended missions, the spacecraft delivered characterizations of 158,000 minor planets, including more than 35,000 newly discovered objects.

text: For a more complete list, see List of Solar System objects by size. Other large asteroids such as 423 Diotima currently only have estimated masses.

text: For a more complete list, see

text: List of Solar System objects by size

text: . Other large asteroids such as

text: 423 Diotima

text: currently only have estimated masses.

text: Boötes is home to the Quadrantid meteor shower, the most prolific annual meteor shower. It was discovered in January 1835 and named in 1864 by Alexander Hershell. The radiant is located in northern Boötes near Kappa Boötis, in its namesake former constellation of Quadrans Muralis. Quadrantid meteors are dim, but have a peak visible hourly rate of approximately 100 per hour on January 3–4. The zenithal hourly rate of the Quadrantids is approximately 130 meteors per hour at their peak; it is also a very narrow shower. The Quadrantids are notoriously difficult to observe because of a low radiant and often inclement weather. The parent body of the meteor shower has been disputed for decades; however, Peter Jenniskens has proposed 2003 EH, a minor planet, as the parent. 2003 EH may be linked to C/1490 Y, a comet previously thought to be a potential parent body for the Quadrantids. 2003 EH is a short-period comet of the Jupiter family; 500 years ago, it experienced a catastrophic breakup event. It is now dormant. The Quadrantids had notable displays in 1982, 1985, and 2004. Meteors from this shower often appear to have a blue hue and travel at a moderate speed of 41.5–43 kilometers per second.

text: Boötes is home to the

text: Quadrantid

text: meteor shower, the most prolific annual meteor shower. It was discovered in January 1835 and named in 1864 by Alexander Hershell. The

text: radiant

text: is located in northern Boötes near Kappa Boötis, in its namesake former constellation of

text: Quadrans Muralis

text: . Quadrantid meteors are dim, but have a peak visible hourly rate of approximately 100 per hour on January 3–4. The

text: zenithal hourly rate

text: of the Quadrantids is approximately 130 meteors per hour at their peak; it is also a very narrow shower. The Quadrantids are notoriously difficult to observe because of a low radiant and often inclement weather. The parent body of the meteor shower has been disputed for decades; however,

text: Peter Jenniskens

text: has proposed

text: 2003 EH

text: , a minor planet, as the parent. 2003 EH may be linked to

text: C/1490 Y

text: , a comet previously thought to be a potential parent body for the Quadrantids. 2003 EH is a

text: short-period comet

text: of the

text: Jupiter family

text: ; 500 years ago, it experienced a catastrophic breakup event. It is now dormant. The Quadrantids had notable displays in 1982, 1985, and 2004. Meteors from this shower often appear to have a blue hue and travel at a moderate speed of 41.5–43 kilometers per second.

text: The sources of interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) include at least: asteroid collisions, cometary activity and collisions in the inner Solar System, Kuiper belt collisions, and interstellar medium grains (Backman, D., 1997). Indeed, one of the longest-standing controversies debated in the interplanetary dust community revolves around the relative contributions to the interplanetary dust cloud from asteroid collisions and cometary activity.

text: The sources of interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) include at least: asteroid collisions,

text: comet

text: ary activity and collisions in the inner Solar System,

text: Kuiper belt

text: collisions, and

text: interstellar medium

text: grains (Backman, D., 1997). Indeed, one of the longest-standing controversies debated in the interplanetary dust community revolves around the relative contributions to the interplanetary dust cloud from asteroid collisions and cometary activity.

text: The dust is thought to be generated by collisions among comets and asteroids. Radiation pressure from the star will push the dust particles away into interstellar space over a relatively short timescale. Therefore, the detection of dust indicates continual replenishment by new collisions, and provides strong indirect evidence of the presence of small bodies like comets and asteroids that orbit the parent star. For example, the dust disk around the star tau Ceti indicates that that star has a population of objects analogous to our own Solar System's Kuiper Belt, but at least ten times thicker.

text: The dust is thought to be generated by collisions among comets and asteroids.

text: Radiation pressure

text: from the star will push the dust particles away into interstellar space over a relatively short timescale. Therefore, the detection of dust indicates continual replenishment by new collisions, and provides strong indirect evidence of the presence of small bodies like comets and

text: asteroid

text: s that orbit the parent star. For example, the dust disk around the star

text: tau Ceti

text: indicates that that star has a population of objects analogous to our own Solar System's

text: Kuiper Belt

text: , but at least ten times thicker.

text: As objects increasingly closer in size to Pluto were discovered in the region, it was argued that Pluto should be reclassified as one of the Kuiper belt objects, just as Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta eventually lost their planet status after the discovery of many other asteroids. On July 29, 2005, astronomers at Caltech announced the discovery of a new trans-Neptunian object, Eris, which was substantially more massive than Pluto and the most massive object discovered in the Solar System since Triton in 1846. Its discoverers and the press initially called it the tenth planet, although there was no official consensus at the time on whether to call it a planet. Others in the astronomical community considered the discovery the strongest argument for reclassifying Pluto as a minor planet.

text: As objects increasingly closer in size to Pluto were discovered in the region, it was argued that Pluto should be reclassified as one of the Kuiper belt objects, just as

text: Ceres

text: Pallas

text: Juno

text: and

text: Vesta

text: eventually lost their planet status after the discovery of many other

text: asteroid

text: s. On July 29, 2005, astronomers at

text: Caltech

text: announced the discovery of a new

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: Eris

text: , which was substantially more massive than Pluto and the most massive object discovered in the Solar System since

text: Triton

text: in 1846. Its discoverers and the press initially called it the

text: tenth planet

text: , although there was no official consensus at the time on whether to call it a planet. Others in the astronomical community considered the discovery the strongest argument for reclassifying Pluto as a minor planet.

text: In the various Disney theme park resorts around the world, Pluto is a meetable character just like many of his film co-stars. Pluto, however, uncharacteristically walks on two legs in this capacity out of necessity. Adults and children are able to meet, play with, and get autographs and pictures with Pluto and his friends at all Disney parks.

text: The Alpha Monocerotids is a meteor shower with the international acronym AMO active in November, not to be confused with the December Monocerotids, international acronym MON. The swarm is visible every year from 15 to 25 November; its peak occurs on 21 or 22 November. The speed of its meteors is 65 km/s. Normally it has a low Zenithal Hourly Rate (ZHR), but occasionally it produces remarkable meteor storms that last less than an hour: such outbursts were observed in 1925, 1935, 1985, and 1995. Peter Jenniskens predicted the 1995 return based on the hypothesis that these outbursts were caused by the dust trail of a long period comet occasionally wandering in Earth's path due to planetary perturbations. During observations in southern Spain, assisted by a team of observers of the Dutch Meteor Society, Jenniskens confirmed that the meteoroids were moving in a long-period comet orbit. The outburst of 1995 allowed researchers to determine the exact radiant of the swarm and the solar longitude of its peak as well as to confirm the brevity of Alpha Monocerotids outbursts as less than one hour. The parent body, probably a long-period comet, is unknown.

text: The Alpha Monocerotids is a

text: meteor shower

text: with the international acronym AMO active in November, not to be confused with the

text: December Monocerotids

text: , international acronym MON. The swarm is visible every year from 15 to 25 November; its peak occurs on 21 or 22 November. The speed of its meteors is 65 km/s. Normally it has a low

text: Zenithal Hourly Rate

text: (ZHR), but occasionally it produces remarkable meteor storms that last less than an hour: such outbursts were observed in 1925, 1935, 1985, and 1995.

text: Peter Jenniskens

text: predicted the 1995 return based on the hypothesis that these outbursts were caused by the dust trail of a long period comet occasionally wandering in Earth's path due to planetary perturbations. During observations in southern Spain, assisted by a team of observers of the

text: Dutch Meteor Society

text: , Jenniskens confirmed that the meteoroids were moving in a long-period comet orbit. The outburst of 1995 allowed researchers to determine the exact

text: radiant

text: of the swarm and the

text: solar longitude

text: of its peak as well as to confirm the brevity of Alpha Monocerotids outbursts as less than one hour. The parent body, probably a long-period

text: comet

text: , is unknown.

text: has been found to be a member of the Haumea family fragment due to its Haumea-like orbit and the detection of water ice on its surface. This means  could have an albedo of up to 0.7, resulting in a small size close to . However, its actual albedo is unknown; if its albedo turns out to be lower, it would result in a larger size estimate.

text: has been found to be a member of the

text: Haumea family

text: fragment due to its Haumea-like orbit and the detection of water ice on its surface. This means  could have an albedo of up to 0.7, resulting in a small size close to . However, its actual albedo is unknown; if its albedo turns out to be lower, it would result in a larger size estimate.

text: is a science that deals with meteorites and other extraterrestrial materials that further our understanding of the origin and history of the Solar System. It is closely connected to cosmochemistry, mineralogy and geochemistry. A specialist who studies meteoritics is known as a meteoriticist.

text: is a science that deals with

text: meteorites

text: and other extraterrestrial materials that further our understanding of the origin and history of the

text: Solar System

text: . It is closely connected to

text: cosmochemistry

text: mineralogy

text: and

text: geochemistry

text: . A specialist who studies meteoritics is known as a meteoriticist.

text: Oort cloud comets are continually perturbed by their environment. A non-negligible fraction leaves the Solar System or finds its way into the inner system. It should therefore have been depleted long ago, but it has not. The Hills cloud theory addresses the longevity of the Oort cloud by postulating a densely populated inner Oort region. Objects ejected from the Hills cloud are likely to end up in the classical Oort cloud region, maintaining the Oort cloud. It is likely that the Hills cloud is the largest concentration of comets in the whole Solar System.

text: Oort cloud comets are continually perturbed by their environment. A non-negligible fraction leaves the

text: Solar System

text: or finds its way into the inner system. It should therefore have been depleted long ago, but it has not. The Hills cloud theory addresses the longevity of the Oort cloud by postulating a densely populated inner Oort region. Objects ejected from the Hills cloud are likely to end up in the classical Oort cloud region, maintaining the Oort cloud. It is likely that the Hills cloud is the largest concentration of comets in the whole Solar System.

text: Previously, when applying the alternative Pb-Pb ischron diagram, the U/U isotope ratios were assumed to be invariant among meteoritic material. However, it has been shown that U/U ratios are variable among meteoritic material. To accommodate this, U-corrected Pb-Pb dating analysis is used to generate ages for the oldest solid material in the solar system using a revised U/U value of 137.786 ± 0.013 to represent the mean U/U isotope ratio bulk inner solar system materials.

text: This is a list of Solar System objects by greatest aphelion or the greatest distance from the Sun that the orbit takes it. For the purposes of this list it is implied that the object is orbiting the Sun in a two-body solution without influence of the planets or passing stars. The aphelion can change significantly due to the gravitational influence of planets and other stars. Most of these objects are comets on a calculated path and may not be directly observable.

text: This is a list of Solar System objects by greatest aphelion or the greatest distance from the Sun that the orbit takes it. For the purposes of this list it is implied that the object is orbiting the Sun

text: in a two-body solution

text: without influence of the planets or passing stars. The aphelion can change significantly due to the gravitational influence of planets and other stars. Most of these objects are comets on a calculated path and may not be directly observable.

text: From 1992 onward, many bodies were discovered orbiting in the same area as Pluto, showing that Pluto is part of a population of objects called the Kuiper belt. This made its official status as a planet controversial, with many questioning whether Pluto should be considered together with or separately from its surrounding population. Museum and planetarium directors occasionally created controversy by omitting Pluto from planetary models of the Solar System. The Hayden Planetarium reopened—in February 2000, after renovation—with a model of only eight planets, which made headlines almost a year later.

text: From 1992 onward, many bodies were discovered orbiting in the same area as Pluto, showing that Pluto is part of a population of objects called the

text: Kuiper belt

text: . This made its official status as a planet controversial, with many questioning whether Pluto should be considered together with or separately from its surrounding population. Museum and planetarium directors occasionally created controversy by omitting Pluto from planetary models of the Solar System. The

text: Hayden Planetarium

text: reopened—in February 2000, after renovation—with a model of only eight planets, which made headlines almost a year later.

text: While the first telescope has been proposed for use as the basis for WFIRST, NASA currently does not have plans or funding for the usage of the second. Astronomers have begun to study possible additional uses, and NASA is considering dozens of proposals; the only prohibition is Earth observation, a condition of the NRO donation. Possibilities include observing Earth's aurora and ionosphere, or asteroids and other faint objects within the solar system. NASA has also suggested that the telescope could be sent to Mars, photographing the surface with a resolution about four times finer than the current Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter's HiRISE instrument. From Martian orbit the telescope could also view the outer Solar System and the asteroid belt.

text: While the first telescope has been proposed for use as the basis for WFIRST, NASA currently does not have plans or funding for the usage of the second. Astronomers have begun to study possible additional uses, and NASA is considering dozens of proposals; the only prohibition is Earth observation, a condition of the NRO donation. Possibilities include observing Earth's aurora and ionosphere, or asteroids and other faint objects within the solar system. NASA has also suggested that the telescope could be sent to

text: Mars

text: , photographing the surface with a resolution about four times finer than the current

text: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: 's

text: HiRISE

text: instrument. From Martian orbit the telescope could also view the

text: outer Solar System

text: and the

text: asteroid belt

text: In July 2008, in accordance with IAU rules for classical Kuiper belt objects,  was given the name of a creator deity. The name of Makemake, the creator of humanity and god of fertility in the mythos of the Rapa Nui, the native people of Easter Island, was chosen in part to preserve the object's connection with Easter.

text: In July 2008, in accordance with IAU rules for classical Kuiper belt objects,  was given the name of a

text: creator deity

text: . The name of

text: Makemake

text: , the creator of humanity and god of fertility in the mythos of the

text: Rapa Nui

text: , the native people of

text: Easter Island

text: , was chosen in part to preserve the object's connection with Easter.

text: He is discoverer or co-discoverer of many astronomical bodies in the solar system, asteroids, Kuiper Belt comets, and many moons of the giant planets:

text: He is discoverer or co-discoverer of many astronomical bodies in the

text: solar system

text: , asteroids, Kuiper Belt comets, and many

text: moons

text: of the giant planets:

text: The provisional designation  was given to Makemake when the discovery was made public. Before that, the discovery team used the codename "Easterbunny" for the object, because of its discovery shortly after Easter.

text: The

text: provisional designation

text: was given to Makemake when the discovery was made public. Before that, the discovery team used the codename "

text: Easterbunny

text: " for the object, because of its discovery shortly after

text: Easter

text: Comet C/2006 M4 is in a hyperbolic trajectory (with an osculating eccentricity larger than 1) during its passage through the inner solar system. After leaving the influence of the planets, the eccentricity will drop below 1 and it will remain bound to the Solar System as an Oort cloud comet.

text: Comet C/2006 M4 is in a

text: hyperbolic trajectory

text: (with an

text: osculating eccentricity

text: solar system

text: . After leaving the influence of the planets, the eccentricity will drop below 1 and it will remain bound to the Solar System as an

text: Oort cloud

text: comet.

text: Acquiring a larger sample of such objects would help in determining which scenario is most likely. "I call Sedna a fossil record of the earliest Solar System", said Brown in 2006. "Eventually, when other fossil records are found, Sedna will help tell us how the Sun formed and the number of stars that were close to the Sun when it formed." A 2007–2008 survey by Brown, Rabinowitz and Megan Schwamb attempted to locate another member of Sedna's hypothetical population. Although the survey was sensitive to movement out to 1,000 AU and discovered the likely dwarf planet , it detected no new sednoid. Subsequent simulations incorporating the new data suggested about 40 Sedna-sized objects probably exist in this region, with the brightest being about Eris's magnitude (−1.0).

text: In a world of fantasy far away, a shower of meteorites called Starfall dominates a time in history. The meteorites lie about everywhere pulsing with radioactive power which the people of the land scramble to exploit. Of the people only three professions had the power to exploit the radioactive stones; Mages, Mageslayers, and Lorethanes. The Mages, in their hungry studies of the meteorites, gained knowledge of the use of the stones and gained terrible power. Consumed by their lust for the power of the stones, they dominated over all.

text: It is not known how an outer Solar System body like the other comets could have made its way into a low-eccentricity orbit typical of the asteroid belt, which is only weakly perturbed by the planets. Hence it is assumed that unlike other comets, the main-belt comets are simply icy asteroids, which formed in an inner Solar System orbit close to their present positions, and that many outer asteroids may be icy.

text: When found, asteroids were seen as a class of objects distinct from comets, and there was no unified term for the two until "small Solar System body" was coined in 2006. The main difference between an asteroid and a comet is that a comet shows a coma due to sublimation of near surface ices by solar radiation. A few objects have ended up being dual-listed because they were first classified as minor planets but later showed evidence of cometary activity. Conversely, some (perhaps all) comets are eventually depleted of their surface volatile ices and become asteroid-like. A further distinction is that comets typically have more eccentric orbits than most asteroids; most "asteroids" with notably eccentric orbits are probably dormant or extinct comets.

text: When found, asteroids were seen as a class of objects distinct from comets, and there was no unified term for the two until "small Solar System body" was coined in 2006. The main difference between an asteroid and a comet is that a comet shows a coma due to

text: sublimation

text: of near surface ices by solar radiation. A few objects have ended up being dual-listed because they were first classified as minor planets but later showed evidence of cometary activity. Conversely, some (perhaps all) comets are eventually depleted of their surface

text: volatile ices

text: and become asteroid-like. A further distinction is that comets typically have more eccentric orbits than most asteroids; most "asteroids" with notably eccentric orbits are probably dormant or extinct comets.

text: Oort cloud comets are constantly disturbed by their surroundings and distant objects. A significant number either leave the Solar System or go much closer to the Sun. The Oort cloud should therefore have broken apart long ago, but it still remains intact. The Hills cloud theory could provide an explanation; JG Hills and other scientists suggest that it could replenish the comets in the outer Oort cloud.

text: The discovery occurred as part of the Lulin Sky Survey project to identify small objects in the Solar System, particularly Near-Earth Objects.  The comet was named "Comet Lulin" after the observatory, and its official designation is Comet C/2007 N3.

text: The discovery occurred as part of the

text: Lulin Sky Survey

text: project to identify small objects in the

text: Solar System

text: , particularly

text: Near-Earth Object

text: s.  The comet was named "Comet Lulin" after the observatory, and its official designation is Comet C/2007 N3.

text: Conrail began operations on the Erie Lackawanna and other Northeastern rail lines on April 1, 1976. The Erie Lackawanna mainline west of Marion, Ohio, was not conveyed to Conrail because of the Erie Lackawanna's 11th hour entry into the Final System Plan. The ownership of this line remained with the Erie Lackawanna Estate, which was a holding company to which all of the railroad's outstanding debt was  transferred. However, since all locomotives and rolling stock were conveyed to Conrail, Conrail was responsible for continuing freight service to customers along the Erie Lackawanna mainline. The condition of this service was only until a suitable short line could assume operations. Conrail's local freight service lasted from April 1976 until early 1977 when Erie Western was formed and began operations.

text: The GUI builder included a drag-and-drop based system for constructing visual objects. SK8 did not have traditional "screens"; it used an invisible "Stage" object that served as the background for managing events and visual objects. One interesting aspect was that no windows, in the traditional sense, were needed or expected to display anything. In fact, any visual object could have window-like behavior (through its drag-and-drop and other smart properties).  SK8 did, however, include a system for editing and programming complete menu bars, a feature that HyperCard lacked. Another oft-requested feature from HyperCard was a media editor, which allowed Macintosh resources to be moved in and out of the project. SK8 built this functionality into the IDE. Other components of the system included an online documentation system, lists of systemwide objects and commands, and the code editor and debugger windows.

text: The GUI builder included a drag-and-drop based system for constructing visual objects. SK8 did not have traditional "screens"; it used an invisible "Stage" object that served as the background for managing events and visual objects. One interesting aspect was that no windows, in the traditional sense, were needed or expected to display anything. In fact, any visual object could have window-like behavior (through its drag-and-drop and other smart properties).  SK8 did, however, include a system for editing and programming complete

text: menu bar

text: s, a feature that HyperCard lacked. Another oft-requested feature from HyperCard was a media editor, which allowed Macintosh resources to be moved in and out of the project. SK8 built this functionality into the IDE. Other components of the system included an online documentation system, lists of systemwide objects and commands, and the code editor and debugger windows.

text: Although meteorites fall uniformly across the globe they do not typically remain on the surface in areas with a large amount of yearly rainfall. If a newly fallen meteorite is not recovered within a few months it is likely to be buried with alluvium or covered by plant growth.  Some arctic and desert regions have proven to be well-suited to preserving meteorites, and can provide excellent surfaces for hunting visually.

text: The Belt Community: Being as the asteroid belt is ungovernably large, the Belt community consists of widely spread independent and corporate mining operations, with Ceres at its core as the primary trading post. Although conventional law enforcement throughout the belt is impossible, Ceres itself is governed under the just (if not heavy-handed) watch of the Autocrat. Once plagued by rock wars (vicious skirmishes which typically arose due to disputes over mining rights), the death penalty has been frequently employed to keep the population in check. Although the secrets of the Autocrat are closely guarded, the Belt Community has developed a device called the Core cracker, and quite seriously offered to blow up the planet Mercury both to create a second asteroid belt and assist VISOR in the terraforming of Venus.

text: The Belt Community: Being as the

text: asteroid belt

text: is ungovernably large, the Belt community consists of widely spread independent and corporate mining operations, with

text: Ceres

text: at its core as the primary trading post. Although conventional law enforcement throughout the belt is impossible, Ceres itself is governed under the just (if not heavy-handed) watch of the

text: Autocrat

text: . Once plagued by rock wars (vicious skirmishes which typically arose due to disputes over mining rights), the

text: death penalty

text: has been frequently employed to keep the population in check. Although the secrets of the Autocrat are closely guarded, the Belt Community has developed a device called the

text: Core cracker

text: , and quite seriously offered to blow up the planet

text: Mercury

text: both to create a second asteroid belt and assist VISOR in the

text: terraforming of Venus

text: Flt Lt Swiney reported the sighting of the three saucer objects to his Ground Control at RAF Sopley, and abruptly cancelled the training flight.Lt Crofts asked whether to pursue the three objects, but Flt Lt Swiney declined. The three objects crossed over the Meteor's path, from left to right (starboard). The objects remained on their starboard side. In a fraction of a second, the objects disappeared.

text: Flt Lt Swiney reported the sighting of the three saucer objects to his

text: Ground Control

text: at

text: RAF Sopley

text: , and abruptly cancelled the training flight.Lt Crofts asked whether to pursue the three objects, but Flt Lt Swiney declined. The three objects crossed over the Meteor's path, from left to right (starboard). The objects remained on their starboard side. In a fraction of a second, the objects disappeared.

text: Contrary to popular imagery, the asteroid belt is mostly empty. The asteroids are spread over such a large volume that it would be improbable to reach an asteroid without aiming carefully. Nonetheless, hundreds of thousands of asteroids are currently known, and the total number ranges in the millions or more, depending on the lower size cutoff. Over 200 asteroids are known to be larger than 100 km, and a survey in the infrared wavelengths has shown that the asteroid belt has 0.7–1.7 million asteroids with a diameter of 1 km or more. The apparent magnitudes of most of the known asteroids are 11–19, with the median at about 16.

text: Contrary to popular imagery, the asteroid belt is mostly empty. The asteroids are spread over such a large volume that it would be improbable to reach an asteroid without aiming carefully. Nonetheless, hundreds of thousands of asteroids are currently known, and the total number ranges in the millions or more, depending on the lower size cutoff. Over 200 asteroids are known to be larger than 100 km, and a survey in the infrared wavelengths has shown that the asteroid belt has 0.7–1.7 million asteroids with a diameter of 1 km or more. The

text: apparent magnitude

text: s of most of the known asteroids are 11–19, with the median at about 16.

text: 169/NEAT is a periodic comet in the solar system. It is the parent body of the alpha Capricornids meteor shower. 169/NEAT may be related to comet P/2003 T12 (SOHO).

text: 169/NEAT is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: solar system

text: . It is the parent body of the

text: alpha Capricornids

text: meteor shower. 169/NEAT may be related to comet P/2003 T12 (SOHO).

text: , Makemake is  from the Sun, almost as far from the Sun as it ever reaches on its orbit. Makemake follows an orbit very similar to that of : highly inclined at 29° and a moderate eccentricity of about 0.16. Nevertheless, Makemake's orbit is slightly farther from the Sun in terms of both the semi-major axis and perihelion. Its orbital period is nearly 310 years, more than Pluto's 248 years and Haumea's 283 years. Both Makemake and Haumea are currently far from the ecliptic—the angular distance is almost 29°. Makemake is approaching its 2033 aphelion, whereas Haumea passed its aphelion in early 1992.

text: , Makemake is  from the Sun, almost as far from the Sun as it ever reaches on its orbit. Makemake follows an orbit very similar to that of : highly

text: inclined

text: at 29° and a moderate

text: eccentricity

text: of about 0.16. Nevertheless, Makemake's orbit is slightly farther from the Sun in terms of both the

text: semi-major axis

text: and

text: perihelion

text: . Its

text: orbital period

text: is nearly 310 years, more than Pluto's 248 years and Haumea's 283 years. Both Makemake and Haumea are currently far from the

text: ecliptic

text: —the angular distance is almost 29°. Makemake is approaching its 2033

text: aphelion

text: , whereas Haumea passed its aphelion in early 1992.

text: A growing number of astronomers argued for Pluto to be declassified as a planet, because many similar objects approaching its size had been found in the same region of the Solar System (the Kuiper belt) during the 1990s and early 2000s. Pluto was found to be just one small body in a population of thousands.

text: A growing number of astronomers argued for Pluto to be declassified as a planet, because many similar objects approaching its size had been found in the same region of the Solar System (the

text: Kuiper belt

text: ) during the 1990s and early 2000s. Pluto was found to be just one small body in a population of thousands.

text: The dwarf planet Pluto has five moons. Its largest moon Charon, named after the ferryman who took souls across the River Styx, is more than half as large as Pluto itself, and large enough to orbit a point outside Pluto's surface. In effect, each orbits the other, forming a binary system informally referred to as a double-dwarf-planet. Pluto's four  other moons, Nix, Hydra,  Kerberos and Styx are  far smaller and orbit the Pluto–Charon system.

text: The dwarf planet

text: Pluto

text: has five moons. Its largest moon

text: Charon

text: , named after the ferryman who took souls across the

text: River Styx

text: , is more than half as large as Pluto itself, and large enough to orbit a point outside Pluto's surface. In effect, each orbits the other, forming a

text: binary system

text: informally referred to as a

text: double-dwarf-planet

text: . Pluto's four  other moons,

text: Nix

text: Hydra

text: Kerberos

text: and

text: Styx

text: are  far smaller and orbit the Pluto–Charon system.

text: Despite its vast extent, the collective mass of the Kuiper belt is relatively low. The total mass is estimated to range between 1/25 and 1/10 the mass of the Earth. Conversely, models of the Solar System's formation predict a collective mass for the Kuiper belt of 30 Earth masses. This missing >99% of the mass can hardly be dismissed, because it is required for the accretion of any KBOs larger than  in diameter. If the Kuiper belt had always had its current low density these large objects simply could not have formed by the collision and mergers of smaller planetesimals. Moreover, the eccentricity and inclination of current orbits makes the encounters quite "violent" resulting in destruction rather than accretion. It appears that either the current residents of the Kuiper belt have been created closer to the Sun or some mechanism dispersed the original mass. Neptune's current influence is too weak to explain such a massive "vacuuming", though the Nice model proposes that it could have been the cause of mass removal in the past. Although the question remains open, the conjectures vary from a passing star scenario to grinding of smaller objects, via collisions, into dust small enough to be affected by solar radiation. The extent of mass loss by collisional grinding, however, is limited by the presence of loosely bound binaries in the cold disk, which are likely to be disrupted in collisions.

text: Despite its vast extent, the collective mass of the Kuiper belt is relatively low. The total mass is estimated to range between 1/25 and 1/10 the mass of the Earth. Conversely, models of the Solar System's formation predict a collective mass for the Kuiper belt of 30 Earth masses. This missing >99% of the mass can hardly be dismissed, because it is required for the accretion of any KBOs larger than  in diameter. If the Kuiper belt had always had its current low density these large objects simply could not have formed by the collision and mergers of smaller planetesimals. Moreover, the eccentricity and inclination of current orbits makes the encounters quite "violent" resulting in destruction rather than accretion. It appears that either the current residents of the Kuiper belt have been created closer to the Sun or some mechanism dispersed the original mass. Neptune's current influence is too weak to explain such a massive "vacuuming", though the

text: Nice model

text: proposes that it could have been the cause of mass removal in the past. Although the question remains open, the conjectures vary from a passing star scenario to grinding of smaller objects, via collisions, into dust small enough to be affected by solar radiation. The extent of mass loss by collisional grinding, however, is limited by the presence of loosely bound binaries in the cold disk, which are likely to be disrupted in collisions.

text: 51P/Harrington is a periodic comet in the Solar System.

text: 51P/Harrington is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: Recently, Peter Jenniskens has argued that most of our short-period meteor showers are not from the normal water vapor drag of active comets, but the product of infrequent disintegrations, when large chunks break off a mostly dormant comet. Examples are the Quadrantids and Geminids, which originated from a breakup of asteroid-looking objects, 2003 EH1 and 3200 Phaethon, respectively, about 500 and 1000 years ago. The fragments tend to fall apart quickly into dust, sand, and pebbles, and spread out along the orbit of the comet to form a dense meteoroid stream, which subsequently evolves into Earth's path.

text: Recently,

text: Peter Jenniskens

text: has argued that most of our short-period meteor showers are not from the normal water vapor drag of active comets, but the product of infrequent disintegrations, when large chunks break off a mostly dormant comet. Examples are the

text: Quadrantids

text: and

text: Geminids

text: , which originated from a breakup of asteroid-looking objects,

text: 2003 EH1

text: and

text: 3200 Phaethon

text: , respectively, about 500 and 1000 years ago. The fragments tend to fall apart quickly into dust, sand, and pebbles, and spread out along the orbit of the comet to form a dense meteoroid stream, which subsequently evolves into Earth's path.

text: Planetesimals and larger bodies are traditionally thought to have formed via a hierarchical accretion, the formation of large objects via the collision and mergers of small objects. This process begins with the collision of dust due to Brownian motion producing larger aggregates held together by van der Waals forces. The aggregates settle toward the mid-plane of the disk and collide due to gas turbulence forming pebbles and larger objects. Further collisions and mergers eventually yield planetesimals 1–10 km in diameter held together by self-gravity. The growth of the largest planetesimals then accelerates, as gravitational focusing increases their effective cross-section, resulting in runaway accretion forming the larger asteroids. Later, gravitational scattering by the larger objects excites relative motions, causing a transition to slower oligarchic accretion that ends with the formation of planetary embryos. In the outer Solar System the planetary embryos grow large enough to accrete gas, forming the giant planets. In the inner Solar System the orbits of the planetary embryos become unstable, leading to giant impacts and the formation of the terrestrial planets.

text: Planetesimals and larger bodies are traditionally thought to have formed via a hierarchical accretion, the formation of large objects via the collision and mergers of small objects. This process begins with the collision of

text: dust

text: due to

text: Brownian motion

text: producing larger aggregates held together by

text: van der Waals force

text: s. The aggregates settle toward the mid-plane of the disk and collide due to gas turbulence forming pebbles and larger objects. Further collisions and mergers eventually yield planetesimals 1–10 km in diameter held together by self-gravity. The growth of the largest planetesimals then accelerates, as gravitational focusing increases their effective cross-section, resulting in runaway

text: accretion

text: forming the larger

text: asteroid

text: s. Later, gravitational scattering by the larger objects excites relative motions, causing a transition to slower oligarchic accretion that ends with the formation of planetary embryos. In the outer Solar System the planetary embryos grow large enough to accrete gas, forming the giant planets. In the inner Solar System the orbits of the planetary embryos become unstable, leading to giant impacts and the formation of the terrestrial planets.

text: Meteor, or MeteorJS, is a free and open-source JavaScript web framework written using Node.js. Meteor allows for rapid prototyping and produces cross-platform (Android, iOS, Web) code. It integrates with MongoDB and uses the Distributed Data Protocol and a publish–subscribe pattern to automatically propagate data changes to clients without requiring the developer to write any synchronization code. On the client, Meteor depends on jQuery and can be used with any JavaScript UI widget library.

text: Meteor, or MeteorJS, is a

text: free and open-source

text: JavaScript

text: web framework

text: written using

text: Node.js

text: . Meteor allows for rapid prototyping and produces cross-platform (

text: Android

text: iOS

text: Web

text: ) code. It integrates with

text: MongoDB

text: and uses the

text: Distributed Data Protocol

text: and a

text: publish–subscribe pattern

text: to automatically propagate data changes to clients without requiring the developer to write any synchronization code. On the client, Meteor depends on

text: jQuery

text: and can be used with any JavaScript UI widget library.

text: Iron meteorites are meteorites that consist overwhelmingly of an iron–nickel alloy known as meteoric iron that usually consists of two mineral phases: kamacite and taenite. Iron meteorites originate from planetary cores of planetesimals.

text: Iron meteorites are

text: meteorite

text: s that consist overwhelmingly of an

text: iron–nickel alloy

text: known as

text: meteoric iron

text: that usually consists of two

text: mineral

text: phases:

text: kamacite

text: and

text: taenite

text: . Iron meteorites originate from

text: planetary cores

text: of

text: planetesimals

text: |-|Four notable dwarf planets (clockwise from top left):

text: In reality asteroids, even in the asteroid belt, are spaced extremely far apart. Proto-planets in the process of formation and planetary rings may look like that, but the Sun's asteroid belt does not. (The asteroid belt in the HD 69830 system may, however.) The asteroids are spread over such a high volume that it would be highly improbable even to pass close to a random asteroid. For example, the numerous space probes sent to the outer solar system, just across the main asteroid belt, have never had any problems, and asteroid rendezvous missions have elaborate targeting procedures. The movie 2001: A Space Odyssey is unusual in that it does portray realistically the ship's "encounter" with a lone asteroid pair.

text: In reality asteroids, even in the asteroid belt, are spaced extremely far apart. Proto-planets in the process of formation and planetary rings may look like that, but the Sun's asteroid belt does not. (The asteroid belt in the

text: HD 69830

text: system may, however.) The asteroids are spread over such a high volume that it would be highly improbable even to pass close to a random asteroid. For example, the numerous

text: space probe

text: s sent to the outer solar system, just across the main asteroid belt, have never had any problems, and asteroid rendezvous missions have elaborate targeting procedures. The movie

text: 2001: A Space Odyssey

text: is unusual in that it does portray realistically the ship's "encounter" with a lone asteroid pair.

text: Pluto is one of the more imposing mutants, being extremely large and exceptionally strong. Pluto possesses a misshapen head and face and appears to be mentally impaired. He is the counterpart of Pluto from the original 1977 version of The Hills Have Eyes, and is played by Michael Bailey Smith.

text: Pluto is one of the more imposing mutants, being extremely large and exceptionally strong. Pluto possesses a misshapen head and face and appears to be

text: mentally impaired

text: . He is the counterpart of Pluto from the original 1977 version of The Hills Have Eyes, and is played by

text: Michael Bailey Smith

text: A granular material is a conglomeration of discrete solid, macroscopic particles characterized by a loss of energy whenever the particles interact (the most common example would be friction when grains collide). The constituents that compose granular material must be large enough such that they are not subject to thermal motion fluctuations. Thus, the lower size limit for grains in granular material is about 1 µm. On the upper size limit, the physics of granular materials may be applied to ice floes where the individual grains are icebergs and to asteroid belts of the Solar System with individual grains being asteroids.

text: A granular material is a conglomeration of discrete

text: solid

text: macroscopic

text: particle

text: s characterized by a loss of energy whenever the particles interact (the most common example would be

text: friction

text: when grains collide). The constituents that compose granular material must be large enough such that they are not subject to thermal motion fluctuations. Thus, the lower size limit for grains in granular material is about 1

text: µm

text: . On the upper size limit, the physics of granular materials may be applied to ice floes where the individual grains are

text: iceberg

text: s and to

text: asteroid belt

text: s of the

text: Solar System

text: with individual grains being

text: asteroid

text: s.

text: As mentioned, the idea of the nebular hypothesis had been outlined by Immanuel Kant in 1755, and he had also suggested "meteoric aggregations" and tidal friction as causes affecting the formation of the Solar System. Laplace was probably aware of this, but, like many writers of his time, he generally did not reference the work of others.

text: As mentioned, the idea of the nebular hypothesis had been outlined by

text: Immanuel Kant

text: in 1755, and he had also suggested "meteoric aggregations" and

text: tidal friction

text: as causes affecting the formation of the Solar System. Laplace was probably aware of this, but, like many writers of his time, he generally did not reference the work of others.

text: In the first phase, objects from outer space land in the oceans. Mike and Phyllis happen to see five of the "meteors" falling into the sea, from the ship where they are sailing on their honeymoon. Eventually the distribution of the objects' landing points – always at ocean depths, never on land – implies intelligence.

text: In the first phase, objects from

text: outer space

text: land in the oceans. Mike and Phyllis happen to see five of the "meteors" falling into the sea, from the ship where they are sailing on their honeymoon. Eventually the distribution of the objects' landing points – always at ocean depths, never on land – implies intelligence.

text: Zinner's PhD research was in high energy physics. He subsequently studied the effects that the environment within our solar system would have on the moon and the parent bodies of meteors, using nuclear particle tracks, micrometeoid craters, and elements in the solar wind. His later research was focused on the information contained in presolar grains carried by early meteorites. These grains were formed in atmospheres and explosions of stars outside of our solar system, and they can provide information about the history of stellar nucleosynthesis and the formation of the solar system.

text: Zinner's PhD research was in

text: high energy physics

text: . He subsequently studied the effects that the environment within our solar system would have on the

text: moon

text: and the parent bodies of

text: meteor

text: s, using nuclear particle tracks,

text: micrometeoid craters

text: , and elements in the solar wind. His later research was focused on the information contained in presolar grains carried by early

text: meteorites

text: . These grains were formed in atmospheres and explosions of stars outside of our solar system, and they can provide information about the history of stellar

text: nucleosynthesis

text: and the formation of the solar system.

text: Pluto is a member of the race of immortals known as the gods of Olympus. Among his race, his superhuman strength is equaled only by Neptune and Ares, and is exceeded only by Zeus and Hercules. Pluto's body is also virtually tireless, granting him almost limitless stamina. Pluto has proven capable of withstanding powerful impact forces, temperature extremes, and powerful energy blasts all without sustaining damage. Like all other members of his race, Pluto is immortal in the sense that he is immune to the effects of aging. He hasn't aged since reaching adulthood and is also immune to all known diseases. It would take damage that severely discorporated his body to cause his physical death. He is able to recover from damage with a greater speed and extent than most other members of his race.

text: Spectral analysis of Makemake's surface revealed that methane must be present in the form of large grains at least one centimetre in size. In addition to methane, large amounts of ethane and tholins as well as smaller amounts of ethylene, acetylene and high-mass alkanes (like propane) may be present, most likely created by photolysis of methane by solar radiation. The tholins are probably responsible for the red color of the visible spectrum. Although evidence exists for the presence of nitrogen ice on its surface, at least mixed with other ices, there is nowhere near the same level of nitrogen as on Pluto and Triton, where it composes more than 98 percent of the crust. The relative lack of nitrogen ice suggests that its supply of nitrogen has somehow been depleted over the age of the Solar System.

text: Spectral analysis of Makemake's surface revealed that methane must be present in the form of large grains at least one centimetre in size. In addition to methane, large amounts of

text: ethane

text: and

text: tholins

text: as well as smaller amounts of

text: ethylene

text: acetylene

text: and high-mass

text: alkane

text: s (like

text: propane

text: ) may be present, most likely created by

text: photolysis

text: of methane by solar radiation. The tholins are probably responsible for the red color of the visible spectrum. Although evidence exists for the presence of

text: nitrogen ice

text: on its surface, at least mixed with other ices, there is nowhere near the same level of

text: nitrogen

text: as on Pluto and

text: Triton

text: , where it composes more than 98 percent of the crust. The relative lack of nitrogen ice suggests that its supply of nitrogen has somehow been depleted over the age of the Solar System.

text: The main component of the atmosphere of Pluto is nitrogen. Content of methane, according to measurements by New Horizons, is 0.25%. For carbon monoxide, the Earth-based estimates are  (2010) and  (2015). Under influence of high-energy cosmic radiation, these gases react to form more complex compounds (not volatile at Pluto's surface temperatures), including ethane (CH), ethylene (CH), acetylene (CH), heavier hydrocarbons and nitriles and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) (amount of ethylene is about 0.0001%, and amount of acetylene is about 0.0003%). These compounds slowly precipitate on the surface. Probably, they also include tholins, which are responsible for the brown color of Pluto (like some other bodies in the outer solar system).

text: The main component of the atmosphere of Pluto is

text: nitrogen

text: . Content of

text: methane

text: , according to measurements by New Horizons, is 0.25%. For

text: carbon monoxide

text: , the Earth-based estimates are  (2010) and  (2015). Under influence of

text: high-energy cosmic radiation

text: , these gases react to form more complex compounds (not volatile at Pluto's surface temperatures), including

text: ethane

text: (CH),

text: ethylene

text: (CH),

text: acetylene

text: (CH), heavier

text: hydrocarbon

text: s and

text: nitrile

text: s and

text: hydrogen cyanide

text: (HCN) (amount of ethylene is about 0.0001%, and amount of acetylene is about 0.0003%). These compounds slowly precipitate on the surface. Probably, they also include

text: tholins

text: , which are responsible for the brown color of Pluto (like some other bodies in the outer solar system).

text: 38628 Huya is a trans-Neptunian object (TNO). It is a plutino, being in a 2:3 mean-motion resonance with Neptune. It has a diameter of 458.0±9.2 km, and it is possibly a dwarf planet (icy trans-Neptunian objects with a diameter above around  are expected to be spherical), although the IAU has never classified it as such. Light-curve-amplitude analysis shows only small deviations, suggesting that Huya is likely a spheroid with small albedo spots. As of 2010, astronomer Gonzalo Tancredi thought that Huya was very probably a dwarf planet.

text: 38628 Huya is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: (TNO). It is a

text: plutino

text: , being in a 2:3

text: mean-motion resonance

text: with

text: Neptune

text: . It has a diameter of 458.0±9.2 km, and it is possibly a

text: dwarf planet

text: (icy trans-Neptunian objects with a diameter above around  are expected to be spherical), although the IAU has never classified it as such. Light-curve-amplitude analysis shows only small deviations, suggesting that Huya is likely a spheroid with small albedo spots. As of 2010, astronomer

text: Gonzalo Tancredi

text: thought that Huya was very probably a dwarf planet.

text: Pluto's true place in the Solar System began to reveal itself only in 1992, when astronomers began to find small icy objects beyond Neptune that were similar to Pluto not only in orbit but also in size and composition. This trans-Neptunian population is thought to be the source of many short-period comets. Pluto is now known to be the largest member of the Kuiper belt, a stable belt of objects located between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. As of 2011, surveys of the Kuiper belt to magnitude 21 were nearly complete and any remaining Pluto-sized objects are expected to be beyond 100 AU from the Sun. Like other Kuiper-belt objects (KBOs), Pluto shares features with comets; for example, the solar wind is gradually blowing Pluto's surface into space. It has been claimed that if Pluto were placed as near to the Sun as Earth, it would develop a tail, as comets do. This claim has been disputed with the argument that Pluto's escape velocity is too high for this to happen.

text: Pluto's true place in the

text: Solar System

text: began to reveal itself only in 1992, when astronomers began to find small icy objects beyond Neptune that were similar to Pluto not only in orbit but also in size and composition. This trans-Neptunian population is thought to be the source of many

text: short-period comet

text: s. Pluto is now known to be the largest member of the

text: Kuiper belt

text: , a stable belt of objects located between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. As of 2011, surveys of the Kuiper belt to magnitude 21 were nearly complete and any remaining Pluto-sized objects are expected to be beyond 100 AU from the Sun. Like other Kuiper-belt objects (KBOs), Pluto shares features with

text: comet

text: s; for example, the

text: solar wind

text: is gradually blowing Pluto's surface into space. It has been claimed that if Pluto were placed as near to the Sun as Earth, it would develop a tail, as comets do. This claim has been disputed with the argument that Pluto's escape velocity is too high for this to happen.

text: Mortified that he had previously presented the device and forgotten about it, Farnsworth hastily begins drawing on a napkin. He presents the drawing, which depicts both a Smelloscope, a device that allows people to smell distant cosmic objects, and a doodle of himself as a cowboy. As the audience laughs he sweats and wipes the napkin on his head by accident, blurring the picture. Wernstrom announces that the invention deserves "the worst grade imaginable: an A-minus-minus." Back at Planet Express, Farnsworth invites everybody to see the Smelloscope that he had constructed last year and also forgotten about. Fry begins smelling Jupiter, Saturn, and other objects around the solar system and quickly discovers the smelliest object in the universe. After calculating its trajectory, Farnsworth announces that the object will collide with New New York City in 72 hours, reducing it to a "stinky crater" (Bender immediately starts looting at this news).

text: Mortified that he had previously presented the device and forgotten about it, Farnsworth hastily begins drawing on a napkin. He presents the drawing, which depicts both a Smelloscope, a device that allows people to smell distant cosmic objects, and a doodle of himself as a cowboy. As the audience laughs he sweats and wipes the napkin on his head by accident, blurring the picture. Wernstrom announces that the invention deserves "the worst grade imaginable: an A-minus-minus." Back at Planet Express, Farnsworth invites everybody to see the Smelloscope that he had constructed last year and also forgotten about.

text: Fry

text: begins smelling

text: Jupiter

text: Saturn

text: , and other objects around the solar system and quickly discovers the smelliest object in the universe. After calculating its trajectory, Farnsworth announces that the object will collide with New New York City in 72 hours, reducing it to a "stinky crater" (Bender immediately starts

text: looting

text: at this news).

text: For bodies of similar size the effect may be of comparable size for both, and both may become tidally locked to each other on a much shorter timescale. An example is the dwarf planet Pluto and its satellite Charon. They have already reached a state where Charon is only visible from one hemisphere of Pluto and vice versa. Pluto is roughly the same age as the planets in the Solar System.

text: For bodies of similar size the effect may be of comparable size for both, and both may become tidally locked to each other on a much shorter timescale. An example is the

text: dwarf planet

text: Pluto

text: and its satellite

text: Charon

text: . They have already reached a state where Charon is only visible from one hemisphere of Pluto and vice versa. Pluto is roughly the same age as the planets in the Solar System.

text: His research interests focus on the chemistry and mineralogy of asteroids and comets as determined by in situ laboratory analyses and spacecraft observations. This work is important for constraining the chemistry of the solar nebula, understanding the origin of complex organic molecules in the early Solar System, and constraining the initial chemical inventories of the terrestrial planets. He is an expert in the analysis of extraterrestrial materials. In particular, he uses inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), electron microprobe analysis (EPMA), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) to study meteorites, lunar samples, and particles returned by the Stardust mission. Lauretta is known for his experimental work on the formation of iron-bearing sulfides in the solar nebula. He also worked on the cosmochemical behavior of various elements, such as mercury, boron and beryllium in meteorites. Asteroid 5819 Lauretta was named in his honor. He is currently serving as the Principal investigator on NASA's OSIRIS-REx mission to return 60 g of regolith from carbonaceous asteroid 101955 Bennu.

text: His research interests focus on the chemistry and mineralogy of

text: asteroid

text: s and

text: comet

text: s as determined by in situ laboratory analyses and spacecraft observations. This work is important for constraining the chemistry of the

text: solar nebula

text: , understanding the origin of complex

text: organic molecule

text: s in the early

text: Solar System

text: , and constraining the initial chemical inventories of the

text: terrestrial planet

text: s. He is an expert in the analysis of extraterrestrial materials. In particular, he uses

entity_name: Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

text: inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

text: (ICP-MS),

text: scanning electron microscopy

text: (SEM),

text: transmission electron microscopy

text: (TEM), electron microprobe analysis (EPMA), and

text: X-ray diffraction

text: (XRD) to study meteorites, lunar samples, and particles returned by the

text: Stardust mission

text: . Lauretta is known for his experimental work on the formation of iron-bearing

text: sulfide

text: s in the

text: solar nebula

text: . He also worked on the cosmochemical behavior of various elements, such as

text: mercury

text: boron

text: and

text: beryllium

text: in

text: meteorite

text: s. Asteroid

text: 5819 Lauretta

text: was named in his honor. He is currently serving as the

text: Principal investigator

text: on

text: NASA

text: 's

text: OSIRIS-REx

text: mission to return 60 g of regolith from

text: carbonaceous asteroid

text: 101955 Bennu

text: Some of the science objectives included investigations of the human cardiovascular system in space, studies on fish and their sensation of gravity, and the impacts of solar radiation on Earth's climate.  During the expedition, the robotic platform Robonaut, a humanoid robot test platform, continued testing.

text: Some of the science objectives included investigations of the human cardiovascular system in space, studies on fish and their sensation of gravity, and the impacts of solar radiation on Earth's climate.  During the expedition, the robotic platform

text: Robonaut

text: , a humanoid robot test platform, continued testing.

text: By studying observations taken by the Hipparcos astrometric mission, a group of scientists proposed that the planet has an inclination of 179.9° (almost exactly face-on) and a mass of 196 Jupiters. If that was the case, the planet would be a red dwarf instead. However, the data was anything but conclusive, and statistically it is extremely unlikely to lie in such a position. But because the inclination is unknown, so is the true mass of the planet. Still, it is very probable that the object is a true planet.

text: By studying observations taken by the

text: Hipparcos

text: astrometric

text: mission, a group of scientists proposed that the planet has an

text: inclination

text: of 179.9° (almost exactly face-on) and a mass of 196 Jupiters. If that was the case, the planet would be a

text: red dwarf

text: instead. However, the data was anything but conclusive, and

text: statistically

text: it is extremely unlikely to lie in such a position. But because the inclination is unknown, so is the

text: true mass

text: of the planet. Still, it is very probable that the object is a true planet.

text: A comet is a small Solar System body that orbits the Sun and (at least occasionally) exhibits a coma (or atmosphere) and/or a tail—both primarily from the effects of solar radiation upon the comet's nucleus, which itself is a minor body composed of rock, dust, and ice.

text: A comet is a

text: small Solar System body

text: that orbits the

text: Sun

text: and (at least occasionally) exhibits a

text: coma

text: (or atmosphere) and/or a tail—both primarily from the effects of solar radiation upon the comet's

text: nucleus

text: , which itself is a minor body composed of rock, dust, and ice.

text: If a comet is traveling fast enough, it may leave the Solar System. Such comets follow the open path of a hyperpola, and as such they are called hyperbolic comets. To date, comets are only known to be ejected by interacting with another object in the Solar System, such as Jupiter. An example of this is thought to be Comet C/1980 E1, which was shifted from a predicted orbit of 7.1 million years around the Sun, to a hyperbolic trajectory, after a 1980 close pass by the planet Jupiter.

text: If a comet is traveling fast enough, it may leave the Solar System. Such comets follow the open path of a hyperpola, and as such they are called hyperbolic comets. To date, comets are only known to be ejected by

text: interacting

text: with another object in the Solar System, such as Jupiter. An example of this is thought to be Comet

text: C/1980 E1

text: , which was shifted from a predicted orbit of 7.1 million years around the Sun, to a

text: hyperbolic trajectory

text: , after a 1980 close pass by the planet Jupiter.

text: Comets have very different values of eccentricity. Periodic comets have eccentricities mostly between 0.2 and 0.7, but some of them have highly eccentric elliptical orbits with eccentricities just below 1, for example, Halley's Comet has a value of 0.967. Non-periodic comets follow near-parabolic orbits and thus have eccentricities even closer to 1. Examples include Comet Hale–Bopp with a value of 0.995 and comet C/2006 P1 (McNaught) with a value of . As Hale–Bopp's value is less than 1, its orbit is elliptical and it will in fact return. Comet McNaught has a hyperbolic orbit while within the influence of the planets, but is still bound to the Sun with an orbital period of about 10 years. As of a 2010 Epoch, Comet C/1980 E1 has the largest eccentricity of any known hyperbolic comet with an eccentricity of 1.057, and will leave the Solar System indefinitely.

text: Comet

text: s have very different values of eccentricity.

text: Periodic comet

text: s have eccentricities mostly between 0.2 and 0.7, but some of them have highly eccentric

text: elliptical orbit

text: s with eccentricities just below 1, for example,

text: Halley's Comet

text: has a value of 0.967. Non-periodic comets follow near-

text: parabolic orbit

text: s and thus have eccentricities even closer to 1. Examples include

text: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: with a value of 0.995 and comet

text: C/2006 P1

text: (McNaught) with a value of . As Hale–Bopp's value is less than 1, its orbit is elliptical and it will in fact return. Comet McNaught has a

text: hyperbolic orbit

text: while within the influence of the planets, but is still bound to the Sun with an orbital period of about 10 years. As of a 2010

text: Epoch

text: , Comet

text: C/1980 E1

text: has the largest eccentricity of any known hyperbolic comet with an eccentricity of 1.057, and will leave the

text: Solar System

text: indefinitely.

text: Some comets are predictable, most famously Halley's Comet. Yet as a class of object they remain unpredictable and can appear at any time. Some have extremely lengthy orbital periods which means their past appearances and returns cannot be predicted. Others may have only ever passed through the Solar System once and so are inherently unpredictable.

text: Some

text: comet

text: s are predictable, most famously

text: Halley's Comet

text: . Yet as a class of object they remain unpredictable and can appear at any time. Some have extremely lengthy

text: orbital period

text: s which means their past appearances and returns cannot be predicted. Others may have only ever passed through the

text: Solar System

text: once and so are inherently unpredictable.

text: The rotation and amplitude of Haumea's light curve place strong constraints on its composition. If Haumea had a low density like Pluto, with a thick mantle of ice over a small rocky core, its rapid rotation would have elongated it to a greater extent than the fluctuations in its brightness allow. Such considerations constrain its density to a range of 2.6–3.3 g/cm. By comparison, the Moon, which is rocky, has a density of 3.3 g/cm, whereas Pluto, which is typical of icy objects in the Kuiper belt, has a density of 1.86 g/cm. Haumea's possible density covers the values for silicate minerals such as olivine and pyroxene, which make up many of the rocky objects in the Solar System. This suggests that the bulk of Haumea is rock covered with a relatively thin layer of ice. A thick ice mantle more typical of Kuiper belt objects may have been blasted off during the impact that formed the Haumean collisional family.

text: The rotation and amplitude of Haumea's

text: light curve

text: place strong constraints on its composition. If Haumea had a low

text: density

text: like Pluto, with a thick mantle of

text: ice

text: over a small

text: rocky

text: core, its rapid rotation would have elongated it to a greater extent than the fluctuations in its brightness allow. Such considerations constrain its density to a range of 2.6–3.3 g/cm. By comparison, the Moon, which is rocky, has a density of 3.3 g/cm, whereas Pluto, which is typical of icy objects in the Kuiper belt, has a density of 1.86 g/cm. Haumea's possible density covers the values for

text: silicate minerals

text: such as

text: olivine

text: and

text: pyroxene

text: , which make up many of the

text: rocky objects

text: in the Solar System. This suggests that the bulk of Haumea is rock covered with a relatively thin layer of ice. A thick ice mantle more typical of Kuiper belt objects may have been blasted off during the impact that formed the Haumean collisional family.

text: Planetesimal accretion could reproduce the size distribution of the asteroids if it began with 100 meter planetesimals. In this model the collisional dampening and gas drag dynamically cool the disk and the bend in the size distribution is caused by a transition between growth regimes. This however require a low level of turbulence in the gas and some mechanism for the formation of 100 meter planetesimals. Size dependent clearing of planetesimals due to secular resonance sweeping could also remove small bodies creating a break in the size distribution of asteroids. As secular resonances swept inward through the asteroid belt as the gas disk dissipated they would excite the eccentricities of the planetesimals. As their eccentricities were damped due to gas drag and tidal interaction with the disk the largest and smallest objects would be lost as their semi-major axes shrank leaving behind the intermediate sized planetesimals.

text: However, only two of these bodies, Ceres and Pluto, have been observed in enough detail to demonstrate that they actually fit the IAU's definition. The IAU accepted Eris as a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto. They subsequently decided that unnamed trans-Neptunian objects with an absolute magnitude brighter than +1 (and hence a diameter of ≥838 km assuming a geometric albedo of ≤1) are to be named under the assumption that they are dwarf planets. The only two such objects known at the time, Makemake and Haumea, went through this naming procedure and were declared to be dwarf planets. The question of whether other likely objects are dwarf planets has never been addressed by the IAU.

text: However, only two of these bodies, Ceres and Pluto, have been observed in enough detail to demonstrate that they actually fit the IAU's definition. The IAU accepted Eris as a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto. They subsequently decided that unnamed trans-Neptunian objects with an

text: absolute magnitude

text: brighter than +1 (and hence a diameter of ≥838 km assuming a

text: geometric albedo

text: of ≤1) are to be named under the assumption that they are dwarf planets. The only two such objects known at the time, Makemake and Haumea, went through this naming procedure and were declared to be dwarf planets. The question of whether other likely objects are dwarf planets has never been addressed by the IAU.

text: The inner Solar System is the region comprising the terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt. Composed mainly of silicates and metals, the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is less than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. This region is also within the frost line, which is a little less than 5 AU (about 700 million km) from the Sun.

text: The inner Solar System is the region comprising the

text: terrestrial planets

text: and the

text: asteroid belt

text: . Composed mainly of

text: silicate

text: s and metals, the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is less than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. This region is also within the

text: frost line

text: , which is a little less than 5

text: AU

text: (about 700 million km) from the Sun.

text: By happenstance, one of the asteroid explorers enters a ship and hits a button, activating the vehicle and sending him on a thirty-day journey to another solar system. Upon his return, the Gateway Corporation decides to allow explorers (called Prospectors) to take trips on the mostly still-functioning ships. Prospectors who find valuable materials or make discoveries are rewarded with substantial bonuses. Ships on the asteroids come in three sizes and are defined as a "one", "three", or "five" based upon the number of passengers that they can (for the most part uncomfortably) carry. Not every vehicle returns and there are other great hazards to the explorers.

text: Some sixty years after the discovery of Pluto, a large number of large trans-Neptunian objects began to be discovered. Under the criteria of classifying these Kuiper belt objects (KBOs), it became dubious whether Pluto would have been considered a planet had it been discovered in the 1990s. Its mass is now known to be much smaller than once thought and, with the discovery of Eris, it is simply one of the two largest known trans-Neptunian objects. In 2006, Pluto was therefore reclassified into a different class of astronomical bodies known as dwarf planets, along with Eris and others.

text: Some sixty years after the discovery of Pluto, a large number of large

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s began to be discovered. Under the criteria of classifying these

text: Kuiper belt

text: objects (KBOs), it became dubious whether Pluto would have been considered a planet had it been discovered in the 1990s. Its mass is now known to be much smaller than once thought and, with the discovery of

text: Eris

text: , it is simply one of the two largest known trans-Neptunian objects. In 2006, Pluto was therefore reclassified into a different class of astronomical bodies known as

text: dwarf planet

text: s, along with Eris and others.

text: 2060 Chiron, also known as 95P/Chiron, is a minor planet in the outer Solar System, orbiting the Sun between Saturn and Uranus. Discovered in 1977 by Charles T. Kowal (precovery images have been found as far back as 1895), it was the first-identified member of a new class of objects now known as centaurs—bodies orbiting between the asteroid belt and the Kuiper belt. Besides the four giant planets, Chiron and 10199 Chariklo, also a centaur, are the only other bodies in the Solar System known to have rings.

text: 2060 Chiron, also known as 95P/Chiron, is a

text: minor planet

text: in the outer

text: Solar System

text: orbit

text: ing the

text: Sun

text: between

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Uranus

text: . Discovered in 1977 by

text: Charles T. Kowal

text: precovery

text: images have been found as far back as 1895), it was the first-identified member of a new class of objects now known as

text: centaur

text: s—bodies orbiting between the

text: asteroid belt

text: and the

text: Kuiper belt

text: . Besides the four giant planets, Chiron and

text: 10199 Chariklo

text: , also a centaur, are the only other bodies in the Solar System known to have

text: rings

text: On December 28, 2004, Mike Brown and his team discovered Haumea on images they had taken with the 1.3 m SMARTS Telescope at the Palomar Observatory in the United States on May 6, 2004, while looking for what he hoped would be the tenth planet. The Caltech discovery team used the nickname "Santa" among themselves, because they had discovered Haumea on December 28, 2004, just after Christmas. However, it was clearly too small to be a planet, because it was significantly smaller than Pluto, and Brown did not announce the discovery. Instead he kept it under wraps, along with several other large trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs), pending additional observation to better determine their natures. When his team discovered Haumea's moons, they realized that Haumea was more rocky than other TNOs, and that its moons were mostly ice. They then discovered a small family of nearby icy TNOs, and concluded that these were remnants of Haumea's icy mantle, which had been blasted off by a collision. On July 7, 2005, while he was finishing the paper describing the discovery, Brown's daughter Lilah was born, which delayed the announcement further. On July 20, the Caltech team published an online abstract of a report intended to announce the discovery at a conference the following September. In this Haumea was given the code K40506A.

text: On December 28, 2004, Mike Brown and his team discovered Haumea on images they had taken with the 1.3 m SMARTS Telescope at the

text: Palomar Observatory

text: in the United States on May 6, 2004, while looking for what he hoped would be the

text: tenth planet

text: . The Caltech discovery team used the nickname "

text: Santa

text: " among themselves, because they had discovered Haumea on December 28, 2004, just after

text: Christmas

text: . However, it was clearly too small to be a planet, because it was significantly smaller than

text: Pluto

text: , and Brown did not announce the discovery. Instead he kept it under wraps, along with several other large

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s (TNOs), pending additional observation to better determine their natures. When his team discovered

text: Haumea's moons

text: , they realized that Haumea was more

text: rocky

text: than other TNOs, and that its moons were mostly ice. They then discovered a small

text: family of nearby icy TNOs

text: , and concluded that these were remnants of Haumea's icy

text: mantle

text: , which had been blasted off by a collision. On July 7, 2005, while he was finishing the paper describing the discovery, Brown's daughter Lilah was born, which delayed the announcement further. On July 20, the Caltech team published an online abstract of a report intended to announce the discovery at a conference the following September. In this Haumea was given the code K40506A.

text: Mason played a leading part in understanding the nature of the solar system through his studies of meteorites and lunar rocks. He also examined and classified thousands of meteorites collected from Antarctica.

text: Mason played a leading part in understanding the nature of the

text: solar system

text: through his studies of

text: meteorites

text: and

text: lunar

text: rocks. He also examined and classified thousands of

text: meteorites

text: collected from

text: Antarctica

text: In 1972, Spacecraft Pioneer 10 took the ID card of mankind into the cosmos. A gold plated aluminum plate that indicates where humankind is located in the Universe, presents the outlook of the man and woman, and contains other information. 18 years later, a plate was found on the shore of the Malaga Island, similar to the one we sent into the cosmos but containing new marks on it. It was carried into a safe place and put under examination. Though hard to believe that we received an answer of any civilization may exist in the cosmos: however, the original illustration of Universe, of solar system, of man  were cancelled on the plate and substituted with abstract new illustrations. Made by anyone, the meaning of these changes was evident: our Universe in the reality is not the Universe, but something else. Solar system is not a solar system, but somewhat else. Man is not man, but instead some sort of other creature. But what does this statement more precisely mean? This is what the author searches in this movie, turning back to the ancient centuries to understand and explain the message.

text: 159P/LONEOS is a periodic comet in the solar system.

text: 159P/LONEOS is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: solar system

text: Pluto is Mickey Mouse's pet dog. Unlike the highly anthropomorphic Goofy, Pluto is characterized as a normal dog who walks on four legs, and almost never speaks.

text: Pluto

text: is Mickey Mouse's pet dog. Unlike the highly anthropomorphic Goofy, Pluto is characterized as a normal dog who walks on four legs, and almost never speaks.

text: Sunlight is the term used for the Sun's starlight observed during daytime.  During nighttime, albedo describes solar reflections from other Solar System objects including moonlight.

text: Sunlight

text: is the term used for the Sun's starlight observed during daytime.  During nighttime,

text: albedo

text: describes solar reflections from other Solar System objects including

text: moonlight

text: Protostars with masses less than roughly  never reach temperatures high enough for nuclear fusion of hydrogen to begin. These are known as brown dwarfs. The International Astronomical Union defines brown dwarfs as stars massive enough to fuse deuterium at some point in their lives (13 Jupiter masses (), 2.5 × 10 kg, or ). Objects smaller than  are classified as sub-brown dwarfs (but if they orbit around another stellar object they are classified as planets). Both types, deuterium-burning and not, shine dimly and die away slowly, cooling gradually over hundreds of millions of years.

text: Protostars with masses less than roughly  never reach temperatures high enough for

text: nuclear fusion

text: of hydrogen to begin. These are known as

text: brown dwarf

text: s. The

text: International Astronomical Union

text: defines brown dwarfs as stars massive enough to

text: fuse deuterium

text: at some point in their lives (13

text: Jupiter mass

text: es (), 2.5 × 10 kg, or ). Objects smaller than  are classified as sub-brown dwarfs (but if they orbit around another stellar object they are classified as planets). Both types, deuterium-burning and not, shine dimly and die away slowly, cooling gradually over hundreds of millions of years.

text: is a trans-Neptunian object orbiting the Sun as a Detached object in the outer reaches of the Solar System. It was first observed on 21 May 2010, by astronomers Andrzej Udalski, Scott S. Sheppard, M. Szymanski and Chad Trujillo at the Las Campañas Observatory in Chile. Measuring several hundreds of kilometers in diameter, it is likely a dwarf planet.

text: is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: orbiting the Sun as a

text: Detached object

text: in the outer reaches of the

text: Solar System

text: . It was first observed on 21 May 2010, by astronomers

text: Andrzej Udalski

text: Scott S. Sheppard

text: , M. Szymanski and

text: Chad Trujillo

text: at the

text: Las Campañas Observatory

text: in Chile. Measuring several hundreds of kilometers in diameter, it is

text: likely a dwarf planet

text: Buffalo's water system is operated by Veolia Water. To reduce large-scale ice blockage in the Niagara River, with resultant flooding, ice damage to docks and other waterfront structures, and blockage of the water intakes for the hydro-electric power plants at Niagara Falls, the New York Power Authority and Ontario Power Generation have jointly operated the Lake Erie-Niagara River Ice Boom since 1964. The boom is installed on December 16, or when the water temperature reaches , whichever happens first. The boom is opened on April 1 unless there is more than  of ice remaining in Eastern Lake Erie. When in place, the boom stretches  from the outer breakwall at Buffalo Harbor almost to the Canadian shore near the ruins of the pier at Erie Beach in Fort Erie. Originally, the boom was made of wooden timbers, but these have been replaced by steel pontoons.

text: Buffalo's water system is operated by

text: Veolia Water

text: . To reduce large-scale ice blockage in the Niagara River, with resultant flooding, ice damage to docks and other waterfront structures, and blockage of the water intakes for the hydro-electric power plants at Niagara Falls, the

text: New York Power Authority

text: and

text: Ontario Power Generation

text: have jointly operated the Lake Erie-Niagara River Ice Boom since 1964. The boom is installed on December 16, or when the water temperature reaches , whichever happens first. The boom is opened on April 1 unless there is more than  of ice remaining in Eastern Lake Erie. When in place, the boom stretches  from the outer breakwall at Buffalo Harbor almost to the Canadian shore near the ruins of the pier at Erie Beach in Fort Erie. Originally, the boom was made of wooden timbers, but these have been replaced by steel pontoons.

text: Dwarf planets, such as Ceres and Pluto, and large small Solar System bodies are similar to terrestrial planets in the fact that they do have a solid surface, but are, on average, composed of more icy materials (Ceres and Pluto have densities 2.17 and 1.87 g cm, respectively, and Haumea's density is similar to Pallas's 2.8 g cm). The Earth's Moon has a density of 3.4 g cm and Jupiter's satellite, Europa, 3.013 g cm; other satellites typically have densities less than 2 g cm.

text: Dwarf planet

text: s, such as

text: Ceres

text: and

text: Pluto

text: , and large

text: small Solar System bodies

text: are similar to terrestrial planets in the fact that they do have a solid surface, but are, on average, composed of more icy materials (

text: Ceres

text: and

text: Pluto

text: have densities 2.17 and 1.87 g cm, respectively, and

text: Haumea

text: 's density is similar to

text: Pallas

text: 's 2.8 g cm). The Earth's

text: Moon

text: has a density of 3.4 g cm and Jupiter's satellite,

text: Europa

text: , 3.013 g cm; other satellites typically have densities less than 2 g cm.

text: In the immediate aftermath of the object's discovery, there was much discussion as to whether it could be termed a "tenth planet". NASA even put out a press release describing it as such. However, acceptance of Eris as the tenth planet implicitly demanded a definition of planet that set Pluto as an arbitrary minimum size. Many astronomers, claiming that the definition of planet was of little scientific importance, preferred to recognise Pluto's historical identity as a planet by "grandfathering" it into the planet list.

text: In the immediate aftermath of the object's discovery, there was much discussion as to whether it could be termed a "

text: tenth planet

text: ". NASA even put out a press release describing it as such. However, acceptance of Eris as the tenth planet implicitly demanded a definition of planet that set Pluto as an arbitrary minimum size. Many astronomers, claiming that the definition of planet was of little scientific importance, preferred to recognise Pluto's historical identity as a planet by "

text: grandfathering

text: " it into the planet list.

text: Meteor sponsor Ireland's national music awards each year, and they have hence become known as The Meteors.

text: Meteor sponsor Ireland's national music awards each year, and they have hence become known as

text: The Meteors

text: Pallas, minor-planet designation 2 Pallas, is the second asteroid to have been discovered (after Ceres), and it is one of the largest asteroids in the Solar System. With an estimated 7% of the mass of the asteroid belt, it is the third-most-massive asteroid, being 10–30% less massive than Vesta. It is  in diameter, somewhat smaller than Vesta. It is likely a remnant protoplanet.

text: Pallas,

text: minor-planet designation

text: 2 Pallas, is the second

text: asteroid

text: to have been discovered (after

text: Ceres

text: ), and it is one of the

text: largest asteroids

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: . With an estimated 7% of the mass of the

text: asteroid belt

text: , it is the third-most-massive asteroid, being 10–30% less massive than

text: Vesta

text: . It is  in diameter, somewhat smaller than Vesta. It is likely a remnant

text: protoplanet

text: Much of the game takes place in space, with the player flying a ship from a third-person overhead perspective. The player has the option of engaging in both combat and trade. Players are able to fly through hundreds of star systems, which are connected to each other by hyperlinks. Ships travel between star systems along the hyperlinks by engaging their hyperdrive, a form of faster-than-light travel. In Nova, wormholes or hypergates may also be utilized for instantaneous travel. Most systems contain stellar objects such as planets and space stations. Players can land on these objects, where they may be given the option to trade, gain missions, and purchase new spaceships or add-on outfits for their current spaceship. The plot is advanced through missions available from facilities on planets as well as NPCs flying through space. Players can choose which missions to follow and which governments to form a good relationship with or to be entirely neutral. They can choose to be a trader or a mercenary or an asteroid miner among a number of things or a combination of several.

text: Much of the game takes place in space, with the player flying a ship from a third-person overhead perspective. The player has the option of engaging in both combat and trade. Players are able to fly through hundreds of star systems, which are connected to each other by hyperlinks. Ships travel between star systems along the hyperlinks by engaging their hyperdrive, a form of

text: faster-than-light

text: travel. In Nova, wormholes or hypergates may also be utilized for instantaneous travel. Most systems contain stellar objects such as planets and space stations. Players can land on these objects, where they may be given the option to trade, gain missions, and purchase new spaceships or add-on outfits for their current spaceship. The plot is advanced through missions available from facilities on planets as well as

text: NPC

text: s flying through space. Players can choose which missions to follow and which governments to form a good relationship with or to be entirely neutral. They can choose to be a trader or a mercenary or an asteroid miner among a number of things or a combination of several.

text: After the discovery of Pluto and Charon, no more trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) were found until  in 1992. Since then, thousands of such objects have been discovered. Most are now recognized as part of the Kuiper belt, a swarm of icy bodies left over from the Solar System's formation that orbit near the ecliptic plane just beyond Neptune. Though none were as large as Pluto, some of these distant trans-Neptunian objects, such as Sedna, were initially described in the media as "new planets".

text: After the discovery of Pluto and Charon, no more

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s (TNOs) were found until  in 1992. Since then, thousands of such objects have been discovered. Most are now recognized as part of the

text: Kuiper belt

text: , a swarm of icy bodies left over from the Solar System's formation that orbit near the

text: ecliptic plane

text: just beyond Neptune. Though none were as large as Pluto, some of these distant trans-Neptunian objects, such as

text: Sedna

text: , were initially described in the media as "new planets".

text: is an unnamed minor planet in the outer Solar System, classified as a trans-Neptunian object, approximately 550–600 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered by and at the U.S Palomar Observatory, California, on 10 December 2002. According to American astronomer Michael Brown, the minor planet is a likely dwarf planet.

text: is an unnamed

text: minor planet

text: in the

text: outer Solar System

text: , classified as a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: , approximately 550–600 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered by and at the U.S

text: Palomar Observatory

text: , California, on 10 December 2002. According to American astronomer

text: Michael Brown

text: , the minor planet is a

text: likely dwarf planet

text: Almost immediately, some astronomers questioned Pluto's status as a planet. Barely a month after its discovery was announced, on 14 April 1930, in an article in the New York Times, Armin O. Leuschner suggested that Pluto's dimness and high orbital eccentricity made it more similar to an asteroid or comet: "The Lowell result confirms the possible high eccentricity announced by us on April 5. Among the possibilities are a large asteroid greatly disturbed in its orbit by close approach to a major planet such as Jupiter, or it may be one of many long-period planetary objects yet to be discovered, or a bright cometary object." In that same article, Harvard Observatory director Harlow Shapley wrote that Pluto was a "member of the Solar System not comparable with known asteroids and comets, and perhaps of greater importance to cosmogony than would be another major planet beyond Neptune." In 1931, using a mathematical formula, Ernest W. Brown asserted (in agreement with E. C. Bower), that the presumed irregularities in the orbit of Uranus could not be due to the gravitational effect of a more distant planet, and thus that Lowell's supposed prediction was "purely accidental".

text: Almost immediately, some astronomers questioned Pluto's status as a planet. Barely a month after its discovery was announced, on 14 April 1930, in an article in the

text: New York Times

text: Armin O. Leuschner

text: suggested that Pluto's dimness and high orbital eccentricity made it more similar to an asteroid or comet: "The Lowell result confirms the possible high eccentricity announced by us on April 5. Among the possibilities are a large asteroid greatly disturbed in its orbit by close approach to a major planet such as Jupiter, or it may be one of many long-period planetary objects yet to be discovered, or a bright cometary object." In that same article,

text: Harvard Observatory

text: director

text: Harlow Shapley

text: wrote that Pluto was a "member of the Solar System not comparable with known asteroids and comets, and perhaps of greater importance to cosmogony than would be another major planet beyond Neptune." In 1931, using a mathematical formula,

text: Ernest W. Brown

text: asserted (in agreement with

text: E. C. Bower

text: ), that the presumed irregularities in the orbit of Uranus could not be due to the gravitational effect of a more distant planet, and thus that Lowell's supposed prediction was "purely accidental".

text: is a trans-Neptunian object that is a member of the Haumea family.

text: is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: that is a member of the

text: Haumea family

text: 47P/Ashbrook–Jackson is a periodic comet in the Solar System.

text: 47P/Ashbrook–Jackson is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: However, following the discovery of asteroids below 10 meters in size, Rubin and Grossman in a 2010 paper revised the previous definition of meteoroid to objects between 10 µm and 1 meter in size in order to maintain the distinction between asteroids and meteoroids. The smallest asteroids discovered (based on absolute magnitude H) are  with H = 33.2 and  with H = 32.1 both with an estimated size of about 1 meter.

text: However, following the discovery of asteroids below 10 meters in size, Rubin and Grossman in a 2010 paper revised the previous definition of meteoroid to objects between 10

text: µm

text: and 1 meter in size in order to maintain the distinction between asteroids and meteoroids. The smallest asteroids discovered (based on

text: absolute magnitude

text: H) are  with H = 33.2 and  with H = 32.1 both with an estimated size of about 1 meter.

text: 2MASS produced an astronomical catalog with over 300 million observed objects, including minor planets of the Solar System, brown dwarfs, low-mass stars, nebulae,  star clusters and galaxies. In addition, 1 million objects were cataloged in the 2MASS Extended Source Catalog. The cataloged objects are designated with a "2MASS"-prefix.

text: 2MASS produced an

text: astronomical catalog

text: with over 300 million observed

text: objects

text: , including

text: minor planet

text: s of the Solar System,

text: brown dwarf

text: s,

text: low-mass stars

text: nebula

text: e,

text: star cluster

text: s and

text: galaxies

text: . In addition, 1 million objects were cataloged in the 2MASS Extended Source Catalog. The cataloged objects are designated with a "2MASS"-prefix.

text: As meteoroids are heated during atmospheric entry, their surfaces melt and experience ablation. They can be sculpted into various shapes during this process, sometimes resulting in shallow thumbprint-like indentations on their surfaces called regmaglypts. If the meteoroid maintains a fixed orientation for some time, without tumbling, it may develop a conical "nose cone" or "heat shield" shape. As it decelerates, eventually the molten surface layer solidifies into a thin fusion crust, which on most meteorites is black (on some achondrites, the fusion crust may be very light colored). On stony meteorites, the heat-affected zone is at most a few mm deep; in iron meteorites, which are more thermally conductive, the structure of the metal may be affected by heat up to  below the surface. Reports vary; some meteorites are reported to be "burning hot to the touch" upon landing, while others are alleged to have been cold enough to condense water and form a frost. Meteorites from multiple falls, such as Bjurbole, Tagish Lake, and Buzzard Coulee, have been found having fallen on lake and sea ice, perhaps suggesting that they were not hot when they fell.

text: As meteoroids are heated during

text: atmospheric entry

text: , their surfaces melt and experience

text: ablation

text: . They can be sculpted into various shapes during this process, sometimes resulting in shallow thumbprint-like indentations on their surfaces called

text: regmaglypt

text: s. If the meteoroid maintains a fixed orientation for some time, without tumbling, it may develop a conical "nose cone" or "heat shield" shape. As it decelerates, eventually the molten

text: surface layer

text: solidifies into a thin fusion crust, which on most meteorites is black (on some

text: achondrite

text: s, the fusion crust may be very light colored). On stony meteorites, the

text: heat-affected zone

text: is at most a few mm deep; in iron meteorites, which are more thermally conductive, the structure of the metal may be affected by heat up to  below the surface. Reports vary; some meteorites are reported to be "burning hot to the touch" upon landing, while others are alleged to have been cold enough to condense water and form a frost. Meteorites from multiple falls, such as Bjurbole,

text: Tagish Lake

text: , and

text: Buzzard Coulee

text: , have been found having fallen on lake and sea ice, perhaps suggesting that they were not hot when they fell.

text: The substellar mass in orbit around the white dwarf is a star that lost all of its gas to the white dwarf. What remains is an object with a mass of 0.05 solar masses () ball, which is too small to continue fusion, and does not have the composition of a super-planet, brown dwarf, or white dwarf. There is no category for such a stellar remnant.

text: The

text: substellar mass

text: in orbit around the white dwarf is a star that lost all of its gas to the white dwarf. What remains is an object with a mass of 0.05

text: solar mass

text: es () ball, which is too small to continue

text: fusion

text: , and does not have the composition of a super-

text: planet

text: brown dwarf

text: , or white dwarf. There is no category for such a

text: stellar remnant

text: For most of its orbit, it is even farther from the Sun than at present, with its aphelion estimated at 937 AU (31 times Neptune's distance), making it one of the most distant known objects in the Solar System other than long-period comets.

text: For most of its orbit, it is even farther from the Sun than at present, with its

text: aphelion

text: estimated at 937 AU (31 times Neptune's distance), making it one of the most distant known objects in the

text: Solar System

text: other than

text: long-period comet

text: s.

text: NRL Ionosphere 1 solar X-ray, ionosphere, meteorite mission launched a V-2 on September 29, 1949 from White Sands at 16:58 GMT and reached 151.1 km.

text: An interstellar comet is a comet (or exocomet) located in interstellar space, and not gravitationally bound to a star. Besides known comets within the Solar System, or known extrasolar comets, no interstellar comet, not gravitationally bound to a star, has been conclusively identified. Nonetheless, such comets are conjectured to exist: gravitational scattering by planets and passing stars has ejected many Oort cloud comets from the Solar System, and the likelihood of similar processes in extrasolar planetary systems suggests the existence of a large population of unbound cometary bodies. At present, an interstellar comet can only be detected if it passes through the Solar System, and could be distinguished from an Oort cloud comet by its strongly hyperbolic trajectory (indicating that it is not gravitationally bound to the Sun). Comets with weakly hyperbolic trajectories have been observed, but the trajectories of these comets are consistent with having been knocked loose from the Oort cloud and do not indicate an origin in interstellar space. The most eccentric known comet, C/1980 E1, only has an eccentricity of 1.057, far less eccentric than an interstellar comet would be expected to be.

text: An interstellar comet is a

text: comet

text: (or

text: exocomet

text: ) located in

text: interstellar space

text: , and not

text: gravitationally bound

text: to a

text: star

text: . Besides known comets within the

text: Solar System

text: , or known

text: extrasolar comet

text: s, no interstellar comet, not gravitationally bound to a star, has been conclusively identified. Nonetheless, such comets are conjectured to exist: gravitational scattering by planets and passing stars has ejected many

text: Oort cloud

text: comets from the Solar System, and the likelihood of similar processes in extrasolar planetary systems suggests the existence of a large population of unbound cometary bodies. At present, an interstellar comet can only be detected if it passes through the Solar System, and could be distinguished from an

text: Oort cloud

text: comet by its strongly hyperbolic trajectory (indicating that it is not gravitationally bound to the Sun). Comets with weakly hyperbolic trajectories have been observed, but the trajectories of these comets are consistent with having been knocked loose from the Oort cloud and do not indicate an origin in interstellar space. The most eccentric known comet,

text: C/1980 E1

text: , only has an eccentricity of 1.057, far less eccentric than an interstellar comet would be expected to be.

text: The asteroid belt, which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, mostly contains objects composed, like the terrestrial planets, of rock and metal. Beyond Neptune's orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc, which are populations of trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices, and beyond them a newly discovered population of sednoids. Within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity. Such objects are categorized as dwarf planets. Identified dwarf planets include the asteroid Ceres and the trans-Neptunian objects Pluto and Eris. In addition to these two regions, various other small-body populations, including comets, centaurs and interplanetary dust clouds, freely travel between regions. Six of the planets, at least four of the dwarf planets, and many of the smaller bodies are orbited by natural satellites, usually termed "moons" after the Moon. Each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other small objects.

text: The

text: asteroid belt

text: , which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, mostly contains objects composed, like the terrestrial planets, of rock and metal. Beyond Neptune's orbit lie the

text: Kuiper belt

text: and

text: scattered disc

text: , which are populations of

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s composed mostly of ices, and beyond them a newly discovered population of

text: sednoid

text: s. Within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity. Such objects are categorized as

text: dwarf planet

text: s. Identified dwarf planets include the asteroid

text: Ceres

text: and the trans-Neptunian objects

text: Pluto

text: and

text: Eris

text: . In addition to these two regions, various other small-body populations, including

text: comet

text: s,

text: centaurs

text: and

text: interplanetary dust cloud

text: s, freely travel between regions. Six of the planets, at least four of the dwarf planets, and many of the smaller bodies are orbited by

text: natural satellite

text: s, usually termed "moons" after the

text: Moon

text: . Each of the outer planets is encircled by

text: planetary ring

text: s of dust and other small objects.

text: The outer Solar System dwarf planet Haumea has two known moons, Hiʻiaka and Namaka, named after Hawaiian goddesses. These small moons were discovered in 2005, from observations of Haumea made at the large telescopes of the W. M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii.

text: The

text: outer Solar System

text: dwarf planet

text: Haumea

text: has two known

text: moons

text: Hiʻiaka

text: and

text: Namaka

text: , named after

text: Hawaiian

text: goddesses. These small moons were discovered in 2005, from observations of Haumea made at the large telescopes of the

text: W. M. Keck Observatory

text: in Hawaii.

text: Their search was undertaken because hitherto there was no known radioactive isotope of Al that might be useful as a tracer. Theoretical considerations suggested that a state of Al should exist. The life time of Al (  ) was not then known (10-10 yr.) The search for Al took place over many years, long after the discovery of extinct  I (  by Reynolds (1960, Phys. Rev. letters v 4, p 8) which showed that contribution from stellar sources formed ~10 years before the Sun had contributed to the solar system mix. The asteroidal materials that provide meteorite samples were long known to be from the early solar system. Analysis of Ne in some meteorites showed that they had a widely variable isotopic composition. Then Black found that essentially pure Ne was one of the Ne components present which pointed to an extra solar origin of dust from red giant stars. Eberhardt  found that the material obtained by essentially chemically destroying the meteorite matrix resulted in a colloidal sludge residue which contained almost pure Ne. This supported the idea that presolar dust grains were present in the sludge from the meteorite.

text: Their search was undertaken because hitherto there was no known radioactive isotope of Al that might be useful as a tracer. Theoretical considerations suggested that a state of Al should exist. The life time of Al (  ) was not then known (10-10 yr.) The search for Al took place over many years, long after the discovery of extinct  I (  by Reynolds (1960, Phys. Rev. letters v 4, p 8) which showed that contribution from stellar sources formed ~10 years before the Sun had contributed to the solar system mix. The asteroidal materials that provide meteorite samples were long known to be from the early solar system. Analysis of Ne in some meteorites showed that they had a widely variable isotopic composition. Then Black found that essentially pure Ne was one of the Ne components present which pointed to an extra solar origin of dust from

text: red giant star

text: s. Eberhardt  found that the material obtained by essentially chemically destroying the meteorite matrix resulted in a colloidal sludge residue which contained almost pure Ne. This supported the idea that presolar dust grains were present in the sludge from the meteorite.

text: Eris, formal designation 136199 Eris, is the largest-known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth-largest body known to orbit the Sun directly. It is approximately 2,500 kilometres in diameter and 27% more massive than the dwarf planet Pluto. Eris was discovered in 2005 at W. M. Keck Observatory by American astronomer Michael E. Brown.

text: Eris, formal designation 136199 Eris, is the largest-known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth-largest body known to orbit the Sun directly. It is approximately 2,500 kilometres in diameter and 27% more massive than the dwarf planet Pluto. Eris was discovered in 2005 at

text: W. M. Keck Observatory

text: by American astronomer

text: Michael E. Brown

text: Mg-rich olivine has also been discovered in meteorites, on the Moon and Mars, falling into infant stars, as well as on asteroid 25143 Itokawa.  Such meteorites include chondrites, collections of debris from the early Solar System; and pallasites, mixes of iron-nickel and olivine.

text: Mg-rich olivine has also been discovered in

text: meteorite

text: s, on the

text: Moon

text: and

text: Mars

text: , falling into infant stars, as well as on asteroid

text: 25143 Itokawa

text: .  Such meteorites include

text: chondrite

text: s, collections of debris from the early

text: Solar System

text: ; and

text: pallasite

text: s, mixes of iron-nickel and olivine.

text: A planetary system is a set of gravitationally bound non-stellar objects in orbit around a star or star system. Generally speaking, systems with one or more planets constitute a planetary system, although such systems may also consist of bodies such as dwarf planets, asteroids, natural satellites, meteoroids, comets, planetesimals and circumstellar disks. The Sun together with its planetary system, which includes Earth, is known as the Solar System. The term exoplanetary system is sometimes used in reference to other planetary systems.

text: A planetary system is a set of

text: gravitationally

text: bound non-stellar objects in

text: orbit

text: around a

text: star

text: or

text: star system

text: . Generally speaking, systems with one or more

text: planet

text: s constitute a planetary system, although such systems may also consist of bodies such as

text: dwarf planet

text: s,

text: asteroid

text: s,

text: natural satellite

text: s,

text: meteoroid

text: s,

text: comet

text: s,

text: planetesimal

text: s and

text: circumstellar disk

text: s. The

text: Sun

text: together with its planetary system, which includes

text: Earth

text: , is known as the

text: Solar System

text: . The term exoplanetary system is sometimes used in reference to other planetary systems.

text: An impact event is a  collision between astronomical objects causing measurable effects. Impact events have physical consequences and have been found to regularly occur in planetary systems, though the most frequent involve asteroids, comets or meteoroids and have minimal impact. When large objects impact terrestrial planets like the Earth, there can be significant physical and biospheric consequences, though atmospheres mitigate many surface impacts through atmospheric entry. Impact craters and structures are dominant landforms on many of the Solar System's solid objects and present the strongest empirical evidence for their frequency and scale.

text: An impact event is a

text: collision

text: between

text: astronomical object

text: s causing measurable effects. Impact events have physical consequences and have been found to regularly occur in

text: planetary system

text: s, though the most frequent involve

text: asteroid

text: s,

text: comet

text: s or

text: meteoroid

text: s and have minimal impact. When large objects impact

text: terrestrial planet

text: s like the

text: Earth

text: , there can be significant physical and biospheric consequences, though atmospheres mitigate many surface impacts through

text: atmospheric entry

text: Impact crater

text: s and

text: structure

text: s are dominant landforms on many of the

text: Solar System

text: 's solid objects and present the strongest empirical evidence for their frequency and scale.

text: forms a binary system with another object with the IAU provisional designation : the first trans-Neptunian binary to be discovered since Pluto, and one of the most symmetrical binaries known in the Solar System. The two bodies are very close in size, with a diameter ratio of 1.2 and a mass ratio of 1.74, assuming similar surfaces and densities. Their orbital period is approximately 570 days, and they orbit at a distance of approximately 4000 km (closest approach) to 40,000 km, with a semi-major axis of about 22,000 km. Their diameters are likely to be in the 100–150 km range, assuming a density of 1–2 g/cm³. Their combined mass is 1/6000th that of the Pluto–Charon system.

text: forms a

text: binary system

text: with another object with the

text: IAU

text: provisional designation

text: : the first

text: trans-Neptunian

text: binary to be discovered since

text: Pluto

text: , and one of the most symmetrical binaries known in the Solar System. The two bodies are very close in size, with a diameter ratio of 1.2 and a mass ratio of 1.74, assuming similar surfaces and densities. Their orbital period is approximately 570 days, and they orbit at a distance of approximately 4000 km (closest approach) to 40,000 km, with a

text: semi-major axis

text: of about 22,000 km. Their diameters are likely to be in the 100–150 km range, assuming a density of 1–2 g/cm³. Their combined mass is 1/6000th that of the Pluto–Charon system.

text: The smaller inner moon of the dwarf planet Haumea, Namaka, is one tenth the mass of the larger outer moon, Hiiaka. Namaka revolves around Haumea in 18 days in an eccentric, non-Keplerian orbit, and as of 2008 is inclined 13° from Hiiaka. Over the timescale of the system, it should have been tidally damped into a more circular orbit. It appears that it has been disturbed by resonances with the more massive Hiiaka, due to converging orbits as it moved outward from Haumea because of tidal dissipation. The moons may have been caught in and then escaped from orbital resonance several times. They probably passed through the 3:1 resonance relatively recently, and currently are in or at least close to an 8:3 resonance.  Namaka's orbit is strongly perturbed, with a current precession of about -6.5° per year.

text: The smaller inner moon of the

text: dwarf planet

text: Haumea

text: Namaka

text: , is one tenth the mass of the larger outer moon,

text: Hiiaka

text: . Namaka revolves around Haumea in 18 days in an eccentric,

text: non-Keplerian

text: orbit, and as of 2008 is inclined 13° from Hiiaka. Over the timescale of the system, it should have been tidally damped into a more circular orbit. It appears that it has been disturbed by resonances with the more massive Hiiaka, due to converging orbits as it moved outward from Haumea because of tidal dissipation. The moons may have been caught in and then escaped from orbital resonance several times. They probably passed through the 3:1 resonance relatively recently, and currently are in or at least close to an 8:3 resonance.  Namaka's orbit is strongly

text: perturbed

text: , with a current precession of about -6.5° per year.

text: The Montshire Museum of Science is a hands-on, self-guided science museum located in Norwich, Vermont, in the United States.  It has roughly 150,000 visitors annually .  The museum, including the building and nature trails, is located on over 110 acres (445,000 m²) of land.  It has over 140 exhibits on anatomy, math, astronomy, mechanics, and natural history, among others.  Its live animal exhibits include a hive of honeybees that is connected to the outdoors and a colony of leafcutter ants.  Outside the museum building, there is a two-acre (8,000 m²) Science Park including a scaled model of the solar system (Pluto is located a two-mile (3 km) walk away), and exhibits on light, sound, and motion; among the sound exhibits there are "Whisper dishes" (parabolic dishes  apart) and a musical fence built by Paul Matisse, grandson of painter Henri Matisse.

text: The Montshire Museum of Science is a hands-on, self-guided

text: science museum

text: located in

text: Norwich, Vermont

text: , in the

text: United States

text: .  It has roughly 150,000 visitors annually .  The museum, including the building and nature trails, is located on over 110 acres (445,000 m²) of land.  It has over 140 exhibits on anatomy, math, astronomy, mechanics, and natural history, among others.  Its live animal exhibits include a hive of honeybees that is connected to the outdoors and a colony of leafcutter ants.  Outside the museum building, there is a two-acre (8,000 m²) Science Park including a scaled model of the solar system (Pluto is located a two-mile (3 km) walk away), and exhibits on light, sound, and motion; among the sound exhibits there are "Whisper dishes" (parabolic dishes  apart) and a musical fence built by Paul Matisse, grandson of painter

text: Henri Matisse

text: The song was performed for the first time during show 3 of Wer singt für Österreich?, the Austrian national selection process for the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 in Vienna, Austria. It was one of the two potential songs by the Makemakes for Eurovision, along with "Big Bang". "I Am Yours" advanced to the final, where it was performed again. Eventually, The Makemakes were selected to represent Austria in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015. On 23 May 2015 The Makemakes performed the song live during the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 at the Wiener Stadthalle in Vienna, Austria, receiving zero points.

text: The song was performed for the first time during show 3 of

entity_name: Austria in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015

text: Wer singt für Österreich?

text: , the Austrian national selection process for the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 in Vienna, Austria. It was one of the two potential songs by the Makemakes for Eurovision, along with "Big Bang". "I Am Yours" advanced to the final, where it was performed again. Eventually, The Makemakes were selected to

text: represent Austria

text: in the

text: Eurovision Song Contest 2015

text: . On 23 May 2015 The Makemakes performed the song live during the final of the

text: Eurovision Song Contest 2015

text: at the

text: Wiener Stadthalle

text: in

text: Vienna

text: Austria

text: , receiving zero points.

text: The Lincoln Laboratory's Experimental Test Site (ETS) is an electro-optical test facility located on the grounds of the White Sands Missile Range in Socorro, New Mexico. The ETS is operated by the laboratory for the Air Force; its principal mission is the development, evaluation, and transfer of advanced electro-optical space surveillance technologies. The ETS has been a contributing sensor to the U.S. Air Force Space Command. A spin-off program for NASA, Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR), uses the ground-based electro-optical deep-space surveillance telescopes at White Sands to discover comets and asteroids, in particular near-Earth objects. A large percentage share of all known minor planets in the Solar System have been discovered through this program. As of 2016, the Minor Planet Center credits LINEAR with the discovery of 147,183 numbered minor planets from 1997 to 2015. In terms of the total number of discoveries, LINEAR is the most successful asteroid survey program ever conducted.

text: The Lincoln Laboratory's Experimental Test Site (ETS) is an electro-optical test facility located on the grounds of the

text: White Sands Missile Range

text: in

text: Socorro

text: New Mexico

text: . The ETS is operated by the laboratory for the Air Force; its principal mission is the development, evaluation, and transfer of advanced electro-optical space surveillance technologies. The ETS has been a contributing sensor to the U.S.

text: Air Force Space Command

text: . A spin-off program for NASA,

text: Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research

text: (LINEAR), uses the ground-based electro-optical deep-space surveillance telescopes at White Sands to discover

text: comet

text: s and

text: asteroid

text: s, in particular

text: near-Earth object

text: s. A large percentage share of all known

text: minor planet

text: s in the Solar System have been discovered through this program. As of 2016, the

text: Minor Planet Center

text: credits LINEAR with the discovery of 147,183 numbered minor planets from 1997 to 2015. In terms of the total number of discoveries, LINEAR is the most successful asteroid

text: survey program

text: ever conducted.

text: In 1961, the International Astronomical Union defined a meteoroid as "a solid object moving in interplanetary space, of a size considerably smaller than an asteroid and considerably larger than an atom". In 1995, Beech and Steel, writing in the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, proposed a new definition where a meteoroid would be between 100 µm and 10 meters across. In 2010, following the discovery of asteroids below 10 m in size, Rubin and Grossman revised the previous definition of meteoroid to objects between 10 µm and 1 m in diameter in order to maintain the distinction. According to Rubin and Grossman, the minimum size of an asteroid is given by what can be discovered from Earth-bound telescopes, so the distinction between meteoroid and asteroid is fuzzy. Some of the smallest asteroids discovered (based on absolute magnitude H) are  with H = 33.2 and  with H = 32.1 both with an estimated size of 1 meter. Objects smaller than meteoroids are classified as micrometeoroids and cosmic dust. The Minor Planet Center does not use the term "meteoroid".

text: In 1961, the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: defined a meteoroid as "a solid object moving in interplanetary space, of a size considerably smaller than an

text: asteroid

text: and considerably larger than an atom". In 1995, Beech and Steel, writing in the

text: Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society

text: , proposed a new definition where a meteoroid would be between 100

text: µm

text: and 10 meters across. In 2010, following the discovery of asteroids below 10 m in size, Rubin and Grossman revised the previous definition of meteoroid to objects between 10 µm and 1 m in diameter in order to maintain the distinction. According to Rubin and Grossman, the minimum size of an asteroid is given by what can be discovered from Earth-bound telescopes, so the distinction between meteoroid and asteroid is fuzzy. Some of the smallest asteroids discovered (based on

text: absolute magnitude

text: H) are  with H = 33.2 and  with H = 32.1 both with an estimated size of 1 meter. Objects smaller than meteoroids are classified as

text: micrometeoroid

text: s and

text: cosmic dust

text: . The

text: Minor Planet Center

text: does not use the term "meteoroid".

text: The International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a new definition of planet on August 24, 2006, which introduced the term "dwarf planet" for ellipsoidal worlds that were too small to qualify for planetary status by "clearing their orbital neighborhood" of other orbiting matter. Dawn is the first mission to study a dwarf planet, arriving at Ceres a few months before the arrival of the New Horizons probe at Pluto in July 2015.

text: The

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) adopted a new

text: definition of planet

text: on August 24, 2006, which introduced the term "

text: dwarf planet

text: " for

text: ellipsoidal

text: worlds that were too small to qualify for planetary status by

text: "clearing their orbital neighborhood"

text: of other orbiting matter. Dawn is the first mission to study a dwarf planet, arriving at Ceres a few months before the arrival of the

text: New Horizons

text: probe at

text: Pluto

text: in July 2015.

text: On a literal reading of the Resolution, "dwarf planets" are by implication of paragraph (1) excluded from the status of 'planet'.  Use of the word planet in their title may, however, cause some ambiguity.

text: Allende contains chondrules and CAIs that are estimated to be 4.567 billion years old, the oldest known matter (other carbonaceous chondrites also contain these).  This material is 30 million years older than the Earth and 287 million years older than the oldest rock known on Earth, Thus, the Allende meteorite  has revealed information about conditions prevailing during the early formation of the Solar System.  Carbonaceous chondrites, including Allende, are the most primitive meteorites, and contain the most primitive known matter.  They have undergone the least mixing and remelting since the early stages of Solar System formation. Because of this, their age is frequently taken as the "age of the Solar System."

text: Allende contains chondrules and CAIs that are estimated to be 4.567 billion years old, the oldest known matter (other carbonaceous chondrites also contain these).  This material is 30 million years older than the Earth and 287 million years older than the

text: oldest rock known on Earth

text: , Thus, the Allende meteorite  has revealed information about conditions prevailing during the early formation of the Solar System.  Carbonaceous chondrites, including Allende, are the most primitive meteorites, and contain the most primitive known matter.  They have undergone the least mixing and remelting since the early stages of Solar System formation. Because of this, their age is frequently taken as the "age of the Solar System."

text: In our Solar System, all of the planets and most of the other objects that orbit the Sun, with the exception of many comets, do so in the "prograde" direction, i.e. the same sense as the rotation of the Sun. Also the rotations of most planets are prograde, with the exceptions of Venus and Uranus, which have retrograde rotations. Most satellites of planets revolve around their planets in the prograde sense. (In the case of the satellites of Uranus, this means they revolve in the same sense as Uranus's rotation, which is retrograde relative to the Sun.) There are some satellites which orbit in the retrograde sense, but these are generally small and distant from their planets, except for Neptune's satellite Triton, which is large and close. It is thought that these retrograde satellites, including Triton, are bodies which have been captured into orbit around their planets, having been formed elsewhere.

text: In our

text: Solar System

text: , all of the

text: planet

text: s and most of the other objects that orbit the

text: Sun

text: , with the exception of many

text: comet

text: s, do so in the "prograde" direction, i.e. the same sense as the rotation of the Sun. Also the rotations of most planets are prograde, with the exceptions of

text: Venus

text: and

text: Uranus

text: , which have retrograde rotations. Most

text: satellites

text: of planets revolve around their planets in the prograde sense. (In the case of the satellites of Uranus, this means they revolve in the same sense as Uranus's rotation, which is retrograde relative to the Sun.) There are some satellites which orbit in the retrograde sense, but these are generally small and distant from their planets, except for

text: Neptune

text: 's satellite

text: Triton

text: , which is large and close. It is thought that these retrograde satellites, including Triton, are bodies which have been captured into orbit around their planets, having been formed elsewhere.

text: The presence of Neptune has a profound effect on the Kuiper belt's structure due to orbital resonances. Over a timescale comparable to the age of the Solar System, Neptune's gravity destabilises the orbits of any objects that happen to lie in certain regions, and either sends them into the inner Solar System or out into the scattered disc or interstellar space. This causes the Kuiper belt to have pronounced gaps in its current layout, similar to the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt. In the region between 40 and 42 AU, for instance, no objects can retain a stable orbit over such times, and any observed in that region must have migrated there relatively recently.

text: The presence of

text: Neptune

text: has a profound effect on the Kuiper belt's structure due to

text: orbital resonance

text: s. Over a timescale comparable to the age of the Solar System, Neptune's gravity destabilises the orbits of any objects that happen to lie in certain regions, and either sends them into the inner Solar System or out into the

text: scattered disc

text: or interstellar space. This causes the Kuiper belt to have pronounced gaps in its current layout, similar to the

text: Kirkwood gap

text: s in the

text: asteroid belt

text: . In the region between 40 and 42 AU, for instance, no objects can retain a stable orbit over such times, and any observed in that region must have migrated there relatively recently.

text: Makemake (also written as Make-make or MakeMake; pronounced  in Rapa Nui) in the Rapa Nui mythology of Easter Island, is the creator of humanity, the god of fertility and the chief god of the "Tangata manu" or bird-man cult (this cult succeeded the island's more famous Moai era).

text: Makemake (also written as Make-make or MakeMake; pronounced  in

text: Rapa Nui

text: ) in the

text: Rapa Nui mythology

text: of

text: Easter Island

text: , is the creator of

text: human

text: ity, the god of fertility and the chief god of the "

text: Tangata manu

text: " or bird-man cult (this cult succeeded the island's more famous

text: Moai

text: era).

text: Pluto is the Olympian god of the Underworld, death, and the dead, and is the Monarch of Hades. Much of the character's story parallels that of traditional Greek Myth. To wit, after defeating their father Cronus, Pluto and his brothers Zeus and Neptune as well as his sisters Hera, Hestia and Demeter drew lots to divide Cronus' empire among them. Pluto gained control of the Underworld as the judge of the dead. However, in the Marvel Universe, Pluto is a scheming god that plans to overthrow Zeus, which no Greek Myth supports.

text: Pluto is the Olympian god of the Underworld, death, and the dead, and is the Monarch of Hades. Much of the character's story parallels that of traditional

text: Greek Myth

text: . To wit, after defeating their father

text: Cronus

text: , Pluto and his brothers Zeus and

text: Neptune

text: as well as his sisters

text: Hera

text: Hestia

text: and Demeter drew lots to divide Cronus' empire among them. Pluto gained control of the

text: Underworld

text: as the judge of the dead. However, in the

text: Marvel Universe

text: , Pluto is a scheming god that plans to overthrow Zeus, which no Greek Myth supports.

text: The first public transportation system in Erie was established on March 1, 1897 as the Erie City Passenger Railway Company. On October 8, 1888, the Erie Electric Motor Company took control of the Erie City Passenger Railway. The Conneaut and Erie Railway Traction Company was formed in 1903 and ran trolleys to east of the city. On December 24, 1906, the Buffalo and Lake Erie Traction Company took control of the Erie Electric Motor Company and completed its  line to Buffalo, New York in 1909. When the Conneaut and Erie was abandoned on September 16, 1922, the West Ridge Transportation Company was started the next year to run buses along the abandoned trolley route. The Buffalo and Lake Erie was reorganized into the Buffalo and Erie Railway Company on September 5, 1924 and the streetcar system in Erie was split from the Buffalo and Erie to form the Erie Railways Company. Unable to expanded to invest in an expansion of the streetcar system, four Yellow Coach "Z"'s were acquired and were operated by the Erie Coach Company, a newly formed subsidiary of the Erie Railways Company in 1925. The last of its trolleys ran between Erie and New York on December 1, 1932. The streetcars were put out of service in 1935. The city and county took over the Erie Coach Company and formed the Erie Metropolitan Transit Authority on September 20, 1966.

text: The first public transportation system in Erie was established on March 1, 1897 as the Erie City Passenger Railway Company. On October 8, 1888, the Erie Electric Motor Company took control of the Erie City Passenger Railway. The Conneaut and Erie Railway Traction Company was formed in 1903 and ran trolleys to east of the city. On December 24, 1906, the Buffalo and Lake Erie Traction Company took control of the Erie Electric Motor Company and completed its  line to

text: Buffalo, New York

text: in 1909. When the Conneaut and Erie was abandoned on September 16, 1922, the West Ridge Transportation Company was started the next year to run buses along the abandoned trolley route. The Buffalo and Lake Erie was reorganized into the Buffalo and Erie Railway Company on September 5, 1924 and the streetcar system in Erie was split from the Buffalo and Erie to form the Erie Railways Company. Unable to expanded to invest in an expansion of the streetcar system, four

text: Yellow Coach

text: "Z"'s were acquired and were operated by the Erie Coach Company, a newly formed

text: subsidiary

text: of the Erie Railways Company in 1925. The last of its trolleys ran between Erie and New York on December 1, 1932. The streetcars were put out of service in 1935. The city and county took over the Erie Coach Company and formed the Erie Metropolitan Transit Authority on September 20, 1966.

text: Initial results were surprising as the material excavated by the impact contained more dust and less ice than had been expected. The only models of cometary structure astronomers could positively rule out were the very porous ones which had comets as loose aggregates of material. In addition, the material was finer than expected; scientists compared it to talcum powder rather than sand. Other materials found while studying the impact included clays, carbonates, sodium, and crystalline silicates which were found by studying the spectroscopy of the impact. Clays and carbonates usually require liquid water to form and sodium is rare in space. Observations also revealed that the comet was about 75% empty space, and one astronomer compared the outer layers of the comet to the same makeup of a snow bank. Astronomers have expressed interest in more missions to different comets to determine if they share similar compositions or if there are different materials found deeper within comets that were produced at the time of the Solar System's formation.

text: Initial results were surprising as the material excavated by the impact contained more dust and less ice than had been expected. The only models of cometary structure astronomers could positively rule out were the very porous ones which had comets as loose aggregates of material. In addition, the material was finer than expected; scientists compared it to

text: talcum powder

text: rather than

text: sand

text: . Other materials found while studying the impact included

text: clay

text: s,

text: carbonate

text: s,

text: sodium

text: , and crystalline

text: silicate

text: s which were found by studying the spectroscopy of the impact. Clays and carbonates usually require liquid water to form and sodium is rare in space. Observations also revealed that the comet was about 75% empty space, and one astronomer compared the outer layers of the comet to the same makeup of a snow bank. Astronomers have expressed interest in more missions to different comets to determine if they share similar compositions or if there are different materials found deeper within comets that were produced at the time of the Solar System's formation.

text: The name of Eris's moon Dysnomia was suggested by its discoverer Michael E. Brown, who also suggested the name of the dwarf planet. The name has two meanings: in mythology Dysnomia (lawlessness) is the daughter of Eris (chaos). However, the name is also an intentional reference to the actor Lucy Lawless who plays the character Xena. The background for this is that during the long period when Eris had no formal name, the name 'Xena' – originally Brown's nickname for his discovery – spread and became popular. When the name 'Eris' was chosen, Brown suggested Dysnomia (which until then had been referred to as Gabrielle) as a reference to this. Hence, Dysnomia is the only moon which could be said to be named after an actor. The names Eris and Dysnomia were accepted by the IAU on 14 September 2006.

text: The name of

text: Eris's

text: moon

text: Dysnomia

text: was suggested by its discoverer

text: Michael E. Brown

text: , who also suggested the name of the dwarf planet. The name has two meanings: in mythology

text: Dysnomia

text: (lawlessness) is the daughter of

text: Eris

text: (chaos). However, the name is also an intentional reference to the actor

text: Lucy Lawless

text: who plays the character

text: Xena

text: . The background for this is that during the long period when Eris had no formal name, the name 'Xena' – originally Brown's nickname for his discovery – spread and became popular. When the name 'Eris' was chosen, Brown suggested Dysnomia (which until then had been referred to as

text: Gabrielle

text: ) as a reference to this. Hence, Dysnomia is the only moon which could be said to be named after an actor. The names Eris and Dysnomia were accepted by the IAU on 14 September 2006.

text: Pluto has five known natural satellites: Charon, first identified in 1978 by astronomer James Christy; Nix and Hydra, both discovered in 2005; Kerberos, discovered in 2011; and Styx, discovered in 2012. The satellites' orbits are circular (eccentricity < 0.006) and coplanar with Pluto's equator (inclination < 1°), and therefore tilted approximately 120° relative to Pluto's orbit. The Plutonian system is highly compact: the five known satellites orbit within the inner 3% of the region where prograde orbits would be stable. Closest to Pluto is Charon, which is large enough to be in hydrostatic equilibrium and to cause the barycenter of the Pluto–Charon system to be outside Pluto. Beyond Charon there are four much smaller circumbinary moons, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra.

text: Pluto has five known

text: natural satellite

text: s:

text: Charon

text: , first identified in 1978 by astronomer

text: James Christy

text: Nix

text: and

text: Hydra

text: , both discovered in 2005;

text: Kerberos

text: , discovered in 2011; and

text: Styx

text: , discovered in 2012. The satellites' orbits are circular (eccentricity < 0.006) and coplanar with Pluto's equator (inclination < 1°), and therefore tilted approximately 120° relative to Pluto's orbit. The Plutonian system is highly compact: the five known satellites orbit within the inner 3% of the region where

text: prograde orbit

text: s would be stable. Closest to Pluto is Charon, which is large enough to be in

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: and to cause the

text: barycenter

text: of the Pluto–Charon system to be outside Pluto. Beyond Charon there are four much smaller

text: circumbinary

text: moons, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra.

text: , also written as 2010 VK201, is a trans-Neptunian object and likely a dwarf planet.

text: , also written as 2010 VK201, is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: and

text: likely a dwarf planet

text: Subsequent explorations of the Solar System by space probes made it possible to obtain precise measurements of the relative positions of the inner planets and other objects by means of radar and telemetry. As with all radar measurements, these rely on measuring the time taken for photons to be reflected from an object. Because all photons move at the speed of light in vacuum, a fundamental constant of the universe, the distance of an object from the probe is basically the product of the speed of light and the measured time. However, for precision the calculations require adjustment for things such as the motions of the probe and object while the photons are transiting. In addition, the measurement of the time itself must be translated to a standard scale that accounts for relativistic time dilation. Comparison of the ephemeris positions with time measurements expressed in the TDB scale leads to a value for the speed of light in astronomical units per day (of ). By 2009, the IAU had updated its standard measures to reflect improvements, and calculated the speed of light at  (TDB).

text: Subsequent explorations of the Solar System by

text: space probe

text: s made it possible to obtain precise measurements of the relative positions of the

text: inner planets

text: and other objects by means of

text: radar

text: and

text: telemetry

text: . As with all radar measurements, these rely on measuring the time taken for

text: photons

text: to be reflected from an object. Because all photons move at the

text: speed of light

text: in vacuum, a fundamental constant of the universe, the distance of an object from the probe is basically the product of the speed of light and the measured time. However, for precision the calculations require adjustment for things such as the motions of the probe and object while the photons are transiting. In addition, the measurement of the time itself must be translated to a standard scale that accounts for relativistic time dilation. Comparison of the ephemeris positions with time measurements expressed in the

text: TDB

text: scale leads to a value for the speed of light in astronomical units per day (of ). By 2009, the IAU had updated its standard measures to reflect improvements, and calculated the speed of light at  (TDB).

text: Parker married his wife, solar physicist Lucie Green, in July 2014. The couple used wedding rings made of meteoric iron. He now lives in Godalming, England.

text: Parker married his wife, solar physicist

text: Lucie Green

text: , in July 2014. The couple used wedding rings made of

text: meteoric iron

text: . He now lives in

text: Godalming

text: , England.

text: Makemake is a classical Kuiper belt object, which means its orbit lies far enough from Neptune to remain stable over the age of the Solar System. Unlike plutinos, which can cross Neptune's orbit due to their 2:3 resonance with the planet, the classical objects have perihelia further from the Sun, free from Neptune's perturbation. Such objects have relatively low eccentricities (e below 0.2) and orbit the Sun in much the same way the planets do. Makemake, however, is a member of the "dynamically hot" class of classical KBOs, meaning that it has a high inclination compared to others in its population. Makemake is, probably coincidentally, near the 11:6 resonance with Neptune.

text: Makemake is a

text: classical Kuiper belt object

text: , which means its orbit lies far enough from Neptune to remain stable over the age of the Solar System. Unlike

text: plutino

text: s, which can cross Neptune's orbit due to their 2:3

text: resonance

text: with the planet, the classical objects have

text: perihelia

text: further from the Sun, free from Neptune's

text: perturbation

text: . Such objects have relatively low eccentricities (e below 0.2) and orbit the Sun in much the same way the planets do. Makemake, however, is a member of the "dynamically hot" class of classical KBOs, meaning that it has a high inclination compared to others in its population. Makemake is, probably coincidentally,

entity_section: Coincidental 'near' ratios of mean motion

text: near

text: the 11:6 resonance with Neptune.

text: Meteorite weathering is the terrestrial alteration of a meteorite. Most meteorites date from the oldest times in the Solar System and are by far the oldest material available on our planet. Despite their age, they are vulnerable to the terrestrial environment. Water, chlorine and oxygen attack meteorites as soon they reach the ground.

text: Meteorite weathering is the

text: terrestrial alteration

text: of a

text: meteorite

text: . Most meteorites date from the oldest times in the

text: Solar System

text: and are by far the oldest material available on our planet. Despite their age, they are vulnerable to the terrestrial environment.

text: Water

text: chlorine

text: and

text: oxygen

text: attack meteorites as soon they reach the ground.

text: The overall structure of the charted regions of the Solar System consists of the Sun, four relatively small inner planets surrounded by a belt of mostly rocky asteroids, and four giant planets surrounded by the Kuiper belt of mostly icy objects. Astronomers sometimes informally divide this structure into separate regions. The inner Solar System includes the four terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt. The outer Solar System is beyond the asteroids, including the four giant planets. Since the discovery of the Kuiper belt, the outermost parts of the Solar System are considered a distinct region consisting of the objects beyond Neptune.

text: The collection The Solar System Beyond Neptune (2008) defines objects with a semi-major axis between those of Jupiter and Neptune and a Jupiter – Tisserand's parameter above 3.05 – as centaurs, classifying the objects with a Jupiter Tisserand's parameter below this and, to exclude Kuiper belt objects, an arbitrary perihelion cut-off half-way to Saturn (q < 7.35) as Jupiter-family comets and classifying those objects on unstable orbits with a semi-major axis larger than Neptune's as members of the scattered disc. Other astronomers prefer to define centaurs as objects that are non-resonant with a perihelion inside the orbit of Neptune that can be shown to likely cross the Hill sphere of a gas giant within the next 10 million years, so that centaurs can be thought of as objects scattered inwards and that interact more strongly and scatter more quickly than typical scattered-disc objects.

text: The collection The Solar System Beyond Neptune (2008) defines objects with a semi-major axis between those of Jupiter and Neptune and a Jupiter –

text: Tisserand's parameter

text: above 3.05 – as centaurs, classifying the objects with a Jupiter Tisserand's parameter below this and, to exclude

text: Kuiper belt

text: objects, an arbitrary perihelion cut-off half-way to Saturn (q < 7.35) as

text: Jupiter-family comet

text: s and classifying those objects on unstable orbits with a semi-major axis larger than Neptune's as members of the scattered disc. Other astronomers prefer to define centaurs as objects that are non-resonant with a perihelion inside the orbit of Neptune that can be shown to likely cross the

text: Hill sphere

text: of a

text: gas giant

text: within the next 10 million years, so that centaurs can be thought of as objects scattered inwards and that interact more strongly and scatter more quickly than typical scattered-disc objects.

text: In this game, the player is in control of planet Pluto, which has attached a big baseball bat to itself. In order to score points, the player must hit the meteors so that they will cause damage to other planets in the solar system.

text: It is suspected that Pluto's satellite system was created by a massive collision, similar to the "big whack" thought to have created the Moon. In both cases, the high angular momenta of the moons can only be explained by such a scenario. The nearly circular orbits of the smaller moons suggests that they were also formed in this collision, rather than being captured Kuiper Belt objects. This and their near orbital resonances with Charon (see below) suggest that they formed closer to Pluto than they are at present and migrated outward as Charon reached its current orbit. Their grey color is different from that of Pluto, one of the reddest bodies in the Solar System. This is thought to be due to a loss of volatiles during the impact or subsequent coalescence, leaving the surfaces of the moons dominated by water ice. However, such an impact should have created additional debris (more moons), yet no moons or rings were discovered by New Horizons, ruling out any more moons of significant size orbiting Pluto.

text: It is suspected that Pluto's satellite system was

text: created by a massive collision

text: , similar to the

text: "big whack"

text: thought to have created the

text: Moon

text: . In both cases, the high

text: angular momenta

text: of the moons can only be explained by such a scenario. The nearly circular orbits of the smaller moons suggests that they were also formed in this collision, rather than being captured Kuiper Belt objects. This and their near

text: orbital resonance

text: s with Charon (see below) suggest that they formed closer to Pluto than they are at present and migrated outward as Charon reached its current orbit. Their grey color is different from that of Pluto, one of the reddest bodies in the Solar System. This is thought to be due to a loss of volatiles during the impact or subsequent coalescence, leaving the surfaces of the moons dominated by water ice. However, such an impact should have created additional debris (more moons), yet no moons or rings were discovered by New Horizons, ruling out any more moons of significant size orbiting Pluto.

text: The oldest inclusions found in meteorites, thought to trace the first solid material to form in the pre-solar nebula, are 4568.2 million years old, which is one definition of the age of the Solar System. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that only form in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae occurred near the Sun while it was forming. A shock wave from a supernova may have triggered the formation of the Sun by creating relatively dense regions within the cloud, causing these regions to collapse. Because only massive, short-lived stars produce supernovae, the Sun must have formed in a large star-forming region that produced massive stars, possibly similar to the Orion Nebula. Studies of the structure of the Kuiper belt and of anomalous materials within it suggest that the Sun formed within a cluster of between 1,000 and 10,000 stars with a diameter of between 6.5 and 19.5 light years and a collective mass of . This cluster began to break apart between 135 million and 535 million years after formation. Several simulations of our young Sun interacting with close-passing stars over the first 100 million years of its life produce anomalous orbits observed in the outer Solar System, such as detached objects.

text: The

text: oldest inclusions found in meteorites

text: , thought to trace the first solid material to form in the pre-solar nebula, are 4568.2 million years old, which is one definition of the age of the Solar System. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as

text: , that only form in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more

text: supernova

text: e occurred near the Sun while it was forming. A

text: shock wave

text: from a supernova may have triggered the formation of the Sun by creating relatively dense regions within the cloud, causing these regions to collapse. Because only massive, short-lived stars produce supernovae, the Sun must have formed in a large star-forming region that produced massive stars, possibly similar to the

text: Orion Nebula

text: . Studies of the structure of the

text: Kuiper belt

text: and of anomalous materials within it suggest that the Sun formed within a cluster of between 1,000 and 10,000 stars with a diameter of between 6.5 and 19.5 light years and a collective mass of . This cluster began to break apart between 135 million and 535 million years after formation. Several simulations of our young Sun interacting with close-passing stars over the first 100 million years of its life produce anomalous orbits observed in the outer Solar System, such as

text: detached object

text: s.

text: Leonid Ksanfomaliti of the Space Research Institute of Russia's Academy of Sciences (a contributor to the Venera mission) and Stan Karaszewski of Karas, in Solar System Research, suggests signs of life in the Venera images. According to Ksanfomaliti, certain objects  resembled a "disk", a "black flap" and a "scorpion" which "emerge, fluctuate and disappear", referring to their changing location on different photographs and traces on the ground. The article was titled "Venus as a natural laboratory for search of life in high temperature conditions: Events on the planet on March 1, 1982", L. V. Ksanfomality, Solar System Research, February 2012, Volume 46, Issue 1, pp 41–5. Engineers familiar with the probe have identified the moving "disk" as actually being the two lens caps ejected from the lander. Rather than a single object that had moved between two different places, they are simply two inanimate similar-looking objects in different places. The other "objects" are ascribed to image processing artifacts and do not appear in the original photography.

text: Unlike most other chondrites, the minerals in enstatite chondrites contain almost no iron oxide; they are the most oxygen-poor silicate rocks known. They are also the driest objects in the solar system, consisting of only 0.01% water. Metallic Fe-Ni (iron-nickel) and Fe-bearing sulfide minerals contain nearly all of the iron in this type of meteorite. Enstatite chondrites contain a variety of unusual minerals that can only form in extremely reducing conditions, including oldhamite (CaS), niningerite (MgS), perryite (Fe-Ni silicide), and alkali sulfides (e.g., djerfisherite and caswellsilverite). All enstatite chondrites are dominantly composed of enstatite-rich chondrules plus abundant grains of metal and sulfide minerals. Dusty matrix material is uncommon and refractory inclusions are very rare. Chemically, enstatite chondrites are very low in refractory lithophile elements. Their oxygen isotopic compositions are intermediate between ordinary and carbonaceous chondrites, and are similar to rocks found on the Earth and Moon. Their lack of oxygen content may mean that they were originally formed near the center of the solar nebula that created the solar system, possibly within the orbit of Mercury. Most enstatite chondrites have experienced thermal metamorphism on the parent asteroids. They are divided into two groups:

text: Unlike most other chondrites, the minerals in enstatite chondrites contain almost no iron oxide; they are the most oxygen-poor silicate rocks known. They are also the driest objects in the solar system, consisting of only 0.01% water. Metallic Fe-Ni (iron-nickel) and Fe-bearing sulfide minerals contain nearly all of the iron in this type of meteorite. Enstatite chondrites contain a variety of unusual minerals that can only form in extremely reducing conditions, including

text: oldhamite

text: (CaS),

text: niningerite

text: (MgS),

text: perryite

text: (Fe-Ni silicide), and alkali sulfides (e.g.,

text: djerfisherite

text: and

text: caswellsilverite

text: ). All enstatite chondrites are dominantly composed of enstatite-rich chondrules plus abundant grains of metal and sulfide minerals. Dusty matrix material is uncommon and refractory inclusions are very rare. Chemically, enstatite chondrites are very low in refractory lithophile elements. Their oxygen isotopic compositions are intermediate between ordinary and carbonaceous chondrites, and are similar to rocks found on the Earth and Moon. Their lack of oxygen content may mean that they were originally formed near the center of the solar nebula that created the

text: solar system

text: , possibly within the orbit of

text: Mercury

text: . Most enstatite chondrites have experienced thermal metamorphism on the parent asteroids. They are divided into two groups:

text: The crater averages about 875 metres in diameter, 60 metres from rim to present crater floor and it is estimated that the meteorite that formed it had a mass of about 50,000 tonnes, while the age is estimated to be less than 300,000 years (Pleistocene). Small numbers of iron meteorites have been found in the vicinity of the crater, as well as larger so-called 'shale-balls', rounded objects made of iron oxide, some weighing as much as 250 kg.

text: The crater averages about 875 metres in diameter, 60 metres from rim to present crater floor and it is estimated that the meteorite that formed it had a mass of about 50,000 tonnes, while the age is estimated to be less than 300,000 years (

text: Pleistocene

text: ). Small numbers of iron meteorites have been found in the vicinity of the crater, as well as larger so-called 'shale-balls', rounded objects made of iron oxide, some weighing as much as 250 kg.

text: In addition, since 2002 there is also an International Max Planck Research School.Subjects of research at the Institute are the various objects within the solar system. A major area of study concerns the Sun, its atmosphere, the interplanetary medium as influenced by the solar wind, as well as the impact of solar particles and radiation on the planets. The second area of research involves the interiors, surfaces, atmospheres, ionospheres, and magnetospheres of the planets and their moons, as well as of comets and asteroids.A further essential part of the activities at the Institute is the development and construction of instruments for space missions. The analysis and interpretation of the acquired datasets are accompanied by intensive theoretical work. Physical models are proposed and then tested and further developed with the aid of computer simulations.

text: In addition, since 2002 there is also an

text: International Max Planck Research School

text: .Subjects of research at the Institute are the various objects within the solar system. A major area of study concerns the Sun, its atmosphere, the interplanetary medium as influenced by the solar wind, as well as the impact of solar particles and radiation on the planets. The second area of research involves the interiors, surfaces, atmospheres, ionospheres, and magnetospheres of the planets and their moons, as well as of comets and asteroids.A further essential part of the activities at the Institute is the development and construction of instruments for space missions. The analysis and interpretation of the acquired datasets are accompanied by intensive theoretical work. Physical models are proposed and then tested and further developed with the aid of computer simulations.

text: The definition would have considered a pair of objects to be a double planet system if each component independently satisfied the planetary criteria and the common center of gravity of the system (known as the barycenter) was located outside of both bodies. Pluto and Charon would have been the only known double planet in the Solar System. Other planetary satellites (like Earth and its moon) might be in hydrostatic equilibrium, but would still not have been defined as a component of a double planet, since the barycenter of the system lies within the more massive celestial body (the Earth).

text: The definition would have considered a pair of objects to be a

text: double planet

text: system if each component independently satisfied the planetary criteria and the common

text: center of gravity

text: of the system (known as the

text: barycenter

text: ) was located outside of both bodies.

text: Pluto

text: and Charon would have been the only known double planet in the Solar System. Other planetary satellites (like Earth and its

text: moon

text: ) might be in

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: , but would still not have been defined as a component of a double planet, since the barycenter of the system lies within the more massive celestial body (the Earth).

text: The E-type asteroids of the Hungaria family are thought to be the remains of the hypothetical E-belt asteroid population.  The dispersal of most of that hypothetical E-Belt might have been caused by the outwards migration of the gas giants of the Solar System according to simulations done under the Nice model – and these dispersed E-Belt asteroids might in turn have been the impactors of the Late Heavy Bombardment.

text: The E-type asteroids of the Hungaria family are thought to be the remains of the hypothetical

text: E-belt asteroid population

text: .  The dispersal of most of that hypothetical E-Belt might have been caused by the

text: outwards migration

text: of the

text: gas giant

text: s of the

text: Solar System

text: according to simulations done under the

text: Nice model

text: – and these dispersed E-Belt asteroids might in turn have been the impactors of the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: Although Interamnia is the largest asteroid after the "big four", it is a very little-studied body. It is easily the largest of the F-type asteroids, but there exist very few details of its internal composition or shape, and no light curve analysis has yet been done to determine the ecliptic coordinates of Interamnia's poles (and hence its axial tilt). Its apparently high bulk density (though subject to much error) suggests an extremely solid body entirely without internal porosity or traces of water. This also strongly suggests that Interamnia is large enough to have fully withstood all the collisions that have occurred in the asteroid belt since the Solar System was formed.

text: Although Interamnia is the largest asteroid after the

text: "big four"

text: , it is a very little-studied body. It is easily the largest of the

text: F-type asteroid

text: s, but there exist very few details of its internal composition or shape, and no

text: light curve

text: analysis has yet been done to determine the ecliptic coordinates of Interamnia's poles (and hence its

text: axial tilt

text: ). Its apparently high bulk density (though subject to much error) suggests an extremely solid body entirely without internal porosity or traces of

text: water

text: . This also strongly suggests that Interamnia is large enough to have fully withstood all the collisions that have occurred in the asteroid belt since the

text: Solar System

text: was formed.

text: Mike Brown's website lists it as a possible dwarf planet with a diameter of  based on an assumed albedo of 0.04. The albedo is expected to be low because the object has a blue (neutral) color. However, if the albedo is higher, the object could easily be half that size.

text: Mike Brown

text: 's website lists it as a possible

text: dwarf planet

text: with a diameter of  based on an assumed

text: albedo

text: of 0.04. The albedo is expected to be low because the object has a

text: blue

text: (neutral) color. However, if the albedo is higher, the object could easily be half that size.

text: Nineteen moons are known to be massive enough to have relaxed into a rounded shape under their own gravity, and seven of them are more massive than either Eris or Pluto. They are not physically distinct from the dwarf planets, but are not dwarf planets because they do not directly orbit the Sun. The seven that are more massive than Eris are the Moon, the four Galilean moons of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto), one moon of Saturn (Titan), and one moon of Neptune (Triton). The others are six moons of Saturn (Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, Rhea, and Iapetus), five moons of Uranus (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon), and one moon of Pluto (Charon). There are additional possibilities among TNOs, including Dysnomia orbiting Eris. Alan Stern calls these moons "satellite planets", one of three categories of planet together with dwarf planets and classical planets. The term planemo ("planetary-mass object") covers all three.

text: Nineteen

text: moons

text: are known to be massive enough to have relaxed into a rounded shape under their own gravity, and seven of them are more massive than either Eris or Pluto. They are not physically distinct from the dwarf planets, but are not dwarf planets because they do not directly orbit the Sun. The seven that are more massive than Eris are the

text: Moon

text: , the four

text: Galilean moons

text: of Jupiter (

text: Io

text: Europa

text: Ganymede

text: , and

text: Callisto

text: ), one moon of Saturn (

text: Titan

text: ), and one moon of Neptune (

text: Triton

text: ). The others are six moons of Saturn (

text: Mimas

text: Enceladus

text: Tethys

text: Dione

text: Rhea

text: , and

text: Iapetus

text: ), five moons of Uranus (

text: Miranda

text: Ariel

text: Umbriel

text: Titania

text: , and

text: Oberon

text: ), and one moon of Pluto (

text: Charon

text: ). There are additional possibilities among TNOs, including

text: Dysnomia

text: orbiting Eris. Alan Stern calls these moons "satellite planets", one of three categories of planet together with dwarf planets and classical planets. The term

text: planemo

text: ("planetary-mass object") covers all three.

text: Crater counts give an important estimate for the age of the surface of a planet. Over time, bodies in the Solar System are randomly impacted, so the more craters a surface has, the older it is. Compared to Mercury, the Moon and other such bodies, Venus has very few craters. In part, this is because Venus's dense atmosphere burns up smaller meteorites before they hit the surface. The Venera and Magellan data agree: there are very few impact craters with a diameter less than , and data from Magellan show an absence of any craters less than  in diameter. However, there are also fewer of the large craters, and those appear relatively young; they are rarely filled with lava, showing that they happened after volcanic activity in the area, and radar shows that they are rough and have not had time to be eroded down.

text: Crater counts give an important estimate for the age of the surface of a planet. Over time, bodies in the Solar System are randomly impacted, so the more craters a surface has, the older it is. Compared to

text: Mercury

text: , the

text: Moon

text: and other such bodies, Venus has very few craters. In part, this is because Venus's dense atmosphere burns up smaller

text: meteor

text: ites before they hit the surface. The Venera and Magellan data agree: there are very few impact craters with a diameter less than , and data from Magellan show an absence of any craters less than  in diameter. However, there are also fewer of the large craters, and those appear relatively young; they are rarely filled with lava, showing that they happened after volcanic activity in the area, and radar shows that they are rough and have not had time to be eroded down.

text: In 1.4 million years, the star Gliese 710 is expected to start causing an increase in the number of meteoroids in the vicinity of Earth when it passes within 1.1 light years of the Sun, perturbing the Oort cloud. Dynamic models by García-Sánchez predict a 5% increase in the rate of impact. Objects perturbed from the Oort cloud take millions of years to reach the inner Solar System.

text: In 1.4 million years, the star

text: Gliese 710

text: is expected to start causing an increase in the number of meteoroids in the vicinity of Earth when it passes within 1.1

text: light year

text: s of the Sun,

text: perturbing

text: the

text: Oort cloud

text: . Dynamic models by García-Sánchez predict a 5% increase in the rate of impact. Objects perturbed from the Oort cloud take millions of years to reach the inner Solar System.

text: Any other solar system body with a reasonably transparent atmosphere can also have meteor showers.  As the Moon is in the neighborhood of Earth it can experience the same showers, but will have its own phenomena due to its lack of an atmosphere per se, such as vastly increasing its sodium tail.  NASA now maintains an ongoing database of observed impacts on the moon. maintained by the Marshall Space Flight Center whether from a shower or not.

text: Any other solar system body with a reasonably transparent atmosphere can also have meteor showers.  As the Moon is in the neighborhood of Earth it can experience the same showers, but will have its own phenomena due to its lack of an atmosphere per se, such as vastly increasing its

text: sodium tail

text: .  NASA now maintains an ongoing database of observed impacts on the moon. maintained by the

text: Marshall Space Flight Center

text: whether from a shower or not.

text: The expression "asteroid belt" came into use in the very early 1850s, although it is hard to pinpoint who coined the term. The first English use seems to be in the 1850 translation (by E. C. Otté) of Alexander von Humboldt's Cosmos: "[...] and the regular appearance, about the 13th of November and the 11th of August, of shooting stars, which probably form part of a belt of asteroids intersecting the Earth's orbit and moving with planetary velocity". Other early appearances occur in Robert James Mann's A Guide to the Knowledge of the Heavens, "The orbits of the asteroids are placed in a wide belt of space, extending between the extremes of [...]". The American astronomer Benjamin Peirce seems to have adopted that terminology and to have been one of its promoters. One hundred asteroids had been located by mid-1868, and in 1891 the introduction of astrophotography by Max Wolf accelerated the rate of discovery still further. A total of 1,000 asteroids had been found by 1921, 10,000 by 1981, and 100,000 by 2000. Modern asteroid survey systems now use automated means to locate new minor planets in ever-increasing quantities.

text: The expression "asteroid belt" came into use in the very early 1850s, although it is hard to pinpoint who coined the term. The first English use seems to be in the 1850 translation (by E. C. Otté) of Alexander von Humboldt's Cosmos: "[...] and the regular appearance, about the 13th of November and the 11th of August, of shooting stars, which probably form part of a belt of asteroids intersecting the Earth's orbit and moving with planetary velocity". Other early appearances occur in

text: Robert James Mann

text: 's A Guide to the Knowledge of the Heavens, "The orbits of the asteroids are placed in a wide belt of space, extending between the extremes of [...]". The American astronomer

text: Benjamin Peirce

text: seems to have adopted that terminology and to have been one of its promoters. One hundred asteroids had been located by mid-1868, and in 1891 the introduction of

text: astrophotography

text: by

text: Max Wolf

text: accelerated the rate of discovery still further. A total of 1,000 asteroids had been found by 1921, 10,000 by 1981, and 100,000 by 2000. Modern asteroid survey systems now use automated means to locate new minor planets in ever-increasing quantities.

text: In some traditions, particularly Tibetan, it was considered auspicious to use thokcha (meteoric iron) either as a component of the alloy in general or for a specific object or purpose.  The amount used could vary, depending upon the material's availability and suitability, among other considerations.  A small, largely symbolic quantity of "sky-iron" might be added, or it might be included as a significant part of the alloy-recipe.

text: In some traditions, particularly

text: Tibetan

text: , it was considered auspicious to use

text: thokcha

text: meteoric iron

text: ) either as a component of the alloy in general or for a specific object or purpose.  The amount used could vary, depending upon the material's availability and suitability, among other considerations.  A small, largely symbolic quantity of "sky-iron" might be added, or it might be included as a significant part of the alloy-recipe.

text: Discovery and precovery dates for well-known known and probable dwarf planets:

text: Discovery and precovery dates for well-known

text: known

text: and

text: probable

text: dwarf planets:

text: A mass driver is an (automated) system on the asteroid to eject material into space thus giving the object a slow steady push and decreasing its mass. A mass driver is designed to work as a very low specific impulse system, which in general uses a lot of propellant, but very little power.

text: A

text: mass driver

text: is an (automated) system on the asteroid to eject material into space thus giving the object a slow steady push and decreasing its mass. A mass driver is designed to work as a very low

text: specific impulse

text: system, which in general uses a lot of propellant, but very little power.

text: There is, however, another comet population, known as short-period or periodic comets, consisting of those comets that, like Halley's Comet, have orbital periods of less than 200 years. By the 1970s, the rate at which short-period comets were being discovered was becoming increasingly inconsistent with their having emerged solely from the Oort cloud. For an Oort cloud object to become a short-period comet, it would first have to be captured by the giant planets. In 1980, in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Uruguayan astronomer Julio Fernández stated that for every short-period comet to be sent into the inner Solar System from the Oort cloud, 600 would have to be ejected into interstellar space. He speculated that a comet belt from between 35 and 50 AU would be required to account for the observed number of comets. Following up on Fernández's work, in 1988 the Canadian team of Martin Duncan, Tom Quinn and Scott Tremaine ran a number of computer simulations to determine if all observed comets could have arrived from the Oort cloud. They found that the Oort cloud could not account for all short-period comets, particularly as short-period comets are clustered near the plane of the Solar System, whereas Oort-cloud comets tend to arrive from any point in the sky. With a "belt", as Fernández described it, added to the formulations, the simulations matched observations. Reportedly because the words "Kuiper" and "comet belt" appeared in the opening sentence of Fernández's paper, Tremaine named this hypothetical region the "Kuiper belt".

text: There is, however, another comet population, known as

text: short-period

text: or

text: periodic comet

text: s, consisting of those comets that, like

text: Halley's Comet

text: , have

text: orbital period

text: s of less than 200 years. By the 1970s, the rate at which short-period comets were being discovered was becoming increasingly inconsistent with their having emerged solely from the

text: Oort cloud

text: . For an Oort cloud object to become a short-period comet, it would first have to be captured by the giant planets. In 1980, in the

entity_name: Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society

text: Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society

text: , Uruguayan astronomer

text: Julio Fernández

text: stated that for every short-period comet to be sent into the inner Solar System from the Oort cloud, 600 would have to be ejected into interstellar space. He speculated that a comet belt from between 35 and 50

text: AU

text: would be required to account for the observed number of comets. Following up on Fernández's work, in 1988 the Canadian team of Martin Duncan, Tom Quinn and

text: Scott Tremaine

text: ran a number of computer simulations to determine if all observed comets could have arrived from the Oort cloud. They found that the Oort cloud could not account for all short-period comets, particularly as short-period comets are clustered near the plane of the Solar System, whereas Oort-cloud comets tend to arrive from any point in the sky. With a "belt", as Fernández described it, added to the formulations, the simulations matched observations. Reportedly because the words "Kuiper" and "comet belt" appeared in the opening sentence of Fernández's paper, Tremaine named this hypothetical region the "Kuiper belt".

text: Like other members of the Kuiper belt, Pluto is thought to be a residual planetesimal; a component of the original protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into a full-fledged planet. Most astronomers agree that Pluto owes its current position to a sudden migration undergone by Neptune early in the Solar System's formation. As Neptune migrated outward, it approached the objects in the proto-Kuiper belt, setting one in orbit around itself (Triton), locking others into resonances, and knocking others into chaotic orbits. The objects in the scattered disc, a dynamically unstable region overlapping the Kuiper belt, are thought to have been placed in their current positions by interactions with Neptune's migrating resonances. A computer model created in 2004 by Alessandro Morbidelli of the Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur in Nice suggested that the migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt may have been triggered by the formation of a 1:2 resonance between Jupiter and Saturn, which created a gravitational push that propelled both Uranus and Neptune into higher orbits and caused them to switch places, ultimately doubling Neptune's distance from the Sun. The resultant expulsion of objects from the proto-Kuiper belt could also explain the Late Heavy Bombardment 600 million years after the Solar System's formation and the origin of the Jupiter trojans. It is possible that Pluto had a near-circular orbit about 33 AU from the Sun before Neptune's migration perturbed it into a resonant capture. The Nice model requires that there were about a thousand Pluto-sized bodies in the original planetesimal disk, which included Triton and Eris.

text: Like other members of the Kuiper belt, Pluto is thought to be a residual

text: planetesimal

text: ; a component of the original

text: protoplanetary disc

text: around the

text: Sun

text: that failed to fully coalesce into a full-fledged planet. Most astronomers agree that Pluto owes its current position to a

text: sudden migration

text: undergone by Neptune early in the Solar System's formation. As Neptune migrated outward, it approached the objects in the proto-Kuiper belt, setting one in orbit around itself (Triton), locking others into resonances, and knocking others into chaotic orbits. The objects in the

text: scattered disc

text: , a dynamically unstable region overlapping the Kuiper belt, are thought to have been placed in their current positions by interactions with Neptune's migrating resonances. A computer model created in 2004 by Alessandro Morbidelli of the

text: Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur

text: in

text: Nice

text: suggested that the migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt may have been triggered by the formation of a 1:2 resonance between Jupiter and Saturn, which created a gravitational push that propelled both Uranus and Neptune into higher orbits and caused them to switch places, ultimately doubling Neptune's distance from the Sun. The resultant expulsion of objects from the proto-Kuiper belt could also explain the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: 600 million years after the Solar System's formation and the origin of the

text: Jupiter trojan

text: s. It is possible that Pluto had a near-circular orbit about 33 AU from the Sun before Neptune's migration

text: perturbed

text: it into a resonant capture. The Nice model requires that there were about a thousand Pluto-sized bodies in the original planetesimal disk, which included Triton and Eris.

text: On July 23, the IAU issued Circular 6187 to announce the joint discovery of the new comet. Per Hale, calculations indicate that Hale–Bopp likely last appeared on the order of 4000 years ago, but any record of this previous encounter had not yet been positively identified from ancient records. It has also been determined that Hale–Bopp will not return to the inner solar system until approximately 4385.

text: On July 23, the

text: IAU

text: issued Circular 6187 to announce the joint discovery of the new comet. Per Hale, calculations indicate that Hale–Bopp likely last appeared on the order of 4000 years ago, but any record of this previous encounter had not yet been positively identified from ancient records. It has also been determined that Hale–Bopp will not return to the inner solar system until approximately 4385.

text: In the outer Solar System, comets remain frozen and inactive and are extremely difficult or impossible to detect from Earth due to their small size. Statistical detections of inactive comet nuclei in the Kuiper belt have been reported from observations by the Hubble Space Telescope but these detections have been questioned. As a comet approaches the inner Solar System, solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them.

text: In the outer

text: Solar System

text: , comets remain frozen and inactive and are extremely difficult or impossible to detect from Earth due to their small size. Statistical detections of inactive comet nuclei in the

text: Kuiper belt

text: have been reported from observations by the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: but these detections have been questioned. As a comet approaches the inner Solar System,

text: solar radiation

text: causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them.

text: (nicknamed Drac) is the first trans-Neptunian object (TNO) with a retrograde orbit to be discovered. Its 103° inclination and its retrograde motion suggest that it is the missing link between its source in the Hills cloud and Halley-type comets, thus providing further insight into the evolution of the outer Solar System. The object measures no more than 90 km across and with a semi-major axis of 41 AU takes about 266 years to complete an orbit around the Sun.

text: (nicknamed Drac) is the first

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: (TNO) with a

text: retrograde orbit

text: to be discovered. Its 103°

text: inclination

text: and its retrograde motion suggest that it is the missing link between its source in the

text: Hills cloud

text: and

text: Halley-type

text: comet

text: s, thus providing further insight into the evolution of the outer

text: Solar System

text: . The object measures no more than 90 km across and with a

text: semi-major axis

text: of 41 AU takes about 266 years to complete an orbit around the

text: Sun

text: This minigame involves a virtual representation of the solar system where the planets and other objects can be picked up, moved, and thrown.

text: This minigame involves a virtual representation of the

text: solar system

text: where the planets and other objects can be picked up, moved, and thrown.

text: An example of an extinct radionuclide is xenon-129, a stable isotope of xenon which appears as a relative excess against other xenon isotopes. It is found in meteorites that condensed from the primordial solar system dust cloud and trapped promordial iodine-129 (half life 15.7 million years) some time in a relative short period (probably less than 20 million years) between the iodine-129's creation in a supernova, and the formation of the solar system by condensation of this dust. The trapped iodine-129 now appears as a relative excess of xenon-129. Iodine-129 was the first extinct radionuclide to be inferred, in 1960. Others are aluminium-26 (also inferred from extra magnesium-26 found in meteorites), and iron-60.

text: An example of an extinct radionuclide is xenon-129, a stable isotope of xenon which appears as a relative excess against other xenon isotopes. It is found in meteorites that condensed from the primordial solar system dust cloud and trapped promordial

text: (half life 15.7 million years) some time in a relative short period (probably less than 20 million years) between the iodine-129's creation in a supernova, and the formation of the solar system by condensation of this dust. The trapped iodine-129 now appears as a relative excess of xenon-129. Iodine-129 was the first extinct radionuclide to be inferred, in 1960. Others are aluminium-26 (also inferred from extra magnesium-26 found in meteorites), and iron-60.

text: Wallis and Wickramasinghe argued in 2004 that the transport of individual bacteria or clumps of bacteria, is overwhelmingly more important than lithopanspermia in terms of numbers of microbes transferred, even accounting for the death rate of unprotected bacteria in transit. Then it was found that isolated spores of B. subtilis were killed by several orders of magnitude if exposed to the full space environment for a mere few seconds. These results clearly negate the original panspermia hypothesis, which requires single spores as space travelers accelerated by the radiation pressure of the Sun, requiring many years to travel between the planets. However, if shielded against solar UV, spores of Bacillus subtilis were capable of surviving in space for up to 6 years, especially if embedded in clay or meteorite powder (artificial meteorites). The data support the likelihood of interplanetary transfer of microorganisms within meteorites, the so-called lithopanspermia hypothesis.<ref name='Gerda Horneck' />

text: Wallis and Wickramasinghe argued in 2004 that the transport of individual bacteria or clumps of bacteria, is overwhelmingly more important than lithopanspermia in terms of numbers of microbes transferred, even accounting for the death rate of unprotected bacteria in transit. Then it was found that isolated spores of

text: B. subtilis

text: were killed by several orders of magnitude if exposed to the full space environment for a mere few seconds. These results clearly negate the original panspermia hypothesis, which requires single spores as space travelers accelerated by the radiation pressure of the Sun, requiring many years to travel between the planets. However, if shielded against solar

text: UV

text: , spores of

text: Bacillus subtilis

text: were capable of surviving in space for up to 6 years, especially if embedded in clay or meteorite powder (artificial meteorites). The data support the likelihood of interplanetary transfer of microorganisms within

text: meteorite

text: s, the so-called lithopanspermia hypothesis.<ref name='Gerda Horneck' />

text: Observed Solar System objects that periodically become more distant than 103 AU from the Sun include Sedna (which is similar or modestly larger in size), , , , and . There are 595 known objects that have aphelia more than 103 AU from the Sun. This distance is about double the outer limit of the torus-shaped Kuiper belt that lies outside Neptune's orbit. Far beyond this region is the vast spherical Oort cloud enshrouding the Solar System, whose presence was deduced from the orbits of long-period comets.

text: Observed Solar System objects that periodically become more distant than 103 AU from the Sun include

text: Sedna

text: (which is similar or modestly larger in size), , , , and . There are 595 known objects that have aphelia more than 103 AU from the Sun. This distance is about double the outer limit of the torus-shaped

text: Kuiper belt

text: that lies outside Neptune's orbit. Far beyond this region is the vast spherical

text: Oort cloud

text: enshrouding the Solar System, whose presence was deduced from the orbits of long-period comets.

text: The term "minor planet" would have been abandoned, replaced by the categories "small Solar System body" (SSSB) and a new classification of "pluton". The former would have described those objects underneath the "spherical" threshold. The latter would have been applied to those planets with highly inclined orbits, large eccentricities and an orbital period of more than 200 earth years (that is, those orbiting beyond Neptune). Pluto would have been the prototype for this class. The term "dwarf planet" would have been available to describe all planets smaller than the eight "classical planets" in orbit around the Sun, though would not have been an official IAU classification. The IAU did not make recommendations in the draft resolution on what separated a planet from a brown dwarf. A vote on the proposal was scheduled for August 24, 2006.

text: The term "minor planet" would have been abandoned, replaced by the categories "

text: small Solar System body

text: " (SSSB) and a new classification of "pluton". The former would have described those objects underneath the "spherical" threshold. The latter would have been applied to those planets with highly inclined orbits, large eccentricities and an orbital period of more than 200 earth years (that is, those orbiting beyond Neptune). Pluto would have been the prototype for this class. The term "

text: dwarf planet

text: " would have been available to describe all planets smaller than the eight "classical planets" in orbit around the Sun, though would not have been an official IAU classification. The IAU did not make recommendations in the draft resolution on what separated a planet from a

text: brown dwarf

text: . A vote on the proposal was scheduled for August 24, 2006.

text: As on Earth, when a meteor is large enough to actually impact with the surface (without burning up completely in the atmosphere), it becomes a meteorite. The first known meteorite discovered on Mars (and the third known meteorite found someplace other than Earth) was Heat Shield Rock. The first and the second ones were found on the moon by the Apollo missions.

text: As on Earth, when a meteor is large enough to actually impact with the surface (without burning up completely in the atmosphere), it becomes a

text: meteorite

text: . The first known meteorite discovered on Mars (and the third known meteorite found someplace other than Earth) was

text: Heat Shield Rock

text: . The first and the second ones were found on the moon by the

text: Apollo missions

text: It was calculated that a flyby mission to Makemake could take just over 16 years using a Jupiter gravity assist, based on a launch date of 21 August 2024 or 24 August 2036. Makemake would be approximately 52 AU from the Sun when the spacecraft arrives.

text: It was calculated that a flyby mission to Makemake could take just over 16 years using a Jupiter

text: gravity assist

text: , based on a launch date of 21 August 2024 or 24 August 2036. Makemake would be approximately 52 AU from the Sun when the spacecraft arrives.

text: The most prominent planetary rings in the Solar System are those around Saturn, but the other three giant planets (Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune) also have ring systems. Recent evidence suggests that ring systems may be found around other types of astronomical objects, including minor planets, moons, and brown dwarfs.

text: The most prominent planetary rings in the

text: Solar System

text: are

text: those around Saturn

text: , but the other three

text: giant planet

text: s (

text: Jupiter

text: Uranus

text: , and

text: Neptune

text: ) also have ring systems. Recent evidence suggests that ring systems may be found around other types of astronomical objects, including minor planets, moons, and brown dwarfs.

text: There are types of planets that do not exist in the Solar System: super-Earths and mini-Neptunes, which could be rocky like Earth or a mixture of volatiles and gas like Neptune—a radius of 1.75 times that of Earth is a possible dividing line between the two types of planet. There are hot Jupiters that orbit very close to their star and may evaporate to become chthonian planets, which are the leftover cores. Another possible type of planet is carbon planets, which form in systems with a higher proportion of carbon than in the Solar System.

text: There are types of planets that do not exist in the Solar System:

text: super-Earth

text: s and

text: mini-Neptune

text: s, which could be rocky like Earth or a mixture of volatiles and gas like Neptune—a radius of 1.75 times that of Earth is a possible dividing line between the two types of planet. There are

text: hot Jupiter

text: s that orbit very close to their star and may evaporate to become

text: chthonian planet

text: s, which are the leftover cores. Another possible type of planet is

text: carbon planet

text: s, which form in systems with a higher proportion of carbon than in the Solar System.

text: Pan-STARRS may detect interstellar objects passing through the Solar System. During the formation of a planetary system, it is thought that a very large number of objects are ejected due to gravitational interactions with planets (as many as 10 such objects in the case of the Solar System). Objects ejected from planetary systems of other stars might plausibly be throughout the Milky Way and some may pass through the Solar System.

text: Pan-STARRS may detect

text: interstellar objects

text: passing through the Solar System. During the formation of a planetary system, it is thought that a very large number of objects are ejected due to gravitational interactions with planets (as many as 10 such objects in the case of the Solar System). Objects ejected from planetary systems of other stars might plausibly be throughout the Milky Way and some may pass through the Solar System.

text: The center of mass (barycenter) of the Pluto–Charon system lies outside either body. Because neither object truly orbits the other, and Charon has 12.2% the mass of Pluto, it has been argued that Charon should be considered to be part of a binary system with Pluto. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) states that Charon is considered to be just a satellite of Pluto, but the idea that Charon might be classified a dwarf planet in its own right may be considered at a later date.

text: The

text: center of mass

text: (barycenter) of the Pluto–Charon system lies outside either body. Because neither object truly orbits the other, and Charon has 12.2% the mass of Pluto, it has been argued that Charon should be considered to be part of a

text: binary system

text: with Pluto. The

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) states that Charon is considered to be just a satellite of Pluto, but the idea that Charon might be classified a dwarf planet in its own right may be considered at a later date.

text: Beyond the orbit of Neptune lies the area of the "trans-Neptunian region", with the doughnut-shaped Kuiper belt, home of Pluto and several other dwarf planets, and an overlapping disc of scattered objects, which is tilted toward the plane of the Solar System and reaches much further out than the Kuiper belt. The entire region is still largely unexplored. It appears to consist overwhelmingly of many thousands of small worlds—the largest having a diameter only a fifth that of Earth and a mass far smaller than that of the Moon—composed mainly of rock and ice. This region is sometimes described as the "third zone of the Solar System", enclosing the inner and the outer Solar System.

text: Beyond the orbit of Neptune lies the area of the "

text: trans-Neptunian region

text: ", with the doughnut-shaped Kuiper belt, home of Pluto and several other dwarf planets, and an overlapping disc of scattered objects, which is

text: tilted toward the plane

text: of the Solar System and reaches much further out than the Kuiper belt. The entire region is still

text: largely unexplored

text: . It appears to consist overwhelmingly of many thousands of small worlds—the largest having a diameter only a fifth that of Earth and a mass far smaller than that of the Moon—composed mainly of rock and ice. This region is sometimes described as the "third zone of the Solar System", enclosing the inner and the outer Solar System.

text: The outer region of the Solar System is home to the giant planets and their large moons. The centaurs and many short-period comets also orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles, such as water, ammonia, and methane than those of the inner Solar System because the lower temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid.

text: The outer region of the Solar System is home to the

text: giant planet

text: s and their large moons. The

text: centaurs

text: and many

text: short-period comet

text: s also orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles, such as water, ammonia, and methane than those of the inner Solar System because the lower temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid.

text: Meteorites landing in marine depositional environments are a fifth category of dropstone.  A number of meteorites have been found in Sweden's Thorsberg quarry, where they sank to the bottom of a shallow sea and were entombed in limestone 470 million years ago.

text: Given that Toutatis makes many close approaches to Earth, such as in 1992, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008, and 2012, it is listed as a potentially hazardous object. With an uncertainty parameter of 0, the orbit of Toutatis is very well determined for the next few hundred years. The probability of the orbit intersecting Earth is essentially zero for at least the next six centuries. The likelihood of collision in the distant future is considered to be very small. As a planet-crossing asteroid, Toutatis is likely to be ejected from the inner Solar System within a time scale of a few million years or less, giving it a limited number of opportunities to hit Earth. In 2004 a chain e-mail falsely claimed that Toutatis had a 63 percent chance of impacting Earth that year. In fact, Toutatis passed by at 1.5 million kilometres, or about four Earth–Moon distances, as predicted.

text: Given that Toutatis makes many close approaches to Earth, such as in 1992, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008, and 2012, it is listed as a

text: potentially hazardous object

text: . With an

text: uncertainty parameter

text: of 0, the orbit of Toutatis is very well determined for the next few hundred years. The probability of the orbit intersecting Earth is essentially zero for at least the next six centuries. The likelihood of collision in the distant future is considered to be very small. As a planet-crossing asteroid, Toutatis is likely to be ejected from the inner Solar System within a time scale of a few million years or less, giving it a limited number of opportunities to hit Earth. In 2004 a

text: chain e-mail

text: falsely claimed that Toutatis had a 63 percent chance of impacting Earth that year. In fact, Toutatis passed by at 1.5 million kilometres, or about four Earth–Moon distances, as predicted.

text: Unlike a natural ecosystem which is regulated by the interaction of many different species; an artificially closed ecosystem has a reduced number of steps and it is sized and controlled to reach the desired objectives. It is akin to  industrial processes, transforming raw materials into useful substances. However, one key difference is the targeted objective to recycle near 100% of wastes (limiting feed stock), essentially operating MELiSSA in a closed loop. Achieving near 100% for the major elements is of course theoretical. When compared to natural ecosystems, even Earth isn’t a truly closed system: every year thousands of tons of meteoric matter come from space. Further, an artificial ecosystem is inherently dynamic, MELiSSA has to respond very quickly to changes in human behaviour. This requires a dynamic control system which is developed for each step of the process and the system as a whole.

text: "Our newly discovered object is the coldest most distant place known in the Solar System", said Mike Brown on his website, "so we feel it is appropriate to name it in honor of Sedna, the Inuit goddess of the sea, who is thought to live at the bottom of the frigid Arctic Ocean." Brown also suggested to the International Astronomical Union's (IAU) Minor Planet Center that any future objects discovered in Sedna's orbital region should also be named after entities in arctic mythologies. The team made the name "Sedna" public before the object had been officially numbered. Brian Marsden, the head of the Minor Planet Center, said that such an action was a violation of protocol, and that some members of the IAU might vote against it. However, no objection was raised to the name, and no competing names were suggested. The IAU's Committee on Small Body Nomenclature formally accepted the name in September 2004, and also considered that, in similar cases of extraordinary interest, it might in the future allow names to be announced before they were officially numbered.

text: "Our newly discovered object is the coldest most distant place known in the Solar System", said Mike Brown on his website, "so we feel it is appropriate to name it in honor of

text: Sedna

text: , the

text: Inuit goddess

text: of the sea, who is thought to live at the bottom of the frigid

text: Arctic Ocean

text: ." Brown also suggested to the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: 's (IAU) Minor Planet Center that any future objects discovered in Sedna's orbital region should also be named after entities in arctic mythologies. The team made the name "Sedna" public before the object had been officially numbered.

text: Brian Marsden

text: , the head of the Minor Planet Center, said that such an action was a violation of protocol, and that some members of the IAU might vote against it. However, no objection was raised to the name, and no competing names were suggested. The IAU's

text: Committee on Small Body Nomenclature

text: formally accepted the name in September 2004, and also considered that, in similar cases of extraordinary interest, it might in the future allow names to be announced before they were officially numbered.

text: Although the sizes of comets are difficult to determine without close observation, Comet Elenin is likely to be less than 10 km in diameter. Elenin himself estimates that the comet nucleus is roughly 3–4 km in diameter. This would make it millions of times smaller than the supposed Nibiru. Comet hysteria is not uncommon. Attempts have been made to correlate Elenin's alignments with the 2011 Japan earthquake, the 2010 Canterbury earthquake, and 2010 Chile earthquake; however, even discounting Elenin's tiny size, earthquakes are driven by forces within the earth, and cannot be triggered by the passage of nearby objects. In 2011, Leonid Elenin ran a simulation on his blog in which he increased the mass of the comet to that of a brown dwarf (0.05 solar masses). He demonstrated that its gravity would have caused noticeable changes in the orbit of Saturn years before its arrival in the inner Solar System.

text: Although the sizes of comets are difficult to determine without close observation, Comet Elenin is likely to be less than 10 km in diameter. Elenin himself estimates that the

text: comet nucleus

text: is roughly 3–4 km in diameter. This would make it millions of times smaller than the supposed Nibiru. Comet hysteria is not uncommon. Attempts have been made to correlate Elenin's alignments with the

text: 2011 Japan earthquake

text: , the

text: 2010 Canterbury earthquake

text: , and

text: 2010 Chile earthquake

text: ; however, even discounting Elenin's tiny size, earthquakes are driven by forces within the earth, and cannot be triggered by the passage of nearby objects. In 2011, Leonid Elenin ran a simulation on his blog in which he increased the mass of the comet to that of a brown dwarf (0.05 solar masses). He demonstrated that its gravity would have caused noticeable changes in the orbit of Saturn years before its arrival in the inner Solar System.

text: 164P/Christensen is a periodic comet in the solar system.

text: 164P/Christensen is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: solar system

text: Makemake was discovered on March 31, 2005, by a team at the Palomar Observatory, led by Michael E. Brown, and was announced to the public on July 29, 2005. The team had planned to delay announcing their discoveries of the bright objects Makemake and  until further observations and calculations were complete, but announced them both on July 29 when the discovery of another large object they had been tracking, , was controversially announced on July 27 by a different team in Spain.

text: Makemake was discovered on March 31, 2005, by a team at the

text: Palomar Observatory

text: , led by

text: Michael E. Brown

text: , and was announced to the public on July 29, 2005. The team had planned to delay announcing their discoveries of the bright objects Makemake and  until further observations and calculations were complete, but announced them both on July 29 when the discovery of another large object they had been tracking, , was

entity_name: Controversy over the discovery of Haumea

text: controversially announced

text: on July 27 by a different team in Spain.

text: Rheasilvia  is the most prominent surface feature on the asteroid Vesta and is thought to be an impact crater. It is  in diameter, which is 90% the diameter of Vesta itself, and is 95% the mean diameter of Vesta, . However, the mean is affected by the crater itself. It is 89% the mean equatorial diameter of , making it one of the largest craters in the Solar System, and at 75°S latitude, covers most of the southern hemisphere. The peak in the center of the crater rises  from its base, the tallest mountain known in the Solar System.

text: Rheasilvia  is the most prominent surface feature on the asteroid

text: Vesta

text: and is thought to be an

text: impact crater

text: . It is  in diameter, which is 90% the diameter of Vesta itself, and is 95% the mean diameter of Vesta, . However, the mean is affected by the crater itself. It is 89% the mean equatorial diameter of , making it one of the

entity_name: List of largest craters in the Solar System

text: largest craters in the Solar System

text: , and at 75°S latitude, covers most of the southern hemisphere. The peak in the center of the crater rises  from its base, the

entity_name: List of tallest mountains in the Solar System

text: tallest mountain known in the Solar System

text: Eris (minor-planet designation 136199 Eris) is the most massive and second-largest dwarf planet known in the Solar System. It is also the ninth-most-massive known body directly orbiting the Sun, and the largest known body in the Solar System not visited by a spacecraft. It is measured to be  in diameter. Eris is 27% more massive than dwarf planet Pluto, though Pluto is slightly larger by volume. Eris' mass is about 0.27% of the Earth's mass.

text: Eris (

text: minor-planet designation

text: 136199 Eris) is the most massive and second-largest

text: dwarf planet

text: known in the

text: Solar System

text: . It is also the ninth-most-massive known body directly orbiting the

text: Sun

text: , and the largest known body in the Solar System not visited by a

text: spacecraft

text: . It is measured to be  in diameter. Eris is 27% more

text: mass

text: ive than dwarf planet

text: Pluto

text: , though Pluto is slightly larger by volume. Eris' mass is about 0.27% of the

text: Earth

text: 's mass.

text: The following is a list of parabolic and hyperbolic comets in the Solar System. Many of these comets may come from the Oort cloud, or perhaps even have interstellar origin. Due to the Oort Cloud not being gravitationally attracted enough to the Sun to form into a fairly thin disk, like the inner Solar System, comets originating from it can come from roughly any orientation, and many even orbit retrograde. By definition, a hyperbolic orbit means that the comet will only travel through the Solar System once, with the Sun acting as a gravitational slingshot, sending the comet hurtling out of the Solar System entirely unless its eccentricity is otherwise changed. Comets orbiting in this way still originate from the Solar System, however. Typically comets in the Oort Cloud are thought to have roughly circular orbits around the Sun, but their orbital velocity is so slow that they are easily perturbed by passing stars and the galactic tide.

text: The following is a list of

text: parabolic

text: and

text: hyperbolic

text: comet

text: s in the Solar System. Many of these comets may come from the

text: Oort cloud

text: , or perhaps even have

text: interstellar

text: origin. Due to the Oort Cloud not being gravitationally attracted enough to the Sun to form into a fairly thin disk, like the inner Solar System, comets originating from it can come from roughly any orientation, and many even orbit

text: retrograde

text: . By definition, a hyperbolic orbit means that the comet will only travel through the Solar System once, with the Sun acting as a gravitational slingshot, sending the comet hurtling out of the Solar System entirely unless its

text: eccentricity

text: is otherwise changed. Comets orbiting in this way still originate from the Solar System, however. Typically comets in the Oort Cloud are thought to have roughly circular orbits around the Sun, but their orbital velocity is so slow that they are easily perturbed by

text: passing stars

text: and the

text: galactic tide

text: A certain type of meteorites, CI-chondrites, have a chemical composition that is almost identical to the solar photosphere, except for the abundances of volatile elements. Because the Sun contains 99.86% of the mass of the Solar System, they are considered to have the same composition as the solar nebula with the exception of volatile loss and are therefore representative of the material from which the terrestrial planets, including the Earth, were formed.

text: A certain type of meteorites,

text: CI-chondrites

text: , have a chemical composition that is almost identical to the solar

text: photosphere

text: , except for the abundances of volatile elements. Because the Sun contains 99.86% of the mass of the Solar System, they are considered to have the same composition as the solar nebula with the exception of volatile loss and are therefore representative of the material from which the terrestrial planets, including the Earth, were formed.

text: Haumea displays large fluctuations in brightness over a period of 3.9 hours, which can only be explained by a rotational period of this length. This is faster than any other known equilibrium body in the Solar System, and indeed faster than any other known body larger than 100 km in diameter. This rapid rotation is thought to have been caused by the impact that created its satellites and collisional family.

text: Haumea displays large fluctuations in brightness over a period of 3.9 hours, which can only be explained by a rotational period of this length. This is faster than any other known equilibrium body in the

text: Solar System

text: , and indeed faster than any other known body larger than 100 km in diameter. This rapid rotation is thought to have been caused by the impact that created its satellites and collisional family.

text: Earth – third planet from the Sun, the densest planet in the Solar System, the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets, and the only astronomical object known to harbor life.

text: Earth

text: – third planet from the

text: Sun

text: , the densest planet in the

text: Solar System

text: , the largest of the Solar System's four

text: terrestrial planet

text: s, and the only

text: astronomical object

text: known to harbor

text: life

text: The following is a comparative table classifying the natural satellites in the Solar System by diameter. The column on the right includes some notable planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, and trans-Neptunian objects for comparison. The natural satellites of the planets are named after mythological figures. These are predominantly Greek, except for the Uranian natural satellites, which are named after Shakespearean characters. The nineteen bodies massive enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium are in bold in the table below. Minor planets and satellites suspected but not proven to have achieved a hydrostatic equilibrium are italicized in the table below.

text: The following is a comparative table classifying the natural satellites in the

text: Solar System

text: by diameter. The column on the right includes some notable planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, and trans-Neptunian objects for comparison. The natural satellites of the planets are named after mythological figures. These are predominantly Greek, except for the

text: Uranian natural satellites

text: , which are named after Shakespearean characters. The nineteen bodies massive enough to have achieved

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: are in bold in the table below. Minor planets and satellites suspected but not proven to have achieved a hydrostatic equilibrium are italicized in the table below.

text: 10 Hygiea is the fourth-largest asteroid in the Solar System by volume and mass, and it is located in the asteroid belt. With somewhat oblong diameters of  (217–310 miles) and a mass estimated to be 2.9% of the total mass of the belt, it is the largest of the class of dark C-type asteroids with a carbonaceous surface.

text: 10 Hygiea is the

text: fourth-largest asteroid

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: by volume and mass, and it is located in the

text: asteroid belt

text: . With somewhat oblong diameters of  (217–310 miles) and a mass estimated to be 2.9% of the total mass of the belt, it is the largest of the class of dark

text: C-type asteroid

text: s with a

text: carbon

text: aceous surface.

text: 114P/Wiseman–Skiff is a periodic comet in the Solar System.

text: 114P/Wiseman–Skiff is a periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: Dysnomia (Greek: Δυσνομία)—officially (136199) Eris I Dysnomia—is the only known moon of the dwarf planet Eris (the most massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System). It was discovered in 2005 by Mike Brown and the laser guide star adaptive optics team at the W. M. Keck Observatory, and carried the provisional designation of  until officially named Dysnomia (from the Ancient Greek word Δυσνομία meaning anarchy/lawlessness) after the daughter of the Greek goddess Eris.

text: Dysnomia (

text: Greek

text: : Δυσνομία)—officially (136199) Eris I Dysnomia—is the only known

text: moon

text: of the

text: dwarf planet

text: Eris

text: (the most massive known

text: dwarf planet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: ). It was discovered in 2005 by

text: Mike Brown

text: and the laser guide star adaptive optics team at the

text: W. M. Keck Observatory

text: , and carried the provisional designation of  until officially named Dysnomia (from the Ancient Greek word Δυσνομία meaning anarchy/lawlessness) after the

text: daughter

text: of the Greek goddess

text: Eris

text: Following guidelines established by the IAU that classical Kuiper belt objects be given names of mythological beings associated with creation, in September 2006 the Caltech team submitted formal names from Hawaiian mythology to the IAU for both (136108) 2003 EL and its moons, in order "to pay homage to the place where the satellites were discovered". The names were proposed by David Rabinowitz of the Caltech team. Haumea is the matron goddess of the island of Hawaii, where the Mauna Kea Observatory is located. In addition, she is identified with Papa, the goddess of the earth and wife of Wākea (space), which is appropriate because Haumea is thought to be composed almost entirely of solid rock, without the thick ice mantle over a small rocky core typical of other known Kuiper belt objects. Lastly, Haumea is the goddess of fertility and childbirth, with many children who sprang from different parts of her body; this corresponds to the swarm of icy bodies thought to have broken off the dwarf planet during an ancient collision. The two known moons, also believed to have formed in this manner, are thus named after two of Haumea's daughters, Hiʻiaka and Nāmaka.

text: Following

text: guidelines

text: established by the IAU that

text: classical Kuiper belt object

text: Hawaiian mythology

text: David Rabinowitz

text: of the Caltech team.

text: Haumea

text: is the matron goddess of the island of

text: Hawaii

text: , where the

text: Mauna Kea Observatory

text: Papa

text: , the goddess of the earth and wife of

text: Wākea

text: (space), which is appropriate because Haumea is thought to be composed almost entirely of solid rock, without the thick ice mantle over a small rocky core typical of other known Kuiper belt objects. Lastly, Haumea is the goddess of fertility and childbirth, with many children who sprang from different parts of her body; this corresponds to the swarm of icy bodies thought to have broken off the dwarf planet during an ancient collision. The two known moons, also believed to have formed in this manner, are thus named after two of Haumea's daughters,

text: Hiʻiaka

text: and

text: Nāmaka

text: Shortly after Voyager 2s flyby of Neptune and its findings at Triton in August 1989, scientists sought interest in a mission to Pluto and further studies for the existence of a Kuiper belt and Kuiper belt objects, potentially similar to Triton. All four outer planets were explored by Voyager 2, launched in 1977, with close approaches to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. After a Neptune encounter, the alignment of Pluto made it impossible for Voyager 2 to continue there, leaving it on a trajectory out of the Solar System.

text: Shortly after

text: Voyager 2

text: s flyby of

text: Neptune

text: and its findings at

text: Triton

text: in August 1989, scientists sought interest in a mission to Pluto and further studies for the existence of a

text: Kuiper belt

text: and Kuiper belt objects, potentially similar to Triton. All four outer planets were explored by

text: Voyager 2

text: , launched in 1977, with close approaches to

text: Jupiter

text: Saturn

text: Uranus

text: , and

text: Neptune

text: . After a Neptune encounter, the alignment of Pluto made it impossible for Voyager 2 to continue there, leaving it on a trajectory out of the Solar System.

text: 36P/Whipple is a periodic comet in the Solar System. It is the lowest numbered Quasi-Hilda comet.

text: 36P/Whipple is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: . It is the lowest numbered

text: Quasi-Hilda comet

text: Common physical characteristics with the dwarf planet Haumea together with similar orbit elementsled to suggestion that  was a member of the Haumean collisional family. The object, together with other members of the family (, ,  and ), would be created from ice mantle ejected from the proto-Haumea as result of a collision with another large (around ) body.

text: Common physical characteristics with the dwarf planet Haumea together with similar orbit elementsled to suggestion that  was a member of the Haumean

text: collisional family

text: The Solar System began forming about 4.6 billion years ago, or about 9 billion years after the Big Bang. A fragment of a molecular cloud made mostly of hydrogen and traces of other elements began to collapse, forming a large sphere in the center which would become the Sun, as well as a surrounding disk. The surrounding accretion disk would coalesce into a multitude of smaller objects that would become planets, asteroids, and comets. The Sun is a late-generation star, and the Solar System incorporates matter created by previous generations of stars.

text: The

text: Solar System

text: began forming about 4.6 billion years ago, or about 9 billion years after the Big Bang. A fragment of a molecular cloud made mostly of hydrogen and traces of other elements began to collapse, forming a large sphere in the center which would become the Sun, as well as a surrounding disk. The surrounding accretion disk would coalesce into a multitude of smaller objects that would become planets, asteroids, and comets. The Sun is a late-generation star, and the Solar System incorporates matter created by previous generations of stars.

text: For example, in paper industry when designing a paper mill, one can seek to decrease the amount of capital invested in a paper mill and enhance the quality of paper simultaneously. If the design of a paper mill is defined by large storage volumes and paper quality is defined by quality parameters, then the problem of optimal design of a paper mill can include objectives such as: i) minimization of expected variation of those quality parameter from their nominal values, ii) minimization of expected time of breaks and iii) minimization of investment cost of storage volumes. Here, maximum volume of towers are design variables. This example of optimal design of a paper mill is a simplification of the model used in.  Multi-objective design optimization have also been implemented in engineering systems - e.g. design of nano-CMOS semiconductors, design of solar-powered irrigation systems, optimization of sand mould systems, engine design, optimal sensor deployment and optimal controller design.

text: As Jäger is defeated, Eris is the only one left standing between the Earth's salvation and destruction. Seiya takes the Sagittarius bow and aims at the golden apple, but hesitates for fear that the arrow might hit Athena. Athena herself encourages Seiya to shoot the arrow, which he does, to Eris' dismay, releasing Eri from the evil goddess's control.

text: In November 2010, Eris was the subject of one of the most distant stellar occultations yet from Earth. Preliminary data from this event cast doubt on previous size estimates. The teams announced their final results from the occultation in October 2011, with an estimated diameter of . The mass of Eris can be calculated with much greater precision. Based on the currently accepted value for Dysnomia's period—15.774 days— Eris is 27 percent more massive than Pluto. If the 2011 occultation results are used, then Eris has a density of , substantially denser than Pluto, and thus must be composed largely of rocky materials.

text: Pluto's surface is composed of more than 98 percent nitrogen ice, with traces of methane and carbon monoxide. Nitrogen and carbon monoxide are most abundant on the anti-Charon face of Pluto (around 180° longitude, where Tombaugh Regio's western lobe, Sputnik Planitia, is located), whereas methane is most abundant near 300° east. Pluto's surface is quite varied, with large differences in both brightness and color. Pluto is one of the most contrastive bodies in the Solar System, with as much contrast as Saturn's moon Iapetus. The color varies between charcoal black, dark orange and white. Pluto's color is more similar to that of Io with slightly more orange, significantly less red than Mars. Notable geographical features include Tombaugh Regio, or the "Heart" (a large bright area on the side opposite Charon), Cthulhu Regio, or the "Whale" (a large dark area on the trailing hemisphere), and the "Brass Knuckles" (a series of equatorial dark areas on the leading hemisphere). Sputnik Planitia, the western lobe of the "Heart", is a 1000 km-wide basin of frozen nitrogen and carbon monoxide ices, divided into polygonal cells which are interpreted as convection cells that carry floating blocks of water ice crust and sublimation pits towards their margins; there are obvious signs of glacial flows both into and out of the basin. It has no craters that were visible to New Horizons, indicating that its surface is less than 10 million years old. The New Horizons science team summarized initial findings as "Pluto displays a surprisingly wide variety of geological landforms, including those resulting from glaciological and surface–atmosphere interactions as well as impact, tectonic, possible cryovolcanic, and mass-wasting processes."

text: Pluto's surface is composed of more than 98 percent

text: nitrogen ice

text: , with traces of

text: methane

text: and

text: carbon monoxide

text: Nitrogen

text: and carbon monoxide are most abundant on the anti-Charon face of Pluto (around 180° longitude, where

text: Tombaugh Regio

text: 's western lobe,

text: Sputnik Planitia

text: , is located), whereas methane is most abundant near 300° east. Pluto's surface is quite varied, with large differences in both brightness and color. Pluto is one of the most contrastive bodies in the Solar System, with as much contrast as

text: Saturn

text: 's moon

text: Iapetus

text: . The color varies between charcoal black, dark orange and white. Pluto's color is more similar to that of

text: Io

text: with slightly more orange, significantly less red than

text: Mars

text: Notable geographical features

text: include Tombaugh Regio, or the "Heart" (a large bright area on the side opposite Charon),

text: Cthulhu Regio

text: , or the "Whale" (a large dark area on the trailing hemisphere), and the "

text: Brass Knuckles

text: " (a series of equatorial dark areas on the leading hemisphere).

text: Sputnik Planitia

text: , the western lobe of the "Heart", is a 1000 km-wide basin of frozen nitrogen and carbon monoxide ices, divided into polygonal cells which are interpreted as

text: convection cell

text: s that carry floating blocks of water ice crust and

text: sublimation

text: pits towards their margins; there are obvious signs of glacial flows both into and out of the basin. It has no craters that were visible to

text: New Horizons

text: , indicating that its surface is less than 10 million years old. The New Horizons science team summarized initial findings as "Pluto displays a surprisingly wide variety of geological landforms, including those resulting from

text: glaciological

text: and surface–atmosphere interactions as well as impact,

text: tectonic

text: , possible

text: cryovolcanic

text: , and

text: mass-wasting

text: processes."

text: The concept of hydrostatic equilibrium has also become important in determining whether an astronomical object is a planet, dwarf planet, or small Solar System body. According to the definition of planet adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 2006, one defining characteristic of planets and dwarf planets is that they are objects that have sufficient gravity to overcome their own rigidity and assume hydrostatic equilibrium. Such a body will normally have the differentiated interior and geology of a world (a planemo), though near-hydrostatic bodies such as the proto-planet 4 Vesta may also be differentiated. Sometimes the equilibrium shape is an oblate spheroid, as is the case with Earth. However, in the cases of moons in synchronous orbit, nearly unidirectional tidal forces create a scalene ellipsoid. Also, the dwarf planet  is scalene due to its rapid rotation.

text: The concept of hydrostatic equilibrium has also become important in determining whether an astronomical object is a

text: planet

text: dwarf planet

text: , or

text: small Solar System body

text: . According to the

text: definition of planet

text: adopted by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: in 2006, one defining characteristic of planets and dwarf planets is that they are objects that have sufficient gravity to overcome their own rigidity and assume hydrostatic equilibrium. Such a body will normally have the differentiated interior and geology of a world (a

text: planemo

text: ), though near-hydrostatic bodies such as the proto-planet

text: 4 Vesta

text: may also be differentiated. Sometimes the equilibrium shape is an

text: oblate spheroid

text: , as is the case with Earth. However, in the cases of moons in synchronous orbit, nearly unidirectional tidal forces create a

text: scalene ellipsoid

text: . Also, the dwarf planet  is scalene due to its rapid rotation.

text: Cosmochemistry  (from Greek κόσμος kósmos, "universe" and χημεία khemeía) or chemical cosmology is the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions. This is done primarily through the study of the chemical composition of meteorites and other physical samples. Given that the asteroid parent bodies of meteorites were some of the first solid material to condense from the early solar nebula, cosmochemists are generally, but not exclusively, concerned with the objects contained within the Solar System.

text: Cosmochemistry  (from

text: Greek

text: κόσμος kósmos, "universe" and χημεία khemeía) or chemical cosmology is the study of the chemical composition of matter in the

text: universe

text: and the processes that led to those compositions. This is done primarily through the study of the chemical composition of

text: meteorite

text: s and other physical samples. Given that the asteroid parent bodies of meteorites were some of the first solid material to condense from the early solar nebula, cosmochemists are generally, but not exclusively, concerned with the objects contained within the

text: Solar System

text: The high population of the asteroid belt makes for a very active environment, where collisions between asteroids occur frequently (on astronomical time scales). Collisions between main-belt bodies with a mean radius of 10 km are expected to occur about once every 10 million years. A collision may fragment an asteroid into numerous smaller pieces (leading to the formation of a new asteroid family). Conversely, collisions that occur at low relative speeds may also join two asteroids. After more than 4 billion years of such processes, the members of the asteroid belt now bear little resemblance to the original population.

text: The high population of the asteroid belt makes for a very active environment, where collisions between asteroids occur frequently (on astronomical time scales). Collisions between main-belt bodies with a mean radius of 10 km are expected to occur about once every 10 million years. A collision may fragment an asteroid into numerous smaller pieces (leading to the formation of a new

text: asteroid family

text: ). Conversely, collisions that occur at low relative speeds may also join two asteroids. After more than 4 billion years of such processes, the members of the asteroid belt now bear little resemblance to the original population.

text: The comet is thought to be a member of a relatively new class of objects called "centaurs", of which at least 80 are known. These are small icy bodies with orbits between those of Jupiter and Neptune. Astronomers believe that centaurs are recent escapees from the Kuiper belt, a zone of small bodies orbiting in a cloud at the distant reaches of the Solar System. Frequent perturbations by Jupiter will likely accumulate and cause the comet to migrate either inward or outward by the year 4000.

text: The comet is thought to be a member of a relatively new class of objects called "

text: centaurs

text: ", of which at least 80 are known. These are small icy bodies with orbits between those of

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Neptune

text: . Astronomers believe that centaurs are recent escapees from the

text: Kuiper belt

text: , a zone of small bodies orbiting in a cloud at the distant reaches of the Solar System. Frequent

text: perturbations

text: by Jupiter will likely accumulate and cause the comet to migrate either inward or outward by the year 4000.

text: A meteor, known colloquially as a "shooting star" or "falling star", is the visible passage of a glowing meteoroid, micrometeoroid, comet or asteroid through Earth's atmosphere, after being heated to incandescence by collisions with air molecules in the upper atmosphere, creating a streak of light via its rapid motion and sometimes also by shedding glowing material in its wake. Meteors typically occur in the mesosphere at altitudes from . The root word meteor comes from the Greek meteōros, meaning "high in the air".

text: A meteor, known colloquially as a "shooting star" or "falling star", is the visible passage of a glowing

text: meteoroid

text: micrometeoroid

text: comet

text: or

text: asteroid

text: through Earth's atmosphere, after being heated to incandescence by collisions with air molecules in the upper atmosphere, creating a streak of light via its rapid motion and sometimes also by shedding glowing material in its wake. Meteors typically occur in the

text: mesosphere

text: at altitudes from . The root word meteor comes from the

text: Greek

text: meteōros, meaning "high in the air".

text: V774104 was announced in November 2015. It was heralded by many news outlets as "the most distant Solar System object", surpassing Eris (not counting space probes and long-period comets).

text: In 2008, the IAU modified its naming procedures such that objects considered most likely to be dwarf planets receive differing treatment than others. Objects that have an absolute magnitude (H) less than +1 (and hence a minimum diameter of  if the albedo is below 100%) are overseen by two naming committees, one for minor planets and one for planets. Once named, the objects are declared to be dwarf planets. Makemake and Haumea are the only objects to have proceeded through the naming process as presumed dwarf planets; currently there are no other bodies that meet this criterion. All other bodies are named by the minor-planet naming committee alone, and the IAU has not stated how or if they will be accepted as dwarf planets.

text: In 2008, the IAU modified its naming procedures such that objects considered most likely to be dwarf planets receive differing treatment than others. Objects that have an

text: absolute magnitude (H)

text: less than +1 (and hence a minimum diameter of  if the albedo is below 100%) are overseen by two naming committees, one for minor planets and one for planets. Once named, the objects are declared to be dwarf planets.

text: Makemake

text: and

text: Haumea

text: are the only objects to have proceeded through the naming process as presumed dwarf planets; currently there are no other bodies that meet this criterion. All other bodies are named by the minor-planet naming committee alone, and the IAU has not stated how or if they will be accepted as dwarf planets.

text: Isolated massive impacts have been observed at Jupiter: The 1994 Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 which formed a brief trail as well, and successive events since then (see List of Jupiter events.) Meteors or meteor showers have been discussed for most of the objects in the solar system with an atmosphere: Mercury, Venus, Saturn's moon Titan,<ref>

text: Isolated massive impacts have been observed at Jupiter: The 1994

text: Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9

text: which formed a brief trail as well, and successive events since then (see

text: List of Jupiter events

text: .) Meteors or meteor showers have been discussed for most of the objects in the solar system with an atmosphere: Mercury, Venus, Saturn's moon

text: Titan

text: ,<ref>

text: Earth (otherwise known as the world, in  Gaia, or in Latin: Tellus, Terra) is the third planet from the Sun, the densest planet in the Solar System, the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets, and the only astronomical object known to harbor life.

text: Earth (otherwise known as the world, in  Gaia, or in

text: Latin

text: Tellus

text: , Terra) is the third

text: planet

text: from the

text: Sun

text: , the densest planet in the

text: Solar System

text: terrestrial planet

text: s, and the only

text: astronomical object

text: known to harbor

text: life

text: Several major variants of the Meteor incorporated technological advances during the 1940s and 1950s. Thousands of Meteors were built to fly with the RAF and other air forces and remained in use for several decades. The Meteor saw limited action in the Second World War. Meteors of the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) fought in the Korean War. Several other operators such as Argentina, Egypt and Israel flew Meteors in later regional conflicts. Specialised variants of the Meteor were developed for use in photographic aerial reconnaissance and as night fighters.

text: Several major variants of the Meteor incorporated technological advances during the 1940s and 1950s. Thousands of Meteors were built to fly with the RAF and other air forces and remained in use for several decades. The Meteor saw limited action in the Second World War. Meteors of the

text: Royal Australian Air Force

text: (RAAF) fought in the

text: Korean War

text: . Several other operators such as

text: Argentina

text: Egypt

text: and

text: Israel

text: flew Meteors in later regional conflicts. Specialised variants of the Meteor were developed for use in photographic

text: aerial reconnaissance

text: and as

text: night fighter

text: s.

text: At the time of planning, it was estimated that WISE would detect about 300,000 main-belt asteroids, of which approximately 100,000 will be new, and some 700 near-Earth objects (NEO) including about 300 undiscovered. That translates to about 1000 new main-belt asteroids per day, and 1–3 NEOs per day. The peak of magnitude distribution for NEOs will be about 21–22 V. WISE would detect each typical Solar System object 10–12 times over about 36 hours in intervals of 3 hours.

text: At the time of planning, it was estimated that WISE would detect about 300,000

text: main-belt asteroids

text: , of which approximately 100,000 will be new, and some 700 near-Earth objects (NEO) including about 300 undiscovered. That translates to about 1000 new main-belt asteroids per day, and 1–3 NEOs per day. The peak of magnitude distribution for NEOs will be about 21–22

text: V

text: . WISE would detect each typical Solar System object 10–12 times over about 36 hours in intervals of 3 hours.

text: It involved an annual competition to retrieve the first egg laid by migrating sooty terns. The contest was held at ‘Orongo, and the winning man became Makemake’s representative for the following year. The last ceremony is thought to have been held in 1866 or 1867.

text: Using a powerful and elaborate analysis, Adams ascertained that this cluster of meteors, which belongs to the solar system, traverses an elongated ellipse in 33.25 years, and is subject to definite perturbations from the larger planets, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. These results were published in 1867.

text: The number of bodies grows rapidly as the size decreases.  Based on IRAS data there are about 140 main-belt asteroids with a diameter greater than 120 km.  For a more complete list, see List of Solar System objects by size.

text: The number of bodies

text: grows rapidly as the size decreases

text: .  Based on

text: IRAS

text: data there are about 140

text: main-belt

text: asteroids with a diameter greater than 120 km.  For a more complete list, see

text: List of Solar System objects by size

text: The first spacecraft to traverse the asteroid belt was Pioneer 10, which entered the region on 16 July 1972. At the time there was some concern that the debris in the belt would pose a hazard to the spacecraft, but it has since been safely traversed by 12 spacecraft without incident. Pioneer 11, Voyagers 1 and 2 and Ulysses passed through the belt without imaging any asteroids. Galileo imaged 951 Gaspra in 1991 and 243 Ida in 1993, NEAR imaged 253 Mathilde in 1997, Cassini imaged 2685 Masursky in 2000, Stardust imaged 5535 Annefrank in 2002, New Horizons imaged 132524 APL in 2006, Rosetta imaged 2867 Šteins in September 2008 and 21 Lutetia in July 2010, and Dawn orbited Vesta between July 2011 and September 2012 and has orbited Ceres since March 2015. On its way to Jupiter, Juno traversed the asteroid belt without collecting science data. Due to the low density of materials within the belt, the odds of a probe running into an asteroid are now estimated at less than one in a billion.

text: The first spacecraft to traverse the asteroid belt was

text: Pioneer 10

text: , which entered the region on 16 July 1972. At the time there was some concern that the debris in the belt would pose a hazard to the spacecraft, but it has since been safely traversed by 12 spacecraft without incident.

text: Pioneer 11

text: Voyagers 1 and 2

text: and

text: Ulysses

text: passed through the belt without imaging any asteroids.

text: Galileo

text: imaged

text: 951 Gaspra

text: in 1991 and

text: 243 Ida

text: in 1993,

text: NEAR

text: imaged

text: 253 Mathilde

text: in 1997,

text: Cassini

text: imaged

text: 2685 Masursky

text: in 2000,

text: Stardust

text: imaged

text: 5535 Annefrank

text: in 2002,

text: New Horizons

text: imaged

text: 132524 APL

text: in 2006,

text: Rosetta

text: imaged

text: 2867 Šteins

text: in September 2008 and

text: 21 Lutetia

text: in July 2010, and

text: Dawn

text: orbited

text: Vesta

text: between July 2011 and September 2012 and has orbited

text: Ceres

text: since March 2015. On its way to Jupiter,

text: Juno

text: traversed the asteroid belt without collecting science data. Due to the low density of materials within the belt, the odds of a probe running into an asteroid are now estimated at less than one in a billion.

text: The common formulation of the HJD correction assumes that the object is at infinite distance, certainly beyond the Solar System. The resulting error for Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt objects would be 5 s, and for objects in the main asteroid belt it would be 100 s. In this calculation, the Moon – which is closer than the Sun – can be wrongly placed on the far side of the Sun, resulting in an error of about 15 min.

text: The common formulation of the HJD correction assumes that the object is at infinite distance, certainly beyond the Solar System. The resulting error for

text: Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt

text: objects would be 5 s, and for objects in the

text: main asteroid belt

text: it would be 100 s. In this calculation, the

text: Moon

text: – which is closer than the Sun – can be wrongly placed on the far side of the Sun, resulting in an error of about 15 min.

text: Saturn's rings could give a further hint to identifying the Solar System. Rings around the planets Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune were unknown when the plaque was designed; however, unlike Saturn the ring systems on these planets are not as easily visible and apparent as Saturn's. Pluto was considered to be a planet when the plaque was designed; in 2006 the IAU reclassified Pluto as a dwarf planet and then in 2008 as a plutoid. Other large bodies classed as dwarf planets, such as Eris, are not depicted, as they were unknown at the time the plaque was made.

text: Saturn's rings could give a further hint to identifying the Solar System.

text: Rings

text: around the planets Jupiter,

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: were unknown when the plaque was designed; however, unlike Saturn the ring systems on these planets are not as easily visible and apparent as Saturn's.

text: Pluto

text: was considered to be a planet when the plaque was designed; in 2006 the

text: IAU

text: reclassified Pluto as a

text: dwarf planet

text: and then in 2008 as a

text: plutoid

text: . Other large bodies classed as dwarf planets, such as

text: Eris

text: , are not depicted, as they were unknown at the time the plaque was made.

text: The habitat would need to withstand potential impacts from space debris, meteoroids, dust, etc. Most meteoroids that strike the earth vaporize in the atmosphere. Without a thick protective atmosphere meteoroid strikes would pose a much greater risk to a space habitat.  Radar will sweep the space around each habitat mapping the trajectory of debris and other man-made objects and allowing corrective actions to be taken to protect the habitat.

text: The habitat would need to withstand potential impacts from

text: space debris

text: meteoroid

text: s, dust, etc. Most meteoroids that strike the earth vaporize in the atmosphere. Without a thick protective atmosphere meteoroid strikes would pose a much greater risk to a space habitat.

text: Radar

text: will sweep the space around each habitat mapping the trajectory of debris and other man-made objects and allowing corrective actions to be taken to protect the habitat.

text: Closer investigation using a simpler model with one planet and a planetesimal disk indicated that the energy transfer was due to a coupling between the eccentricity of the planetesimals in the outer belt and the semi-major axis of the planet. As a result of this coupling an increase in the average eccentricity of the planetesimal belt driven via the gravitational stirring by Pluto-sized objects yields a decrease in the semi-major axis of the planet. The coupling was found to be proportional to the eccentricity of the planet and in a multiple planet system would have its greatest effect on the most eccentric planet.

text: Closer investigation using a simpler model with one planet and a planetesimal disk indicated that the energy transfer was due to a coupling between the eccentricity of the planetesimals in the outer belt and the semi-major axis of the planet. As a result of this coupling an increase in the average eccentricity of the planetesimal belt driven via the gravitational stirring by Pluto-sized objects yields a decrease in the

text: semi-major axis

text: of the planet. The coupling was found to be proportional to the eccentricity of the planet and in a multiple planet system would have its greatest effect on the most eccentric planet.

text: C/2012 S4 is a non-periodic comet with the largest listed aphelion of any object on the JPL Small-Body Database. But the listed aphelion distance of  from the Sun is a generic near-perihelion unperturbed two-body solution that assumes the Sun and comet are the only two objects in the Universe. Other comets, such as C/2015 TQ209 have had epoch-dependent solutions with aphelia of more than . As a comparison, the closest star, Proxima Centauri, is about 4.24 light years from the Sun, and Wolf 359 is 7.78 light years away. Any comet more than about  from the Sun can be considered lost to the interstellar medium. But C/2012 S4 will not be ejected from the Solar System.

text: C/2012 S4 is a

text: non-periodic comet

text: with the largest listed

text: aphelion

text: of any object on the

text: JPL Small-Body Database

text: . But the listed aphelion distance of  from the Sun is a generic near-perihelion

text: unperturbed

text: two-body

text: solution that assumes the Sun and comet are the only two objects in the Universe. Other comets, such as C/2015 TQ209 have had epoch-dependent solutions with aphelia of more than . As a comparison, the closest star,

text: Proxima Centauri

text: , is about 4.24 light years from the Sun, and

text: Wolf 359

text: is 7.78 light years away. Any comet more than about  from the Sun can be considered lost to the

text: interstellar medium

text: . But C/2012 S4 will not be ejected from the Solar System.

text: There are only four other objects that are cross-listed as both comets and asteroids: 2060 Chiron (95P/Chiron), Comet 133P/Elst–Pizarro (7968 Elst–Pizarro), 60558 Echeclus (174P/Echeclus), and 118401 LINEAR (176P/LINEAR). As a dual status object, astrometric observations of 4015 Wilson–Harrington should be reported under the minor planet designation.

text: There are only four other objects that are cross-listed as both comets and asteroids:

text: 2060 Chiron

text: ), Comet

text: 7968 Elst–Pizarro

text: 60558 Echeclus

text: ), and

text: 118401 LINEAR

text: ). As a dual status object,

text: astrometric

text: observations of 4015 Wilson–Harrington should be reported under the

text: minor planet designation

text: A number of solar system objects that are mostly to completely invisible to the human eye are reasonably detectable with medium-size binoculars, including larger craters on the Moon; the dim outer planets Uranus and Neptune; the inner "minor planets" Ceres, Vesta and Pallas; Saturn's largest moon Titan; and the Galilean moons of Jupiter. Although visible unaided in pollution-free skies, Uranus and Vesta require binoculars for easy detection. 10×50 binoculars are limited to an apparent magnitude of +9.5 to +11 depending on sky conditions and observer experience. Asteroids like Interamnia, Davida, Europa and, unless under exceptional conditions Hygiea, are too faint to be seen with commonly sold binoculars. Likewise too faint to be seen with most binoculars are the planetary moons except the Galileans and Titan, and the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris. Other difficult binocular targets include the phases of Venus and the rings of Saturn. Only binoculars with very high magnification, 20x or higher, are capable of discerning Saturn's rings to a recognizable extent.  High-power binoculars can sometimes show one or two cloud belts on the disk of Jupiter if optics and observing conditions are sufficiently good.

text: A number of solar system objects that are mostly to completely invisible to the human eye are reasonably detectable with medium-size binoculars, including larger craters on the

text: Moon

text: ; the dim outer planets

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: ; the inner "minor planets"

text: Ceres

text: Vesta

text: and

text: Pallas

text: ; Saturn's largest moon

text: Titan

text: ; and the

text: Galilean moons

text: of

text: Jupiter

text: . Although visible unaided in

text: pollution

text: -free skies, Uranus and Vesta require binoculars for easy detection. 10×50 binoculars are limited to an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of +9.5 to +11 depending on sky conditions and observer experience. Asteroids like

text: Interamnia

text: Davida

text: Europa

text: and, unless under exceptional conditions

text: Hygiea

text: , are too faint to be seen with commonly sold binoculars. Likewise too faint to be seen with most binoculars are the planetary moons except the Galileans and Titan, and the

text: dwarf planet

text: s

text: Pluto

text: and

text: Eris

text: . Other difficult binocular targets include the phases of

text: Venus

text: and the rings of

text: Saturn

text: . Only binoculars with very high magnification, 20x or higher, are capable of discerning Saturn's rings to a recognizable extent.  High-power binoculars can sometimes show one or two cloud belts on the disk of Jupiter if optics and observing conditions are sufficiently good.

text: The IAU has recognized five bodies as dwarf planets since 2008: Ceres, Pluto, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake. Ceres and Pluto are known to be dwarf planets through direct observation. Eris is recognized as a dwarf planet because it is more massive than Pluto (measurements by New Horizons  indicate that Pluto's diameter is larger than that of Eris), whereas Haumea and Makemake qualify based on their absolute magnitudes. In relative distance from the Sun, the five are:

text: The orbits of the vast majority of small Solar System bodies are located in two distinct areas, namely the asteroid belt and the Kuiper belt. These two belts possess some internal structure related to perturbations by the major planets (particularly Jupiter and Neptune, respectively), and have fairly loosely defined boundaries. Other areas of the Solar System also encompass small bodies in smaller concentrations. These include the near-Earth asteroids, centaurs, comets, and scattered disc objects.

text: The orbits of the vast majority of small Solar System bodies are located in two distinct areas, namely the

text: asteroid belt

text: and the

text: Kuiper belt

text: . These two belts possess some internal structure related to perturbations by the major planets (particularly

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Neptune

text: , respectively), and have fairly loosely defined boundaries. Other areas of the Solar System also encompass small bodies in smaller concentrations. These include the

text: near-Earth asteroids

text: centaur

text: s,

text: comet

text: s, and

text: scattered disc

text: objects.

text: , provisionally known as 2001 KU76, is a trans-Neptunian object (TNO) that has a 6:11 resonance with Neptune. This is the same resonance that dwarf planet Makemake is either near or in.

text: provisionally known

text: as 2001 KU76, is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: (TNO) that has a

text: 6:11 resonance

text: with

text: Neptune

text: . This is the same resonance that

text: dwarf planet

text: Makemake

text: is either near or in.

text: Most meteorites are stony meteorites, classed as chondrites and achondrites. Only about 6% of meteorites are iron meteorites or a blend of rock and metal, the stony-iron meteorites. Modern classification of meteorites is complex. The review paper of Krot et al. (2007) summarizes modern meteorite taxonomy.

text: Most meteorites are stony meteorites, classed as

text: chondrite

text: s and

text: achondrite

text: s. Only about 6% of meteorites are

text: iron meteorite

text: s or a blend of rock and metal, the

text: stony-iron meteorite

text: s. Modern classification of meteorites is complex. The review paper of Krot et al. (2007) summarizes modern meteorite taxonomy.

text: Haumea was provisionally listed as a cubewano by the Minor Planet Center in 2006, but turned out to be resonant.

text: Haumea

text: was provisionally listed as a cubewano by the

text: Minor Planet Center

text: in 2006, but turned out to be

text: resonant

text: When natural satellites are first discovered, they are given provisional designations such as "S/2010 J 2" (the 2nd new satellite of Jupiter discovered in 2010) or "S/2003 S 1" (the 1st new satellite of Saturn discovered in 2003). The initial "S/" stands for "satellite", and distinguishes from such prefixes as "D/", "C/", and "P/", used for comets. The designation "R/" is used for planetary rings. These designations are sometimes written like "S/2003 S1", dropping the second space. The letter following the category and year identifies the planet (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune; although no occurrence of the other planets is expected, Mars and Mercury are disambiguated through the use of Hermes for the latter). Pluto was designated by P prior to its recategorization as a dwarf planet. When the object is found around a minor planet, the identifier used is the latter's number in parentheses. Thus, Dactyl, the moon of 243 Ida, was at first designated "S/1993 (243) 1". Once confirmed and named, it became (243) Ida I Dactyl. Similarly, the fourth satellite of Pluto, Kerberos, discovered after Pluto was categorized as a dwarf planet and assigned a minor planet number, was designated S/2011 (134340) 1 rather than S/2011 P 1, though the New Horizons team, who disagreed with the dwarf planet classification, used the latter.

text: When

text: natural satellite

text: s are first discovered, they are given provisional designations such as "

text: S/2010 J 2

text: " (the 2nd new satellite of Jupiter discovered in 2010) or "

text: S/2003 S 1

text: " (the 1st new satellite of Saturn discovered in 2003). The initial "S/" stands for "satellite", and distinguishes from such prefixes as "D/", "C/", and "P/", used for

text: comet

text: s. The designation "R/" is used for planetary rings. These designations are sometimes written like "S/2003 S1", dropping the second space. The letter following the category and year identifies the planet (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune; although no occurrence of the other planets is expected, Mars and Mercury are disambiguated through the use of Hermes for the latter).

text: Pluto

text: was designated by P prior to its recategorization as a

text: dwarf planet

text: . When the object is found around a minor planet, the identifier used is the latter's number in parentheses. Thus,

text: Dactyl

text: , the moon of

text: 243 Ida

text: , was at first designated "

text: S/1993 (243) 1

text: ". Once confirmed and named, it became

text: (243) Ida I Dactyl

text: . Similarly, the fourth satellite of Pluto,

text: Kerberos

text: , discovered after Pluto was categorized as a dwarf planet and assigned a minor planet number, was designated

text: S/2011 (134340) 1

text: rather than S/2011 P 1, though the

text: New Horizons

text: team, who disagreed with the dwarf planet classification, used the latter.

text: Based on their common pattern of infrared water-ice absorption and the clustering of their orbital elements, the other KBOs , ,  and , among others, appear to be collisional fragments broken off the dwarf planet . The neutral color of the spectrum of these objects in the visible range evidences a lack of complex organics on the surface of these bodies that has been studied in detail for the surface of Haumea.

text: Based on their common pattern of

text: infrared

text: water-ice absorption and the clustering of their orbital elements, the other

text: KBO

text: s , ,  and , among others, appear to be

text: collisional fragments

text: broken off the

text: dwarf planet

text: . The neutral color of the spectrum of these objects in the visible range evidences a lack of complex organics on the surface of these bodies that has been studied in detail for the surface of Haumea.

text: A close encounter with Earth is predicted for the comet's return to the inner Solar System in the year 4479, around Sept. 15; the closest approach is estimated to be 0.03–0.05 AU, with a probability of impact of 1, or 0.0001%. Subsequent to 4479, the orbital evolution of the comet is more difficult to predict; the probability of Earth impact per orbit is estimated as 2 (0.000002%). It is the largest Solar System object that makes repeated close approaches to Earth with a relative velocity of 60 km/s. An Earth impact would have an estimated energy of ≈27 times that of the Cretaceous–Paleogene impactor. Comet Swift–Tuttle has been described as "the single most dangerous object known to humanity".

text: A close encounter with Earth is predicted for the comet's return to the inner Solar System in the year 4479, around Sept. 15; the closest approach is estimated to be 0.03–0.05

text: AU

text: , with a probability of impact of 1, or 0.0001%. Subsequent to 4479, the orbital evolution of the comet is more difficult to predict; the probability of Earth impact per orbit is estimated as 2 (0.000002%). It is the largest

text: Solar System

text: object that makes repeated close approaches to Earth with a relative velocity of 60 km/s. An Earth impact would have an estimated energy of ≈27 times that of the

text: Cretaceous–Paleogene impactor

text: . Comet Swift–Tuttle has been described as "the single most dangerous object known to humanity".

text: Michael E. Brown (born June 5, 1965) is an American astronomer, who has been professor of planetary astronomy at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) since 2003. His team has discovered many trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs), notably the dwarf planet Eris, the only known TNO more massive than Pluto. He has referred to himself as the man who "killed Pluto", because he furthered Pluto being downgraded to a dwarf planet in the aftermath of the discovery of Eris and several other probable trans-Neptunian dwarf planets. He is the author of How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming, published in 2010.

text: Michael E. Brown (born June 5, 1965) is an American

text: astronomer

text: , who has been professor of

text: planetary astronomy

text: at the

text: California Institute of Technology

text: (Caltech) since 2003. His team has discovered many

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s (TNOs), notably the

text: dwarf planet

text: Eris

text: , the only known TNO more massive than

text: Pluto

text: . He has referred to himself as the man who "killed Pluto", because he furthered Pluto being downgraded to a dwarf planet in the aftermath of the discovery of Eris and several other probable trans-Neptunian

text: dwarf planets

text: . He is the author of

entity_name: How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming

text: How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming

text: , published in 2010.

text: When a meteoroid, comet, or asteroid enters Earth's atmosphere at a speed typically in excess of , aerodynamic heating of that object produces a streak of light, both from the glowing object and the trail of glowing particles that it leaves in its wake. This phenomenon is called a meteor or "shooting star". A series of many meteors appearing seconds or minutes apart and appearing to originate from the same fixed point in the sky is called a meteor shower. If that object withstands ablation from its passage through the atmosphere as a meteor and impacts with the ground, it is then called a meteorite.

text: When a meteoroid, comet, or asteroid

text: enters Earth's atmosphere

text: at a speed typically in excess of ,

text: aerodynamic heating

text: of that object produces a streak of light, both from the glowing object and the trail of glowing particles that it leaves in its wake. This phenomenon is called a

text: meteor

text: or "shooting star". A series of many meteors appearing seconds or minutes apart and appearing to originate from the same fixed point in the sky is called a

text: meteor shower

text: . If that object withstands

text: ablation

text: from its passage through the atmosphere as a meteor and impacts with the ground, it is then called a

text: meteorite

text: If interstellar comets exist, they must occasionally pass through the inner Solar System. They would approach the Solar System with random velocities, mostly from the region of the constellation Hercules because the Solar System is moving in that direction. The fact that no comet with a speed greater than the Sun's escape velocity has yet been seen places upper limits to their density in interstellar space. A paper by Torbett indicates that the density is no more than 10 (10 trillion) comets per cubic parsec. Other analyses, of data from LINEAR, set the upper limit at 4.5/AU, or 10 (1 trillion) comets per cubic parsec.

text: If interstellar comets exist, they must occasionally pass through the inner

text: Solar System

text: . They would approach the Solar System with random velocities, mostly from the region of the constellation

text: Hercules

text: because the Solar System is moving in that direction. The fact that no comet with a speed greater than the

text: Sun

text: 's escape velocity has yet been seen places upper limits to their density in interstellar space. A paper by Torbett indicates that the density is no more than 10 (10

text: trillion

text: ) comets per cubic

text: parsec

text: . Other analyses, of data from

text: LINEAR

text: , set the upper limit at 4.5/

text: AU

text: , or 10 (1 trillion) comets per cubic

text: parsec

text: Another way in which asteroids could be considered a source of danger is by depicting them as a hazard to navigation, especially threatening to ships traveling from Earth to the outer parts of the Solar System and thus needing to pass the Asteroid Belt (or make a time- and fuel-consuming detour around it). In this context, asteroids serve the same role in space travel stories as reefs and underwater rocks in the older genre of seafaring adventure stories. And like such hazards, asteroids could also be used by bold outlaws to avoid pursuit. Representations of the Asteroid Belt in film tend to make it unrealistically cluttered with dangerous rocks, so dense that adventurous measures must be taken to avoid an impact, giving dramatic visual images which the true nearly empty space would not provide. One of the best-known examples of this is the Hoth system in The Empire Strikes Back.

text: Another way in which asteroids could be considered a source of danger is by depicting them as a hazard to navigation, especially threatening to ships traveling from Earth to the outer parts of the Solar System and thus needing to pass the Asteroid Belt (or make a time- and fuel-consuming detour around it). In this context, asteroids serve the same role in space travel stories as reefs and underwater rocks in the older genre of seafaring adventure stories. And like such hazards, asteroids could also be used by bold outlaws to avoid pursuit. Representations of the Asteroid Belt in film tend to make it unrealistically cluttered with dangerous rocks, so dense that adventurous measures must be taken to avoid an impact, giving dramatic visual images which the true nearly empty space would not provide. One of the best-known examples of this is the

text: Hoth

text: system in

text: The Empire Strikes Back

text: If a reference direction from one side of the plane of reference to the other is defined, the two nodes can be distinguished. For geocentric and heliocentric orbits, the ascending node (or north node) is where the orbiting object moves north through the plane of reference, and the descending node (or south node) is where it moves south through the plane. In the case of objects outside the Solar System, the ascending node is the node where the orbiting secondary passes away from the observer, and the descending node is the node where it moves towards the observer.

text: Photometric observations of this asteroid gave a light curve with a period of 13.623 hours. The data was used to construct a model for the asteroid, revealing it to be a regular-shaped object, spinning about a pole with ecliptic coordinates (β, λ) = (+20°, 356°), although this is with an accuracy of only ±10°. The ratio of the major to minor axes lengths is roughly equal to 1.2. It is classified as an S-type asteroid and has an estimated size of 154.34 km. The spectrum of 354 Eleonora reveals the strong presence of the mineral Olivine, a relatively rarity in the asteroid belt.

text: Photometric

text: observations of this asteroid gave a

text: light curve

text: with a period of 13.623 hours. The data was used to construct a model for the asteroid, revealing it to be a regular-shaped object, spinning about a pole with ecliptic coordinates (β, λ) = (+20°, 356°), although this is with an accuracy of only ±10°. The ratio of the major to minor axes lengths is roughly equal to 1.2. It is classified as an

text: S-type asteroid

text: and has an estimated size of 154.34 km. The spectrum of 354 Eleonora reveals the strong presence of the mineral

text: Olivine

text: , a relatively rarity in the asteroid belt.

text: 2008 HJ is a small near-Earth asteroid which at the time of its discovery was the most rapidly rotating object in the solar system.

text: 2008 HJ

text: is a small near-Earth asteroid which at the time of its discovery was the most rapidly rotating object in the solar system.

text: has an absolute magnitude (H) of 3.78. It has an estimated diameter of . Using the Spitzer Space Telescope, it was previously estimated to have a diameter of , which would have made it one of the largest possible dwarf planets. This overestimation was due to insufficient motion to allow for a good sky subtraction and because it was very close to a brighter background object. Brown noted that the Spitzer measurement involved a very large potential error and that the object would likely be smaller, making its chances of it being a dwarf planet "likely" rather than "near certainty", in his opinion.

text: has an

text: absolute magnitude

text: (H) of 3.78. It has an estimated diameter of . Using the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: , it was previously estimated to have a diameter of , which would have made it one of the largest

text: possible dwarf planets

text: . This overestimation was due to insufficient motion to allow for a good sky subtraction and because it was very close to a brighter background object. Brown noted that the Spitzer measurement involved a very large potential error and that the object would likely be smaller, making its chances of it being a dwarf planet "likely" rather than "near certainty", in his opinion.

text: With a visual magnitude of 17.3, Haumea is the third-brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and , and easily observable with a large amateur telescope. However, because the planets and most small Solar System bodies share a common orbital alignment from their formation in the primordial disk of the Solar System, most early surveys for distant objects focused on the projection on the sky of this common plane, called the ecliptic. As the region of sky close to the ecliptic became well explored, later sky surveys began looking for objects that had been dynamically excited into orbits with higher inclinations, as well as more distant objects, with slower mean motions across the sky. These surveys eventually covered the location of Haumea, with its high orbital inclination and current position far from the ecliptic.

text: With a

text: visual magnitude

text: of 17.3, Haumea is the

entity_name: List of the brightest Kuiper belt objects

text: third-brightest object

text: in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and , and easily observable with a large amateur telescope. However, because the planets and most

text: small Solar System bodies

text: share a

text: common orbital alignment

text: from their

text: formation

text: in the

text: primordial disk

text: of the Solar System, most early surveys for distant objects focused on the projection on the sky of this common plane, called the

text: ecliptic

text: . As the region of sky close to the ecliptic became well explored, later sky surveys began looking for objects that had been dynamically excited into orbits with higher inclinations, as well as more distant objects, with slower

text: mean motion

text: s across the sky. These surveys eventually covered the location of Haumea, with its high orbital inclination and current position far from the ecliptic.

text: Massive astrophysical compact halo object (MACHO) is any kind of astronomical body that might explain the apparent presence of dark matter in galaxy halos. A MACHO is a body composed of normal baryonic matter that emits little or no radiation and drifts through interstellar space unassociated with any planetary system. Since MACHOs are not luminous, they are hard to detect. MACHOs include black holes or neutron stars as well as brown dwarfs and unassociated planets. White dwarfs and very faint red dwarfs have also been proposed as candidate MACHOs.  The term was coined by astrophysicist Kim Griest.

text: Massive astrophysical compact halo object (MACHO) is any kind of

text: astronomical

text: body that might explain the apparent presence of

text: dark matter

text: in

text: galaxy

text: halos

text: . A MACHO is a body composed of normal

text: baryonic matter

text: that emits little or no radiation and drifts through interstellar space unassociated with any

text: planetary system

text: . Since MACHOs are not luminous, they are hard to detect. MACHOs include

text: black hole

text: s or

text: neutron star

text: s as well as

text: brown dwarf

text: s and

text: unassociated planets

text: White dwarf

text: s and very faint

text: red dwarf

text: s have also been proposed as candidate MACHOs.  The term was coined by astrophysicist Kim Griest.

text: This is a list of all confirmed gravitationally rounded objects in the Solar System. These objects all have a rounded, ellipsoidal shape due to the forces of their own gravity (hydrostatic equilibrium) and their sizes range from dwarf planets and moons to the planets and the sun. This list does not include any small Solar System bodies, but it does a sample of planetary-mass objects whose shape has yet to be accurately determined. The Sun's orbital characteristics are listed in relation to the Galactic Center, while all other objects are listed in order of their distance from the Sun.

text: This is a list of all confirmed gravitationally rounded objects in the Solar System. These objects all have a rounded,

text: ellipsoid

text: al shape due to the forces of their own gravity (

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: ) and their sizes range from dwarf planets and moons to the planets and the sun. This list does not include any

text: small Solar System bodies

text: , but it does a sample of planetary-mass objects whose shape has yet to be accurately determined. The Sun's orbital characteristics are listed in relation to the

text: Galactic Center

text: , while all other objects are listed in order of their distance from the Sun.

text: The most primitive meteorites also contain a small amount of material (< 0.1%) which is now recognized to be presolar grains that are older than the Solar System itself, and which are derived directly from the remnants of the individual supernovae that supplied the dust from which the Solar System formed. These grains are recognizable from their exotic chemistry which is alien to the Solar System (such as matrixes of graphite, diamond, or silicon carbide). They also often have isotope ratios which are not those of the rest of the Solar System (in particular, the Sun), and which differ from each other, indicating sources in a number of different explosive supernova events. Meteorites also may contain interstellar dust grains, which have collected from non-gaseous elements in the interstellar medium, as one type of composite cosmic dust ("stardust")

text: The most primitive meteorites also contain a small amount of material (< 0.1%) which is now recognized to be

text: presolar grain

text: s that are older than the Solar System itself, and which are derived directly from the remnants of the individual supernovae that supplied the dust from which the Solar System formed. These grains are recognizable from their exotic chemistry which is alien to the Solar System (such as matrixes of graphite, diamond, or silicon carbide). They also often have isotope ratios which are not those of the rest of the Solar System (in particular, the Sun), and which differ from each other, indicating sources in a number of different explosive supernova events. Meteorites also may contain interstellar dust grains, which have collected from non-gaseous elements in the interstellar medium, as one type of composite

text: cosmic dust

text: ("stardust")

text: NASA hopes to build upon lessons learned during testing for exploring objects in our solar system known to harbor sizable bodies of water, such as Jupiter's moon, Europa.

text: NASA

text: hopes to build upon lessons learned during testing for exploring objects in our

text: solar system

text: known to harbor sizable bodies of water, such as

text: Jupiter

text: 's moon,

text: Europa

text: One of the events the group would investigate was the meteorite landing at Korenevo in Kaluga Oblast. The meteorite landed in October 1996. The group conducted expeditions annually from 1997 to 2003. They also held a Kosmopoisk conference in May in Korenevo. Its objective was not only to search for the impact point, but also a way to involve a large number of people, mostly from educational institutions, in the public research process.

text: One of the events the group would investigate was the meteorite landing at Korenevo in

text: Kaluga Oblast

text: . The meteorite landed in October 1996. The group conducted expeditions annually from 1997 to 2003. They also held a Kosmopoisk conference in May in Korenevo. Its objective was not only to search for the impact point, but also a way to involve a large number of people, mostly from educational institutions, in the public research process.

text: Brown and his team also had been observing the dwarf planet  for approximately six months before its announced discovery by José Luis Ortiz Moreno and colleagues from the Sierra Nevada Observatory in Spain. Brown originally indicated his support for Ortiz's team being given credit for the discovery of Haumea. However, further investigation showed that a website containing archives of where Brown's team's telescopes had been pointed while tracking Haumea had been accessed eight times in the three days preceding Ortiz's announcement, by computers with IP addresses that were traced back to the website of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (CSIC, Institute of Astrophysics of Andalusia), where Ortiz works, and to e-mail messages sent by Ortiz and his student. These website accesses came a week after Brown had published an abstract for an upcoming conference talk at which he had planned to announce the discovery of Haumea; the abstract referred to Haumea by a code that was the same code used in the online telescope logs; and the Andalusia computers had accessed the logs containing that code directly, as would be the case after an internet search, without going through the home page or other pages of the archives. When asked about this online activity, Ortiz responded with an email to Brown that suggested Brown was at fault for "hiding objects", and said that "the only reason why we are now exchanging e-mail is because you did not report your object." Brown says that this statement by Ortiz contradicts the accepted scientific practice of analyzing one's research until one is satisfied that it is accurate, then submitting it to peer review prior to any public announcement. However, the Minor Planet Center only needs precise enough orbit determination on the object in order to provide discovery credit, which Ortiz provided.

text: Brown and his team also had been observing the dwarf planet  for approximately six months before its announced discovery by

text: José Luis Ortiz Moreno

text: and colleagues from the

text: Sierra Nevada Observatory

text: in Spain. Brown originally indicated his support for Ortiz's team being given credit for the discovery of

text: Haumea

text: . However, further investigation showed that a website containing archives of where Brown's team's telescopes had been pointed while tracking Haumea had been accessed eight times in the three days preceding Ortiz's announcement, by computers with

text: IP address

text: es that were traced back to the website of the

text: Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía

text: CSIC

text: , Institute of Astrophysics of Andalusia), where Ortiz works, and to e-mail messages sent by Ortiz and his student. These website accesses came a week after Brown had published an abstract for an upcoming conference talk at which he had planned to announce the discovery of Haumea; the abstract referred to Haumea by a code that was the same code used in the online telescope logs; and the Andalusia computers had accessed the logs containing that code directly, as would be the case after an internet search, without going through the home page or other pages of the archives. When asked about this online activity, Ortiz responded with an email to Brown that suggested Brown was at fault for "hiding objects", and said that "the only reason why we are now exchanging e-mail is because you did not report your object." Brown says that this statement by Ortiz contradicts the accepted scientific practice of analyzing one's research until one is satisfied that it is accurate, then submitting it to

text: peer review

text: prior to any public announcement. However, the

text: Minor Planet Center

text: only needs precise enough orbit determination on the object in order to provide discovery credit, which Ortiz provided.

text: In 2006, the Berlin Philharmonic, with Sir Simon Rattle and EMI Classics, commissioned four composers (Kaija Saariaho, Matthias Pintscher, Mark-Anthony Turnage, and Brett Dean) and recorded an additional, four-movement suite based on asteroids in the Solar System. The four movements were:

text: In 2006, the

text: Berlin Philharmonic

text: , with Sir

text: Simon Rattle

text: and

text: EMI Classics

text: , commissioned four composers (

text: Kaija Saariaho

text: Matthias Pintscher

text: Mark-Anthony Turnage

text: , and

text: Brett Dean

text: ) and recorded an additional, four-movement suite based on

text: asteroids

text: in the Solar System. The four movements were:

text: On systems with hierarchical filing systems the norm is to have many directories, most of which are contained one within the other, and with a moderate number of files in each directory. Since libraries cannot be stored within other libraries on the AS/400 and because historically the library list was always so small, the opposite became the norm; small numbers of libraries each of which contain large numbers of objects. A library is similar to a folder in Windows. In AS/400 a library is another object that can contain other objects (executable objects, source files, etc.).

text: On systems with hierarchical filing systems the norm is to have many directories, most of which are contained one within the other, and with a moderate number of files in each directory. Since libraries cannot be stored within other libraries on the AS/400 and because historically the

text: library list

text: was always so small, the opposite became the norm; small numbers of libraries each of which contain large numbers of objects. A library is similar to a folder in Windows. In AS/400 a library is another object that can contain other objects (executable objects, source files, etc.).

text: In her legend, Haumea's many children came from different parts of her body. The dwarf planet Haumea appears to be almost entirely made of rock, with only a superficial layer of ice; most of the original icy mantle is thought to have been blasted off by the impact that spun Haumea into its current high speed of rotation, where the material formed into the small Kuiper belt objects in Haumea's collisional family. There could therefore be additional outer moons, smaller than Namaka, that have not yet been detected. However, HST observations have confirmed that no other moons brighter than 0.25% of the brightness of Haumea exist within the closest tenth of the distance (0.1% of the volume) where they could be held by Haumea's gravitational influence (its Hill sphere). This makes it unlikely that any more exist.

text: In her legend, Haumea's many children came from different parts of her body. The dwarf planet

text: Haumea

text: appears to be almost entirely made of rock, with only a superficial layer of ice; most of the original icy mantle is thought to have been blasted off by the impact that spun Haumea into its current high speed of rotation, where the material formed into the small

text: Kuiper belt

text: objects in

text: Haumea's collisional family

text: . There could therefore be additional outer moons, smaller than Namaka, that have not yet been detected. However,

text: HST

text: observations have confirmed that no other moons brighter than 0.25% of the brightness of Haumea exist within the closest tenth of the distance (0.1% of the volume) where they could be held by Haumea's gravitational influence (its

text: Hill sphere

text: ). This makes it unlikely that any more exist.

text: "I Am Yours" is a song performed by Austrian band The Makemakes. The song represented Austria in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 where it finished second to last place, scoring zero points. It was released as a digital download in Austria on 6 March 2015 as the lead single from their debut studio album The Makemakes (album) (2015). The song was written by Jimmy Harry, Dominic Muhrer, Paul Estrela, Florian Meindl and Markus Christ. The song has peaked at number 2 on the Austrian Singles Chart.

text: "I Am Yours" is a song performed by Austrian band

text: The Makemakes

text: . The song

text: represented Austria

text: in the

text: Eurovision Song Contest 2015

text: where it finished second to last place, scoring zero points. It was released as a digital download in

text: Austria

text: on 6 March 2015 as the lead single from their debut studio album

text: The Makemakes (album)

text: (2015). The song was written by

text: Jimmy Harry

text: , Dominic Muhrer, Paul Estrela, Florian Meindl and Markus Christ. The song has peaked at number 2 on the

text: Austrian Singles Chart

text: Things worsen when Eris takes possession of Eri's body and kidnaps the goddess Athena to Eris' own Sanctuary. Eris plans to gain control of the world by sucking all the energy out of Athena with the golden apple to seize her body, and revives dead Saints of the past to fight for her, dubbing them Ghost Saints, and also Ghost Five. They are known as Orion Jager, Sagitta Maya, Southern Cross Kristos, Scutum Jan and Lyra Orpheus.

text: Fictional planets in our Solar System beyond the orbit of Neptune have been employed many times as settings or references in science fiction. Following the general reception of Pluto as the ninth planet of the Solar System in 1930, a hypothetical additional planet was sometimes called a "tenth planet".  Since 1992, a very large number of objects have been found beyond Neptune; all the objects in the following list, however, are purely fictional. Common names for trans-Neptunian planets in fiction include Planet X, after a planet once believed to lie beyond Neptune, and Persephone (or Proserpina), after the wife of Pluto.

text: Fictional planets

text: in our

text: Solar System

text: beyond the orbit of Neptune

text: have been employed many times as settings or references in

text: science fiction

text: . Following the general reception of Pluto as the ninth planet of the Solar System in 1930, a hypothetical additional planet was sometimes called a "tenth planet".  Since 1992, a very large number of objects have been found beyond Neptune; all the objects in the following list, however, are purely fictional. Common names for trans-Neptunian planets in fiction include Planet X, after a planet once believed to lie beyond Neptune, and Persephone (or Proserpina), after the wife of Pluto.

text: In October 2015, astronomer Jean-Luc Margot of the University of California Los Angeles proposed a metric for orbital zone clearance derived from whether an object can clear an orbital zone of extent 2√3 of its Hill radius in a specific time scale. This metric places a clear dividing line between the dwarf planets and the planets of the solar system. The calculation is based on the mass of the host star, the mass of the body, and the orbital period of the body. An Earth-mass body orbiting a solar-mass star clears its orbit at distances of up to 400 astronomical units from the star.  A Mars-mass body at the orbit of Pluto clears its orbit. This metric, which leaves Pluto as a dwarf planet, applies to both the Solar System and to extrasolar systems.

text: In October 2015, astronomer

text: Jean-Luc Margot

text: of the

text: University of California Los Angeles

text: proposed a metric for orbital zone clearance derived from whether an object can clear an orbital zone of extent 2√3 of its

text: Hill radius

text: in a specific time scale. This metric places a clear dividing line between the dwarf planets and the planets of the solar system. The calculation is based on the mass of the host star, the mass of the body, and the orbital period of the body. An Earth-mass body orbiting a solar-mass star clears its orbit at distances of up to 400

text: astronomical unit

text: s from the star.  A Mars-mass body at the orbit of Pluto clears its orbit. This metric, which leaves Pluto as a dwarf planet, applies to both the Solar System and to extrasolar systems.

text: As a Death God, Pluto has a pact with Death that allows him to claim the souls of any worshipper of the Greco-Roman Gods, and order those under his command. He is capable of draining the energy and life-force from those that he touches, even other gods. The various Death Gods can either act as allies or competitors depending on the situation.  Pluto is more powerful within Hades than in other realms, due to his ability to commune with and manipulate the energies of the Underworld. On Earth, he can command armies of undead.

text: As a Death God, Pluto has a pact with

text: Death

text: that allows him to claim the souls of any worshipper of the

text: Greco-Roman Gods

text: , and order those under his command. He is capable of draining the energy and life-force from those that he touches, even other gods. The various Death Gods can either act as allies or competitors depending on the situation.  Pluto is more powerful within Hades than in other realms, due to his ability to commune with and manipulate the energies of the Underworld. On Earth, he can command armies of undead.

text: Initially, Ford used the Meteor nameplate in 1949 when it created a stand-alone marque of vehicles that used Ford bodies trimmed using unique parts for sale specifically in the Canadian marketplace. Meteors were produced and sold in Canada until 1961, and then reintroduced again from 1964 to 1976, after the US model using the name was discontinued.

text: Initially, Ford used the

text: Meteor

text: nameplate in 1949 when it created a stand-alone marque of vehicles that used Ford bodies trimmed using unique parts for sale specifically in the Canadian marketplace. Meteors were produced and sold in Canada until 1961, and then reintroduced again from 1964 to 1976, after the US model using the name was discontinued.

text: In nearly all cases, comets are named after their discoverer(s), but in a few cases such as 2P/Encke and 27P/Crommelin they were named for a person who calculated their orbits (the orbit computers). The long-term orbits of comets are difficult to calculate because of errors in the known trajectory that accumulate with perturbations from the planets, and in the days before electronic computers some people dedicated their entire careers to this. Even so, quite a few comets were lost because their orbits are also affected by non-gravitational effects such as the release of gas and other material that forms the comet's coma and tail. Unlike a long-period comet, the next perihelion passage of a numbered periodic comet can be predicted with a high degree of accuracy.

text: In nearly all cases, comets are named after their discoverer(s), but in a few cases such as

text: and

text: they were named for a person who calculated their orbits (the orbit computers). The long-term orbits of comets are difficult to calculate because of errors in the known trajectory that accumulate with

text: perturbations

text: from the planets, and in the days before electronic computers some people dedicated their entire careers to this. Even so, quite a few comets were lost because their orbits are also affected by non-gravitational effects such as the release of gas and other material that forms the comet's

text: coma

text: and tail. Unlike a

text: long-period comet

text: , the next

text: perihelion

text: passage of a numbered periodic comet can be predicted with a high degree of accuracy.

text: Rojansky's original 1940 hypothesis was that perhaps the only bodies within the Solar System that could be antimatter were comets and meteoroids, all others being almost certainly normal matter. Experimental evidence gathered since then has not only borne out this restriction but has made the existence of actual antimatter comets and meteoroids themselves seem ever more unlikely. Gary Steigman, assistant professor of Astronomy at Yale University, observed in 1976 that space probes had proven — by the fact that they were not annihilated upon impact — that bodies such as Mars, Venus, and the Moon were not antimatter. He also noted that had any of the planets or similar bodies been antimatter, their interaction with the terrene solar wind and the sheer strength of the gamma ray emissions that would have resulted would have made them readily noticeable long since. He noted that not even antimatter cosmic rays had been found, with all of the nuclei found in studies having been uniformly terrene, the experimental data in several studies made from 1961 onwards by various people excluding the presence of a fractional antimatter composition of cosmic rays any larger than 10 of the total. Further, the uniformly terrene nature of the cosmic ray flux indicates that nowhere in the Milky Way are there any sources of heavier antimatter elements (such as carbon), since (although it is not proven) it is a likely assumption that they represent the overall composition of the entire galaxy. They are representative of the galaxy as a whole — goes the logic — and since they do contain terrene carbon and other atoms, but have not been observed to contain any antimatter atoms, therefore there is no reasonable source for extrasolar antimatter comets, meteoroids, or any other large scale heavy element objects to originate from, within this galaxy.

text: Rojansky's original 1940 hypothesis was that perhaps the only bodies within the Solar System that could be antimatter were comets and meteoroids, all others being almost certainly normal matter. Experimental evidence gathered since then has not only borne out this restriction but has made the existence of actual antimatter comets and meteoroids themselves seem ever more unlikely. Gary Steigman, assistant professor of Astronomy at

text: Yale University

text: , observed in 1976 that space probes had proven — by the fact that they were not annihilated upon impact — that bodies such as Mars, Venus, and the Moon were not antimatter. He also noted that had any of the planets or similar bodies been antimatter, their interaction with the terrene

text: solar wind

text: and the sheer strength of the gamma ray emissions that would have resulted would have made them readily noticeable long since. He noted that not even antimatter

text: cosmic rays

text: had been found, with all of the nuclei found in studies having been uniformly terrene, the experimental data in several studies made from 1961 onwards by various people excluding the presence of a fractional antimatter composition of cosmic rays any larger than 10 of the total. Further, the uniformly terrene nature of the cosmic ray flux indicates that nowhere in the Milky Way are there any sources of heavier antimatter elements (such as carbon), since (although it is not proven) it is a likely assumption that they represent the overall composition of the entire galaxy. They are representative of the galaxy as a whole — goes the logic — and since they do contain terrene carbon and other atoms, but have not been observed to contain any antimatter atoms, therefore there is no reasonable source for extrasolar antimatter comets, meteoroids, or any other large scale heavy element objects to originate from, within this galaxy.

text: The outer planets are those planets in the Solar System beyond the asteroid belt, and hence refers to the gas giants, which are in order of their distance from the Sun:

text: The outer planets are those planets in the

text: Solar System

text: beyond the

text: asteroid belt

text: , and hence refers to the

text: gas giant

text: s, which are in order of their distance from the Sun:

text: Comet Kohoutek is a long-period comet; its previous apparition was about 150,000 years ago, and its next apparition will be in about 75,000 years. At its apparition in 1973 it had a hyperbolic trajectory (e > 1) due to gravitational perturbations from giant planets. Due to its path, scientists theorized that Kohoutek was an Oort-cloud object. As such, it was believed that this was the comet's first visit to the inner Solar System, which would result in a spectacular display of outgassing. Infrared and visual telescopic study have led many scientists to conclude, in retrospect, that Kohoutek is actually an Edgeworth/Kuiper-belt object, which would account for its apparent rocky makeup and lack of outgassing.

text: Comet Kohoutek is a

text: long-period comet

text: ; its previous apparition was about 150,000 years ago, and its next apparition will be in about 75,000 years. At its apparition in 1973 it had a

text: hyperbolic trajectory

text: e

text: > 1) due to gravitational perturbations from

text: giant planets

text: . Due to its path, scientists theorized that Kohoutek was an

text: Oort-cloud

text: object. As such, it was believed that this was the comet's first visit to the inner Solar System, which would result in a spectacular display of outgassing. Infrared and visual telescopic study have led many scientists to conclude, in retrospect, that Kohoutek is actually an

text: Edgeworth/Kuiper-belt object

text: , which would account for its apparent rocky makeup and lack of outgassing.

text: Dysnomia, officially (136199) Eris I Dysnomia, is the only known moon of the dwarf planet Eris. In conjunction of finding Eris, American astronomer  Michael E. Brown discovered Eris' satellite, Dysnomia, at W. M. Keck Observatory in 2005.

text: Dysnomia, officially (136199) Eris I Dysnomia, is the only known moon of the dwarf planet Eris. In conjunction of finding Eris, American astronomer

text: Michael E. Brown

text: discovered Eris' satellite, Dysnomia, at

text: W. M. Keck Observatory

text: in 2005.

text: After he causes Scratlantis to be sucked down the plughole, Scrat wanders through the landscape with a new acorn in hand. Inadvertently, he falls through into a cave and spots a place to stick his acorn in. Upon placing it, the whole cave melts, revealing that he is inside a spaceship (resembling the one inside the ice cave's walls in the first film). Scrat pulls the leaver that the acorn is on only for the ship to suddenly take off, the ship zooms into space and crashes into the Moon, causing it to hit several other planets causing them to bounce around and bump into each other as if they were billiard balls (the Moon is the cue ball) which ends up forming the Solar System which incidentally gives two planets new appearances (Jupiter's Great Red Spot is formed when Mars bumps into it, leaving a red splotch-like bruise on its surface; while Saturn is bumped into its rings as if it were a billiard ball falling into a pocket), as well as causing a green planet to be shot off into space and toward some constellations and two more extra planets to collide with each other, shattering both worlds and forming the Asteroid Belt.

text: Before the advent of iron smelting, meteoric iron was the only source of iron metal apart from minor amounts of telluric iron. Meteoric iron was already used before the beginning of the iron age to make cultural objects, tools and weapons.

text: Before the advent of iron

text: smelting

text: , meteoric iron was the only source of iron metal apart from minor amounts of

text: telluric iron

text: . Meteoric iron was already used before the beginning of the

text: iron age

text: to make cultural objects, tools and weapons.

text: The Erie Community Center is a  state-of-the-art facility operated by the Town of Erie Parks & Recreation Department.  The facility was constructed with many sustainable features including a thermal solar water heating system.

text: After stealing a student's one month of allowance, Eros Magdayo meets a girl named Eris Jane Trinidad, who claims that she is his guardian angel. Disbelieving her, Eros tries hard to get away from her, with no success. Eris tries to convince him further, stating that she is already dead and it is her mission to change Eros' bad ways within a month. She further states that if they are able to complete the mission, Eros will be granted a wish, and Eris will be given the chance to live again. Still not convinced by her, Eros returns to his family's home, a place he rarely visits because of his being an adopted child. Much to his dismay, Eris tries to come to his home, having no place to settle in, with his older step-sister Risa letting her stay inside. While lamenting about Risa's inevitable death due to her illness, he thinks about Eris' claim of being able to grant him a wish, and wanting to wish for his sister to be healed. Thus Eros goes along with Eris to try to finish her mission within a month so that he could be granted his wish while giving Eris a chance to live again.

text: Pluto's orbit lay within this band and thus its planetary status was thrown into question.  Many scientists concluded that tiny Pluto should be reclassified as a minor planet, just as Ceres had been a century earlier. Mike Brown of the California Institute of Technology suggested that a "planet" should be redefined as "any body in the Solar System that is more massive than the total mass of all of the other bodies in a similar orbit." Those objects under that mass limit would become minor planets. In 1999, Brian G. Marsden of Harvard University's Minor Planet Center suggested that Pluto be given the minor planet number 10000 while still retaining its official position as a planet. The prospect of Pluto's "demotion" created a public outcry, and in response the International Astronomical Union clarified that it was not at that time proposing to remove Pluto from the planet list.

text: Pluto's orbit lay within this band and thus its planetary status was thrown into question.  Many scientists concluded that tiny Pluto should be reclassified as a minor planet, just as Ceres had been a century earlier.

text: Mike Brown

text: of the

text: California Institute of Technology

text: suggested that a "planet" should be redefined as "any body in the Solar System that is more massive than the total mass of all of the other bodies in a similar orbit." Those objects under that mass limit would become minor planets. In 1999,

text: Brian G. Marsden

text: of

text: Harvard University

text: 's

text: Minor Planet Center

text: suggested that Pluto be given the

text: minor planet number

text: 10000 while still retaining its official position as a planet. The prospect of Pluto's "demotion" created a public outcry, and in response the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: clarified that it was not at that time proposing to remove Pluto from the planet list.

text: Pluto has five known moons: Charon (the largest, with a diameter just over half that of Pluto), Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body. The IAU has not formalized a definition for binary dwarf planets, and Charon is officially classified as a moon of Pluto. In September 2016, astronomers announced that the reddish-brown cap of the north pole of Charon is composed of tholins, organic macromolecules that may be ingredients for the emergence of life, and produced from methane, nitrogen and related gases released from the atmosphere of Pluto and transferred over about  distance to the orbiting moon.

text: Pluto has

text: five known moons

text: Charon

text: (the largest, with a diameter just over half that of Pluto),

text: Styx

text: Nix

text: Kerberos

text: , and

text: Hydra

text: . Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a

text: binary system

text: because the

text: barycenter

text: of their orbits does not lie within either body. The IAU has not formalized a definition for binary dwarf planets, and Charon is officially classified as a

text: moon

text: of Pluto. In September 2016, astronomers announced that the reddish-brown cap of the north pole of Charon is composed of

text: tholin

text: s,

text: organic

text: macromolecule

text: s that may be ingredients for the

text: emergence of life

text: , and produced from

text: methane

text: nitrogen

text: and related gases released from the

text: atmosphere of Pluto

text: and transferred over about  distance to the orbiting moon.

text: His most notable contribution to Esperanto and its cause was when he was serving as the Australian Ambassador to the United Nations in 1977. NASA, the US space agency, had programmed the launch in that year of two space probes, Voyagers 1 and 2, which were designed to take and send back to earth images of the outer planets, then continue beyond the solar system after escaping the sun’s gravitational pull to become the first man-made objects to leave it.  NASA and the cosmologist Carl Sagan decided to create identical golden records to attach to each probe that were designed to tell the story of the Solar System, and mankind, should one of them ever come into contact with extraterritorial intelligent life. Engraved on each record was, among other things, a soundtrack containing a compilation of 54 peace greetings to the universe recorded in different languages by various UN delegates. Ralph succeeded in persuading the UN and NASA to accept a message in Esperanto. It is located third-last on track 3 of the golden records and says (translated):

text: Meteorites that are recovered after being observed as they transit the atmosphere or impact the Earth are called meteorite falls. All others are known as meteorite finds. , there were about 1,140 witnessed falls that have specimens in the world's collections. The first confirmed fall for 2016 is the Osceola meteorite which fell on January 24, 2016 in Florida, USA. There are more than 38,660 well-documented meteorite finds.

text: Meteorites that are recovered after being observed as they transit the atmosphere or impact the Earth are called

text: meteorite falls

text: . All others are known as

text: meteorite finds

text: . , there were about 1,140 witnessed falls that have specimens in the world's collections. The first confirmed fall for 2016 is the Osceola meteorite which fell on January 24, 2016 in

text: Florida

text: , USA. There are more than 38,660 well-documented meteorite finds.

text: Observations in 2004 revealed the presence of an inner belt containing silicate material at a distance of 6.4 AU from the star. Silicate material was also detected at 16 and 30 AU from the star, with a lack of dust between 6.4 and 16 AU providing evidence that a massive planet may be orbiting in this region. Magnesium-rich olivine has also been detected, strikingly similar to that found in the Solar System comets and different from the olivine found in Solar System asteroids. Olivine crystals can only form closer than 10 AU from the star; therefore they have been transported to the belt after formation, probably by radial mixing.

text: Observations in 2004 revealed the presence of an inner belt containing

text: silicate

text: material at a distance of 6.4 AU from the star. Silicate material was also detected at 16 and 30 AU from the star, with a lack of dust between 6.4 and 16 AU providing evidence that a massive planet may be orbiting in this region. Magnesium-rich

text: olivine

text: has also been detected, strikingly similar to that found in the Solar System

text: comets

text: and different from the olivine found in Solar System asteroids. Olivine crystals can only form closer than 10 AU from the star; therefore they have been transported to the belt after formation, probably by

text: radial mixing

text: Except for the largest, which are in hydrostatic equilibrium, natural satellites (moons) differ from small Solar System bodies not in size, but in their orbits. The orbits of natural satellites are not centered on the Sun, but around other Solar System objects such as planets, dwarf planets, and small Solar System bodies.

text: Except for the largest, which are in

entity_name: List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: natural satellite

text: s (moons) differ from small Solar System bodies not in size, but in their orbits. The orbits of natural satellites are not centered on the

text: Sun

text: , but around other Solar System objects such as planets,

text: dwarf planet

text: s, and small Solar System bodies.

text: The Meteors are an English psychobilly band formed in 1980. Originally from London, England, they are often credited with giving the psychobilly subgenre—which fuses punk rock with rockabilly—its distinctive sound and style. Though the origins of psychobilly are debated, The Meteors are the first band to self-identify as psychobilly, and are often credited with the distinction of being the only "pure" psychobilly band among fans of the subgenre.

text: The Meteors are an English

text: psychobilly

text: band formed in 1980. Originally from

text: London

text: England

text: , they are often credited with giving the psychobilly subgenre—which fuses

text: punk rock

text: with

text: rockabilly

text: —its distinctive sound and style. Though the origins of psychobilly are debated, The Meteors are the first band to self-identify as psychobilly, and are often credited with the distinction of being the only "pure" psychobilly band among fans of the subgenre.

text: One problem that many of the Northeastern railroads faced was the fact that the railroad market was saturated for the dwindling rail traffic that remained. The NYC had to compete with its two biggest rivals: the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR), and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O), in addition to more moderate-size railroads such as the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad (DLW), the Erie Railroad, the Reading Company, the Central Railroad of New Jersey, and the Lehigh Valley Railroad. Mergers of these railroads seemed a promising way for these companies to streamline operations and reduce the competition. The DL&W and Erie railroads had showed some success when they began merging their operations in 1956, finally leading to the formation of the Erie Lackawanna Railroad in 1960. Other mergers combined the Virginian Railway, Wabash Railroad, Nickel Plate Road and several others into the Norfolk and Western Railway (N&W) system, and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O), Western Maryland Railroad (WM), and Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) combined with others to form the Chessie System. Heavy streamlining and reduction in passenger services led to the success of many of these mergers.

text: One problem that many of the Northeastern railroads faced was the fact that the railroad market was saturated for the dwindling rail traffic that remained. The NYC had to compete with its two biggest rivals: the

text: Pennsylvania Railroad

text: (PRR), and the

text: Baltimore and Ohio Railroad

text: (B&O), in addition to more moderate-size railroads such as the

entity_name: Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad

text: Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad

text: (DLW), the

text: Erie Railroad

text: , the

text: Reading Company

text: , the

text: Central Railroad of New Jersey

text: , and the

text: Lehigh Valley Railroad

text: . Mergers of these railroads seemed a promising way for these companies to streamline operations and reduce the competition. The DL&W and Erie railroads had showed some success when they began merging their operations in 1956, finally leading to the formation of the

text: Erie Lackawanna Railroad

text: in 1960. Other mergers combined the

text: Virginian Railway

text: Wabash Railroad

entity_name: New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad

text: Nickel Plate Road

text: and several others into the

text: Norfolk and Western Railway

text: (N&W) system, and the

text: Baltimore and Ohio Railroad

text: (B&O),

text: Western Maryland Railroad

text: (WM), and Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) combined with others to form the

text: Chessie System

text: . Heavy streamlining and reduction in passenger services led to the success of many of these mergers.

text: The Flagship Program is a series of NASA missions to explore the Solar System. It is the largest and most expensive of three classes of NASA Solar System Programs, the other two being the medium-cost New Frontiers Program and the lowest-cost Discovery Program.

text: The Flagship Program is a series of

text: NASA

text: missions to explore the

text: Solar System

text: . It is the largest and most expensive of three classes of NASA Solar System Programs, the other two being the medium-cost

text: New Frontiers Program

text: and the lowest-cost

text: Discovery Program

text: Baryonic dark matter may occur in non-luminous gas or in Massive Astrophysical Compact Halo Objects (MACHOs) - condensed objects such as black holes, neutron stars, white dwarfs, very faint stars, or non-luminous objects like planets), and brown dwarfs.

text: Baryonic dark matter may occur in non-luminous gas or in

text: Massive Astrophysical Compact Halo Objects

text: (MACHOs) - condensed objects such as

text: black hole

text: s,

text: neutron star

text: s,

text: white dwarf

text: s, very faint

text: star

text: s, or non-luminous objects like

text: planet

text: s), and

text: brown dwarf

text: s.

text: The current orbits of the members of the family cannot be accounted for by the formational collision alone. To explain the spread of the orbital elements, an initial velocity dispersion of ~400 m/s is required, but such a velocity spread should have dispersed the fragments much further. This problem applies only to Haumea itself; the orbital elements of all the other objects in the family require an initial velocity dispersion of ~140 m/s. To explain this mismatch in the required velocity dispersion, Brown and colleagues suggest that Haumea initially had orbital elements closer to those of the other members of the family and its orbit (especially the orbital eccentricity), changed after the collision. Unlike the other members of the family, Haumea is in a chaotic orbit, near the 7:12 resonance with Neptune, which would increase Haumea's eccentricity to its current value.

text: The current orbits of the members of the family cannot be accounted for by the formational collision alone. To explain the spread of the orbital elements, an initial velocity dispersion of ~400

text: m/s

text: is required, but such a velocity spread should have dispersed the fragments much further. This problem applies only to Haumea itself; the orbital elements of all the other objects in the family require an initial velocity dispersion of ~140 m/s. To explain this mismatch in the required velocity dispersion, Brown and colleagues suggest that Haumea initially had orbital elements closer to those of the other members of the family and its orbit (especially the orbital eccentricity), changed after the collision. Unlike the other members of the family, Haumea is in a chaotic orbit, near the 7:12

text: resonance

text: with Neptune, which would increase Haumea's eccentricity to its current value.

text: In Warframe, players control members of the Tenno, a race of ancient warriors who have awoken from centuries of cryosleep to find themselves at war with the Grineer, a race of militarized and deteriorated human clones, the Corpus, a mega-corporation with advanced robotics and laser technology, the Infested, disfigured victims of the Technocyte infection, and later the Sentients, an alien force of mechanical beings returning from the Tau system after being driven back centuries ago. To fight back, the Tenno use psionically controlled, biomechanical biosuits to channel their unique abilities — the eponymous Warframes. Later missions reveal that the Warframes are actually biomechanical shells which are connected the conscience of the actual Tenno, human children who were given unpredictable powers by the Void. Those powers led to them being demonized and they were exiled into stasis pods on the Moon. The Tenno and their Warframes were used by the Orokin Empire in a desperate fight against the Sentients and stopped their invasion. However, for unknown reasons, the former turned on the latter and caused the Empire to collapse. The Empire shattered with the remnants becoming the Grineer and the Corpus while the Tenno were placed in stasis until centuries later. Available missions are scattered across the planets of the solar system, the moons Phobos, Europa, Luna, and dwarf planets Pluto, Ceres, Eris and Sedna. Players can also access missions set in a pocket dimension known as The Void through completing junctions on other planets or through Void Fissures, small volatile rifts which react with acquirable Void Relics.

text: In Warframe, players control members of the Tenno, a race of ancient warriors who have awoken from centuries of cryosleep to find themselves at war with the Grineer, a race of militarized and deteriorated human clones, the Corpus, a

text: mega-corporation

text: with advanced robotics and laser technology, the Infested, disfigured victims of the Technocyte infection, and later the Sentients, an alien force of mechanical beings returning from the Tau system after being driven back centuries ago. To fight back, the Tenno use

text: psionic

text: ally controlled, biomechanical biosuits to channel their unique abilities — the eponymous Warframes. Later missions reveal that the Warframes are actually biomechanical shells which are connected the conscience of the actual Tenno, human children who were given unpredictable powers by the Void. Those powers led to them being demonized and they were exiled into stasis pods on the Moon. The Tenno and their Warframes were used by the Orokin Empire in a desperate fight against the Sentients and stopped their invasion. However, for unknown reasons, the former turned on the latter and caused the Empire to collapse. The Empire shattered with the remnants becoming the Grineer and the Corpus while the Tenno were placed in stasis until centuries later. Available missions are scattered across the

text: planets of the solar system

text: , the

text: moon

text: s

text: Phobos

text: Europa

text: Luna

text: , and

text: dwarf planets

text: Pluto

text: Ceres

text: Eris

text: and

text: Sedna

text: . Players can also access missions set in a

text: pocket dimension

text: known as The Void through completing junctions on other planets or through Void Fissures, small volatile rifts which react with acquirable Void Relics.

text: On 17 September  2008 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) announced it named the fifth known dwarf planet in the Solar System "Haumea" after the Hawaiian goddess. The planet's two moons were named after Haumea's daughters: Hiʻiaka, the goddess born from the mouth of Haumea, and Namaka, the water spirit born from Haumea's body.

text: On 17 September  2008 the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) announced it named the fifth known

text: dwarf planet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: Haumea

text: " after the Hawaiian goddess. The planet's two moons were named after Haumea's daughters:

text: Hiʻiaka

text: , the goddess born from the mouth of Haumea, and

text: Namaka

text: , the water spirit born from Haumea's body.

text: The seven largest natural satellites in the Solar System (those bigger than 2,500 km across) are Jupiter's Galilean moons (Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa), Saturn's moon Titan, Earth's moon, and Neptune's captured natural satellite Triton. Triton, the smallest of these, has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together. Similarly in the next size group of nine natural satellites, between 1,000 km and 1,600 km across, Titania, Oberon, Rhea, Iapetus, Charon, Ariel, Umbriel, Dione, and Tethys, the smallest, Tethys, has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together. As well as the natural satellites of the various planets, there are also over 80 known natural satellites of the dwarf planets, minor planets and other small Solar System bodies. Some studies estimate that up to 15% of all trans-Neptunian objects could have satellites.

text: The seven largest

text: natural satellites

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: (those bigger than 2,500 km across) are

text: Jupiter

text: 's

text: Galilean moon

text: s (

text: Ganymede

text: Callisto

text: Io

text: , and

text: Europa

text: Saturn

text: 's moon

text: Titan

text: , Earth's

text: moon

text: , and

text: Neptune

text: 's captured natural satellite

text: Triton

text: . Triton, the smallest of these, has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together. Similarly in the next size group of nine natural satellites, between 1,000 km and 1,600 km across,

text: Titania

text: Oberon

text: Rhea

text: Iapetus

text: Charon

text: Ariel

text: Umbriel

text: Dione

text: , and

text: Tethys

text: , the smallest, Tethys, has more mass than all smaller natural satellites together. As well as the natural satellites of the various planets, there are also over 80 known natural satellites of the

text: dwarf planet

text: s,

text: minor planet

text: s and other

text: small Solar System bodies

text: . Some studies estimate that up to 15% of all

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s could have satellites.

text: Most meteoroids disintegrate when entering the Earth's atmosphere. Usually, five to ten a year are observed to fall and are subsequently recovered and made known to scientists. Few meteorites are large enough to create large impact craters. Instead, they typically arrive at the surface at their terminal velocity and, at most, create a small pit.

text: Most meteoroids disintegrate when entering the Earth's atmosphere. Usually, five to ten a year are observed to fall and are subsequently recovered and made known to scientists. Few meteorites are large enough to create large

text: impact crater

text: s. Instead, they typically arrive at the surface at their

text: terminal velocity

text: and, at most, create a small pit.

text: In May 2003 Popular Mechanics reported that Komerath had found a way to crush the rocks in the asteroid belts using electromagnetic waves and assemble them into radiation shields and structures where humans could live, among other purposes.The idea came to Komerath by analogy with the technique of "acoustic shaping", where sound waves can accurately position small objects such as beads into larger solid objects within a weightless environment.  In space, radio waves would take the place of sound waves. Although huge amounts of energy would be needed, solar power could be used and the approach would avoid the requirement to transport material from Earth.Komerath said "You don't go to investors and say 'I want to build a giant spinning cyclinder in space that would house 10,000 people'. You go and say 'I want to build a space-based economy'. It's a business model that will work only if there are a lot of people who will go broke at the same time if it fails".

text: In May 2003

text: Popular Mechanics

text: reported that Komerath had found a way to crush the rocks in the asteroid belts using electromagnetic waves and assemble them into radiation shields and structures where humans could live, among other purposes.The idea came to Komerath by analogy with the technique of "acoustic shaping", where sound waves can accurately position small objects such as beads into larger solid objects within a weightless environment.  In space, radio waves would take the place of sound waves. Although huge amounts of energy would be needed, solar power could be used and the approach would avoid the requirement to transport material from Earth.Komerath said "You don't go to investors and say 'I want to build a giant spinning cyclinder in space that would house 10,000 people'. You go and say 'I want to build a space-based economy'. It's a business model that will work only if there are a lot of people who will go broke at the same time if it fails".

text: The Kuiper belt, sometimes called the Edgeworth–Kuiper belt, is a region of the Solar System beyond the planets extending from the orbit of Neptune (at 30 AU) to approximately 55 AU from the Sun. It is similar to the asteroid belt, although it is far larger; 20 times as wide and 20–200 times as massive. Like the asteroid belt, it consists mainly of small bodies (remnants from the Solar System's formation) and at least one dwarf planet—Pluto, wchich may be geologically active. But while the asteroid belt is composed primarily of rock and metal, the Kuiper belt is composed largely of ices, such as methane, ammonia, and water. The objects within the Kuiper belt, together with the members of the scattered disc and any potential Hills cloud or Oort cloud objects, are collectively referred to as trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs).

text: The Kuiper belt, sometimes called the Edgeworth–Kuiper belt, is a region of the

text: Solar System

text: beyond the planets extending from the

text: orbit

text: of

text: Neptune

text: (at 30

text: AU

text: ) to approximately 55 AU from the

text: Sun

text: . It is similar to the

text: asteroid belt

text: , although it is far larger; 20 times as wide and 20–200 times as massive. Like the asteroid belt, it consists mainly of

text: small bodies

text: (remnants from the Solar System's formation) and at least one

text: dwarf planet

text: Pluto

text: , wchich may be geologically active. But while the asteroid belt is composed primarily of

text: rock

text: and

text: metal

text: , the Kuiper belt is composed largely of

text: ice

text: s, such as

text: methane

text: ammonia

text: , and

text: water

text: . The objects within the Kuiper belt, together with the members of the

text: scattered disc

text: and any potential

text: Hills cloud

text: or

text: Oort cloud

text: objects, are collectively referred to as

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s (TNOs).

text: Korolev received word about von Braun's 1956 Jupiter-C test, but thinking it was a satellite mission that failed, he expedited plans to get his own satellite in orbit. Since his R-7 was substantially more powerful than any of the American boosters, he made sure to take full advantage of this capability by designing Object D as his primary satellite. It was given the designation 'D', to distinguish it from other R-7 payload designations 'A', 'B', 'V', and 'G' which were nuclear weapon payloads. Object D dwarfed the proposed American satellites, by having a weight of , of which  would be composed of scientific instruments that would photograph the Earth, take readings on radiation levels, and check on the planet's magnetic field. However, things were not going along well with the design and manufacturing of the satellite, so in February 1957, Korolev sought and received permission from the Council of Ministers to create a prosteishy sputnik (PS-1), or simple satellite. The Council also decreed that Object D be postponed until April 1958. The new sputnik was a shiny sphere that would be a much lighter craft, weighing  and having a  diameter. The satellite would not contain the complex instrumentation that Object D had, but had two radio transmitters operating on different short wave radio frequencies, the ability to detect if a meteoroid were to penetrate its pressure hull, and the ability to detect the density of the Earth's thermosphere.

text: Korolev received word about von Braun's 1956 Jupiter-C test, but thinking it was a satellite mission that failed, he expedited plans to get his own satellite in orbit. Since his R-7 was substantially more powerful than any of the American boosters, he made sure to take full advantage of this capability by designing

text: Object D

text: as his primary satellite. It was given the designation 'D', to distinguish it from other R-7 payload designations 'A', 'B', 'V', and 'G' which were nuclear weapon payloads. Object D dwarfed the proposed American satellites, by having a weight of , of which  would be composed of scientific instruments that would photograph the Earth, take readings on radiation levels, and check on the planet's magnetic field. However, things were not going along well with the design and manufacturing of the satellite, so in February 1957, Korolev sought and received permission from the Council of Ministers to create a prosteishy sputnik (PS-1), or simple satellite. The Council also decreed that Object D be postponed until April 1958. The new sputnik was a shiny sphere that would be a much lighter craft, weighing  and having a  diameter. The satellite would not contain the complex instrumentation that Object D had, but had two radio transmitters operating on different

text: short wave radio

text: frequencies, the ability to detect if a meteoroid were to penetrate its pressure hull, and the ability to detect the density of the Earth's

text: thermosphere

text: Some aspects of the definition are as yet difficult to apply outside the Solar System.  Techniques for identifying extrasolar objects generally cannot determine whether an object has "cleared its orbit", except indirectly via an orbit-clearing criterion.  The wording of the 2006 definition is heliocentric in its use of the word Sun instead of star or stars, and is thus not applicable to the numerous objects which have been identified in orbit around other stars. A separate "working" definition for extrasolar planets was, however, recommended by a working group of the IAU in 2003 and includes the criterion: "The minimum mass/size required for an extrasolar object to be considered a planet should be the same as that used in the Solar System."

text: Some aspects of the definition are as yet difficult to apply outside the Solar System.  Techniques for identifying extrasolar objects generally cannot determine whether an object has "cleared its orbit", except indirectly via an

text: orbit-clearing criterion

text: .  The wording of the 2006 definition is

text: heliocentric

text: in its use of the word

text: Sun

text: instead of

text: star

text: or

text: stars

text: , and is thus not applicable to the numerous

text: objects

text: which have been identified in orbit around other stars. A separate "working" definition for extrasolar planets was, however, recommended by a working group of the IAU in 2003 and includes the criterion: "The minimum mass/size required for an extrasolar object to be considered a planet should be the same as that used in the Solar System."

text: Guitarist and lead vocalist Ian McCulloch said in reference to the album's title, "Meteorites' is what Echo and the Bunnymen mean and are meant to be—up there in heaven—untouchable, celestial, beautiful and real. It has changed my life." (The idea is mistaken—meteoroids are in space; meteorites have fallen to the ground.) The album's front cover, designed by Luke Insect, uses a thin-slice image of the Zagami meteorite from Mars. Pictures of other thin-sliced meteorites decorate the LP back cover and CD booklet.

text: Guitarist and lead vocalist

text: Ian McCulloch

text: said in reference to the album's title, "Meteorites' is what Echo and the Bunnymen mean and are meant to be—up there in heaven—untouchable, celestial, beautiful and real. It has changed my life." (The idea is mistaken—

text: meteoroid

text: s are in space;

text: meteorite

text: s have fallen to the ground.) The album's front cover, designed by Luke Insect, uses a thin-slice image of the

text: Zagami meteorite

text: from Mars. Pictures of other thin-sliced meteorites decorate the LP back cover and CD booklet.

text: Allendeite, ScZrO, is an oxide mineral. Allendeite was discovered in a small ultrarefractory inclusion within the Allende meteorite. This inclusion has been named ACM-1.  It is one of several scandium rich minerals that have been found in meteorites. Allendeite is trigonal, with a calculated density of 4.84 g/cm. The new mineral was found along with hexamolybdenum. These minerals, are believed to demonstrate conditions during the early stages of the Solar System, as is the case with many CV3 carbonaceous chondrites such as the Allende meteorite.  It is named after the Allende meteorite that fell in 1969 near Pueblito de Allende, Chihuahua, Mexico.

text: Allendeite, ScZrO, is an

text: oxide mineral

text: . Allendeite was discovered in a small ultra

text: refractory

text: inclusion

text: within the

text: Allende meteorite

text: . This inclusion has been named ACM-1.  It is one of several

text: scandium

text: rich

text: minerals

text: that have been found in

text: meteorites

text: . Allendeite is

text: trigonal

text: , with a calculated

text: density

text: of 4.84 g/cm. The new mineral was found along with

text: hexamolybdenum

text: . These minerals, are believed to demonstrate conditions during the early stages of the

text: Solar System

text: , as is the case with many CV3

text: carbonaceous chondrites

text: such as the Allende meteorite.  It is named after the Allende meteorite that fell in 1969 near

text: Pueblito de Allende

text: Chihuahua

text: Mexico

text: Sedna has the longest orbital period of any known object in the Solar System of comparable size or larger, calculated at around 11,400 years. Its orbit is extremely eccentric, with an aphelion estimated at 937 AU and a perihelion at about 76 AU. This perihelion was the largest of that of any known Solar System object until the discovery of . When Sedna was discovered it was 89.6 AU from the Sun approaching perihelion, and was the most distant object in the Solar System observed. Eris was later detected by the same survey near aphelion at 97 AU. Only the orbits of some long-period comets extend farther than that of Sedna; they are too dim to be discovered except when approaching perihelion in the inner Solar System. Even as Sedna nears its perihelion in mid 2076, the Sun would appear merely as an extremely bright star-like pinpoint in its sky, 100 times brighter than a full moon on Earth (for comparison, the Sun appears from Earth to be roughly 400,000 times brighter than the full Moon), and too far away to be visible as a disc to the naked eye.

text: Sedna has the longest

text: orbital period

text: of any known object in the Solar System of comparable size or larger, calculated at around 11,400 years. Its

text: orbit

text: is extremely

text: eccentric

text: , with an

text: aphelion

text: estimated at 937 AU and a

text: perihelion

text: at about 76 AU. This perihelion was the largest of that of any known Solar System object until the discovery of . When Sedna was discovered it was 89.6 AU from the Sun approaching perihelion, and was the most distant object in the Solar System observed.

text: Eris

text: was later detected by the same survey near aphelion at 97 AU. Only the orbits of some long-period comets extend farther than that of Sedna; they are too dim to be discovered except when approaching perihelion in the inner Solar System. Even as Sedna nears its perihelion in mid 2076, the Sun would appear merely as an extremely bright star-like pinpoint in its sky, 100 times brighter than a full moon on Earth (for comparison, the Sun appears from Earth to be roughly 400,000 times brighter than the full Moon), and too far away to be visible as a disc to the naked eye.

text: At the low altitudes at which Mir orbited there is a variety of space debris, consisting of everything from entire spent rocket stages and defunct satellites, to explosion fragments, paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, coolant released by RORSAT nuclear powered satellites, small needles, and many other objects. These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids, posed a threat to the station as they could puncture pressurised modules and cause damage to other parts of the station, such as the solar arrays. Micrometeoroids also posed a risk to spacewalking cosmonauts, as such objects could puncture their spacesuits, causing them to depressurise. Meteor showers in particular posed a risk, and, during such storms, the crews slept in their Soyuz ferries to facilitate an emergency evacuation should Mir be damaged.

text: At the low altitudes at which Mir orbited there is a variety of

text: space debris

text: , consisting of everything from entire spent

text: rocket stage

text: s and defunct

text: satellite

text: s, to explosion fragments, paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, coolant released by

text: RORSAT

text: nuclear powered satellites,

text: small needles

text: , and many other objects. These objects, in addition to natural

text: micrometeoroid

text: s, posed a threat to the station as they could puncture pressurised modules and cause damage to other parts of the station, such as the solar arrays. Micrometeoroids also posed a risk to

text: spacewalking

text: cosmonauts, as such objects could

text: puncture their spacesuits

text: , causing them to depressurise. Meteor showers in particular posed a risk, and, during such storms, the crews slept in their Soyuz ferries to facilitate an emergency evacuation should Mir be damaged.

text: Chondrules and calcium–aluminium-rich inclusions (CAIs) are spherical particles that make up chondritic meteorites and are believed to be the oldest objects in the solar system. Hence precise dating of these objects is important to constrain the early evolution of the solar system and the age of the earth. The U-Pb dating method can yield the most precise ages for early solar-system objects due to the optimal half-life of U. However, the absence of zircon or other uranium-rich minerals in chondrites, and the presence of initial non-radiogenic Pb (common Pb), rules out direct use of the U-Pb concordia method. Therefore, the most precise dating method for these meteorites is the Pb-Pb method, which allows a correction for common Pb.

text: Chondrules and

text: calcium–aluminium-rich inclusion

text: s (CAIs) are spherical particles that make up

text: chondritic

text: meteorites and are believed to be the oldest objects in the solar system. Hence precise dating of these objects is important to constrain the early evolution of the solar system and the age of the earth. The U-Pb dating method can yield the most precise ages for early solar-system objects due to the optimal half-life of U. However, the absence of

text: zircon

text: or other uranium-rich minerals in chondrites, and the presence of initial non-radiogenic Pb (common Pb), rules out direct use of the U-Pb concordia method. Therefore, the most precise dating method for these meteorites is the Pb-Pb method, which allows a correction for common Pb.

text: He is a collaborator, backed by NASA grants, with a group of scientists from Williams College and MIT observing the atmospheres of outer planets and their moons, including Pluto, its moon Charon, Neptune’s moon Triton, and other objects in the outer solar system. He also makes radio astronomy observations of the interstellar medium, concentrating on deuterium and its cosmological implications.

text: He is a collaborator, backed by NASA grants, with a group of scientists from Williams College and

text: MIT

text: observing the atmospheres of outer

text: planet

text: s and their

text: moon

text: s, including

text: Pluto

text: , its moon

text: Charon

text: Neptune

text: ’s moon

text: Triton

text: , and other objects in the outer

text: solar system

text: . He also makes

text: radio astronomy

text: observations of the interstellar medium, concentrating on

text: deuterium

text: and its cosmological implications.

text: In the past, the use of this area of the solar system as a setting for science fiction has been limited to Pluto, given its comparatively early discovery in 1930, and trans-plutonian fictional planets.  However, as Eris, other dwarf planets such as Haumea and Makemake and further trans-Neptunian objects have been discovered and the region has been better scrutinized by astronomers, works of fiction have begun to reflect the region more extensively and realistically.

text: In the past, the use of this area of the solar system as a setting for science fiction has been limited to

text: Pluto

text: , given its comparatively early discovery in 1930, and trans-plutonian

text: fictional planets

text: .  However, as

text: Eris

text: , other

text: dwarf planet

text: s such as

text: Haumea

text: and

text: Makemake

text: and further

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s have been discovered and the region has been better scrutinized by astronomers, works of fiction have begun to reflect the region more extensively and realistically.

text: At the time of the discovery of the then-planet Pluto in 1930 Lovecraft himself very casually suggested, in a letter to a friend, that Yuggoth might "probably" be the same as Pluto . Other writers have since claimed that it is actually an enormous trans-Neptunian world that orbits perpendicular to the ecliptic of the solar system.  The Italian astronomer Albino Carbognani has suggested that any planet discovered beyond Pluto might be named Yuggoth.

text: At the time of the discovery of the then-planet

text: Pluto

text: in 1930 Lovecraft himself very casually suggested, in a letter to a friend, that Yuggoth might "probably" be the same as Pluto . Other writers have since claimed that it is actually an enormous

text: trans-Neptunian world

text: that orbits perpendicular to the

text: ecliptic

text: of the

text: solar system

text: .  The Italian astronomer Albino Carbognani has suggested that any planet discovered beyond Pluto might be named Yuggoth.

text: Beta Pictoris shows an excess of infrared emission compared to normal stars of its type, which is caused by large quantities of dust and gas (including carbon monoxide) near the star. Detailed observations reveal a large disk of dust and gas orbiting the star, which was the first debris disk to be imaged around another star. In addition to the presence of several planetesimal belts and cometary activity, there are indications that planets have formed within this disk and that the processes of planet formation may still be ongoing. Material from the Beta Pictoris debris disk is thought to be the dominant source of interstellar meteoroids in the Solar System.

text: Beta Pictoris shows an

text: excess of infrared emission

text: compared to normal stars of its type, which is caused by large quantities of dust and gas (including

text: carbon monoxide

text: ) near the star. Detailed observations reveal a large disk of dust and gas orbiting the star, which was the first

text: debris disk

text: to be imaged around another star. In addition to the presence of several

text: planetesimal

text: belts and

text: comet

text: ary activity, there are indications that

text: planet

text: s have formed within this disk and that the processes of planet formation may still be ongoing. Material from the Beta Pictoris debris disk is thought to be the dominant source of interstellar

text: meteoroid

text: s in the Solar System.

text: The palladium isotope Pd decays by beta emission to Ag with a half-life of 6.5 million years. Iron meteorites are the only objects with a high-enough palladium-to-silver ratio to yield measurable variations in Ag abundance. Radiogenic Ag was first discovered in the Santa Clara meteorite in 1978. The discoverers suggest the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a nucleosynthetic event. Pd–Ag correlations observed in bodies that have clearly been melted since the accretion of the solar system must reflect the presence of unstable nuclides in the early solar system.

text: The palladium

text: isotope

text: Pd decays by beta emission to Ag with a half-life of 6.5 million years.

text: Iron meteorite

text: s are the only objects with a high-enough palladium-to-silver ratio to yield measurable variations in Ag abundance.

text: Radiogenic

text: Ag was first discovered in the

text: Santa Clara

text: meteorite in 1978. The discoverers suggest the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small

text: planet

text: s may have occurred 10 million years after a

text: nucleosynthetic

text: event. Pd–Ag correlations observed in bodies that have clearly been melted since the

text: accretion

text: of the

text: solar system

text: must reflect the presence of unstable nuclides in the early solar system.

text: Erie is well connected to the Interstate Highway System. There are six "Erie exits" along Interstate 90, a major cross-country thoroughfare running from Boston to Seattle.  Erie is the northern terminus of Interstate 79, which travels south to Pittsburgh and, ultimately, West Virginia. The western terminus for Interstate 86, also called the "Southern Tier Expressway," is at Interstate 90 between Erie and North East, Pennsylvania. Interstate 86 continues east through New York to Binghamton. The Bayfront Connector runs from Interstate 90 in Harborcreek to the Bayfront Parkway and downtown Erie, along the east side of the city, then connects to Interstate 79 on the west side of the city. Major thoroughfares in the city include 12th Street, 26th Street, 38th Street and Peach Street. Peach is also a part of U.S. Route 19, whose northern terminus is in Erie and continues south eventually reaching the Gulf of Mexico. Other major routes running through Erie are Pennsylvania Route 5, known as the Seaway Trail and is made up of parts of 6th Street, 8th Street, 12th Street, and East Lake Road in the city, U.S. Route 20, which is 26th Street in the city. The city is divided between east and west by State Street.

text: Erie is well connected to the

text: Interstate Highway System

text: . There are six "Erie exits" along

text: Interstate 90

text: , a major cross-country thoroughfare running from

text: Boston

text: to

text: Seattle

text: .  Erie is the northern terminus of

text: Interstate 79

text: , which travels south to Pittsburgh and, ultimately,

text: West Virginia

text: . The western terminus for

text: Interstate 86

text: , also called the "Southern Tier Expressway," is at Interstate 90 between Erie and

text: North East, Pennsylvania

text: . Interstate 86 continues east through New York to

text: Binghamton

text: . The

text: Bayfront Connector

text: runs from Interstate 90 in Harborcreek to the

text: Bayfront Parkway

text: and downtown Erie, along the east side of the city, then connects to

text: Interstate 79

text: on the west side of the city. Major

text: thoroughfare

text: s in the city include

text: 12th Street

text: 26th Street

text: 38th Street

text: and

text: Peach Street

text: . Peach is also a part of

text: U.S. Route 19

text: , whose northern terminus is in Erie and continues south eventually reaching the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . Other major routes running through Erie are

text: Pennsylvania Route 5

text: , known as the

text: Seaway Trail

text: and is made up of parts of 6th Street, 8th Street, 12th Street, and East Lake Road in the city,

text: U.S. Route 20

text: , which is 26th Street in the city. The city is divided between east and west by

text: State Street

text: The cause of the explosion is controversial, and still much disputed to this day. Although the cause of the explosion is the subject of debate, it is commonly believed to have been caused by the air burst of a large meteoroid or comet fragment at an altitude of 5–10 kilometres (3–6 miles) above the Earth's surface. Different studies have yielded varying estimates of the object's size, with general agreement that it was a few tens of metres across.

text: The cause of the explosion is controversial, and still much disputed to this day. Although the cause of the explosion is the subject of debate, it is commonly believed to have been caused by the

text: air burst

text: of a large

text: meteoroid

text: or

text: comet

text: fragment at an altitude of 5–10 kilometres (3–6 miles) above the

text: Earth

text: 's surface. Different studies have yielded varying estimates of the object's size, with general agreement that it was a few tens of metres across.

text: The moons of Haumea are too faint to detect with telescopes smaller than about 2 metres in aperture, though Haumea itself has a visual magnitude of 17.5, making it the third-brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and Makemake, and easily observable with a large amateur telescope.

text: The moons of Haumea are too faint to detect with telescopes smaller than about 2 metres in

text: aperture

text: , though Haumea itself has a visual magnitude of 17.5, making it the third-brightest object in the Kuiper belt after

text: Pluto

text: and

text: Makemake

text: , and easily observable with a large amateur telescope.

text: Physical model (most commonly referred to simply as a model but in this context distinguished from a conceptual model) is a smaller or larger physical copy of an object. The object being modelled may be small (for example, an atom) or large (for example, the Solar System).

text: Physical model (most commonly referred to simply as a model but in this context distinguished from a

text: conceptual model

text: ) is a smaller or larger physical copy of an object. The object being modelled may be small (for example, an atom) or large (for example, the

text: Solar System

text: The Solar System also contains smaller objects.

text: The rotation period of Makemake is estimated at 7.77 hours. Its lightcurve amplitude is small, only 0.03 mag. This was thought to be due to Makemake currently being viewed pole on from Earth; however, S/2015 (136472) 1's orbital plane (which is probably orbiting with little inclination relative to Makemake's equator due to tides resulting from its rapid rotation) is edge-on from Earth, implying that Makemake is really being viewed equator-on.

text: Of the many exoplanets discovered, most exoplanets have a higher orbital eccentricity than our solar system.  Exoplanets found with low orbital eccentricity, near circular orbits, are very close to its star and are tidal locked to the star, like planet Mercury. All eight planets in the Solar System have near-circular orbits.  The exoplanets discovered show that the solar system, with its unusually low eccentricity, is rare and unique. One theory attributes this low eccentricity to the high number of planets in the Solar System; another suggests it arose because of its unique asteroid belts. A few other multiplanetary systems have been found, but none resemble the solar system. The solar system has unique planetesimal systems, which led the planets to have near-circular orbits. Solar planetesimal systems include the asteroid belt, Hilda family, Kuiper belt, Hills cloud, and the Oort cloud. The exoplanet solar systems discovered have either no planetesimal systems or one very large planetesimal system. Low eccentricity is needed for habitability, especially advanced life. High multiplicity planet systems are much more likely to have habitable exoplanets.  The Grand tack hypothesis of the solar system also helps understand the near-circular orbits of the solar system and the other unique features of the solar system.

text: Of the many

text: exoplanet

text: s discovered, most exoplanets have a higher orbital eccentricity than our solar system.  Exoplanets found with low orbital eccentricity, near circular orbits, are very close to its star and are

text: tidal locked

text: to the star, like

text: planet Mercury

text: . All eight planets in the Solar System have near-circular orbits.  The exoplanets discovered show that the solar system, with its unusually low eccentricity, is rare and unique. One theory attributes this low eccentricity to the high number of planets in the Solar System; another suggests it arose because of its unique asteroid belts. A few other

text: multiplanetary systems

text: have been found, but none resemble the solar system. The solar system has unique

text: planetesimal

text: systems, which led the planets to have near-circular orbits. Solar planetesimal systems include the

text: asteroid belt

text: Hilda family

text: Kuiper belt

text: Hills cloud

text: , and the

text: Oort cloud

text: . The exoplanet solar systems discovered have either no planetesimal systems or one very large planetesimal system. Low eccentricity is needed for habitability, especially advanced life. High multiplicity planet systems are much more likely to have habitable exoplanets.  The

text: Grand tack hypothesis

text: of the solar system also helps understand the near-circular orbits of the solar system and the other unique features of the solar system.

text: The Allende meteorite, which fell in 1969, contained abundant calcium–aluminium-rich inclusions (CAIs). These are very refractory materials and were interpreted as being condensates from a hot solar nebula. then discovered that the oxygen in these objects was enhanced in O by ~5% while the O/O was the same as terrestrial. This clearly showed a large effect in an abundant element that might be nuclear, possibly from a stellar source. These objects were then found to contain strontium with very low Sr/Sr indicating that they were a few million years older than previously analyzed meteoritic material and that this type of material would merit a search for Al.  Al is only present today in solar system materials as the result of cosmic reactions on unshielded materials at an extremely low level. Thus, any original Al in the early Solar system is now extinct.

text: The

text: Allende meteorite

text: , which fell in 1969, contained abundant

text: calcium–aluminium-rich inclusion

text: s (CAIs). These are very refractory materials and were interpreted as being condensates from a hot

text: solar nebula

text: . then discovered that the oxygen in these objects was enhanced in O by ~5% while the O/O was the same as terrestrial. This clearly showed a large effect in an abundant element that might be nuclear, possibly from a stellar source. These objects were then found to contain strontium with very low Sr/Sr indicating that they were a few million years older than previously analyzed meteoritic material and that this type of material would merit a search for Al.  Al is only present today in solar system materials as the result of cosmic reactions on unshielded materials at an extremely low level. Thus, any original Al in the early Solar system is now extinct.

text: With a density of 0.82 g/cm, assuming that the primary and satellite have the same density,  is one of the largest known solid objects in the Solar System that is less dense than water. Why this should be is not well understood, because objects of its size in the Kuiper belt often contain a fair amount of rock and are hence pretty dense. To have a similar composition to others large KBOs, it would have to be exceptionally porous, which is unlikely given the compactability of water ice. Hence, its density astonished astronomers.

text: The series covers topics concerning space exploration, the Solar System, and astronomical objects in the universe. It shows CGI renderings of these aforementioned, video footage, photographs, and views from scientists, project managers, engineers, advocates, writers and other experts.  The episode "7 Wonders of the Solar System", and Season 6 were produced in 3D.

text: The series covers topics concerning

text: space exploration

text: , the

text: Solar System

text: , and

text: astronomical objects

text: in the universe. It shows

text: CGI

text: renderings of these aforementioned, video footage, photographs, and views from scientists, project managers, engineers, advocates, writers and other experts.  The episode "

text: 7 Wonders of the Solar System

text: ", and Season 6 were produced in 3D.

text: Mike Brown counters these claims by saying that, far from not having cleared their orbits, the major planets completely control the orbits of the other bodies within their orbital zone. Jupiter may coexist with a large number of small bodies in its orbit (the Trojan asteroids), but these bodies only exist in Jupiter's orbit because they are in the sway of the planet's huge gravity. Similarly, Pluto may cross the orbit of Neptune, but Neptune long ago locked Pluto and its attendant Kuiper belt objects, called plutinos, into a 3:2 resonance, i.e., they orbit the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits. The orbits of these objects are entirely dictated by Neptune's gravity, and thus, Neptune is gravitationally dominant.

text: Mike Brown counters these claims by saying that, far from not having cleared their orbits, the major planets completely control the orbits of the other bodies within their orbital zone. Jupiter may coexist with a large number of small bodies in its orbit (the

text: Trojan asteroid

text: s), but these bodies only exist in Jupiter's orbit because they are in the sway of the planet's huge gravity. Similarly, Pluto may cross the orbit of Neptune, but Neptune long ago locked Pluto and its attendant Kuiper belt objects, called

text: plutino

text: s, into a 3:2 resonance, i.e., they orbit the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits. The orbits of these objects are entirely dictated by Neptune's gravity, and thus, Neptune is gravitationally dominant.

text: The Minor Planet Center, which officially catalogs the objects in the Solar System, classifies Sedna as a scattered object. However, this grouping is heavily questioned, and many astronomers have suggested that it, together with a few other objects (e.g. ), be placed in a new category of distant objects named extended scattered disc objects (E-SDO), detached objects, distant detached objects (DDO), or scattered-extended in the formal classification by the Deep Ecliptic Survey.

text: The

text: Minor Planet Center

text: , which officially catalogs the objects in the Solar System, classifies Sedna as a scattered object. However, this grouping is heavily questioned, and many astronomers have suggested that it, together with a few other objects (e.g. ), be placed in a new category of distant objects named extended scattered disc objects (E-SDO),

text: detached object

text: s, distant detached objects (DDO), or scattered-extended in the formal classification by the

text: Deep Ecliptic Survey

text: There are two main classes of comet, short-period comets (also called ecliptic comets) and long-period comets (also called nearly isotropic comets). Ecliptic comets have relatively small orbits, below 10 AU, and follow the ecliptic plane, the same plane in which the planets lie. All long-period comets have very large orbits, on the order of thousands of AU, and appear from every direction in the sky. Oort noted that there was a peak in numbers of long-period comets with aphelia (their farthest distance from the Sun) of roughly 20,000 AU, which suggested a reservoir at that distance with a spherical, isotropic distribution. Those relatively rare comets with orbits of about 10,000 AU have probably gone through one or more orbits through the Solar System and have had their orbits drawn inward by the gravity of the planets.

text: There are two main classes of comet, short-period comets (also called

text: ecliptic

text: comets) and long-period comets (also called nearly

text: isotropic

text: comets). Ecliptic comets have relatively small orbits, below 10 AU, and follow the

text: ecliptic plane

text: , the same plane in which the planets lie. All long-period comets have very large orbits, on the order of thousands of AU, and appear from every direction in the sky. Oort noted that there was a peak in numbers of long-period comets with

text: aphelia

text: (their farthest distance from the Sun) of roughly 20,000 AU, which suggested a reservoir at that distance with a spherical, isotropic distribution. Those relatively rare comets with orbits of about 10,000 AU have probably gone through one or more orbits through the Solar System and have had their orbits drawn inward by the

text: gravity

text: of the planets.

text: The Makemakes are an Austrian pop rock band, comprising Dominic "Dodo" Muhrer (born 28 November 1989), Markus Christ (born 16 February 1991) and Florian Meindl (born 7 August 1990). They represented Austria in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 with the song "I Am Yours".

text: The Makemakes are an

text: Austria

text: n

text: pop rock

text: band, comprising Dominic "Dodo" Muhrer (born 28 November 1989), Markus Christ (born 16 February 1991) and Florian Meindl (born 7 August 1990). They represented

text: Austria

text: in the

text: Eurovision Song Contest 2015

text: with the song "

text: I Am Yours

text: The Solar System and its various bodies (planets, asteroids, moons, etc.) were the earliest objects to be treated as fictional locations in works of science fiction. Among these, imaginary voyages to and explorations of Earth's Moon are found in seventeenth century literature. By the early twentieth century, following the increase in scientific and technological development spurred by the Industrial Revolution, fictional journeys to (or from) the Solar System's other planets had become common in fiction.

text: The

text: Solar System

text: and its various bodies (

text: planet

text: s,

text: asteroid

text: s,

text: moon

text: s, etc.) were the earliest objects to be treated as fictional locations in works of

text: science fiction

text: . Among these,

text: imaginary voyages to and explorations of Earth's Moon

text: are found in seventeenth century literature. By the early twentieth century, following the increase in

text: scientific

text: and

text: technological

text: development spurred by the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: , fictional journeys to (or from) the Solar System's other planets had become common in fiction.

text: The railroads themselves began to decline after the Great Depression, accelerating after World War II with the building of the Interstate Highway System and increased competition from trucking companies.  One of the first Class I railroads to shut down was the O&W, in 1957, leaving Port Jervis totally reliant on the Erie.  Only a few years later, in 1960, the Erie, also on a shaky financial footing, merged with Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad to become the Erie Lackawanna.  In 1976, along with a number of other struggling railroads, such as the Penn Central, the Erie Lackawana became part of Conrail.  Since the breakup of Conrail, the trackage around Port Jervis has been controlled by Norfolk Southern. The decline of the railroads was an economic blow to Port Jervis, one it is still, as of 2011, recovering from.

text: The railroads themselves began to decline after the

text: Great Depression

text: , accelerating after

text: World War II

text: with the building of the

text: Interstate Highway System

text: and increased competition from trucking companies.  One of the first

text: Class I railroad

text: s to shut down was the O&W, in 1957, leaving Port Jervis totally reliant on the Erie.  Only a few years later, in 1960, the Erie, also on a shaky financial footing, merged with

text: Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad

text: to become the

text: Erie Lackawanna

text: .  In 1976, along with a number of other struggling railroads, such as the

text: Penn Central

text: , the Erie Lackawana became part of

text: Conrail

text: .  Since the breakup of Conrail, the trackage around Port Jervis has been controlled by

text: Norfolk Southern

text: . The decline of the railroads was an economic blow to Port Jervis, one it is still, as of 2011, recovering from.

text: C/1980 E1 is a non-periodic comet discovered by Edward L. G. Bowell on 11 February 1980. C/1980 E1 is leaving the Solar System on a hyperbolic trajectory with a higher velocity than any other natural object ever observed.

text: C/1980 E1 is a

text: non-periodic comet

text: discovered by

text: Edward L. G. Bowell

text: on 11 February 1980. C/1980 E1 is leaving the Solar System on a

text: hyperbolic trajectory

text: with a higher velocity than any other

text: natural object

text: ever observed.

text: The game's background story is only explained through the user manual. In the game's universe, humanity has colonized most planets in our galaxy, the Milky Way, and they now look towards expanding their reach by using an experimental travel technology called "Hyperzone Drive". However, a race of aliens who have already mastered that technology are currently invading planets at a quick pace, closing in on the Solar System. The invaders attack humanity's colony on Pluto and conquer it with little resistance, since human civilization doesn't have the technology to defend itself.

text: The game's background story is only explained through the

text: user manual

text: . In the game's universe, humanity has colonized most planets in our galaxy, the

text: Milky Way

text: , and they now look towards expanding their reach by using an experimental travel technology called "Hyperzone Drive". However, a race of aliens who have already mastered that technology are currently invading planets at a quick pace, closing in on the

text: Solar System

text: . The invaders attack humanity's colony on

text: Pluto

text: and conquer it with little resistance, since human civilization doesn't have the technology to defend itself.

text: 157P/Tritton is a periodic comet in the solar system.

text: 157P/Tritton is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: solar system

text: |-id=472| 136472 Makemake ||  || Makemake, creator deity of the people of Rapa Nui (Easter Island; the discovery team previously used the codename "Easterbunny" for this object)  ‡|-id=473| 136473 Bakosgáspár || 2005 GB || Gáspár Bakos, father of the Hungarian-made Automated Telescope Network (HATNet) |}

text: 136472 Makemake

text: Makemake

text: , creator deity of the people of Rapa Nui (Easter Island; the discovery team previously used the codename "Easterbunny" for this object)  ‡|-id=473|

text: 136473 Bakosgáspár

text: || 2005 GB || Gáspár Bakos, father of the Hungarian-made Automated Telescope Network (

text: HATNet

text: Planetary aberration is the combination of the aberration of light (due to Earth's velocity) and light-time correction (due to the object's motion and distance), as calculated in the rest frame of the Solar System. Both are determined at the instant when the moving object's light reaches the moving observer on Earth. It is so called because it is usually applied to planets and other objects in the Solar System whose motion and distance are accurately known.

text: Growing the star will increase its gravitational force, which increases the number of planets the solar system can have. They will also be able to attract solar systems composed of stars with lower mass than that of the player, or being attracted to stars with bigger mass. If both stars collide, they will be reduced to a lesser size within the same type of object. For example, if the player controls a small star and collides against a medium star, the player will be disintegrated while the AI-controlled star will be reduced to a small star. Being reduced from small star to life planet is not possible, as well as being reduced from small planet to asteroid. In these cases, the player is respawned, with random mass, close to the place where they collided.

text: Growing the star will increase its gravitational force, which increases the number of planets the solar system can have. They will also be able to attract solar systems composed of stars with lower mass than that of the player, or being attracted to stars with bigger mass. If both stars collide, they will be reduced to a lesser size within the same type of object. For example, if the player controls a small star and collides against a medium star, the player will be disintegrated while the AI-controlled star will be reduced to a small star. Being reduced from small star to life planet is not possible, as well as being reduced from small planet to asteroid. In these cases, the player is

text: respawned

text: , with random mass, close to the place where they collided.

text: Meteor is a project designed to provide a landing system for falling body to a 100-metre accuracy, from any point within the Earth's atmosphere.The Meteor project will use a paraglider to land objects.

text: Meteor is a project designed to provide a landing system for falling body to a 100-metre accuracy, from any point within the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: .The Meteor project will use a

text: paraglider

text: to land objects.

text: Combining the detection in infrared by the Spitzer Space Telescope and Herschel Space Telescope with the similarities of spectrum with Pluto yielded an estimated diameter from 1,360 to 1,480 km. From the 2011 stellar occultation by Makemake, its dimensions have been initially measured to be . However, this analysis of the occultation data was later reanalyzed, which led to the dimension estimate of  without a pole-orientation constraint. This means that Makemake is slightly larger than that of , making it likely the fourth-largest known trans-Neptunian object after Pluto, , and , though the error bars with the latter overlap. Makemake was the fourth dwarf planet recognized, because it has a bright V-band absolute magnitude of −0.44. Makemake has a high geometrical albedo of .

text: Combining the detection in infrared by the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: and

text: Herschel Space Telescope

text: with the similarities of spectrum with Pluto yielded an estimated diameter from 1,360 to 1,480 km. From the 2011 stellar occultation by Makemake, its dimensions have been initially measured to be . However, this analysis of the occultation data was later reanalyzed, which led to the dimension estimate of  without a pole-orientation constraint. This means that Makemake is slightly larger than that of , making it likely the fourth-largest known trans-Neptunian object after Pluto, , and , though the error bars with the latter overlap. Makemake was the fourth

text: dwarf planet

text: recognized, because it has a bright

text: V-band

text: absolute magnitude

text: of −0.44. Makemake has a high geometrical albedo of .

text: Following his Ph.D., Watson joined the Harvard College Observatory, researching meteors, meteorites, and solar observation. During World War II, Watson served in the Navy, where he worked on the Long Range Navigation (LORAN) system. He left the navy in 1946 with the rank of lieutenant commander. Harvard University president James Bryant Conant appointed Watson a professor of science education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, where he served from 1946 until 1977. He was named Harvard's first Henry Lee Shattuck Professor of Education in 1966.

text: Following his Ph.D., Watson joined the

text: Harvard College Observatory

text: , researching meteors, meteorites, and solar observation. During

text: World War II

text: , Watson served in the

text: Navy

text: , where he worked on the Long Range Navigation (

text: LORAN

text: ) system. He left the navy in 1946 with the rank of

text: lieutenant commander

text: Harvard University

text: president

text: James Bryant Conant

text: appointed Watson a professor of science education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, where he served from 1946 until 1977. He was named Harvard's first Henry Lee Shattuck Professor of Education in 1966.

text: Asteroids are differentiated from comets and meteoroids. In the case of comets, the difference is one of composition: while asteroids are mainly composed of mineral and rock, comets are composed of dust and ice. In addition, asteroids formed closer to the sun, preventing the development of the aforementioned cometary ice. The difference between asteroids and meteoroids is mainly one of size: meteoroids have a diameter of less than one meter, whereas asteroids have a diameter of greater than one meter. Finally, meteoroids can be composed of either cometary or asteroidal materials.

text: Asteroids are differentiated from

text: comet

text: s and

text: meteoroid

text: s. In the case of comets, the difference is one of composition: while asteroids are mainly composed of mineral and rock, comets are composed of dust and ice. In addition, asteroids formed closer to the sun, preventing the development of the aforementioned cometary ice. The difference between asteroids and meteoroids is mainly one of size: meteoroids have a diameter of less than one meter, whereas asteroids have a diameter of greater than one meter. Finally, meteoroids can be composed of either cometary or asteroidal materials.

text: The Solar System's planets and officially recognized dwarf planets are known to be orbited by 182 natural satellites, or moons. 19 moons in the Solar System are large enough to be gravitationally rounded, and thus would be considered planets or dwarf planets if they were in direct orbit around the Sun.

text: The

text: Solar System

text: 's planets and officially recognized dwarf planets are known to be orbited by 182

text: natural satellite

text: s, or moons. 19 moons in the Solar System are large enough to be gravitationally rounded, and thus would be considered

text: planets

text: or

text: dwarf planets

text: if they were in direct orbit around the Sun.

text: First probe to be launched to Pluto. Launched on 19 January 2006, it flew by the Pluto–Charon system on 14 July 2015.

text: As other objects were discovered in the neighborhood of Ceres, it was realized that Ceres represented the first of a new class of objects. In 1802, with the discovery of 2 Pallas, William Herschel coined the term asteroid ("star-like") for these bodies, writing that "they resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them, even by very good telescopes". As the first such body to be discovered, Ceres was given the designation 1 Ceres under the modern system of minor-planet designations. By the 1860s, the existence of a fundamental difference between asteroids such as Ceres and the major planets was widely accepted, though a precise definition of "planet" was never formulated.The 2006 debate surrounding Pluto and what constitutes a planet led to Ceres being considered for reclassification as a planet. A proposal before the International Astronomical Union for the definition of a planet would have defined a planet as "a celestial body that (a) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid-body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (b) is in orbit around a star, and is neither a star nor a satellite of a planet". Had this resolution been adopted, it would have made Ceres the fifth planet in order from the Sun. This never happened, however, and on 24 August 2006 a modified definition was adopted, carrying the additional requirement that a planet must have "cleared the neighborhood around its orbit". By this definition, Ceres is not a planet because it does not dominate its orbit, sharing it as it does with the thousands of other asteroids in the asteroid belt and constituting only about a third of the mass of the belt. Bodies that met the first proposed definition but not the second, such as Ceres, were instead classified as dwarf planets.

text: As other objects were discovered in the neighborhood of Ceres, it was realized that Ceres represented the first of a new class of objects. In 1802, with the discovery of 2 Pallas, William Herschel coined the term asteroid ("star-like") for these bodies, writing that "they resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them, even by very good telescopes". As the first such body to be discovered, Ceres was given the designation 1 Ceres under the modern system of

text: minor-planet designation

text: s. By the 1860s, the existence of a fundamental difference between asteroids such as Ceres and the major planets was widely accepted, though a precise definition of "planet" was never formulated.The 2006 debate surrounding

text: Pluto

text: and what constitutes a planet led to Ceres being considered for reclassification as a planet. A proposal before the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: for the

text: definition of a planet

text: would have defined a planet as "a celestial body that (a) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid-body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (b) is in orbit around a star, and is neither a star nor a satellite of a planet". Had this resolution been adopted, it would have made Ceres the fifth planet in order from the Sun. This never happened, however, and on 24 August 2006 a modified definition was adopted, carrying the additional requirement that a planet must have "

text: cleared the neighborhood

text: around its orbit". By this definition, Ceres is not a planet because it does not dominate its orbit, sharing it as it does with the thousands of other asteroids in the

text: asteroid belt

text: and constituting only about a third of the mass of the belt. Bodies that met the first proposed definition but not the second, such as Ceres, were instead classified as

text: dwarf planet

text: s.

text: The Great Lakes Waterway connects the lake sidestream to the Atlantic Ocean via the St. Lawrence Seaway, and upstream to the other rivers in the chain via the Welland Canal and to Lake Erie. The Trent-Severn Waterway for pleasure boats connects Lake Ontario at the Bay of Quinte to Georgian Bay (Lake Huron), via Lake Simcoe. The Oswego Canal connects the lake at Oswego to the New York State Canal System, with outlets to the Hudson River, Lake Erie, and Lake Champlain.

text: The

text: Great Lakes Waterway

text: connects the lake sidestream to the Atlantic Ocean via the

text: St. Lawrence Seaway

text: , and upstream to the other rivers in the chain via the

text: Welland Canal

text: and to Lake Erie. The

text: Trent-Severn Waterway

text: for pleasure boats connects Lake Ontario at the Bay of Quinte to

text: Georgian Bay

text: Lake Huron

text: ), via

text: Lake Simcoe

text: . The

text: Oswego Canal

text: connects the lake at Oswego to the

text: New York State Canal System

text: , with outlets to the

text: Hudson River

text: , Lake Erie, and

text: Lake Champlain

text: NEAs survive in their orbits for just a few million years. They are eventually eliminated by planetary perturbations, causing ejection from the Solar System or a collision with the Sun or a planet. With orbital lifetimes short compared to the age of the Solar System, new asteroids must be constantly moved into near-Earth orbits to explain the observed asteroids. The accepted origin of these asteroids is that asteroid-belt asteroids are moved into the inner Solar System through orbital resonances with Jupiter. The interaction with Jupiter through the resonance perturbs the asteroid's orbit and it comes into the inner Solar System. The asteroid belt has gaps, known as Kirkwood gaps, where these resonances occur as the asteroids in these resonances have been moved onto other orbits. New asteroids migrate into these resonances, due to the Yarkovsky effect that provides a continuing supply of near-Earth asteroids. The known asteroid with the greatest known chance of impacting Earth is  with a 1 in 16 chance of impacting Earth on 5 September 2095. Its 7-meter estimated diameter ensures that an impact would cause little damage.

text: NEAs survive in their orbits for just a few million years. They are eventually eliminated by planetary

text: perturbations

text: , causing ejection from the Solar System or a

text: collision

text: with the Sun or a planet. With orbital lifetimes short compared to the age of the Solar System, new asteroids must be constantly moved into near-Earth orbits to explain the observed asteroids. The accepted origin of these asteroids is that

text: asteroid-belt asteroids

text: are moved into the inner Solar System through

text: orbital resonance

text: s with

text: Jupiter

text: . The interaction with Jupiter through the resonance

text: perturb

text: s the asteroid's orbit and it comes into the inner Solar System. The asteroid belt has gaps, known as

text: Kirkwood gap

text: s, where these resonances occur as the asteroids in these resonances have been moved onto other orbits. New asteroids migrate into these resonances, due to the

text: Yarkovsky effect

text: that provides a continuing supply of near-Earth asteroids. The known asteroid with the greatest known chance of impacting Earth is  with a 1 in 16 chance of impacting Earth on 5 September 2095. Its 7-meter estimated diameter ensures that an impact would cause little damage.

text: "Meteorite" is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her fourteenth studio album, Me. I Am Mariah... The Elusive Chanteuse (2014). It was composed by Carey and Q-Tip. A disco track, it contains a sample of the recording "Goin' Up in Smoke" written by Allan Felder, Norman Harris, and Ron Tyson, all of whom received songwriting credits for "Meteorite" as a result. It also quotes an observation by Andy Warhol that everyone will achieve fame for 15 minutes. "Meteorite" garnered mostly positive reviews from music critics, many of whom praised the disco influence and highlighted it as one of the album's best tracks. The song peaked at number 70 on the international download chart in South Korea. Carey performed "Meteorite" at the 2014 World Music Awards, for which she was criticized for arriving over an hour late, and included it on the set list of her 2014 tour, The Elusive Chanteuse Show.

text: "Meteorite" is a song by American singer and songwriter

text: Mariah Carey

text: from her fourteenth studio album,

entity_name: Me. I Am Mariah... The Elusive Chanteuse

text: Me. I Am Mariah... The Elusive Chanteuse

text: (2014). It was composed by Carey and

text: Q-Tip

text: . A

text: disco

text: track, it contains a

text: sample

text: of the recording "

text: Goin' Up in Smoke

text: " written by

text: Allan Felder

text: Norman Harris

text: , and

text: Ron Tyson

text: , all of whom received songwriting credits for "Meteorite" as a result. It also quotes an observation by

text: Andy Warhol

text: that everyone will achieve fame for 15 minutes. "Meteorite" garnered mostly positive reviews from music critics, many of whom praised the disco influence and highlighted it as one of the album's best tracks. The song peaked at number 70 on the international download chart in South Korea. Carey performed "Meteorite" at the

text: 2014 World Music Awards

text: , for which she was criticized for arriving over an hour late, and included it on the set list of her 2014 tour,

text: The Elusive Chanteuse Show

text: The temperature of the asteroid belt varies with the distance from the Sun. For dust particles within the belt, typical temperatures range from 200 K (−73 °C) at 2.2 AU down to 165 K (−108 °C) at 3.2 AU However, due to rotation, the surface temperature of an asteroid can vary considerably as the sides are alternately exposed to solar radiation and then to the stellar background.

text: Besides Pluto, Makemake is the only other dwarf planet that was bright enough for Clyde Tombaugh to have possibly detected during his search for trans-Neptunian planets around 1930. At the time of Tombaugh's survey, Makemake was only a few degrees from the ecliptic, near the border of Taurus and Auriga, at an apparent magnitude of 16.0. This position, however, was also very near the Milky Way, and Makemake would have been almost impossible to find against the dense background of stars. Tombaugh continued searching for some years after the discovery of Pluto, but he did not find Makemake or any other trans-Neptunian objects.

text: Besides

text: Pluto

text: , Makemake is the only other dwarf planet that was bright enough for

text: Clyde Tombaugh

text: to have possibly detected during his search for

text: trans-Neptunian planets

text: around 1930. At the time of Tombaugh's survey, Makemake was only a few degrees from the ecliptic, near the border of

text: Taurus

text: and

text: Auriga

text: , at an apparent magnitude of 16.0. This position, however, was also very near the

text: Milky Way

text: , and Makemake would have been almost impossible to find against the dense background of stars. Tombaugh continued searching for some years after the discovery of Pluto, but he did not find Makemake or any other

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s.

text: The Hungaria asteroids are thought to be the remains of the hypothetical E-belt asteroid population.  The dispersal of most of that hypothetical E-belt might have been caused by the outwards migration of the giant planets of the Solar System according to simulations done under the Nice model—and these dispersed E-Belt asteroids might in turn have been the impactors of the Late Heavy Bombardment.

text: The Hungaria asteroids are thought to be the remains of the hypothetical

text: E-belt asteroid population

text: .  The dispersal of most of that hypothetical E-belt might have been caused by the

text: outwards migration

text: of the

text: giant planet

text: s of the

text: Solar System

text: according to simulations done under the

text: Nice model

text: —and these dispersed E-Belt asteroids might in turn have been the impactors of the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: Solar conjunction occurs when a planet or other solar system object is on the opposite side of the sun from the Earth.  From an Earth reference, the sun will pass between the Earth and the object. Communication with any spacecraft in solar conjunction will be severely limited due to the sun's interference on radio transmissions from the spacecraft.

text: Solar conjunction occurs when a

text: planet

text: or other

text: solar system

text: object is on the opposite side of the

text: sun

text: from the

text: Earth

text: .  From an Earth reference, the sun will pass between the Earth and the object. Communication with any

text: spacecraft

text: in solar conjunction will be severely limited due to the sun's interference on radio transmissions from the spacecraft.

text: In the partial lists, numbered minor planets (MPs) are categorized into one of 8 distinct orbital groups. These are the near-Earth asteroids, the Mars-crossing asteroids, the inner-, middle- and outer main-belt asteroids (MBA), the Jupiter trojans, the centaurs and the trans-Neptunian objects. A minor planet's orbital group is represented by the background color of the table row . This classification is exclusively based on the body's relevant orbital elements, that is, its semi-major axis (a) and eccentricity (e). From these elements its perihelion (q) and aphelion (Q) can be derived.

text: In the partial lists, numbered minor planets (MPs) are categorized into one of 8 distinct orbital groups. These are the

text: near-Earth

text: asteroids, the

text: Mars-crossing

text: asteroids, the inner-, middle- and outer

text: main-belt

text: asteroids (MBA), the

text: Jupiter trojan

text: s, the

text: centaurs

text: and the

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s. A minor planet's orbital group is represented by the background color of the table row . This classification is exclusively based on the body's relevant orbital elements, that is, its

text: semi-major axis

text: (a) and

text: eccentricity

text: (e). From these elements its

text: perihelion

text: (q) and

text: aphelion

text: (Q) can be derived.

text: Once again, the player is stranded on a planet, Eris, with an inoperable spacecraft. Unlike the first game, however, the scope of Damocles is considerably widened, offering the player an entire solar system to explore (the Gamma System; the player's original destination before the Interlude on Targ). There is also a race-against-time element to the game as a comet, the eponymous Damocles (a reference the Sword of Damocles), is hurtling towards Eris. The player is encouraged to both escape Eris and find a means to prevent Damocles from destroying the planet, if possible without destroying the comet. Although an obvious, but destructive, solution exists, Damocles has no fewer than five distinct solutions.

text: Once again, the player is stranded on a planet, Eris, with an inoperable spacecraft. Unlike the first game, however, the scope of Damocles is considerably widened, offering the player an entire

text: solar system

text: to explore (the Gamma System; the player's original destination before the Interlude on Targ). There is also a race-against-time element to the game as a

text: comet

text: , the eponymous

text: Damocles

text: (a reference the

text: Sword of Damocles

text: ), is hurtling towards Eris. The player is encouraged to both escape Eris and find a means to prevent Damocles from destroying the planet, if possible without destroying the comet. Although an obvious, but destructive, solution exists, Damocles has no fewer than five distinct solutions.

text: The term dwarf planet was adopted in 2006 as part of a three-way categorization of bodies orbiting the Sun, brought about by an increase in discoveries of objects farther away from the Sun than Neptune that rivaled Pluto in size, and finally precipitated by the discovery of an even more massive object, Eris. The exclusion of dwarf planets from the roster of planets by the IAU has been both praised and criticized; it was said to be the "right decision" by astronomer Mike Brown, who discovered  and other new dwarf planets, but has been rejected by Alan Stern, who had coined the term dwarf planet in April 1991.

text: The term dwarf planet was adopted in 2006 as part of a

text: three-way categorization

text: of bodies orbiting the Sun, brought about by an increase in discoveries of

text: objects farther away from the Sun than Neptune

text: that rivaled

text: Pluto

text: in size, and finally precipitated by the discovery of an even more massive object,

text: Eris

text: . The exclusion of dwarf planets from the roster of planets by the IAU has been both praised and criticized; it was said to be the "right decision" by astronomer

text: Mike Brown

text: , who discovered  and other new dwarf planets, but has been rejected by

text: Alan Stern

text: , who had coined the term dwarf planet in April 1991.

text: The possibility of extraterrestrial life is not, by itself, a paranormal subject. Many scientists are actively engaged in the search for unicellular life within the solar system, carrying out studies on the surface of Mars and examining meteors that have fallen to Earth. Projects such as SETI are conducting an astronomical search for radio activity that would show evidence of intelligent life outside the solar system. Scientific theories of how life developed on Earth allow for the possibility that life developed on other planets as well. The paranormal aspect of extraterrestrial life centers largely around the belief in unidentified flying objects and the phenomena said to be associated with them.

text: The possibility of

text: extraterrestrial life

text: is not, by itself, a paranormal subject. Many scientists are actively engaged in the search for unicellular life within the

text: solar system

text: , carrying out studies on the surface of

text: Mars

text: and examining

text: meteors

text: that have fallen to

text: Earth

text: . Projects such as

entity_name: Search for extraterrestrial intelligence

text: SETI

text: are conducting an astronomical search for

text: radio

text: activity that would show evidence of intelligent life outside the solar system.

text: Scientific theories

text: of how life developed on Earth allow for the possibility that life developed on other

text: planets

text: as well. The paranormal aspect of

text: extraterrestrial life

text: centers largely around the belief in

text: unidentified flying objects

text: and the phenomena said to be associated with them.

text: "The symbols in the patch refer to the three major areas of investigation in the mission. The tree represents man's natural environment and refers to the objective of advancing the study of earth resources. The hydrogen atom, as the basic building block of the universe, represents man's exploration of the physical world, his application of knowledge, and his development of technology. Since the sun is composed primarily of hydrogen, the hydrogen symbol also refers to the Solar Physics mission objectives. The human silhouette represents mankind and the human capacity to direct technology with a wisdom tempered by his regard for his natural environment. It also relates to the Skylab medical studies of man himself. The rainbow, adopted from the Biblical story of the Flood, symbolizes the promise that is offered to man. It embraces man and extends to the tree and hydrogen atom, emphasizing man's pivotal role in the conciliation of technology with nature by a humanistic application of our scientific knowledge." Some versions of the patch included a comet in the top curve because of studies made of the comet Kohoutek.

text: There are also forces external to Earth itself that affect Earth’s climate. Two examples of these external forces are meteors/asteroids becoming meteorites and striking the surface of the earth, and geomagnetic storms from the sun affecting the earth. Asteroids only about two kilometers in diameter, according to Young’s paper referencing original author Michael Paine, can cause craters in Earth’s surface about 40 kilometers in diameter. Such an impact could throw enormous quantities of dust into the sky, blocking out the sun and causing significant climate changes, somewhat similar in effect to a gigantic volcanic eruption. Among other things, meteorites striking Earth also “affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation”. Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of sun activity, including sunspots, solar flares, solar wind, and massive solar radiation, can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which together, act to affect Earth’s climate. Our sun has a solar activity cycle of about 11 years. During which time, the sun gets sunspots, shoots off solar flares, and blasts earth with solar wind and geomagnetic activity. Despite the appearance that these events seem random, they do overall follow a fairly steady cycle of approximately 11 years. The difference in average solar irradiation received by the earth due to these ‘random’ events, though, is only about 0.1 percent. Overall, the total irradiation generated by the sun, and received by the earth is a major factor affecting Earth climate. The total solar irradiation received by Earth’s surface can be calculated mathematically. This can be done through the following equation:

text: There are also forces external to Earth itself that affect Earth’s climate. Two examples of these external forces are meteors/asteroids becoming

text: meteorites

text: and striking the surface of the earth, and geomagnetic storms from the sun affecting the earth. Asteroids only about two kilometers in diameter, according to Young’s paper referencing original author Michael Paine, can cause craters in Earth’s surface about 40 kilometers in diameter. Such an impact could throw enormous quantities of dust into the sky, blocking out the sun and causing significant climate changes, somewhat similar in effect to a gigantic volcanic eruption. Among other things, meteorites striking Earth also “affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation”. Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of

text: sun activity

text: , including

text: sunspots

text: solar flares

text: solar wind

text: , and massive

text: solar radiation

text: , can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which together, act to affect Earth’s climate. Our sun has a solar activity cycle of about 11 years. During which time, the sun gets sunspots, shoots off solar flares, and blasts earth with solar wind and

text: geomagnetic activity

text: . Despite the appearance that these events seem random, they do overall follow a fairly steady cycle of approximately 11 years. The difference in average solar irradiation received by the earth due to these ‘random’ events, though, is only about 0.1 percent. Overall, the total irradiation generated by the sun, and received by the earth is a major factor affecting Earth climate. The total solar irradiation received by Earth’s surface can be calculated mathematically. This can be done through the following equation:

text: During his public speech about the appearance of the comet, Augustus specified that he himself, the new ruler of the world, was born politically at the very time his father Julius Caesar appeared as a comet in the sky of Rome. His father was announcing the political birth of his adoptive son; he was the one  born under the comet and whom the appearance of the comet was announcing. Other messianic prophecies about Augustus are related by Suetonius, including the story of the massacre of the innocents conceived in order to kill the young Octavius soon after his own birth. Augustus wanted to be considered the real subject of any kind of Messianic prophecies and accounts. Later during his reign, he ordered that all other books of prophecies and Messianic accounts be gathered and destroyed. The temple therefore ended up as representing both Julius Caesar as a deified being and Augustus himself as the newborn under the comet. The comet star itself was an object of public worship.

text: During his public speech about the appearance of the comet, Augustus specified that he himself, the new ruler of the world, was born politically at the very time his father Julius Caesar appeared as a comet in the sky of Rome. His father was announcing the political birth of his adoptive son; he was the one  born under the comet and whom the appearance of the comet was announcing. Other messianic prophecies about Augustus are related by

text: Suetonius

text: , including the story of the massacre of the innocents conceived in order to kill the young Octavius soon after his own birth. Augustus wanted to be considered the real subject of any kind of Messianic prophecies and accounts. Later during his reign, he ordered that all other books of prophecies and Messianic accounts be gathered and destroyed. The temple therefore ended up as representing both Julius Caesar as a deified being and Augustus himself as the newborn under the comet. The comet star itself was an object of public worship.

text: The Meteors originated in the Niagara District Junior B Hockey League in the 1960s.  The Meteors stuck with the Niagara league until the bitter end, winning the league's final championship in 1979.  The next year they entered the Golden Horseshoe Junior Hockey League.

text: The Meteors originated in the

text: Niagara District Junior B Hockey League

text: in the 1960s.  The Meteors stuck with the Niagara league until the bitter end, winning the league's final championship in 1979.  The next year they entered the

text: Golden Horseshoe Junior Hockey League

text: Eris' mini dragon partner. Chocola is hatched after Eris battles Rukinos. She refers to herself as a lady, though is rather childish. She is overly fond of chocolate and all things sweet. Chocola transforms into the spirit card Chocodra when Eris battles, later evolving into Ultimate-Chocodra.

text: NWA 7034 is the first Martian meteorite that is a breccia and does not fall in any of the known Martian meteorite groups (shergottite, nakhlite, chassignite and ALH 84001). NWA 7034 was classified as an ungrouped planetary achondrite until the Meteoritical Society approved the new designation "Martian (basaltic breccia)" in January 2013. The iron/manganese ratio is consistent with that of other Martian meteorites, but the oxygen isotopes do not correlate with a Martian origin. The change in oxygen isotope ratios could be explained by removal or addition of heavier or lighter isotopes, or by mixing with a mass with a different isotopic ratio. This could happen during aqueous alteration of the Martian crust. Another explanation would be an isotopic contamination of the Martian crust during impact brecciation.

text: NWA 7034 is the first

text: Martian meteorite

text: that is a breccia and does not fall in any of the known Martian meteorite groups (

text: shergottite

text: nakhlite

text: chassignite

text: and

text: ALH 84001

text: ). NWA 7034 was classified as an ungrouped planetary

text: achondrite

text: until the

text: Meteoritical Society

text: approved the new designation "Martian (basaltic breccia)" in January 2013. The

text: iron

text: manganese

text: ratio is consistent with that of other Martian meteorites, but the

text: oxygen

text: isotope

text: s do not correlate with a Martian origin. The change in oxygen isotope ratios could be explained by removal or addition of heavier or lighter isotopes, or by mixing with a mass with a different isotopic ratio. This could happen during

text: aqueous alteration

text: of the Martian crust. Another explanation would be an isotopic

text: contamination

text: of the Martian crust during

text: impact brecciation

text: Meteoroid collisions with solid Solar System objects, including the Moon, Mercury, Callisto, Ganymede and most small moons and asteroids, create impact craters, which are the dominant geographic features of many of those objects. On other planets and moons with active surface geological processes, such as Earth, Venus, Mars, Europa, Io and Titan, visible impact craters may become eroded, buried or transformed by tectonics over time. In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was widely recognised, the terms cryptoexplosion or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on Earth. Molten terrestrial material ejected from a meteorite impact crater can cool and solidify into an object known as a tektite. These are often mistaken for meteorites.

text: Meteoroid collisions with solid Solar System objects, including the Moon,

text: Mercury

text: Callisto

text: Ganymede

text: and most small moons and

text: asteroid

text: s, create impact craters, which are the dominant geographic features of many of those objects. On other planets and moons with active surface geological processes, such as Earth,

text: Venus

text: Mars

text: Europa

text: Io

text: and

text: Titan

text: , visible impact craters may become

text: eroded

text: , buried or transformed by

text: tectonics

text: over time. In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was widely recognised, the terms

text: cryptoexplosion

text: or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on Earth. Molten terrestrial material ejected from a meteorite impact crater can cool and solidify into an object known as a

text: tektite

text: . These are often mistaken for meteorites.

text: Opportunity encountered the meteorite entirely by chance, in the vicinity of its own discarded heat shield (hence the name).  Opportunity had been sent to examine the heat shield after exiting the crater Endurance. This was the first meteorite found on another planet and the third found on another Solar System body — two others, the millimeter-sized Bench Crater and Hadley Rille, were found on the Moon.

text: Opportunity encountered the meteorite entirely by chance, in the vicinity of its own discarded

text: heat shield

text: (hence the name).  Opportunity had been sent to examine the heat shield after exiting the crater

text: Endurance

text: . This was the first meteorite found on another planet and the third found on another Solar System body — two others, the millimeter-sized

text: Bench Crater

text: and

text: Hadley Rille

text: , were found on the

text: Moon

text: Heat in a solar thermal system is guided by five basic principles: heat gain; heat transfer; heat storage; heat transport; and heat insulation. Here, heat is the measure of the amount of thermal energy an object contains and is determined by the temperature, mass and specific heat of the object. Solar thermal power plants use heat exchangers that are designed for constant working conditions, to provide heat exchange. Copper heat exchangers are important in solar thermal heating and cooling systems because of copper’s high thermal conductivity, resistance to atmospheric and water corrosion, sealing and joining by soldering, and mechanical strength. Copper is used both in receivers and in primary circuits (pipes and heat exchangers for water tanks) of solar thermal water systems.

text: Heat in a solar thermal system is guided by five basic principles: heat gain;

text: heat transfer

text: heat storage

text: heat transport

text: ; and

text: heat insulation

text: . Here, heat is the measure of the amount of thermal energy an object contains and is determined by the temperature, mass and

text: specific heat

text: of the object. Solar thermal power plants use heat exchangers that are designed for constant working conditions, to provide heat exchange.

text: Copper heat exchangers

text: are important in solar thermal heating and cooling systems because of copper’s high thermal conductivity, resistance to atmospheric and water corrosion, sealing and joining by soldering, and mechanical strength. Copper is used both in receivers and in primary circuits (pipes and heat exchangers for water tanks) of solar thermal water systems.

text: 7P/Pons–Winnecke (also known as Comet Pons–Winnecke) is a periodic Jupiter-family comet in the solar system.

text: 7P/Pons–Winnecke (also known as Comet Pons–Winnecke) is a

text: periodic

text: Jupiter-family

text: comet

text: in the

text: solar system

text: Eel River Section Between Terre Haute and Worthington, is  long.  Legally referred to as the Cross Cut Canal. This created a link to the Central Canal and a route to Evansville. Since no other section of the Cross Cut Canal was contemplated nor built, it is considered historically to be part of the Wabash and Erie Canal. The canal had to overcome the  at the summit. Water was supplied by the Eel River Feeder, the Birch Creek Reservoir and Splunge Creek Reservoir. Work started in 1836 but abandoned in 1839.  The project was completed in 1850, serving the Wabash and Erie Canal system until 1861.  The Cross Cut Canal is considered to be part of the Wabash & Erie Canal System.

text: The object of the game is to destroy all the asteroids which have a set speed at which they fly through the Sector. Asteroids come in varying sizes, and when shot, larger asteroids break into multiple smaller ones. Only shooting the smallest ones will actually remove them from the Sector. Asteroids also come in different types. Normal asteroids don't contain anything, but red asteroids can contain power-ups in the form of Power Crystals that are released by completely destroying asteroids. Crystals decay over time. Popcorn Asteroids require several hits, which expands their size, and eventually makes them stop spinning. They can't be destroyed, but stopping them is enough to finish each Sector. Egg asteroids contain leeches which home in on the user's ship and suck out its energy. They can be shot and destroyed. Finally there are Seeker asteroids which home in on the player's ship after being shot.

text: The object of the game is to destroy all the asteroids which have a set speed at which they fly through the Sector. Asteroids come in varying sizes, and when shot, larger asteroids break into multiple smaller ones. Only shooting the smallest ones will actually remove them from the Sector. Asteroids also come in different types. Normal asteroids don't contain anything, but red asteroids can contain

text: power-up

text: s in the form of Power Crystals that are released by completely destroying asteroids. Crystals

text: decay

text: over time.

text: Popcorn

text: Asteroids require several hits, which expands their size, and eventually makes them stop spinning. They can't be destroyed, but stopping them is enough to finish each Sector. Egg asteroids contain

text: leech

text: es which home in on the user's ship and suck out its energy. They can be shot and destroyed. Finally there are Seeker asteroids which home in on the player's ship after being shot.

text: The isomer  has found application in isotopic geology, similar to that of aluminium.  is a radiogenic daughter product of , which has a half-life of 717,000 years. Excessive quantities of stable  have been observed in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions of some carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. This anomalous abundance is attributed to the decay of its parent  in the inclusions, and researchers conclude that such meteorites were formed in the solar nebula before the  had decayed.  These are among the oldest objects in the solar system and contain preserved information about its early history.

text: The isomer  has found application in

text: isotopic

text: geology

text: , similar to that of aluminium.  is a

text: radiogenic

text: daughter product of , which has a

text: half-life

text: of 717,000 years. Excessive quantities of stable  have been observed in the

text: Ca-Al-rich inclusions

text: of some

text: carbonaceous chondrite

text: meteorite

text: s. This anomalous abundance is attributed to the decay of its parent  in the inclusions, and researchers conclude that such meteorites were formed in the

text: solar nebula

text: before the  had decayed.  These are among the oldest objects in the

text: solar system

text: and contain preserved information about its early history.

text: The Sternenbote is a monthly scientific journal on astronomy published by the Astronomisches Büro (Vienna). It was established in 1958, and contents include ephemerides of comets and other solar system objects and observation reports. It is abstracted and indexed in the Astrophysics Data System.

text: The Sternenbote is a monthly

text: scientific journal

text: on

text: astronomy

text: published by the

text: Astronomisches Büro

text: Vienna

text: ). It was established in 1958, and contents include

text: ephemerides

text: of

text: comet

text: s and other

text: solar system

text: objects and observation

text: reports

text: . It is abstracted and indexed in the

text: Astrophysics Data System

text: Short-period comets have orbits lasting less than two hundred years. Long-period comets have orbits lasting thousands of years. Short-period comets are thought to originate in the Kuiper belt, whereas long-period comets, such as Hale–Bopp, are thought to originate in the Oort cloud. Many comet groups, such as the Kreutz Sungrazers, formed from the breakup of a single parent. Some comets with hyperbolic orbits may originate outside the Solar System, but determining their precise orbits is difficult. Old comets that have had most of their volatiles driven out by solar warming are often categorised as asteroids.

text: Short-period comets have orbits lasting less than two hundred years. Long-period comets have orbits lasting thousands of years. Short-period comets are thought to originate in the Kuiper belt, whereas long-period comets, such as

text: Hale–Bopp

text: , are thought to originate in the

text: Oort cloud

text: . Many comet groups, such as the

text: Kreutz Sungrazers

text: , formed from the breakup of a single parent. Some comets with

text: hyperbolic

text: orbits may originate outside the Solar System, but determining their precise orbits is difficult. Old comets that have had most of their volatiles driven out by solar warming are often categorised as asteroids.

text: Among the other dwarf planets,  has no known moons. It is 90 percent certain that Ceres has no moons larger than 1 km in size, assuming that they would have the same albedo as Ceres itself.  has two moons, Hi'iaka and Namaka, of radii ~195 and ~100 km, respectively.  has one moon, discovered in April 2016. A satellite having 1% Makemake's brightness would have been detected if it had been located at an angular distance from Makemake farther than 0.4 arcseconds (0.0001 degrees).  has one known moon, Dysnomia. Accurately determining its size is difficult: one indicative estimate of its radius is , but on some assumptions could be as high as . The Kuiper belt object 90482 Orcus, believed to be a dwarf planet, was found in 2005 to have a natural satellite, later named Vanth.As of October 2009, 190 asteroid moons and 63 trans-Neptunian moons had been discovered.

text: Among the other

text: dwarf planets

text: ,  has no known moons. It is 90 percent certain that Ceres has no moons larger than 1 km in size, assuming that they would have the same

text: albedo

text: as Ceres itself.  has two moons,

text: Hi'iaka

text: and

text: Namaka

text: , of radii ~195 and ~100 km, respectively.  has one moon, discovered in April 2016. A satellite having 1% Makemake's brightness would have been detected if it had been located at an

text: angular distance

text: from Makemake farther than 0.4 arcseconds (0.0001 degrees).  has one known moon,

text: Dysnomia

text: . Accurately determining its size is difficult: one indicative estimate of its radius is , but on some assumptions could be as high as . The

text: Kuiper belt

text: object

text: 90482 Orcus

text: , believed to be a dwarf planet, was found in 2005 to have a natural satellite, later named

text: Vanth

text: .As of October 2009, 190

text: asteroid moons

text: and 63

text: trans-Neptunian moons

text: had been discovered.

text: Most comets are small Solar System bodies with elongated elliptical orbits that take them close to the Sun for a part of their orbit and then out into the further reaches of the Solar System for the remainder. Comets are often classified according to the length of their orbital periods: The longer the period the more elongated the ellipse.

text: Most comets are

text: small Solar System bodies

text: with elongated

text: elliptical orbit

text: s that take them close to the Sun for a part of their orbit and then out into the further reaches of the Solar System for the remainder. Comets are often classified according to the length of their

text: orbital period

text: s: The longer the period the more elongated the ellipse.

text: Because Eris appeared to be larger than Pluto, NASA initially described it as the Solar System's tenth planet. This, along with the prospect of other objects of similar size being discovered in the future, motivated the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to define the term planet for the first time. Under the IAU definition approved on August 24, 2006, Eris is a "dwarf planet", along with objects such as Pluto, Ceres, Haumea and Makemake, thereby reducing the number of known planets in the Solar System to eight, the same as before Pluto's discovery in 1930. Observations of a stellar occultation by Eris in 2010 showed that its diameter was , not significantly different from that of Pluto. After New Horizons measured Pluto's diameter as  in July 2015, it was determined that Eris is slightly smaller in diameter than Pluto.

text: Because Eris appeared to be larger than Pluto,

text: NASA

text: initially described it as the Solar System's

text: tenth planet

text: . This, along with the prospect of other objects of similar size being discovered in the future, motivated the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) to

text: define the term planet

text: for the first time. Under the

text: IAU definition

text: approved on August 24, 2006, Eris is a "dwarf planet", along with objects such as Pluto,

text: Ceres

text: Haumea

text: and

text: Makemake

text: , thereby reducing the number of known planets in the Solar System to eight, the same as before Pluto's discovery in 1930. Observations of a stellar

text: occultation

text: by Eris in 2010 showed that its diameter was , not significantly different from that of Pluto. After

text: New Horizons

text: measured Pluto's diameter as  in July 2015, it was determined that Eris is slightly smaller in diameter than Pluto.

text: The small mass of Mars the low mass asteroid belt may be the result of pebble accretion becoming less efficient as the density of gas in the protoplanetary disk decreases. The protoplanetary disk from which the Solar System formed is believed to have had a surface density that decreased with distance from the Sun and have been flared, with an increasing thickness with distance from the Sun. As a result, the density of the gas and the aerodynamic drag felt by pebbles embedded in the disk would have decreased significantly with distance. If the pebbles were large the efficiency of pebble accretion would decline with distance from the Sun as the aerodynamic drag becomes too weak for the pebbles to be captured during encounters with the largest objects. An object that grows rapidly at Earth's orbital distance would only grow slowly in Mars's orbit and very little in the asteroid belt. The formation of Jupiter's core could also reduce the mass of the asteroid belt by crating a gap in the pebble disk and halting the inward drift of pebbles from beyond the ice line. Objects in the asteroid belt would then be deprived of pebbles early while objects in the terrestrial region continued to accrete pebbles that drifted in from the asteroid region.

text: The small mass of Mars the low mass asteroid belt may be the result of pebble accretion becoming less efficient as the density of gas in the protoplanetary disk decreases. The protoplanetary disk from which the Solar System formed is believed to have had a

text: surface density

text: that decreased with distance from the

text: Sun

text: and have been flared, with an increasing thickness with distance from the Sun. As a result, the density of the gas and the aerodynamic drag felt by pebbles embedded in the disk would have decreased significantly with distance. If the pebbles were large the efficiency of pebble accretion would decline with distance from the Sun as the aerodynamic drag becomes too weak for the pebbles to be captured during encounters with the largest objects. An object that grows rapidly at Earth's orbital distance would only grow slowly in Mars's orbit and very little in the asteroid belt. The formation of Jupiter's core could also reduce the mass of the asteroid belt by crating a gap in the pebble disk and halting the inward drift of pebbles from beyond the ice line. Objects in the asteroid belt would then be deprived of pebbles early while objects in the terrestrial region continued to accrete pebbles that drifted in from the asteroid region.

text: Still others confuse Nibiru with Sedna (90377 Sedna) or Eris (136199 Eris), trans-Neptunian objects discovered by Mike Brown in 2003 and 2005 respectively. However, despite having been described as a "tenth planet" in an early NASA press release, Eris (Then known only as 2003 UB) is now classified as a dwarf planet. Only slightly more massive than Pluto, Eris has a well-determined orbit that never takes it closer than 5.5 billion km from the Earth. Sedna is slightly smaller than Pluto, and never comes closer to Earth than 11.4 billion km. Mike Brown believes the confusion results from both the real Eris and the imaginary Nibiru having extremely elliptical orbits.

text: Still others confuse Nibiru with

text: Sedna

text: (90377 Sedna) or

text: Eris

text: (136199 Eris),

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s discovered by Mike Brown in 2003 and 2005 respectively. However, despite having been described as a "tenth planet" in an early NASA press release, Eris (Then known only as 2003 UB) is now classified as a

text: dwarf planet

text: . Only slightly more massive than Pluto, Eris has a well-determined orbit that never takes it closer than 5.5 billion km from the Earth. Sedna is slightly smaller than Pluto, and never comes closer to Earth than 11.4 billion km. Mike Brown believes the confusion results from both the real Eris and the imaginary Nibiru having extremely

text: elliptical orbits

text: Though life is confirmed only on Earth, many think that extraterrestrial life is not only plausible, but probable or inevitable. Other planets and moons in the Solar System and other planetary systems are being examined for evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such as SETI are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilizations. Other locations within the Solar System that may host microbial life include the subsurface of Mars, the upper atmosphere of Venus, and subsurface oceans on some of the moons of the giant planets.Beyond the Solar System, the region around another main-sequence star that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable zone. The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the main sequence for a shorter time interval. Small red dwarfs have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of tidal locking from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to develop. The location of the star within a galaxy may also affect the likelihood of life forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentially habitat-damaging supernova events, are predicted to have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life. The variables of the Drake equation are used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilization is most likely to exist. Use of the equation to predict the amount of extraterrestrial life, however, is difficult; because many of the variables are unknown, the equation functions as more of a mirror to what its user already thinks. As a result, the number of civilizations in the galaxy can be estimated as low as 9.1 x 10^-11 or as high as 156 million; for the calculations, see Drake equation.

text: Though life is confirmed only on Earth, many think that

text: extraterrestrial life

text: is not only plausible, but probable or inevitable. Other planets and

text: moons

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: and other

text: planetary system

text: s are being examined for evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such as

text: SETI

text: are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilizations. Other locations within the

text: Solar System

text: that may host

text: microbial

text: life include the subsurface of

text: Mars

text: , the upper atmosphere of

text: Venus

text: , and subsurface oceans on some of the

text: moons

text: of the

text: giant planet

text: s.Beyond the Solar System, the region around another

text: main-sequence star

text: that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the

text: habitable zone

text: . The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the main sequence for a shorter time interval. Small

text: red dwarf

text: s have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of

text: tidal locking

text: from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to develop. The location of the star within a galaxy may also affect the likelihood of life forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentially

text: habitat

text: -damaging

text: supernova

text: events, are predicted to have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life. The variables of the

text: Drake equation

text: are used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilization is most likely to exist. Use of the equation to predict the amount of extraterrestrial life, however, is difficult; because many of the variables are unknown, the equation functions as more of a mirror to what its user already thinks. As a result, the number of civilizations in the galaxy can be estimated as low as 9.1 x 10^-11 or as high as 156 million; for the calculations, see

text: Drake equation

text: At the beginning of the game, the player accumulates mass by colliding their asteroid against other asteroids until enough mass has been gathered to become a small planet. From there, the player has to absorb other asteroids to make their planet grow enough to become a life planet; crashing against other objects will decrease the player's mass. At this point, life forms will evolve in the planet, creating spaceships, planetary shields and cannons. If the player wishes, they can accumulate more mass until their planet becomes a star. Life forms will disappear, but the player will be able to attract planets to form a solar system, further grow the star by absorbing other planets, or a combination of both. The player can also create multi-star systems by selecting planets from their system and make them absorb asteroids until they become another star.

text: This expression should be used for objects within the Solar System.

text: The same applies to other more complex biosignatures. Searching for biological remains of the precursors to life, whether ancient or currently existing, would be far easier on an uncontaminated planet. This would similarly apply to searches for DNA sequences on Mars. Life on other planets could have a common origin with Earth life, since in the early Solar System there was much exchange of material between the planets which could have transferred life as well. If so it might be based on DNA too.

text: 52P/Harrington–Abell is a periodic comet in the Solar System.

text: 52P/Harrington–Abell is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: Reynolds' astronomical research has been primarily focused on Solar System objects, as well as meteoritics. He has led expeditions around the world for numerous total solar eclipses, meteorite crater research, and meteorite recoveries. He worked with Meade Instruments in 2005 to develop, curate, and create Meade’s MeteoriteKit, a special set of meteorites, tektites, and impactites.

text: Reynolds' astronomical research has been primarily focused on

text: Solar System

text: objects, as well as

text: meteoritics

text: . He has led expeditions around the world for numerous total

text: solar eclipse

text: s,

text: meteorite

text: crater

text: research, and meteorite recoveries. He worked with

text: Meade Instruments

text: in 2005 to develop, curate, and create Meade’s MeteoriteKit, a special set of meteorites, tektites, and impactites.

text: In some cases "objects" can be concretely thought of as symbols and strings of symbols, here illustrated by a string of four symbols " ←←↑↓←→←↓" as composed from the 4-symbol alphabet { ←, ↑, →, ↓ } . When they are "known only through the relationships of the system [in which they appear], the system is [said to be] abstract ... what the objects are, in any respect other than how they fit into the structure, is left unspecified." (Kleene 1952:25) A further specification of the objects results in a model or representation of the abstract system, "i.e. a system of objects which satisfy the relationships of the abstract system and have some further status as well" (ibid).

text: Moons in retrograde orbits cannot form in the same region of the solar nebula as the planets they orbit, so Triton must have been captured from elsewhere. It might therefore have originated in the Kuiper belt, a ring of small icy objects extending outwards from just inside the orbit of Neptune to about 50 AU from the Sun. Thought to be the point of origin for the majority of short-period comets observed from Earth, the belt is also home to several large, planet-like bodies including Pluto, which is now recognized as the largest in a population of Kuiper belt objects (the plutinos) locked in orbital step with Neptune. Triton is only slightly larger than Pluto and nearly identical in composition, which has led to the hypothesis that the two share a common origin.

text: Moons in retrograde orbits cannot form in the same region of the

text: solar nebula

text: as the planets they orbit, so Triton must have been captured from elsewhere. It might therefore have originated in the

text: Kuiper belt

text: , a ring of small icy objects extending outwards from just inside the orbit of Neptune to about 50

text: AU

text: from the Sun. Thought to be the point of origin for the majority of short-period

text: comet

text: s observed from Earth, the belt is also home to several large, planet-like bodies including

text: Pluto

text: , which is now recognized as the largest in a population of Kuiper belt objects (the

text: plutino

text: s)

text: locked in orbital step

text: with Neptune. Triton is only slightly larger than Pluto and nearly identical in composition, which has led to the hypothesis that the two share a common origin.

text: The main-belt comets are unique in that they have flat (within the plane of the planets' orbits), approximately circular (small eccentricity), asteroid-like orbits, and not the elongated, often tilted orbits characteristic of all other comets. Because (118401) LINEAR can generate a coma (produced by vapour boiled off the comet), it must be an icy asteroid. When a typical comet approaches the Sun, its ice heats up and sublimates (changes directly from ice to gas), venting gas and dust into space, creating a tail and giving the object a fuzzy appearance. Far from the Sun, sublimation stops, and the remaining ice stays frozen until the comet's next pass close to the Sun. In contrast, objects in the asteroid belt have essentially circular orbits and are expected to be mostly baked dry of ice by their confinement to the inner Solar System (see extinct comet).

text: The main-belt comets are unique in that they have flat (within the plane of the planets' orbits), approximately circular (small

text: eccentricity

text: asteroid

text: -like

text: orbit

text: s, and not the elongated, often tilted orbits characteristic of all other comets. Because (118401) LINEAR can generate a

text: coma

text: (produced by vapour boiled off the comet), it must be an icy asteroid. When a typical comet approaches the

text: Sun

text: , its

text: ice

text: heats up and

text: sublimates

text: (changes directly from ice to

text: gas

text: ), venting gas and

text: dust

text: into

text: space

text: , creating a tail and giving the object a fuzzy appearance. Far from the Sun, sublimation stops, and the remaining ice stays frozen until the comet's next pass close to the Sun. In contrast, objects in the asteroid belt have essentially circular orbits and are expected to be mostly baked dry of ice by their confinement to the inner Solar System (see

text: extinct comet

text: B-type asteroids are a relatively uncommon type of carbonaceous asteroid, falling into the wider C-group. In the asteroid population, B-class objects can be found in the outer asteroid belt, and also dominate the high-inclination Pallas family which includes the second-largest asteroid 2 Pallas. They are thought to be primitive,  volatile-rich remnants from the early Solar System. There are 65 known B-type asteroids in the SMASS classification, and 9 in the Tholen classification as of March 2015.

text: B-type asteroids are a relatively uncommon type of

text: carbon

text: aceous

text: asteroid

text: , falling into the wider

text: C-group

text: . In the asteroid population, B-class objects can be found in the outer

text: asteroid belt

text: , and also dominate the high-

text: inclination

text: Pallas family

text: which includes the second-largest asteroid

text: 2 Pallas

text: . They are thought to be

text: primitive

text: volatile

text: -rich remnants from the early

text: Solar System

text: . There are 65 known B-type asteroids in the SMASS classification, and 9 in the Tholen classification as of March 2015.

text: Since microlensing observations do not rely on radiation received from the lens object, this effect therefore allows astronomers to study massive objects no matter how faint.  It is thus an ideal technique to study the galactic population of such faint or dark objects as brown dwarfs, red dwarfs, planets, white dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes, andmassive compact halo objects. Moreover, the microlensing effect is wavelength-independent, allowing use of distant source objects that emit any kind of electromagnetic radiation.

text: Since microlensing observations do not rely on radiation received from the lens object, this effect therefore allows astronomers to study massive objects no matter how faint.  It is thus an ideal technique to study the galactic population of such faint or dark objects as

text: brown dwarf

text: s,

text: red dwarf

text: s,

text: planet

text: s,

text: white dwarf

text: s,

text: neutron star

text: s,

text: black hole

text: s, and

text: massive compact halo object

text: s. Moreover, the microlensing effect is wavelength-independent, allowing use of distant source objects that emit any kind of electromagnetic radiation.

text: is a classical Kuiper belt object discovered in 2004, and it is possibly a dwarf planet. It has a diameter of .

text: is a

text: classical Kuiper belt object

text: discovered in 2004, and it is

text: possibly a dwarf planet

text: . It has a diameter of .

text: 90P/Gehrels, also known as Gehrels 1, is a Jupiter-family comet in the Solar System.

text: 90P/Gehrels, also known as Gehrels 1, is a

text: Jupiter-family comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: Asteroids and the asteroid belt are a staple of science fiction stories. Asteroids play several potential roles in science fiction: as places human beings might colonize, resources for extracting minerals, hazards encountered by spacecraft traveling between two other points, and as a threat to life on Earth or other inhabited planets, dwarf planets and natural satellites by potential impact.

text: Following are the largest lakes and seas on various worlds in the Solar System. Listed are single bodies of water or other liquid on or near the surface of a solid body (terrestrial planet, planetoid, or moon). All objects in this list are expected to be round, hence anything that is part of a belt or disc is expected to be a dwarf planet.

text: Following are the largest

text: lake

text: s and

text: sea

text: s on various worlds in the

text: Solar System

text: . Listed are single bodies of water or other liquid on or near the surface of a solid body (terrestrial planet, planetoid, or moon). All objects in this list are expected to be round, hence anything that is part of a belt or disc is expected to be a

text: dwarf planet

text: Halley's orbital period over the last 3 centuries has been between 75–76 years, although it has varied between 74–79 years since 240 BC. Its orbit around the Sun is highly elliptical, with an orbital eccentricity of 0.967 (with 0 being a circle and 1 being a parabolic trajectory). The perihelion, the point in the comet's orbit when it is nearest the Sun, is just 0.6 AU. This is between the orbits of Mercury and Venus. Its aphelion, or farthest distance from the Sun, is 35 AU (roughly the distance of Pluto). Unusual for an object in the Solar System, Halley's orbit is retrograde; it orbits the Sun in the opposite direction to the planets, or, clockwise from above the Sun's north pole. The orbit is inclined by 18° to the ecliptic, with much of it lying south of the ecliptic. (Because it is retrograde, the true inclination is 162°). Due to the retrograde orbit, it has one of the highest velocities relative to the Earth of any object in the Solar System. The 1910 passage was at a relative velocity of 70.56 km/s (157,838 mph or 254,016 km/h). Because its orbit comes close to Earth's in two places, Halley is associated with two meteor showers: the Eta Aquariids in early May, and the Orionids in late October. Halley is the parent body to the Orionids. Observations conducted around the time of Halley's appearance in 1986 suggested that the comet could additionally perturb the Eta Aquarid meteor shower, although it might not be the parent of that shower.

text: Halley's orbital period over the last 3 centuries has been between 75–76 years, although it has varied between 74–79 years since 240 BC. Its orbit around the Sun is highly

text: elliptical

text: , with an

text: orbital eccentricity

text: of 0.967 (with 0 being a circle and 1 being a

text: parabolic trajectory

text: ). The perihelion, the point in the comet's orbit when it is nearest the Sun, is just 0.6

text: AU

text: . This is between the orbits of

text: Mercury

text: and

text: Venus

text: . Its

text: aphelion

text: , or farthest distance from the Sun, is 35 AU (roughly the distance of

text: Pluto

text: ). Unusual for an object in the Solar System, Halley's orbit is

text: retrograde

text: ; it orbits the Sun in the opposite direction to the planets, or, clockwise from above the

text: Sun

text: 's north pole. The orbit is inclined by 18° to the

text: ecliptic

text: , with much of it lying south of the ecliptic. (Because it is retrograde, the true inclination is 162°). Due to the retrograde orbit, it has one of the highest velocities relative to the

text: Earth

text: of any object in the Solar System. The 1910 passage was at a

text: relative velocity

text: of 70.56 km/s (157,838 mph or 254,016 km/h). Because its orbit comes close to Earth's in two places, Halley is associated with two

text: meteor showers

text: : the

text: Eta Aquariids

text: in early May, and the

text: Orionids

text: in late October. Halley is the parent body to the Orionids. Observations conducted around the time of Halley's appearance in 1986 suggested that the comet could additionally perturb the

text: Eta Aquarid

text: meteor shower, although it might not be the parent of that shower.

text: is a Japanese astronomer. He specializes in the study of comets, in particular calculating their orbits and making predictions about when periodic comets will return for another perihelion approach.  It is considerably more difficult to predict the orbits of comets than of other types of Solar System objects, since their orbits are susceptible not only to perturbations from the planets but also to non-gravitational forces due to the release of gaseous material in the form of a comet's coma and tail.

text: is a

text: Japan

text: ese

text: astronomer

text: . He specializes in the study of

text: comet

text: s, in particular calculating their orbits and making predictions about when periodic comets will return for another

text: perihelion

text: approach.  It is considerably more difficult to predict the orbits of comets than of other types of

text: Solar System

text: objects, since their orbits are susceptible not only to

text: perturbation

text: s from the

text: planet

text: s but also to non-gravitational forces due to the release of gaseous material in the form of a comet's

text: coma

text: and tail.

text: Vesta is currently one of only six identified Solar System bodies of which we have physical samples, coming from a number of meteorites suspected to be Vestan fragments. It is estimated that 1 out of 16 meteorites originated from Vesta. The other identified Solar System samples are from Earth itself, meteorites from Mars, and samples returned from the Moon, the comet Wild 2, and the asteroid 25143 Itokawa.

text: Vesta is currently one of only six identified

text: Solar System

text: bodies of which we have physical samples, coming from a number of meteorites suspected to be Vestan fragments. It is estimated that 1 out of 16 meteorites originated from Vesta. The other identified Solar System samples are from Earth itself,

text: meteorites

text: from

text: Mars

text: , and

text: samples returned

text: from the

text: Moon

text: , the comet

text: Wild 2

text: , and the asteroid

text: 25143 Itokawa

text: Prior to Biot's thorough investigation of the meteorites that fell near l'Aigle, France in 1803, very few truly believed that rocks found on Earth could have extraterrestrial origins. There were anecdotal tales of unusual rocks found on the ground after fireballs had been seen in the sky, but such stories were often dismissed as fantasy. Serious debate concerning the unusual rocks began in 1794 when German physicist Chladni published a book claiming that rocks had an extraterrestrial origin (Westrum). Only after Biot was able to analyze the rocks at l'Aigle was it commonly accepted that the fireballs seen in the sky were meteors falling through the atmosphere. Since Biot's time, analysis of meteorites has resulted in accurate measurements of the chemical composition of the solar system. The composition and position of meteors in the solar system have also given astronomers clues as to how the solar system formed.

text: Prior to Biot's thorough investigation of the meteorites that fell near l'Aigle, France in 1803, very few truly believed that rocks found on Earth could have extraterrestrial origins. There were anecdotal tales of unusual rocks found on the ground after fireballs had been seen in the sky, but such stories were often dismissed as fantasy. Serious debate concerning the unusual rocks began in 1794 when German physicist

text: Chladni

text: published a book claiming that rocks had an extraterrestrial origin (Westrum). Only after Biot was able to analyze the rocks at l'Aigle was it commonly accepted that the fireballs seen in the sky were meteors falling through the atmosphere. Since Biot's time, analysis of meteorites has resulted in accurate measurements of the chemical composition of the solar system. The composition and position of meteors in the solar system have also given astronomers clues as to how the solar system formed.

text: Asteroid  is the smallest solar system object ever studied in detail and, with a rotational period of 10.7 minutes, was the fastest-spinning object observed at the time of its discovery: most asteroids with established rotational rates have periods measured in hours. It was the first recognized minor object that spins so fast that it must be a monolithic object rather than a rubble pile, as many asteroids are thought to be. Since  was found to be a fast rotator, several other small asteroids have been found to also have short rotation periods, some even faster than .

text: Asteroid  is the smallest

text: solar system

text: object ever studied in detail and, with a rotational period of 10.7 minutes, was the fastest-spinning object observed at the time of its discovery: most asteroids with established rotational rates have periods measured in hours. It was the first recognized minor object that spins so fast that it must be a monolithic object rather than a rubble pile, as many asteroids are thought to be. Since  was found to be a fast rotator, several other small

text: asteroid

text: s have been found to also have short rotation periods, some even faster than .

text: Impact craters provide evidence of past impacts on other planets in the Solar System, including possible interplanetary terrestrial impacts. Without carbon dating, other points of reference are used to estimate the timing of these impact events. Mars provides some significant evidence of possible interplanetary collisions. The North Polar Basin on Mars is speculated by some to be evidence for a planet-sized impact on the surface of Mars between 3.8 and 3.9 billion years ago, while Utopia Planitia is the largest confirmed impact and Hellas Planitia is the largest visible crater in the Solar System. The Moon provides similar evidence of massive impacts, with the South Pole–Aitken basin being the biggest. Mercury's Caloris Basin is another example of a crater formed by a massive impact event. Rheasilvia on Vesta is an example of a crater formed by an impact capable of, based on ratio of impact to size, severely deforming a planetary-mass object. Impact craters on the moons of Saturn such as Engelier and Gerin on Iapetus, Mamaldi on Rhea and Odysseus on Tethys and Herschel on Mimas form significant surface features.

text: Impact craters provide evidence of past impacts on other planets in the Solar System, including possible interplanetary terrestrial impacts. Without carbon dating, other points of reference are used to estimate the timing of these impact events. Mars provides some significant evidence of possible interplanetary collisions. The

text: North Polar Basin

text: on Mars is speculated by some to be evidence for a planet-sized impact on the surface of Mars between 3.8 and 3.9 billion years ago, while

text: Utopia Planitia

text: is the largest confirmed impact and

text: Hellas Planitia

text: is the largest visible crater in the Solar System. The Moon provides similar evidence of massive impacts, with the

text: South Pole–Aitken basin

text: being the biggest.

text: Mercury

text: 's

text: Caloris Basin

text: is another example of a crater formed by a massive impact event.

text: Rheasilvia

text: on

text: Vesta

text: is an example of a crater formed by an impact capable of, based on ratio of impact to size, severely deforming a planetary-mass object. Impact craters on the

text: moons of Saturn

text: such as Engelier and Gerin on

text: Iapetus

text: , Mamaldi on

text: Rhea

text: and

text: Odysseus

text: on

text: Tethys

text: and

text: Herschel

text: on

text: Mimas

text: form significant surface features.

text: Atira asteroids or Apohele asteroids, also known as Interior-Earth Objects (IEOs), are asteroids, whose orbits are entirely confined within Earth's orbit, that is, their orbit has an aphelion (farthest point from the Sun) smaller than Earth's perihelion (nearest point to the Sun), which is 0.983 astronomical units (AU). Atira asteroids are by far the smallest group of near-Earth objects, compared to the Aten, Apollo and Amor asteroids.

text: Atira asteroids or Apohele asteroids, also known as Interior-Earth Objects (IEOs), are

text: asteroid

text: s, whose orbits are entirely confined within

text: Earth

text: 's orbit, that is, their orbit has an

text: aphelion

text: (farthest point from the Sun) smaller than Earth's

text: perihelion

text: (nearest point to the Sun), which is 0.983

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU). Atira asteroids are by far the smallest group of

text: near-Earth object

text: s, compared to the

text: Aten

text: Apollo

text: and

text: Amor

text: asteroids.

text: Asteroids except for the largest, Ceres, are classified as small Solar System bodies and are composed mainly of refractory rocky and metallic minerals, with some ice. They range from a few metres to hundreds of kilometres in size. Asteroids smaller than one meter are usually called meteoroids and micrometeoroids (grain-sized), depending on different, somewhat arbitrary definitions.

text: Asteroid

text: s except for the largest, Ceres, are classified as

text: small Solar System bodies

text: and are composed mainly of

text: refractory

text: rocky and metallic

text: mineral

text: s, with some ice. They range from a few metres to hundreds of kilometres in size. Asteroids smaller than one meter are usually called

text: meteoroid

text: s and

text: micrometeoroids

text: (grain-sized), depending on different, somewhat arbitrary definitions.

text: The Hadley Rille meteorite was a meteorite discovered on the Moon at coordinates 26° 26' 0" N, 3° 39' 20" E, during the Apollo 15 mission in 1971. It was the second meteorite to be discovered on a solar system body other than the Earth. The first was the Bench Crater meteorite, discovered in 1969.

text: The Hadley Rille meteorite was a

text: meteorite

text: discovered on the

text: Moon

text: at coordinates 26° 26' 0" N, 3° 39' 20" E, during the

text: Apollo 15

text: mission in 1971. It was the second meteorite to be discovered on a

text: solar system

text: body other than the Earth. The first was the

text: Bench Crater meteorite

text: , discovered in 1969.

text: In phases of the meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut a correlation between the concentration of Ni, the granddaughter isotope of Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes could be found, which is evidence for the existence of Fe at the time of formation of the solar system. Possibly the energy released by the decay of Fe contributed, together with the energy released by decay of the radionuclide Al, to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of Ni present in extraterrestrial material may also provide further insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history.

text: In phases of the meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut a correlation between the concentration of

text: Ni

text: , the

text: granddaughter isotope

text: of Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes could be found, which is evidence for the existence of Fe at the time of formation of the solar system. Possibly the energy released by the decay of Fe contributed, together with the energy released by decay of the radionuclide

text: Al

text: , to the remelting and

text: differentiation

text: of

text: asteroid

text: s after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of

text: Ni

text: present in

text: extraterrestrial

text: material may also provide further insight into the origin of the

text: solar system

text: and its early history.

text: A further twelve bodies, pending refinements of knowledge regarding their physical properties, were possible candidates to join the list under this definition. Some objects in this second list were more likely eventually to be adopted as 'planets' than others. Despite what had been claimed in the media, the proposal did not necessarily leave the Solar System with only twelve planets. Mike Brown, the discoverer of Sedna and Eris, has said that at least 53 known bodies in the Solar System probably fit the definition, and that a complete survey would probably reveal more than 200.

text: A further twelve bodies, pending refinements of knowledge regarding their physical properties, were possible candidates to join the list under this definition. Some objects in this second list were more likely eventually to be adopted as 'planets' than others. Despite what had been claimed in the media, the proposal did not necessarily leave the Solar System with only twelve planets.

text: Mike Brown

text: , the discoverer of

text: Sedna

text: and Eris, has said that at least 53 known bodies in the Solar System probably fit the definition, and that a complete survey would probably reveal more than 200.

text: During the Apollo era, in the Apollo program, 384 kilograms of lunar samples were collected and transported to the Earth, and 3 Soviet Luna robots also delivered regolith samples from the Moon. These samples provide the most comprehensive record of the composition of any Solar System body beside the Earth. The numbers of lunar meteorites are growing quickly in the last few years – as ofApril 2008 there are 54 meteorites that have been officially classified as lunar.Eleven of these are from the US Antarctic meteorite collection, 6 are from the JapaneseAntarctic meteorite collection, and the other 37 are from hot desert localities in Africa,Australia, and the Middle East. The total mass of recognized lunar meteorites is close to50 kg.

text: During the Apollo era, in the

text: Apollo program

text: , 384 kilograms of

text: lunar sample

text: s were collected and transported to the Earth, and 3

text: Soviet

text: Luna

text: robots also delivered

text: regolith

text: samples from the Moon. These samples provide the most comprehensive record of the composition of any Solar System body beside the Earth. The numbers of lunar meteorites are growing quickly in the last few years – as ofApril 2008 there are 54 meteorites that have been officially classified as lunar.Eleven of these are from the US Antarctic meteorite collection, 6 are from the JapaneseAntarctic meteorite collection, and the other 37 are from hot desert localities in Africa,Australia, and the Middle East. The total mass of recognized lunar meteorites is close to50 kg.

text: The Hygiea or Hygiean family of asteroids is a grouping of dark, carbonaceous C-type and B-type asteroids in outer asteroid belt, the largest member of which is 10 Hygiea. About 1% of all known asteroids in the asteroid belt belong to this family.

text: The Hygiea or Hygiean

text: family of asteroids

text: is a grouping of dark,

text: carbon

text: aceous

text: C-type

text: and

text: B-type

text: asteroid

text: s in outer

text: asteroid belt

text: , the largest member of which is

text: 10 Hygiea

text: . About 1% of all known asteroids in the asteroid belt belong to this family.

text: Detecting planets in multiple star systems introduces additional technical difficulties, which may be why they are only rarely found. Examples include the white dwarf-pulsar binary PSR B1620-26, the subgiant-red dwarf binary Gamma Cephei, and the white dwarf-red dwarf binary NN Serpentis; among others.

text: Detecting planets in multiple star systems introduces additional technical difficulties, which may be why they are only rarely found. Examples include the

text: white dwarf

text: pulsar

text: binary

text: PSR B1620-26

text: , the

text: subgiant

text: red dwarf

text: binary

text: Gamma Cephei

text: , and the

text: white dwarf

text: red dwarf

text: binary

text: NN Serpentis

text: ; among others.

text: Some Solar System object classes, such as minor planets, dwarf planets and Trans-Neptunian objects have not been detected outside the Solar System.

text: Some Solar System object classes, such as

text: minor planet

text: s,

text: dwarf planet

text: s and

text: Trans-Neptunian object

text: s have not been detected outside the Solar System.

text: The far-infrared (24–70 μm) and submillimeter (70–500 μm) photometry performed by Spitzer and Herschel telescopes revealed that the surface of Makemake is not homogeneous. Although the majority of it is covered by nitrogen and methane ices, where the albedo ranges from 78 to 90%, there are small patches of dark terrain whose albedo is only 2 to 12%, and that make up 3–7% of the surface. These studies were made before S/2015 (136472) 1 was discovered; thus, these small dark patches may actually have been the dark surface of the satellite rather than any actual surface features on Makemake.

text: The

text: far-infrared

text: (24–70 μm) and

text: submillimeter

text: (70–500 μm) photometry performed by Spitzer and Herschel telescopes revealed that the surface of Makemake is not homogeneous. Although the majority of it is covered by nitrogen and methane ices, where the albedo ranges from 78 to 90%, there are small patches of dark terrain whose albedo is only 2 to 12%, and that make up 3–7% of the surface. These studies were made before S/2015 (136472) 1 was discovered; thus, these small dark patches may actually have been the dark surface of the satellite rather than any actual surface features on Makemake.

text: In 2006, Fernández was one of a number of dissenters at the IAU's meeting to establish the first definition of "planet." As an alternative to the IAU's draft proposal, which had included Pluto, its moon Charon and Ceres among the planets, Fernández's proposed definition reserved the term "planet" only for those objects in the Solar System which had cleared their neighbourhoods of planetesimals, describing those objects which had not cleared their orbits yet retained a spherical shape as "planetoids." The IAU's final definition incorporated much of Fernández's proposal, though the objects were christened "dwarf planets."The event originated the word "Plutoed" that was selected as the "word of the year 2006" by the American Dialect Society.

text: In 2006, Fernández was one of a number of dissenters at the

text: IAU

text: 's

text: meeting to establish the first definition of "planet

text: As an alternative to the IAU's draft proposal, which had included

text: Pluto

text: , its moon

text: Charon

text: and

text: Ceres

text: among the planets, Fernández's proposed definition reserved the term "

text: planet

text: " only for those objects in the

text: Solar System

text: which had

text: cleared their neighbourhoods

text: of

text: planetesimal

text: s, describing those objects which had not cleared their orbits yet retained a spherical shape as "planetoids." The IAU's final definition incorporated much of Fernández's proposal, though the objects were christened "

text: dwarf planet

text: s."The event originated the word "Plutoed" that was selected as the "word of the year 2006" by the American Dialect Society.

text: Eri caterpillars eat a number of plants, including kesseru. It is grown in the Indian states of Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and some small cities in other states. The heavy rainfall and humid atmosphere of the region suits the Eri culture. The spun threads are often more "cottony" than most Bombyx silks, although some Eri yarns can be very soft and shiny.

text: Eri caterpillars eat a number of plants, including kesseru. It is grown in the Indian states of

text: Assam

text: Meghalaya

text: Nagaland

text: Manipur

text: Arunachal Pradesh

text: Bihar

text: Jharkhand

text: Chhattisgarh

text: Orissa

text: Karnataka

text: Andhra Pradesh

text: and some small cities in other states. The heavy rainfall and humid atmosphere of the region suits the Eri culture. The spun threads are often more "cottony" than most Bombyx silks, although some Eri yarns can be very soft and shiny.

text: In 2009, The Columbia Group was awarded a $10.6 million firm fixed price contract to supply the Egyptian Navy with three Pluto Plus Unmanned Undersea Vehicles (UUVs). (May also be called Remotely Operated Vehicles or ROVs.)  This contract was awarded by the United States Navy's Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) as part of their Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program. The Pluto Plus is a minehunter intended for use "in mine identification and destruction." The Columbia Group is licensed by GayRobot, a defense contractor based out of Milan, Italy, as the exclusive builder of the Pluto Plus System in the United States.

text: In 2009, The Columbia Group was awarded a $10.6 million firm fixed price contract to supply the

text: Egyptian Navy

text: with three

text: Pluto Plus

text: Unmanned Undersea Vehicles

text: (UUVs). (May also be called

text: Remotely Operated Vehicles

text: or ROVs.)  This contract was awarded by the

text: United States Navy

text: 's

text: Naval Sea Systems Command

text: (NAVSEA) as part of their

text: Foreign Military Sales

text: (FMS) program. The Pluto Plus is a

text: minehunter

text: intended for use "in

text: mine

text: identification and destruction." The Columbia Group is licensed by GayRobot, a defense contractor based out of

text: Milan, Italy

text: , as the exclusive builder of the Pluto Plus System in the

text: United States

text: A planetary mnemonic refers to a phrase used to remember the planets and dwarf planets of the Solar System, with the order of words corresponding to increasing sidereal periods of the bodies. One simple visual mnemonic is to hold out both hands side-by-side with fingers spread and thumbs in the same direction, with the fingers of one hand representing the terrestrial planets, and the other hand the gas giants. The first thumb represents the Sun and asteroid belt, including Ceres, and the second thumb represents the asteroid belt and trans-Neptunian objects, including Pluto.

text: A planetary mnemonic refers to a phrase used to remember the

text: planet

text: s and

text: dwarf planet

text: s of the

text: Solar System

text: , with the order of words corresponding to increasing

text: sidereal periods

text: of the bodies. One simple visual mnemonic is to hold out both hands side-by-side with fingers spread and thumbs in the same direction, with the fingers of one hand representing the

text: terrestrial planets

text: , and the other hand the

text: gas giants

text: . The first thumb represents the

text: Sun

text: and

text: asteroid belt

text: , including

text: Ceres

text: , and the second thumb represents the asteroid belt and

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s, including

text: Pluto

text: Approximately 5,500 minor planets were discovered during the Palomar–Leiden survey and its subsequent Trojan campaigns. A total of 4,622 minor planets have been numbered so far and are directly credited to the survey's principal investigators – Cornelis Johannes van Houten, Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld and Tom Gehrels – by the Minor Planet Center (see ), which is responsible for the designation of minor bodies in the Solar System.  Discoveries included members of the Hungaria and Hilda family, which are asteroids from the inner- and outermost regions of the asteroid belt, respectively, as well as a large number of Jupiter trojans.

text: Approximately 5,500 minor planets were discovered during the Palomar–Leiden survey and its subsequent Trojan campaigns. A total of 4,622 minor planets have been numbered so far and are directly credited to the survey's principal investigators –

text: Cornelis Johannes van Houten

text: Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld

text: and

text: Tom Gehrels

text: – by the

text: Minor Planet Center

text: (see ), which is responsible for the

text: designation

text: of minor bodies in the

text: Solar System

text: .  Discoveries included members of the

text: Hungaria

text: and

text: Hilda

text: family, which are asteroids from the inner- and outermost regions of the

text: asteroid belt

text: , respectively, as well as a large number of

text: Jupiter trojan

text: s.

text: Millions of meteors occur in Earth's atmosphere daily. Most meteoroids that cause meteors are about the size of a grain of sand. Meteors may occur in showers, which arise when Earth passes through a stream of debris left by a comet, or as "random" or "sporadic" meteors, not associated with a specific stream of space debris. A number of specific meteors have been observed, largely by members of the public and largely by accident, but with enough detail that orbits of the meteoroids producing the meteors have been calculated. All of the orbits passed through the asteroid belt. The atmospheric velocities of meteors result from the movement of Earth around the Sun at about 30 km/s (18 miles/second), the orbital speeds of meteoroids, and the gravity well of Earth.

text: Millions of meteors occur in Earth's atmosphere daily. Most meteoroids that cause meteors are about the size of a grain of sand. Meteors may occur in

text: showers

text: , which arise when Earth passes through a stream of debris left by a comet, or as "random" or "sporadic" meteors, not associated with a specific stream of

text: space debris

text: . A number of specific meteors have been observed, largely by members of the public and largely by accident, but with enough detail that orbits of the meteoroids producing the meteors have been calculated. All of the orbits passed through the

text: asteroid belt

text: . The atmospheric velocities of meteors result from the movement of Earth around the Sun at about 30 km/s (18 miles/second), the orbital speeds of meteoroids, and the

text: gravity well

text: of Earth.

text: When the IAU introduced the class small Solar System bodies in 2006 to include most objects previously classified as minor planets and comets, they created the class of dwarf planets for the largest minor planets—those that have enough mass to have become ellipsoidal under their own gravity. According to the IAU, "the term 'minor planet' may still be used, but generally the term 'Small Solar System Body' will be preferred." Currently only the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, at about  across, has been placed in the dwarf planet category.

text: When the IAU introduced the class

text: small Solar System bodies

text: in 2006 to include most objects previously classified as minor planets and comets, they created the class of

text: dwarf planet

text: s for the largest minor planets—those that have enough mass to have become ellipsoidal under their own gravity. According to the IAU, "the term 'minor planet' may still be used, but generally the term 'Small Solar System Body' will be preferred." Currently only the largest object in the asteroid belt,

text: Ceres

text: , at about  across, has been placed in the dwarf planet category.

text: The Sagan Planet Walk has inspired the creation of other scale model solar systems in the United States.

text: Professor Close's research involves space weather detection and modeling for improved spacecraft designs, and advanced signal processing and electromagnetic wave interactions with plasma for ground-to-satellite communication systems. These topics fall under the Space Situational Awareness (SSA) umbrella that include environmental remote sensing using satellite systems and ground-based radar. Her current efforts are the MEDUSSA (Meteoroid, Energetics, and Debris Understanding for Space Situational Awareness) program, TALIS (Tomographic Array for Lightning and Ionospheric Studies) using ground-based and space-based RF sensors, and using ground-based radar data to characterize the meteoroid population and its threat to spacecraft.  She was a member of two NRC panels, in 2010 examining options for detecting and countering near-Earth objects, and in 2011 assessing NASA's meteoroid and orbital debris programs.

text: Professor Close's research involves space weather detection and modeling for improved spacecraft designs, and advanced signal processing and electromagnetic wave interactions with

text: plasma

text: for ground-to-satellite communication systems. These topics fall under the Space Situational Awareness (SSA) umbrella that include environmental remote sensing using satellite systems and ground-based

text: radar

text: . Her current efforts are the MEDUSSA (Meteoroid, Energetics, and Debris Understanding for Space Situational Awareness) program, TALIS (Tomographic Array for Lightning and Ionospheric Studies) using ground-based and space-based RF sensors, and using ground-based radar data to characterize the meteoroid population and its threat to spacecraft.  She was a member of two

text: NRC

text: panels, in 2010 examining options for detecting and countering near-Earth objects, and in 2011 assessing

text: NASA

text: 's meteoroid and orbital debris programs.

text: Viza Aziv's origin story, as well as the history of her race, is depicted in Countdown to Adventure #1.  The Forerunners' planet is the Earth of an alternate universe, ravaged by years of destructive war.  The other "Nine Houses" (planets and dwarf planets) of the Solar System declared the planet a War World in which they would battle for occupancy.  Survivors of the wars - the strongest and fittest - remained on the planet and interbred, unknowingly guided to do so by the Monitors.  The process produced the Forerunners, a species possessing traits of the beings from other planets such as Green Martians and Saturnians.  When the Nine Houses decided that the Forerunners were a threat that had to be eliminated, the Monitors intervened and formed a pact with the Nine Houses: the Monitors would keep the Forerunners from moving against the Nine Houses.  For their own purposes, the Monitors would appoint one Forerunner as their Instrument of Righteous Death whom they also called Harbinger.

text: Viza Aziv's

text: origin story

text: , as well as the history of her race, is depicted in Countdown to Adventure #1.  The Forerunners' planet is the Earth of

text: an alternate universe

text: , ravaged by years of destructive war.  The other "Nine Houses" (

text: planet

text: s and

text: dwarf planet

text: s) of the

text: Solar System

text: declared the planet a War World in which they would battle for occupancy.  Survivors of the wars - the strongest and fittest - remained on the planet and interbred, unknowingly guided to do so by

text: the Monitors

text: .  The process produced the Forerunners, a species possessing traits of the beings from other planets such as

text: Green Martians

text: and

text: Saturnians

text: .  When the Nine Houses decided that the Forerunners were a threat that had to be eliminated, the Monitors intervened and formed a pact with the Nine Houses: the Monitors would keep the Forerunners from moving against the Nine Houses.  For their own purposes, the Monitors would appoint one Forerunner as their Instrument of Righteous Death whom they also called

text: Harbinger

text: The Apollo 12 Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE) was placed on the lunar surface by the Apollo 12 mission as part of the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP). The PSE was designed to detect vibrations and tilting of the lunar surface and measure changes in gravity at the instrument location. The vibrations are due to internal seismic sources (moonquakes) and external (meteoroids and impacts from the spent S-IVB and LM ascent stages). The primary objective of the experiment was to use these data to determine the internal structure, physical state, and tectonic activity of the Moon. The secondary objectives were to determine the number and mass of meteoroids that strike the Moon and record tidal deformations of the lunar surface.

text: The Apollo 12 Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE) was placed on the lunar surface by the

text: Apollo 12

text: mission as part of the

text: Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package

text: (ALSEP). The PSE was designed to detect vibrations and tilting of the

text: lunar surface

text: and measure changes in gravity at the instrument location. The vibrations are due to internal seismic sources (

text: moonquakes

text: ) and external (

text: meteoroids

text: and impacts from the spent

text: S-IVB

text: and

text: LM ascent

text: stages). The primary objective of the experiment was to use these data to determine the internal structure, physical state, and

text: tectonic

text: tidal

text: deformations of the lunar surface.

text: Eris has an orbital period of 558 years. Its maximum possible distance from the Sun (aphelion) is 97.65 AU, and its closest (perihelion) is 37.91 AU. It came to perihelion between 1698 and 1699, to aphelion around 1977, and will return to perihelion around 2256 to 2258. Eris and its moon are currently the second most distant known objects in the Solar System, after V774104, apart from long-period comets and space probes. Approximately forty known TNOs, most notably ,  and , though currently closer to the Sun than Eris, have greater average orbital distances than Eris's semimajor axis of 67.7 AU.

text: Eris has an

text: orbital period

text: of 558

text: years

text: . Its maximum possible distance from the

text: Sun

text: aphelion

text: ) is 97.65

text: AU

text: , and its closest (perihelion) is 37.91 AU. It came to

text: perihelion

text: between 1698 and 1699, to aphelion around 1977, and will return to perihelion around 2256 to 2258. Eris and its moon are currently the second most distant known objects in the Solar System, after

text: , apart from

text: long-period comet

text: s and

text: space probe

text: s. Approximately forty known

text: TNOs

text: , most notably ,  and , though currently closer to the Sun than Eris, have greater average orbital distances than Eris's

text: semimajor axis

text: of 67.7 AU.

text: Yamato 000593 is the second largest meteorite from Mars found on Earth. Studies suggest the Martian meteorite was formed about 1.3 billion years ago from a lava flow on Mars. An impact occurred on Mars about 12 million years ago and ejected the meteorite from the Martian surface into space. The meteorite landed on Earth in Antarctica about 50,000 years ago. The mass of the meteorite is  and has been found to contain evidence of past water movement. At a microscopic level, spheres are found in the meteorite that are rich in carbon compared to surrounding areas that lack such spheres. The carbon-rich spheres may have been formed by biotic activity according to NASA scientists.

text: Yamato 000593

text: is the

text: second largest

text: meteorite

text: from

text: Mars

text: found on

text: Earth

text: . Studies suggest the

text: Martian meteorite

text: was formed about 1.3 billion years ago from a

text: lava flow

text: on

text: Mars

text: . An

text: impact

text: occurred on Mars about 12 million years ago and ejected the meteorite from the Martian surface into

text: space

text: . The meteorite landed on Earth in

text: Antarctica

text: about 50,000 years ago. The

text: mass

text: of the meteorite is  and has been found to contain evidence of past

text: water

text: movement. At a microscopic level,

text: spheres

text: are found in the meteorite that are rich in

text: carbon

text: compared to surrounding areas that lack such spheres. The carbon-rich spheres may have been formed by

text: biotic activity

text: according to NASA scientists.

text: Eris was discovered in January 2005 by a Palomar Observatory-based team led by Mike Brown, and its identity was verified later that year. It is a trans-Neptunian object (TNO) and a member of a high-eccentricity population known as the scattered disk. It has one known moon, Dysnomia. , its distance from the Sun is , roughly three times that of Pluto. With the exception of some comets, Eris and Dysnomia are currently the second-most-distant known natural objects in the Solar System, the farthest object being V774104 discovered in November 2015 at 103 AU.

text: Eris was discovered in January 2005 by a

text: Palomar Observatory

text: -based team led by

text: Mike Brown

text: , and its identity was verified later that year. It is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: (TNO) and a member of a high-

text: eccentricity

text: population known as the

text: scattered disk

text: . It has one known

text: moon

text: Dysnomia

text: . , its distance from the Sun is , roughly three times that of Pluto. With the exception of some

text: comets

text: , Eris and Dysnomia are currently the second-most-distant known natural objects in the Solar System, the farthest object being

text: discovered in November 2015 at 103 AU.

text: When the numbers for the winning objects are compared to those of the losers, the contrast is striking; if Soter's concept that each planet occupies an "orbital zone" is accepted, then the least orbitally dominant planet, Mars, is larger than all other collected material in its orbital zone by a factor of 5100. Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt, only accounts for one third of the material in its orbit; Pluto's ratio is even lower, at around 7 percent. Mike Brown asserts that this massive difference in orbital dominance leaves "absolutely no room for doubt about which objects do and do not belong."

text: Hexamolybdenum, is a molybdenum dominant alloy discovered during a nanomineralogy investigation of the Allende meteorite. Hexamolybdenum was discovered in a small ultrarefractory inclusion within the Allende meteorite. This inclusion has been named ACM-1. Hexamolybdenum is hexagonal, with a calculated density of 11.90 g/cm. The new mineral was found along with allendeite. These minerals, are believed to demonstrate conditions during the early stages of the Solar System, as is the case with many CV3 carbonaceous chondrites such as the Allende meteorite. Hexamolybdenum lies on a continuum of high-temperature alloys that are found in meteorites and allows a link between osmium, ruthenium, and iron rich meteoritic alloys.  The name hexamolybdenum refers to the crystal symmetry (primitive hexagonal) and the molybdenum rich composition. The Allende meteorite fell in 1969 near Pueblito de Allende, Chihuahua, Mexico.

text: Hexamolybdenum, is a

text: molybdenum

text: dominant

text: alloy

text: discovered during a nanomineralogy investigation of the

text: Allende meteorite

text: . Hexamolybdenum was discovered in a small ultra

text: refractory

text: inclusion

text: within the

text: Allende meteorite

text: . This inclusion has been named ACM-1. Hexamolybdenum is

text: hexagonal

text: , with a calculated

text: density

text: of 11.90 g/cm. The new mineral was found along with

text: allendeite

text: Solar System

text: , as is the case with many CV3

text: carbonaceous chondrites

text: such as the Allende meteorite. Hexamolybdenum lies on a continuum of high-temperature alloys that are found in meteorites and allows a link between

text: osmium

text: ruthenium

text: , and

text: iron

text: rich meteoritic alloys.  The name hexamolybdenum refers to the

text: crystal symmetry

text: (primitive hexagonal) and the molybdenum rich composition. The

text: Allende meteorite

text: fell in 1969 near

text: Pueblito de Allende

text: Chihuahua

text: Mexico

text: The overview presentation on the Interplanetary Transport System given by Musk on 27 September 2016 included concept slides outlining missions to the Saturnian moon Enceladus, the Jovian moon Europa, Kuiper belt objects, a fuel depot on Pluto and even the uses to take payloads to the Oort Cloud."Musk said ... the system can open up the entire Solar System to people. If fuel depots based on this design were put on asteroids or other areas around the Solar System, people could go anywhere they wanted just by planet or moon hopping. 'The goal of SpaceX is to build the transport system ... Once that transport system is built, then there is a tremendous opportunity for anyone that wants to go to Mars to create something new or build a new planet."Outer planet trips would likely require propellant refills at Mars, and perhaps other locations in the outer Solar System.

text: The overview presentation on the Interplanetary Transport System given by Musk on 27 September 2016 included concept slides outlining missions to the

text: Saturnian

text: moon

text: Enceladus

text: , the

text: Jovian

text: moon

text: Europa

text: Kuiper belt

text: objects, a fuel depot on

text: Pluto

text: and even the uses to take payloads to the

text: Oort Cloud

text: ."Musk said ... the system can open up the entire Solar System to people. If fuel depots based on this design were put on asteroids or other areas around the Solar System, people could go anywhere they wanted just by planet or moon hopping. 'The goal of SpaceX is to build the transport system ... Once that transport system is built, then there is a tremendous opportunity for anyone that wants to go to Mars to create something new or build a new planet."Outer planet trips would likely require propellant refills at Mars, and perhaps other locations in the

text: outer Solar System

text: Earth receives a steady stream of meteorites from Mars, but they come from relatively few original impactors, and transfer was more likely in the early Solar System. Also some life forms viable on both Mars and on Earth might be unable to survive transfer on a meteorite, and there is so far no direct evidence of any transfer of life from Mars to Earth in this way.

text: Pluto's cage-mate at the dog pound breaks out and lets all the other dogs out as well. In the park, the dog who helped Pluto earlier keeps following him too closely for Pluto's tastes, until he digs up a huge bone and gives it to Pluto (who doesn't particularly want to share). But soon all the other escaped dogs are chasing after the bone.

text: In 2012, the Treasury Department began investigative interviews of solar firms regarding their fair market value calculations for constructed solar energy systems. The IRS has yet to determine whether or not these values have been inflated. In a 2016 federal filing, SolarCity wrote, “If the Internal Revenue Service or the U.S. Treasury Department were to object to amounts we have claimed as too high of a fair market value on such systems, it could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and prospects.” The firm insisted that its values were correct and complied with the Treasury Department guidelines. However a Treasury Department investigation or a federal audit could force SolarCity and other firms to reimburse institutions that purchase their tax credits as investments.

text: Meteorite finds are those meteorites that were found by people, but whose fall was not observed. They may have been on the surface of the Earth even for thousands of years and therefore can have varying amounts of weathering. They should be distinguished from "meteorite falls", which were observed during their descent and collected shortly afterwards.All officially recognized meteorites are listed in the databases below, such as the Meteoritical Bulletin Database, most of which have specimens in modern collections.

text: Meteorite finds are those

text: meteorites

text: that were found by people, but whose fall was not observed. They may have been on the surface of the Earth even for thousands of years and therefore can have varying amounts of

text: weathering

text: . They should be distinguished from "

text: meteorite fall

text: s", which were observed during their descent and collected shortly afterwards.All officially recognized meteorites are listed in the databases below, such as the Meteoritical Bulletin Database, most of which have specimens in modern collections.

text: Comets usually have highly eccentric elliptical orbits, and they have a wide range of orbital periods, ranging from several years to potentially several millions of years. Short-period comets originate in the Kuiper belt or its associated scattered disc, which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune. Long-period comets are thought to originate in the Oort cloud, a spherical cloud of icy bodies extending from outside the Kuiper belt to halfway to the nearest star. Long-period comets are set in motion towards the Sun from the Oort cloud by gravitational perturbations caused by passing stars and the galactic tide. Hyperbolic comets may pass once through the inner Solar System before being flung to interstellar space. The appearance of a comet is called an apparition.

text: Comets usually have highly

text: eccentric

text: elliptical orbits, and they have a wide range of

text: orbital period

text: s, ranging from several years to potentially several millions of years.

text: Short-period comet

text: s originate in the

text: Kuiper belt

text: or its associated

text: scattered disc

text: , which lie beyond the orbit of

text: Neptune

text: Long-period comet

text: s are thought to originate in the

text: Oort cloud

text: , a spherical cloud of icy bodies extending from outside the Kuiper belt to halfway to the nearest star. Long-period comets are set in motion towards the Sun from the Oort cloud by

text: gravitational perturbation

text: s caused by

text: passing stars

text: and the

text: galactic tide

text: Hyperbolic comet

text: s may pass once through the inner Solar System before being flung to interstellar space. The appearance of a comet is called an apparition.

text: Because a considerable amount of time could sometimes elapse between exposing the photographic plates of an astronomical survey and actually spotting a small Solar System object on them (witness the story of Phoebe's discovery), or even between the actual discovery and the delivery of the message (from some far-flung observatory) to the central authority, it became necessary to retrofit discoveries into the sequence — to this day, discoveries are still dated based on when the images were taken, and not on when a human realised they were looking at something new. In the double-letter scheme, this was not generally possible once designations had been assigned in a subsequent year. The scheme used to get round this problem was rather clumsy and used a designation consisting of the year and a lower-case letter in a manner similar to the old provisional-designation scheme for comets. For example, 1915 a (note that there is a space between the year and the letter to distinguish this designation from the old-style comet designation 1915a, Mellish's first comet of 1915), 1917 b. In 1914 designations of the form year plus Greek letter were used in addition.

text: Because a considerable amount of time could sometimes elapse between exposing the photographic plates of an astronomical survey and actually spotting a small Solar System object on them (witness the story of

text: Phoebe

text: 's discovery), or even between the actual discovery and the delivery of the message (from some far-flung observatory) to the central authority, it became necessary to retrofit discoveries into the sequence — to this day, discoveries are still dated based on when the images were taken, and not on when a human realised they were looking at something new. In the double-letter scheme, this was not generally possible once designations had been assigned in a subsequent year. The scheme used to get round this problem was rather clumsy and used a designation consisting of the year and a lower-case letter in a manner similar to the old provisional-designation scheme for comets. For example,

text: 1915 a

text: (note that there is a space between the year and the letter to distinguish this designation from the old-style comet designation

text: Mellish's

text: first comet of 1915),

text: 1917 b

text: . In 1914 designations of the form year plus Greek letter were used in addition.

text: During WT1190F's orbit, it changed significantly in brightness, from an apparent magnitude 16 at perigee, to magnitude 23 at apogee. It spent most of its time dimmer than magnitude 20. This, combined with solar pressure acceleration, the Yarkovsky effect, and frequent orbital perturbations by the Moon, made it difficult to precisely predict its orbit and location. About one hour before atmospheric entry, the object had a R magnitude of 13.6, roughly the brightness of Pluto.

text: During WT1190F's orbit, it changed significantly in brightness, from an

text: apparent magnitude

text: 16 at

text: perigee

text: , to magnitude 23 at

text: apogee

text: . It spent most of its time dimmer than magnitude 20. This, combined with

text: solar pressure acceleration

text: , the

text: Yarkovsky effect

text: , and frequent orbital perturbations by the Moon, made it difficult to precisely predict its orbit and location. About one hour before atmospheric entry, the object had a R magnitude of 13.6, roughly the brightness of

text: Pluto

text: The physical composition of asteroids is varied and in most cases poorly understood. Ceres appears to be composed of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle, where Vesta is thought to have a nickel-iron core, olivine mantle, and basaltic crust. 10 Hygiea, however, which appears to have a uniformly primitive composition of carbonaceous chondrite, is thought to be the largest undifferentiated asteroid. Most of the smaller asteroids are thought to be piles of rubble held together loosely by gravity, though the largest are probably solid. Some asteroids have moons or are co-orbiting binaries: Rubble piles, moons, binaries, and scattered asteroid families are thought to be the results of collisions that disrupted a parent asteroid.

text: The physical composition of asteroids is varied and in most cases poorly understood. Ceres appears to be composed of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle, where Vesta is thought to have a

text: nickel-iron

text: core,

text: olivine

text: mantle, and basaltic crust.

text: 10 Hygiea

text: , however, which appears to have a uniformly primitive composition of

text: carbonaceous chondrite

text: , is thought to be the largest undifferentiated asteroid. Most of the smaller asteroids are thought to be piles of rubble held together loosely by gravity, though the largest are probably solid. Some asteroids have

text: moons

text: or are co-orbiting

text: binaries

text: : Rubble piles, moons, binaries, and scattered

text: asteroid families

text: are thought to be the results of collisions that disrupted a parent asteroid.

text: The table lists the values for all planets and dwarf planets, and selected asteroid, comets and moons. Mercury has the greatest orbital eccentricity of any planet in the Solar System (e = 0.2056). Such eccentricity is sufficient for Mercury to receive twice as much solar irradiation at perihelion compared to aphelion. Before its demotion from planet status in 2006, Pluto was considered to be the planet with the most eccentric orbit (e = 0.248). Other Trans-Neptunian objects have significant eccentricity, notably the dwarf planet Eris (0.44). Even further out, Sedna, has an extremely high eccentricity of  due to its estimated aphelion of 937 AU and perihelion of about 76 AU.

text: The table lists the values for all planets and dwarf planets, and selected asteroid, comets and moons.

text: Mercury

text: has the greatest orbital eccentricity of any planet in the

text: Solar System

text: (e = 0.2056). Such eccentricity is sufficient for Mercury to receive twice as much solar irradiation at perihelion compared to aphelion.

text: Before its demotion from planet status in 2006

text: Pluto

text: was considered to be the planet with the most eccentric orbit (e = 0.248). Other Trans-Neptunian objects have significant eccentricity, notably the dwarf planet Eris (0.44). Even further out,

text: Sedna

text: , has an extremely high eccentricity of  due to its estimated aphelion of 937 AU and perihelion of about 76 AU.

text: Terrestrial planets have numerous similarities to plutoids (objects like Pluto), which also have a solid surface, but are primarily composed of icy materials. During the formation of the Solar System, there were probably many more (planetesimals), but they have all merged with or been destroyed by the four remaining worlds in the solar nebula.

text: Terrestrial planets have numerous similarities to

text: plutoid

text: s (objects like

text: Pluto

text: ), which also have a solid surface, but are primarily composed of icy materials. During the formation of the Solar System, there were probably many more (

text: planetesimal

text: s), but they have all merged with or been destroyed by the four remaining worlds in the

text: solar nebula

text: Meteor showers first designated "shooting stars" were connected to comets in the 1800s. E.C. Herrick made an observation in 1839 and 1840 about the activity present in the October night skies. A. S. Herschel produced the first documented record that gave accurate forecasts for the next meteor shower. The Orionid meteor shower is produced by the well known Halley's Comet, which was named after the astronomer Edmund Halley and last passed through the inner solar system in 1986 on its 75- to 76-year orbit. When the comet passes through the solar system, the sun sublimates some of the ice, allowing rock particles to break away from the comet. These particles continue on the comet's trajectory and appear as meteors ("falling stars") when they pass through Earth's upper atmosphere. Halley's comet is also responsible for creating the Eta Aquariids, which occur each May.

text: Meteor showers first designated "shooting stars" were connected to comets in the 1800s. E.C. Herrick made an observation in 1839 and 1840 about the activity present in the October night skies. A. S. Herschel produced the first documented record that gave accurate forecasts for the next meteor shower. The Orionid meteor shower is produced by the well known

text: Halley's Comet

text: , which was named after the

text: astronomer

text: Edmund Halley

text: and last passed through the inner

text: solar system

text: in 1986 on its 75- to 76-year orbit. When the comet passes through the solar system, the sun sublimates some of the ice, allowing rock particles to break away from the comet. These particles continue on the comet's trajectory and appear as meteors ("falling stars") when they pass through Earth's upper atmosphere. Halley's comet is also responsible for creating the

text: Eta Aquariids

text: , which occur each May.

text: In this wave you don't face an enemy per se, but instead must make your way through a dense field of meteoroids and occasional asteroids.  These can be shot at and destroyed, but most must simply be avoided.  If the player destroys enough of the objects in this wave, the game may award bonus points.

text: In this wave you don't face an enemy per se, but instead must make your way through a dense field of

text: meteoroids

text: and occasional asteroids.  These can be shot at and destroyed, but most must simply be avoided.  If the player destroys enough of the objects in this wave, the game may award bonus points.

text: An estimated 30,000 ± 20,000 tonnes per year (t/yr) of cosmic dust enters the upper atmosphere each year of which less than 10% (2700 ± 1400 t/yr) is estimated to reach the surface as particles. Therefore, the mass of micrometeorites deposited is roughly 50 times higher than that estimated for meteorites, which represent approximately 50 t/yr, and the huge number of particles entering the atmosphere each year (~10 > 10 µm) suggests that large MM collections contain particles from all dust producing objects in the Solar System including asteroids, comets, and fragments from our Moon and Mars. Large MM collections provide information on the size, composition, atmospheric heating effects and types of materials accreting on Earth while detailed studies of individual MMs give insights into their origin, the nature of the carbon, amino acids and pre-solar grains they contain.

text: An estimated 30,000 ± 20,000

text: tonnes

text: per year (t/yr) of cosmic dust enters the upper atmosphere each year of which less than 10% (2700 ± 1400 t/yr) is estimated to reach the surface as particles. Therefore, the mass of micrometeorites deposited is roughly 50 times higher than that estimated for meteorites, which represent approximately 50 t/yr, and the huge number of particles entering the atmosphere each year (~10 > 10 µm) suggests that large MM collections contain particles from all dust producing objects in the Solar System including asteroids, comets, and fragments from our Moon and Mars. Large MM collections provide information on the size, composition, atmospheric heating effects and types of materials accreting on Earth while detailed studies of individual MMs give insights into their origin, the nature of the

text: carbon

text: amino acid

text: s and pre-solar grains they contain.

text: About 86% of the meteorites that fall on Earth are chondrites, which are named for the small, round particles they contain. These particles, or chondrules, are composed mostly of silicate minerals that appear to have been melted while they were free-floating objects in space. Certain types of chondrites also contain small amounts of organic matter, including amino acids, and presolar grains. Chondrites are typically about 4.55 billion years old and are thought to represent material from the asteroid belt that never coalesced into large bodies. Like comets, chondritic asteroids are some of the oldest and most primitive materials in the solar system. Chondrites are often considered to be "the building blocks of the planets".

text: About 86% of the meteorites that fall on Earth are chondrites, which are named for the small, round particles they contain. These particles, or

text: chondrule

text: s, are composed mostly of silicate minerals that appear to have been melted while they were free-floating objects in space. Certain types of chondrites also contain small amounts of

text: organic matter

text: , including

text: amino acid

text: s, and

text: presolar grains

text: . Chondrites are typically about 4.55 billion years old and are thought to represent material from the

text: asteroid belt

text: that never coalesced into large bodies. Like

text: comet

text: s, chondritic asteroids are some of the oldest and most primitive materials in the solar system. Chondrites are often considered to be "the building blocks of the planets".

text: An extrasolar object (from extra, Latin for outside or beyond, and solar, Latin for the Sun) is an astronomical object that exists outside the Solar System. It is not applied to stars, or any other celestial object that is larger than a star or the Solar System, such as a galaxy. It is only used for objects (aside from stars) which are also found in the Solar System. The terms for extrasolar examples of Solar System bodies are:

text: An extrasolar object (from extra, Latin for outside or beyond, and solar, Latin for the

text: Sun

text: ) is an

text: astronomical object

text: that exists outside the

text: Solar System

text: . It is not applied to stars, or any other celestial object that is larger than a star or the Solar System, such as a

text: galaxy

text: . It is only used for objects (aside from stars) which are also found in the Solar System. The terms for extrasolar examples of Solar System bodies are:

text: A photovoltaic system, also solar PV power system, or PV system, is a power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to change the electric current from DC to AC, as well as mounting, cabling and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. It may also use a solar tracking system to improve the system's overall performance and include an integrated battery solution, as prices for storage devices are expected to decline. Strictly speaking, a solar array only encompasses the ensemble of solar panels, the visible part of the PV system, and does not include all the other hardware, often summarized as balance of system (BOS). Moreover, PV systems convert light directly into electricity and shouldn't be confused with other technologies, such as concentrated solar power or solar thermal, used for heating and cooling.

text: A photovoltaic system, also solar PV power system, or PV system, is a

text: power system

text: designed to supply usable

text: solar power

text: by means of

text: photovoltaics

text: . It consists of an arrangement of several components, including

text: solar panel

text: s to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a

text: solar inverter

text: to change the electric current from DC to AC, as well as

text: mounting

text: cabling

text: and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. It may also use a

text: solar tracking system

text: to improve the system's overall performance and include an

text: integrated battery solution

text: , as prices for storage devices are expected to decline. Strictly speaking, a solar array only encompasses the ensemble of solar panels, the visible part of the PV system, and does not include all the other hardware, often summarized as

text: balance of system

text: (BOS). Moreover, PV systems convert light directly into electricity and shouldn't be confused with other technologies, such as

text: concentrated solar power

text: or

text: solar thermal

text: , used for heating and cooling.

text: is a trans-Neptunian object (TNO) and possible dwarf planet orbiting in the scattered disc. As of October 10, 2016, it is approximately 91.6 AU from the Sun, and will slowly decrease in distance until it reaches its perihelion of 38 AU sometime near 2142. Currently  is the third furthest known observable Solar System object  from the Sun, after Eris (96.2 AU) and V774104 (~103 AU). In the media it has been nicknamed DeeDee for Distant Dwarf.

text: is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: (TNO) and possible

text: dwarf planet

text: orbiting in the

text: scattered disc

text: . As of October 10, 2016, it is approximately 91.6

text: AU

text: from the

text: Sun

text: , and will slowly decrease in distance until it reaches its

text: perihelion

text: of 38 AU sometime near 2142. Currently  is the third furthest known observable

text: Solar System

text: object  from the Sun, after

text: Eris

text: (96.2 AU) and

text: (~103 AU). In the media it has been nicknamed DeeDee for Distant Dwarf.

text: The name of Haumea and its moons were suggested by David L. Rabinowitz of Caltech and refer to the mother goddess and her daughters in Hawaiian mythology.

text: The name of

text: Haumea

text: and its

text: moons

text: were suggested by

text: David L. Rabinowitz

text: of

text: Caltech

text: and refer to the mother goddess and her daughters in

text: Hawaiian mythology

text: Streaming instabilities, first described by Andrew Youdin and Jeremy Goodman, are driven by differences in the motions of the gas and solid particles in the protoplanetary disk. The gas is hotter and denser closer to the star, creating a pressure gradient that partially offsets gravity from the star. The partial support of the pressure gradient allows the gas to orbit at roughly 50 m/s below the Keplerian velocity at its distance. The solid particles, however, are not supported by the pressure gradient and would orbit at Keplerian velocities in the absence of the gas. The difference in velocities results in a headwind that causes the solid particles to spiral toward the central star as they lose momentum to aerodynamic drag. The drag also produces a back reaction on the gas, increasing its velocity. When solid particles cluster in the gas, the reaction reduces the headwind locally, allowing the cluster to orbit faster and undergo less inward drift. The slower drifting clusters are overtaken and joined by isolated particles, increasing the local density and further reducing radial drift, fueling an exponential growth of the initial clusters. In simulations the clusters form massive filaments that can grow or dissipate, and that can collide and merge or split into multiple filaments. The separation of filaments averages 0.2 gas scale heights, roughly 0.02 AU at the distance of the asteroid belt. The densities of the filaments can exceed a thousand times the gas density, sufficient to trigger the gravitational collapse and fragmentation of the filaments into bound clusters. The clusters shrink as energy is dissipated by gas drag and inelastic collisions, leading to the formation of planetesimals the size of large asteroids. The collapse into smaller bodies, such as 1–10 km asteroids, is relatively slow and can extend over 1000 years. The impact speeds are limited, avoiding the fragmentation of particles, resulting in the formation of pebble pile planetesimals with low densities. Larger bodies, such as 100 km asteroids, undergo a more rapid collapse lasting as little as 25 years, resulting in higher impact speeds the formation of denser objects composed of a mixture of dust and pebbles,and an increase in density with size. Collapsing swarms with excess angular momentum can fragment, forming binary or in some cases trinary objects resembling those in the Kuiper belt. In simulations the planetesimals formed via streaming instabilities have an initial size distribution that is more shallow than that of the asteroids and Kuiper belt objects with a steep tail of larger objects. Continued accretion of chondrules from the disk, however, may shift this size distribution toward one resembling the current distribution. In the outer solar system the largest objects can continue to grow via pebble accretion, possibly forming the cores of giant planets.

text: Streaming instabilities, first described by Andrew Youdin and Jeremy Goodman, are driven by differences in the motions of the gas and solid particles in the

text: protoplanetary disk

text: . The gas is hotter and denser closer to the star, creating a pressure gradient that partially offsets gravity from the star. The partial support of the pressure gradient allows the gas to orbit at roughly 50 m/s below the

text: Keplerian velocity

text: at its distance. The solid particles, however, are not supported by the pressure gradient and would orbit at Keplerian velocities in the absence of the gas. The difference in velocities results in a headwind that causes the solid particles to spiral toward the central star as they lose momentum to

text: aerodynamic drag

text: . The drag also produces a back

text: reaction

text: on the gas, increasing its velocity. When solid particles cluster in the gas, the reaction reduces the headwind locally, allowing the cluster to orbit faster and undergo less inward drift. The slower drifting clusters are overtaken and joined by isolated particles, increasing the local density and further reducing radial drift, fueling an

text: exponential growth

text: of the initial clusters. In simulations the clusters form massive filaments that can grow or dissipate, and that can collide and merge or split into multiple filaments. The separation of filaments averages 0.2 gas

text: scale height

text: s, roughly 0.02

text: AU

text: at the distance of the asteroid belt. The densities of the filaments can exceed a thousand times the gas density, sufficient to trigger the gravitational collapse and fragmentation of the filaments into bound clusters. The clusters shrink as energy is dissipated by gas drag and

text: inelastic collision

text: s, leading to the formation of planetesimals the size of large asteroids. The collapse into smaller bodies, such as 1–10 km asteroids, is relatively slow and can extend over 1000 years. The impact speeds are limited, avoiding the fragmentation of particles, resulting in the formation of

text: pebble pile

text: planetesimals with low densities. Larger bodies, such as 100 km asteroids, undergo a more rapid collapse lasting as little as 25 years, resulting in higher impact speeds the formation of denser objects composed of a mixture of dust and pebbles,and an increase in density with size. Collapsing swarms with excess

text: angular momentum

text: can fragment, forming

text: binary

text: or in some cases trinary objects resembling those in the Kuiper belt. In simulations the planetesimals formed via streaming instabilities have an initial size distribution that is more shallow than that of the asteroids and Kuiper belt objects with a steep tail of larger objects. Continued accretion of

text: chondrule

text: s from the disk, however, may shift this size distribution toward one resembling the current distribution. In the

text: outer solar system

text: the largest objects can continue to grow via

text: pebble accretion

text: , possibly forming the

text: cores

text: of

text: giant planets

text: Astronomers use stellar flux and the inverse-square law to extrapolate circumstellar habitable zone models created for the Solar System to other stars. For example, although the Solar System has a circumstellar habitable zone centered at 1.34 AU from the Sun, a star with 0.25 times the luminosity of the Sun would have a habitable zone centered at

text: Astronomers use stellar flux and the

text: inverse-square law

text: to extrapolate circumstellar habitable zone models created for the Solar System to other stars. For example, although the Solar System has a circumstellar habitable zone centered at 1.34 AU from the Sun, a star with 0.25 times the luminosity of the Sun would have a habitable zone centered at

text: The classification of bodies in other planetary systems with the characteristics of dwarf planets has not been addressed.

text: The classification of bodies in other

text: planetary system

text: s with the characteristics of dwarf planets has not been addressed.

text: In 2005, the Gemini and Keck telescopes obtained spectra of Haumea which showed strong crystalline water ice features similar to the surface of Pluto's moon Charon. This is peculiar, because crystalline ice forms at temperatures above 110 K, whereas Haumea's surface temperature is below 50 K, a temperature at which amorphous ice is formed. In addition, the structure of crystalline ice is unstable under the constant rain of cosmic rays and energetic particles from the Sun that strike trans-Neptunian objects. The timescale for the crystalline ice to revert to amorphous ice under this bombardment is on the order of ten million years, yet trans-Neptunian objects have been in their present cold-temperature locations for timescales of billions of years. Radiation damage should also redden and darken the surface of trans-Neptunian objects where the common surface materials of organic ices and tholin-like compounds are present, as is the case with Pluto. Therefore, the spectra and colour suggest Haumea and its family members have undergone recent resurfacing that produced fresh ice. However, no plausible resurfacing mechanism has been suggested.

text: In 2005, the

text: Gemini

text: and

text: Keck

text: telescopes obtained

text: spectra

text: of Haumea which showed strong crystalline

text: water ice

text: features similar to the surface of Pluto's moon

text: Charon

text: . This is peculiar, because crystalline ice forms at temperatures above 110 K, whereas Haumea's surface temperature is below 50 K, a temperature at which

text: amorphous ice

text: is formed. In addition, the structure of crystalline ice is unstable under the constant rain of

text: cosmic ray

text: s and energetic particles from the Sun that strike trans-Neptunian objects. The timescale for the crystalline ice to revert to amorphous ice under this bombardment is on the order of ten million years, yet trans-Neptunian objects have been in their present cold-temperature locations for timescales of billions of years. Radiation damage should also redden and darken the surface of trans-Neptunian objects where the common surface materials of

text: organic

text: ices and

text: tholin-like

text: compounds are present, as is the case with Pluto. Therefore, the spectra and

text: colour

text: suggest Haumea and its family members have undergone recent resurfacing that produced fresh ice. However, no plausible resurfacing mechanism has been suggested.

text: Iron meteorites were historically used for their meteoric iron, which was forged into cultural objects, tools or weapons. With the advent of smelting and the beginning of the iron age the importance of iron meteorites as a resource decreased, at least in those cultures that developed those techniques. The Inuit used the Cape York meteorite for a much longer time. Iron meteorites themselves were sometimes used unaltered as collectibles or even religious symbols (e.g. Clackamas worshiping the Willamette meteorite). Today iron meteorites are prized collectibles for academic institutions and individuals. Some are also tourist attractions as in the case of the Hoba meteorite.

text: Iron meteorites were historically used for their

text: meteoric iron

text: , which was forged into cultural objects, tools or weapons. With the advent of smelting and the beginning of the

text: iron age

text: the importance of iron meteorites as a resource decreased, at least in those cultures that developed those techniques. The Inuit used the

text: Cape York meteorite

text: for a much longer time. Iron meteorites themselves were sometimes used unaltered as collectibles or even religious symbols (e.g.

text: Clackamas

text: worshiping the

text: Willamette meteorite

text: ). Today iron meteorites are prized collectibles for academic institutions and individuals. Some are also tourist attractions as in the case of the

text: Hoba meteorite

text: The gameplay in Mega Man V is largely similar to other games in the Mega Man series. As the protagonist Mega Man, the player is presented with a set of action and platform-style levels to complete. Mega Man's primary weapon is his staple arm cannon. However, rather than being able to charge and fire a more powerful blast with the trademark Mega Buster, the Mega Arm is used in essentially the same manner. Charging up and releasing the firing button causes Mega Man's arm to detach, strike an enemy, and then reattach. Destroying the boss at the end of each stage adds its special weapon to Mega Man's arsenal for the rest of the game. As each boss is weak to specific weapon, the player is encouraged to complete some stages before others. These bosses are known in game as "Mercury", "Venus", "Mars", "Jupiter", "Saturn", "Uranus", "Neptune", and "Pluto", named after the first, second, fourth, and fifth through eighth planets in our Solar System. Pluto was, at the time the game was made, considered a planet, unlike from 2006 and onwards. Terra is named for the Latin word for Earth. Defeating some bosses will allow the player to access Mega Man's robot dog Rush, who can transform into useful "Coil" and "Jet" modes for easier stage navigation. Mega Man V also introduces Tango the cat, another robotic pet to help Mega Man. Like the bird Beat from previous installments in the series, Tango will appear on the screen when summoned to attack enemies, transforming into a buzzsaw and ricocheting around the room. As in Mega Man IV, the player can return to Dr. Light between stages to purchase items using "Power Chips (P-Chips)" scattered throughout the game.

text: The gameplay in Mega Man V is largely similar to other games in the Mega Man series. As the protagonist Mega Man, the player is presented with a set of

text: action

text: and

text: platform

text: -style levels to complete. Mega Man's primary weapon is his staple arm cannon. However, rather than being able to charge and fire a more powerful blast with the trademark Mega Buster, the Mega Arm is used in essentially the same manner. Charging up and releasing the firing button causes Mega Man's arm to detach, strike an enemy, and then reattach. Destroying the boss at the end of each stage adds its special weapon to Mega Man's arsenal for the rest of the game. As each boss is weak to specific weapon, the player is encouraged to complete some stages before others. These bosses are known in game as "Mercury", "Venus", "Mars", "Jupiter", "Saturn", "Uranus", "Neptune", and "Pluto", named after the first, second, fourth, and fifth through eighth planets in our Solar System. Pluto was, at the time the game was made, considered a planet, unlike from 2006 and onwards. Terra is named for the Latin word for Earth. Defeating some bosses will allow the player to access Mega Man's robot dog

text: Rush

text: , who can transform into useful "Coil" and "Jet" modes for easier stage navigation. Mega Man V also introduces

text: Tango

text: the cat, another robotic pet to help Mega Man. Like the bird

text: Beat

text: from previous installments in the series, Tango will appear on the screen when summoned to attack enemies, transforming into a buzzsaw and ricocheting around the room. As in Mega Man IV, the player can return to Dr. Light between stages to purchase items using "Power Chips (P-Chips)" scattered throughout the game.

text: is now in solar orbit as an Amor-class asteroid with an orbit completely outside of Earth's orbit. By 2017, this object will be 2 AU from Earth on the other side of the Sun. Systematic residuals in the positions of the object probably indicate that the model used to determine solar radiation pressure may be too simple to adequately describe its motion over a long period of time. The next near-Earth encounter is in August 2028 when the object will pass Earth at a relatively low speed of . For comparison, on 13 April 2029, asteroid 99942 Apophis will pass Earth at a relative speed of .  is listed as part of the Near-Earth Object Human Space Flight Accessible Targets Study (NHATS).

text: is now in solar orbit as an

text: Amor-class asteroid

text: with an orbit completely outside of Earth's orbit. By 2017, this object will be 2

text: AU

text: from Earth on the other side of the Sun. Systematic residuals in the positions of the object probably indicate that the model used to determine solar radiation pressure may be too simple to adequately describe its motion over a long period of time. The next near-Earth encounter is in August 2028 when the object will pass Earth at a relatively low speed of . For comparison, on 13 April 2029, asteroid

text: 99942 Apophis

text: will pass Earth at a relative speed of .  is listed as part of the Near-Earth Object Human Space Flight Accessible Targets Study (NHATS).

text: Horace Tuttle discovered or co-discovered numerous comets, including 55P/Tempel-Tuttle (parent body of the Leonid meteor shower, discovered by Tuttle January 6, 1866), and 109P/Swift-Tuttle (parent body of the Perseid meteor shower, disc. July 19, 1862), the "Great Comet of 1860", C/1860 III (disc. June 22, 1860), C/1859 G1 Tempel (disc April 24, 1859). Other periodic comets that bear his name are 8P/Tuttle (parent comet of the Ursid meteor shower; disc. January 5, 1858 "rather faint") and 41P/Tuttle-Giacobini-Kresak (disc. May 3, 1858 in Leo Minor "very faint"), C/1861 Y1 Tuttle, (disc. December 19, 1862), C/1859 G1 Tempel (disc. April 28, 1859). The asteroid 5036 Tuttle was named in his honor.  In 1859 he was awarded the Lalande Prize of the French Academy of Sciences for the discovery of comets 1858I, 1858III, and 1858VII.

text: Horace Tuttle discovered or co-discovered numerous

text: comet

text: s, including

text: (parent body of the

text: Leonid

text: meteor shower

text: , discovered by Tuttle January 6, 1866), and

text: (parent body of the

text: Perseid

text: meteor shower, disc. July 19, 1862), the "Great Comet of 1860", C/1860 III (disc. June 22, 1860), C/1859 G1 Tempel (disc April 24, 1859). Other periodic comets that bear his name are

text: (parent comet of the Ursid meteor shower; disc. January 5, 1858 "rather faint") and

text: (disc. May 3, 1858 in Leo Minor "very faint"), C/1861 Y1 Tuttle, (disc. December 19, 1862), C/1859 G1 Tempel (disc. April 28, 1859). The

text: asteroid

text: 5036 Tuttle

text: was named in his honor.  In 1859 he was awarded the

text: Lalande Prize

text: of the

text: French Academy of Sciences

text: for the discovery of comets 1858I, 1858III, and 1858VII.

text: The OSIRIS-REx mission was launched in 2016 on a mission to return samples from the asteroid 101955 Bennu. The samples are expected to enable scientists to learn more about the time before the birth of the Solar System, initial stages of planet formation, and the source of organic compounds that led to the formation of life.

text: The

text: OSIRIS-REx

text: mission was launched in 2016 on a mission to return samples from the asteroid

text: 101955 Bennu

text: . The samples are expected to enable scientists to learn more about the time before the birth of the Solar System, initial stages of planet formation, and the source of organic compounds that led to the formation of life.

text: Triton is the seventh-largest moon and sixteenth-largest object in the Solar System, and is modestly larger than the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris. It comprises more than 99.5% of all the mass known to orbit Neptune, including the planet's rings and thirteen other known moons, and is also more massive than all known moons in the Solar System smaller than itself combined. It has a radius, density (2.061 g/cm), temperature and chemical composition similar to those of Pluto.

text: Triton is the seventh-largest moon and

text: sixteenth-largest object

text: in the Solar System, and is modestly larger than the

text: dwarf planet

text: s

text: Pluto

text: and

text: Eris

text: . It comprises more than 99.5% of all the mass known to orbit Neptune, including the planet's rings and thirteen other known moons, and is also more massive than all known moons in the Solar System smaller than itself combined. It has a radius, density (2.061 g/cm), temperature and chemical composition similar to those of

text: Pluto

text: Comets are small Solar System bodies, typically only a few kilometres across, composed largely of volatile ices. They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto. When a comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the naked eye.

text: Comets are small Solar System bodies, typically only a few kilometres across, composed largely of volatile ices. They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto. When a comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to

text: sublimate

text: and

text: ion

text: ise, creating a

text: coma

text: : a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the naked eye.

text: Chondrites are meteorites that have experienced very little alteration by melting or differentiation since the formation of the solar system 4.56 billion years ago.  One of the most studied chondrites in existence is the Allende meteorite.  Hedenbergite was found to be the most abundant secondary calcium-rich silicate phase within Allende chondules and is closely associated with other minerals such as sodalite and nepheline.  Kimura and Ikeda (1995) also suggest that hedenbergite formation may have been the result of the consumption of CaO and SiO as plagioclases decomposed into sodalite and nepheline as well as alkali-calcium exchange before the condrules' incorporation into the parent body.

text: Chondrite

text: s are

text: meteorites

text: that have experienced very little alteration by melting or differentiation since the formation of the

text: solar system

text: 4.56 billion years ago.  One of the most studied chondrites in existence is the

text: Allende meteorite

text: .  Hedenbergite was found to be the most abundant secondary calcium-rich silicate phase within Allende chondules and is closely associated with other minerals such as sodalite and nepheline.  Kimura and Ikeda (1995) also suggest that hedenbergite formation may have been the result of the consumption of CaO and SiO as plagioclases decomposed into sodalite and nepheline as well as alkali-calcium exchange before the condrules' incorporation into the parent body.

text: Like in the original Asteroids the objective is to score as many points as possible by destroying asteroids and flying saucers.  The asteroids come in three different sizes.  If the player fires at and hits a large asteroid, it breaks into medium size asteroids. If the player fires at and hits a medium asteroid, it breaks into small asteroids.  If a player fires at and hits a small asteroid, it disappears.  Different points are awarded for hitting each size of asteroid, and for hitting flying saucers. The player controls a ship that can rotate left and right, fire shots straight forward, and thrust forward. Asteroids Deluxe replaces the hyperspace feature with shields which deplete with use. Other differences include asteroids which rotate and a new enemy which is dubbed a "killer satellite" which would, when shot, break apart into three smaller ships that homed in on the player's position.  The screen of the game is wrapped both vertically and horizontally so that if any object moves past the top edge of the screen it reappears on the bottom edge at the same lateral location, and if it moves past the left side of the screen, it reappears on the right side of the screen in the same vertical location.  Topologically, the screen is a torus.

text: Like in the original Asteroids the objective is to score as many points as possible by destroying asteroids and

text: flying saucers

text: .  The asteroids come in three different sizes.  If the player fires at and hits a large asteroid, it breaks into medium size asteroids. If the player fires at and hits a medium asteroid, it breaks into small asteroids.  If a player fires at and hits a small asteroid, it disappears.  Different points are awarded for hitting each size of asteroid, and for hitting flying saucers. The player controls a

text: ship

text: that can rotate left and right, fire shots straight forward, and thrust forward. Asteroids Deluxe replaces the hyperspace feature with shields which deplete with use. Other differences include asteroids which rotate and a new enemy which is dubbed a "killer satellite" which would, when shot, break apart into three smaller ships that homed in on the player's position.  The screen of the game is wrapped both vertically and horizontally so that if any object moves past the top edge of the screen it reappears on the bottom edge at the same lateral location, and if it moves past the left side of the screen, it reappears on the right side of the screen in the same vertical location.  Topologically, the screen is a torus.

text: Martin Beech from the University of Western Ontario (London, Ontario, Canada) referred to the various hypotheses and experimental results that support non-existence of antimatter in the Universe. He argued that any antimatter  comets and meteors that exist must be (at least) extrasolar in origin because the nebular hypothesis for the formation of the solar system precludes their being solar. Any antimatter in a pre-formation nebula or planetary accretion disc has a comparatively short lifetime, astronomically speaking, before annihilation with the terrene matter that it is mixed with. This lifetime is measured in the hundreds of years, and so any solar antimatter present at the time that the system was formed will have long since been annihilated. Any antimatter comets and meteors must therefore come from another, antimatter, solar system, and be extrasolar. Furthermore, not only must antimatter meteors be extrasolar in origin, they must have been recently (i.e. within the past 10 ~ 10 years) captured by the Solar System. Most meteoroids are broken down to sizes of 10 g within that timeframe, because of meteoroid-upon-meteoroid collisions. Thus any antimatter meteor must be either extrasolar in origin itself, or broken off from an antimatter comet that is extrasolar in origin. The former are unlikely to exist from observational evidence. Any extrasolar meteoroid would have a hyperbolic orbit, but less than 1% of the observed meteoroids have such, and the process of perturbation of ordinary (terrene) solar objects, by planetary encounters, into hyperbolic trajectories accounts for all of those. Beech concluded that a continued null result, however, does not constitute a proof ('Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence', M. Rees) and a single positive detection negates the arguments presented.

text: Martin Beech from the University of Western Ontario (London, Ontario, Canada) referred to the various hypotheses and experimental results that support non-existence of antimatter in the Universe. He argued that any antimatter  comets and meteors that exist must be (at least) extrasolar in origin because the

text: nebular hypothesis

text: for the

text: formation of the solar system

text: precludes their being solar. Any antimatter in a pre-formation nebula or planetary

text: accretion disc

text: has a comparatively short lifetime, astronomically speaking, before annihilation with the terrene matter that it is mixed with. This lifetime is measured in the hundreds of years, and so any solar antimatter present at the time that the system was formed will have long since been annihilated. Any antimatter comets and meteors must therefore come from another, antimatter, solar system, and be extrasolar. Furthermore, not only must antimatter meteors be extrasolar in origin, they must have been recently (i.e. within the past 10 ~ 10 years) captured by the Solar System. Most meteoroids are broken down to sizes of 10 g within that timeframe, because of meteoroid-upon-meteoroid collisions. Thus any antimatter meteor must be either extrasolar in origin itself, or broken off from an antimatter comet that is extrasolar in origin. The former are unlikely to exist from observational evidence. Any extrasolar meteoroid would have a

text: hyperbolic orbit

text: , but less than 1% of the observed meteoroids have such, and the process of perturbation of ordinary (terrene) solar objects, by planetary encounters, into hyperbolic trajectories accounts for all of those. Beech concluded that a continued null result, however, does not constitute a proof ('Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence', M. Rees) and a single positive detection negates the arguments presented.

text: While the minimum mass of the object is that of a brown dwarf, this depends on the inclination of the orbit relative to observations from the Solar System. Because of this, if the orbit of HD 4747 B is inclined by less than 40°, the mass of the object will be above the hydrogen burning limit at approximately  that marks the transition between stars and brown dwarfs. Long-term astrometry or direct detection could solve this problem, but no attempt to do so has yet appeared in literature.

text: The dwarf planet Ceres is by far the largest asteroid, with a diameter of . The next largest are 4 Vesta and 2 Pallas, both with diameters of just over . Vesta is the only main-belt asteroid that can, on occasion, be visible to the naked eye. On some rare occasions, a near-Earth asteroid may briefly become visible without technical aid; see 99942 Apophis.

text: The

text: dwarf planet

text: Ceres

text: is by far the largest asteroid, with a diameter of . The next largest are

text: 4 Vesta

text: and

text: 2 Pallas

text: , both with diameters of just over . Vesta is the only main-belt asteroid that can, on occasion, be visible to the naked eye. On some rare occasions, a near-Earth asteroid may briefly become visible without technical aid; see

text: 99942 Apophis

text: The asteroid is a member of the Themis family, a dynamical family of outer-belt asteroids with nearly coplanar ecliptical orbits. It has a D-type spectrum, which is more commonly found among Hildian asteroids and Jupiter trojans. Bodies with a D-type spectra are thought to have originated in the Kuiper belt.

text: The asteroid is a member of the

text: Themis family

text: , a dynamical family of outer-belt asteroids with nearly coplanar

text: ecliptical orbits

text: . It has a

text: D-type

text: spectrum, which is more commonly found among

text: Hildian

text: asteroids and

text: Jupiter trojan

text: s. Bodies with a D-type spectra are thought to have originated in the

text: Kuiper belt

text: In the inner Solar System, the three protoplanets to survive more-or-less intact are the asteroids 1 Ceres, 2 Pallas, and 4 Vesta. 16 Psyche is likely the survivor of a violent hit-and-run with another object that stripped off the outer, rocky layers of a protoplanet. The asteroid 21 Lutetia also has characteristics that resemble a protoplanet. Kuiper-belt dwarf planets have also been referred to as protoplanets. Because iron meteorites have been found on Earth, it is deemed likely that there once were other metal-cored protoplanets in the asteroid belt that since have been disrupted and that are the source of these meteorites.

text: In the inner Solar System, the three protoplanets to survive more-or-less intact are the

text: asteroid

text: s

text: 1 Ceres

text: 2 Pallas

text: , and

text: 4 Vesta

text: 16 Psyche

text: is likely the survivor of a violent hit-and-run with another object that stripped off the outer, rocky layers of a protoplanet. The asteroid

text: 21 Lutetia

text: also has characteristics that resemble a protoplanet.

text: Kuiper-belt

text: dwarf planet

text: s have also been referred to as protoplanets. Because

text: iron meteorite

text: s have been found on Earth, it is deemed likely that there once were other metal-cored protoplanets in the

text: asteroid belt

text: that since have been disrupted and that are the source of these meteorites.

text: Michael E. Brown and his team at Caltech had also been observing Haumea, and for a longer period of time than Ortiz, but had withheld publication pending securing its orbital parameters. Brown initially supported Ortiz and his team being given credit for the discovery. However, he withdrew that support when it turned out that Ortiz had accessed Brown's public observation logs and research just before announcing the discovery. Additional information was provided that showed that Ortiz and his team only started researching this object after looking at Brown's Caltech telescope files. After ignoring requests from Brown and only after a complaint was filed with the IAU, did Ortiz finally respond to the accusation. Ortiz maintained that he only did so to see if this was the same object that his team had been tracking. The IAU did not award credit to either party, but listed the Spanish observatory as the place of discovery, and accepted the Caltech suggested name of Haumea rather than Ortiz's Ataecina.

text: Michael E. Brown

text: and his team at

text: Caltech

text: had also been observing Haumea, and for a longer period of time than Ortiz, but had withheld publication pending securing its

text: orbital parameters

text: . Brown initially supported Ortiz and his team being given credit for the discovery. However, he withdrew that support when it turned out that Ortiz had accessed Brown's public observation logs and research just before announcing the discovery. Additional information was provided that showed that Ortiz and his team only started researching this object after looking at Brown's Caltech telescope files. After ignoring requests from Brown and only after a complaint was filed with the

text: IAU

text: , did Ortiz finally respond to the accusation. Ortiz maintained that he only did so to see if this was the same object that his team had been tracking. The IAU did not award credit to either party, but listed the Spanish observatory as the place of discovery, and accepted the Caltech suggested name of Haumea rather than Ortiz's

text: Ataecina

text: Kenyon has developed numerical models for planet formation and applied these calculations to the formation of debris disks and Kuiper belt objects. Kenyon and Ben Bromley have suggested that the dwarf planet Sedna in the outer solar system might be an exosolar object captured during a close encounter with another planetary system when the Sun was only a few million years old. This capture mechanism might also explain other unusual [dwarf planets] such as

text: Kenyon has developed numerical models for planet formation and applied these calculations to the formation of

text: debris disks

text: and

text: Kuiper belt objects

text: . Kenyon and Ben Bromley have suggested that the

text: dwarf planet

text: Sedna

text: in the

text: outer solar system

text: might be an exosolar object captured during a close encounter with another planetary system when the Sun was only a few million years old. This capture mechanism might also explain other unusual [dwarf planets] such as

text: Scientists such as Stephen Hawking have proposed that an initiative to colonize other planets within the solar system could improve the chance of human survival from planet-wide events such as global thermonuclear war.

text: Scientists such as

text: Stephen Hawking

text: have proposed that an initiative to

text: colonize other planets

text: within the solar system could improve the chance of human survival from planet-wide events such as global thermonuclear war.

text: Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt.It is sometimes assumed that Ceres has been reclassified as a dwarf planet, and that it is therefore no longer considered an asteroid. For example, a news update at Space.com spoke of "Pallas, the largest asteroid, and Ceres, the dwarf planet formerly classified as an asteroid", whereas an IAU question-and-answer posting states, "Ceres is (or now we can say it was) the largest asteroid", though it then speaks of "other asteroids" crossing Ceres' path and otherwise implies that Ceres is still considered an asteroid. The Minor Planet Center notes that such bodies may have dual designations. The 2006 IAU decision that classified Ceres as a dwarf planet never addressed whether it is or is not an asteroid. Indeed, the IAU has never defined the word 'asteroid' at all, having preferred the term 'minor planet' until 2006, and preferring the terms 'small Solar System body' and 'dwarf planet' after 2006. Lang (2011) comments "the [IAU has] added a new designation to Ceres, classifying it as a dwarf planet. ... By [its] definition, Eris, Haumea, Makemake and Pluto, as well as the largest asteroid, 1 Ceres, are all dwarf planets", and describes it elsewhere as "the dwarf planet–asteroid 1 Ceres". NASA continues to refer to Ceres as an asteroid, as do various academic textbooks.

text: Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt.It is sometimes assumed that Ceres has been reclassified as a dwarf planet, and that it is therefore no longer considered an asteroid. For example, a news update at Space.com spoke of "Pallas, the largest asteroid, and Ceres, the dwarf planet formerly classified as an asteroid", whereas an IAU question-and-answer posting states, "Ceres is (or now we can say it was) the largest asteroid", though it then speaks of "other asteroids" crossing Ceres' path and otherwise implies that Ceres is still considered an asteroid. The

text: Minor Planet Center

text: notes that such bodies may have dual designations. The 2006 IAU decision that classified Ceres as a dwarf planet never addressed whether it is or is not an asteroid. Indeed, the IAU has never defined the word 'asteroid' at all, having preferred the term '

text: minor planet

text: ' until 2006, and preferring the terms '

text: small Solar System body

text: ' and 'dwarf planet' after 2006. Lang (2011) comments "the [IAU has] added a new designation to Ceres, classifying it as a dwarf planet. ... By [its] definition,

text: Eris

text: Haumea

text: Makemake

text: and Pluto, as well as the largest asteroid, 1 Ceres, are all dwarf planets", and describes it elsewhere as "the dwarf planet–asteroid 1 Ceres". NASA continues to refer to Ceres as an asteroid, as do various academic textbooks.

text: One example of observatory synergy is solar system and asteroid studies.  Small bodies, such as small moons and asteroids, are too small and/or distant to be directly resolved even by Hubble; their image appears as a diffraction pattern determined by brightness, not size.  However, the minimum size can be deduced by Hubble through knowledge of the body's albedo.  The maximum size can be determined by Spitzer through knowledge of the body's temperature, which is largely known from its orbit.  Thus, the body's true size is bracketed.  Further spectroscopy by Spitzer can determine the chemical composition of the object's surface, which limits its possible albedos, and therefore sharpens the low size estimate.

text: One example of observatory synergy is solar system and asteroid studies.  Small bodies, such as small

text: moons

text: and

text: asteroid

text: s, are too small and/or distant to be directly resolved even by Hubble; their image appears as a

text: diffraction

text: pattern determined by brightness, not size.  However, the minimum size can be deduced by Hubble through knowledge of the body's

text: albedo

text: .  The maximum size can be determined by Spitzer through knowledge of the body's temperature, which is largely known from its orbit.  Thus, the body's true size is bracketed.  Further

text: spectroscopy

text: by Spitzer can determine the chemical composition of the object's surface, which limits its possible albedos, and therefore sharpens the low size estimate.

text: Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, concentrated solar power and solar architecture, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces. The International Energy Agency projected that solar power could provide "a third of the global final energy demand after 2060, while CO emissions would be reduced to very low levels." Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

text: Solar energy, radiant

text: light

text: and

text: heat

text: from the

text: sun

text: , has been harnessed by humans since

text: ancient times

text: using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include

text: solar heating

text: solar photovoltaics

text: concentrated solar power

text: and

text: solar architecture

text: , which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces. The

text: International Energy Agency

text: projected that solar power could provide "a third of the global final energy demand after 2060, while CO emissions would be reduced to very low levels." Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either

text: passive solar

text: or

text: active solar

text: depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of

text: photovoltaic system

text: s and

text: solar thermal collector

text: s to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable

text: thermal mass

text: or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that

text: naturally circulate air

text: He is lead editor of the University of Arizona's Space Science series book “Meteorites and the Early Solar System II” (2006, University of Arizona Press) ISBN 978-0-8165-2562-1.

text: is a meteoroid discovered on February 4, 2011 by Richard A. Kowalski, at the Catalina Sky Survey. On the same day the meteoroid passed within 0.85 Earth radii () of Earth's surface, and was perturbed from the Apollo class to the Aten class of near-Earth objects. With a relative velocity of only 9.7 km/s, had the asteroid passed less than 0.5 Earth radii from Earth's surface, it would have fallen as a brilliant fireball. The meteoroid is between  and  wide. The meteoroid was removed from the Sentry Risk Table on February 5, 2011.

text: is a

text: meteoroid

text: discovered on February 4, 2011 by

text: Richard A. Kowalski

text: , at the

text: Catalina Sky Survey

text: . On the same day the meteoroid passed within 0.85

text: Earth radii

text: () of Earth's surface, and was

text: perturbed

text: from the

text: Apollo

text: class to the

text: Aten

text: class of near-Earth objects. With a relative velocity of only 9.7 km/s, had the asteroid passed less than 0.5 Earth radii from Earth's surface, it would have fallen as a brilliant

text: fireball

text: . The meteoroid is between  and  wide. The meteoroid was removed from the

text: Sentry Risk Table

text: on February 5, 2011.

text: Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent, present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites, comets and even large asteroids. Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems. Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects.

text: Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent, present even in the

text: solar atmosphere

text: as well as every planet in the

text: Solar System

text: and many

text: astronomical object

text: s including

text: natural satellite

text: s,

text: comet

text: s and even large

text: asteroid

text: s. Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems. Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects.

text: Tattooing and stylist careers enable players to modify other Sims. The complexity of the tattoo system allows for players to produce unique designs by selecting tattoo shapes, colors and layers, and stylists design outfits and hairstyles. These examples bridge Create-a-Sim Mode and Live Mode, meaning real-time modification of Sims is practical for the first time in  the Sims series.There are 6 possible ways a Sim may die: starvation, drowning, fire, electrocution, old age, or Mummy's Curse. A seventh possible death scenario has been added with Ambitions, Meteor Death. A meteor can strike at any time. If you have Seasons and Ambitions, you can make an alien summon a meteor. If your Sim is under the shadow of the meteor, it will fall on your Sim and kill him/her.

text: An installation of the Sweden Solar System representing Pluto and Charon lies near the southern lake; the pillars holding the model objects are made of dellenite.

text: An installation of the

text: Sweden Solar System

text: representing

text: Pluto

text: and

text: Charon

text: lies near the southern lake; the pillars holding the model objects are made of dellenite.

text: Although the governor and state of Pennsylvania agreed with Erie's objectives, people in other states criticized Pennsylvania for its "selfishness". The United States Representative from Ohio, Edward Wade, suggested that Pennsylvania's nickname be changed to the "Shylock State" because it "demanded a 'pound of flesh' from all who passed its borders".

text: Although the governor and state of Pennsylvania agreed with Erie's objectives, people in other states criticized Pennsylvania for its "selfishness". The

text: United States Representative

text: from Ohio,

text: Edward Wade

text: , suggested that Pennsylvania's nickname be changed to the "

text: Shylock

text: State" because it "demanded a 'pound of flesh' from all who passed its borders".

text: Several groups of carbonaceous chondrites, notably the CM and CI groups, contain high percentages (3% to 22%) of water, as well as organic compounds. They are composed mainly of silicates, oxides and sulfides, with the minerals olivine and serpentine being characteristic. The presence of volatile organic chemicals and water indicates that they have not undergone significant heating (>200 °C) since they were formed, and their compositions are considered to be close to that of the solar nebula from which the Solar System condensed. Other groups of C chondrites, e.g., CO, CV, and CK chondrites, are relatively poor in volatile compounds, and some of these have experienced significant heating on their parent asteroids.

text: Several groups of carbonaceous chondrites, notably the

text: CM

text: and

text: CI

text: groups, contain high percentages (3% to 22%) of

text: water

text: , as well as

text: organic compound

text: s. They are composed mainly of

text: silicate

text: s,

text: oxide

text: s and

text: sulfide

text: s, with the minerals

text: olivine

text: and

text: serpentine

text: being characteristic. The presence of volatile organic chemicals and water indicates that they have not undergone significant heating (>200 °C) since they were formed, and their compositions are considered to be close to that of the

text: solar nebula

text: from which the

text: Solar System

text: condensed. Other groups of C chondrites, e.g., CO, CV, and CK chondrites, are relatively poor in volatile compounds, and some of these have experienced significant heating on their parent asteroids.

text: One of the nearest stars in Caelum is the eclipsing binary star RR Caeli, at a distance of . This star system consists of a dim red dwarf and a white dwarf. Despite its closeness to the Earth, the system's apparent magnitude is only 14.40 due to the faintness of its components, and thus it cannot be easily seen with amateur equipment. In 2012, the system was found to contain a giant planet, and there is evidence for a second substellar body. The system is a post-common-envelope binary and is losing angular momentum over time, which will eventually cause mass transfer from the red dwarf to the white dwarf. In approximately 9–20 billion years, this will cause the system to become a cataclysmic variable.

text: One of the nearest stars in Caelum is the

text: eclipsing binary

text: star

text: RR Caeli

text: , at a distance of . This star system consists of a dim

text: red dwarf

text: and a

text: white dwarf

text: . Despite its closeness to the Earth, the system's apparent magnitude is only 14.40 due to the faintness of its components, and thus it cannot be easily seen with amateur equipment. In 2012, the system was found to contain a

text: giant planet

text: , and there is evidence for a second substellar body. The system is a

text: post-common-envelope binary

text: and is losing

text: angular momentum

text: over time, which will eventually cause

text: mass transfer

text: from the red dwarf to the white dwarf. In approximately 9–20 billion years, this will cause the system to become a

text: cataclysmic variable

text: IAU protocol is that discovery credit for a minor planet goes to whoever first submits a report to the MPC with enough positional data for a decent orbit determination, and that the credited discoverer has priority in naming it. This was Ortiz et al., and they proposed the name Ataecina, an Iberian goddess of the underworld. She is the equivalent of the Roman goddess Proserpina, who was in turn one of Pluto's lovers. However, as a chthonic deity, Ataecina would only have been an appropriate name for an object in orbital resonance with Neptune, which Haumea was not.

text: IAU protocol is that discovery credit for a

text: minor planet

text: goes to whoever first submits a report to the MPC with enough positional data for a decent orbit determination, and that the credited discoverer has priority in naming it. This was Ortiz et al., and they proposed the name

text: Ataecina

text: , an

text: Iberian

text: goddess of the

text: underworld

text: . She is the equivalent of the

text: Roman

text: goddess

text: Proserpina

text: , who was in turn one of

text: Pluto

text: 's lovers. However, as a

text: chthonic

text: deity, Ataecina would only have been an appropriate name for an object in

text: orbital resonance

text: with

text: Neptune

text: , which Haumea was not.

text: Relatively cool objects (temperatures less than several thousand degrees) emit their radiation primarily in the infrared, as described by Planck's law. As a result, most objects that are cooler than stars are better studied in the infrared. This includes the clouds of the interstellar medium,  brown dwarfs, planets both in our own and other solar systems, comets and Kuiper belt objects.

text: Relatively cool objects (temperatures less than several thousand degrees) emit their radiation primarily in the infrared, as described by

text: Planck's law

text: . As a result, most objects that are cooler than stars are better studied in the infrared. This includes the clouds of the

text: interstellar medium

text: brown dwarfs

text: planets

text: both in our own and other solar systems,

text: comets

text: and

text: Kuiper belt objects

text: The P-type asteroids are some of the darkest objects in the Solar System with very low albedos (pv<0.1) and appear to be organic-rich, similar to carbonaceous chondrites. Their colors are somewhat redder than S-type asteroids and they do not show spectral features. The red coloration may be caused by organic compounds related to kerogen. The reflectance spectra of P-type asteroids can be reproduced through a combination of 31% CI and 49% CM groups of carbonaceous chondrite meteorites, plus 20% Tagish lake meteorites, after undergoing thermal metamorphism and space weathering.

text: The P-type asteroids are some of the darkest objects in the

text: Solar System

text: with very low albedos (pv<0.1) and appear to be organic-rich, similar to carbonaceous chondrites. Their colors are somewhat redder than

text: S-type asteroid

text: s and they do not show spectral features. The red coloration may be caused by organic compounds related to

text: kerogen

text: . The reflectance spectra of P-type asteroids can be reproduced through a combination of 31% CI and 49% CM groups of

text: carbonaceous chondrite

text: meteorites, plus 20%

text: Tagish lake meteorites

text: , after undergoing thermal metamorphism and

text: space weathering

text: If q was 1 or less, the law would imply an infinite number and mass of large objects in the Kuiper belt. If 1<q≤4 there will be a finite number of objects greater than a given size, but the expected value of their combined mass would be infinite. If q is 4 or more, the law would imply an infinite mass of small objects. More accurate models find that the "slope" parameter q is in effect greater at large diameters and lesser at small diameters. It seems that Pluto is somewhat unexpectedly large, having several percent of the total mass of the Kuiper belt. It is not expected that anything larger than Pluto exists in the Kuiper belt, and in fact most of the brightest (largest) objects at inclinations less than 5° have probably been found.

text: If q was 1 or less, the law would imply an infinite number and mass of large objects in the Kuiper belt. If 1<q≤4 there will be a finite number of objects greater than a given size, but the

text: expected value

text: of their combined mass would be infinite. If q is 4 or more, the law would imply an infinite mass of small objects. More accurate models find that the "slope" parameter q is in effect greater at large diameters and lesser at small diameters. It seems that

text: Pluto

text: is somewhat unexpectedly large, having several percent of the total mass of the Kuiper belt. It is not expected that anything larger than Pluto exists in the Kuiper belt, and in fact most of the brightest (largest) objects at inclinations less than 5° have probably been found.

text: Although the mass of 2M1207b is less than that required for deuterium fusion to occur, some 13 times the mass of Jupiter, and the image of 2M1207b has been widely hailed as the first direct image of an exoplanet, it may be questioned whether 2M1207b is actually a planet.  Some definitions of the term planet require a planet to have formed in the same way as the planets in the Solar System did, by secondary accretion in a protoplanetary disk.  With such a definition, if 2M1207b formed by direct gravitational collapse of a gaseous nebula, it would be a sub-brown dwarf rather than a planet.  A similar debate exists regarding the identity of GQ Lupi b, also first imaged in 2004.  On the other hand, the discovery of marginal cases like Cha 110913-773444—a free-floating, planetary-mass object—raises the question of whether distinction by formation is a reliable dividing line between stars/brown dwarfs and planets.  As of 2006, the International Astronomical Union  Working Group on Extrasolar Planets described 2M1207b as a "possible planetary-mass companion to a brown dwarf."

text: Although the mass of 2M1207b is less than that required for deuterium fusion to occur, some 13 times the mass of Jupiter, and the image of 2M1207b has been widely hailed as the first direct image of an exoplanet, it may be questioned whether 2M1207b is actually a planet.  Some

text: definitions of the term planet

text: require a planet to have formed in the same way as the planets in the

text: Solar System

text: did, by secondary accretion in a

text: protoplanetary disk

text: .  With such a definition, if 2M1207b formed by direct

text: gravitational collapse

text: of a gaseous

text: nebula

text: , it would be a

text: sub-brown dwarf

text: rather than a planet.  A similar debate exists regarding the identity of

text: GQ Lupi b

text: , also first imaged in 2004.  On the other hand, the discovery of marginal cases like

text: Cha 110913-773444

text: —a free-floating, planetary-mass object—raises the question of whether distinction by formation is a reliable dividing line between stars/brown dwarfs and planets.  As of 2006, the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: Working Group on Extrasolar Planets described 2M1207b as a "possible planetary-mass companion to a brown dwarf."

text: He was born in 1958 in England, and is a 1979 graduate of University College, London (UCL). Jewitt received an M.Sc. and a Ph.D. in astronomy at the California Institute of Technology in 1980 and 1983, respectively. His research interests cover all aspects of the solar system, including the trans-Neptunian Solar System, Solar System formation, ice in the asteroids and the physical properties of comets. Along with Jane Luu, he discovered the first Kuiper belt object (other than Pluto and its largest moon Charon) in 1992 and subsequently identified dozens of additional belt members in a series of pioneering wide field surveys. From these, he discovered that the belt is dynamically divided into regions – the classical Kuiper belt (circular, uninclined orbits, exemplified by ), the scattered disc (also called the "scattered Kuiper belt", which bodies have large elliptical orbits with perihelion near Neptune, discovered in 1997) and the Resonant Kuiper belt objects, whose periods are related simply to Neptune's. Those resonant objects in the 3:2 mean-motion resonance he called plutinos as a reminder that Pluto is one such object. These resonant objects can only be explained if Neptune migrated outwards, opening the door to new models of the Solar System in which unsuspected planet-disk and planet-planet interactions can be important.

text: He was born in 1958 in

text: England

text: , and is a 1979 graduate of

text: University College, London

text: (UCL). Jewitt received an M.Sc. and a Ph.D. in astronomy at the

text: California Institute of Technology

text: in 1980 and 1983, respectively. His research interests cover all aspects of the solar system, including the

text: trans-Neptunian Solar System

text: Solar System

text: formation, ice in the asteroids and the physical properties of

text: comet

text: s. Along with

text: Jane Luu

text: , he discovered the first

text: Kuiper belt object

text: (other than

text: Pluto

text: and its largest moon

text: Charon

text: ) in 1992 and subsequently identified dozens of additional belt members in a series of pioneering wide field surveys. From these, he discovered that the belt is dynamically divided into regions – the

text: classical Kuiper belt

text: (circular, uninclined orbits, exemplified by ), the

text: scattered disc

text: (also called the "scattered Kuiper belt", which bodies have large elliptical orbits with perihelion near Neptune, discovered in 1997) and the

text: Resonant Kuiper belt object

text: s, whose periods are related simply to Neptune's. Those resonant objects in the

text: mean-motion

text: resonance

text: he called

text: plutino

text: s as a reminder that Pluto is one such object. These resonant objects can only be explained if Neptune migrated outwards, opening the door to new models of the Solar System in which unsuspected planet-disk and planet-planet interactions can be important.

text: The original Nice model was not without its own problems, however. During Jupiter's and Saturn's divergent migration secular resonances sweep through the inner Solar System. As the ν secular resonance sweeps through the terrestrial planet region it excites eccentricities beyond their current values potentially destabilizing the inner Solar System. Jupiter's and Saturn's slow approach to the 2:1 resonance is particularly problematic as in numerical simulations Mars's orbit intersects those of the other planets resulting in collisions between planets or in Mars's ejection from the Solar System. The orbits of the asteroids are also significantly altered: the ν secular resonance excites inclinations and the ν secular resonance excites eccentricities removing low-inclination asteroids as they sweep across the asteroid belt. As a result, the surviving asteroid belt is left with a larger fraction of high inclination objects than is currently observed.

text: The original Nice model was not without its own problems, however. During Jupiter's and Saturn's divergent migration

text: secular resonance

text: s sweep through the inner Solar System. As the ν secular resonance sweeps through the

text: terrestrial planet

text: region it excites eccentricities beyond their current values potentially destabilizing the inner Solar System. Jupiter's and Saturn's slow approach to the 2:1 resonance is particularly problematic as in numerical simulations

text: Mars

text: 's orbit intersects those of the other planets resulting in collisions between planets or in Mars's ejection from the Solar System. The orbits of the

text: asteroids

text: are also significantly altered: the ν secular resonance excites inclinations and the ν secular resonance excites eccentricities removing low-inclination asteroids as they sweep across the asteroid belt. As a result, the surviving asteroid belt is left with a larger fraction of high inclination objects than is currently observed.

text: The scattered disc is a sparsely populated region, overlapping with the Kuiper belt but extending to beyond 100 AU. Scattered disc objects (SDOs) have very elliptical orbits, often also very inclined to the ecliptic. Most models of Solar System formation show both KBOs and SDOs first forming in a primordial belt, with later gravitational interactions, particularly with Neptune, sending the objects outward, some into stable orbits (the KBOs) and some into unstable orbits, the scattered disc. Due to its unstable nature, the scattered disc is suspected to be the point of origin of many of the Solar System's short-period comets. Their dynamic orbits occasionally force them into the inner Solar System, first becoming centaurs, and then short-period comets.

text: The scattered disc is a sparsely populated region, overlapping with the Kuiper belt but extending to beyond 100 AU. Scattered disc objects (SDOs) have very elliptical orbits, often also very inclined to the ecliptic. Most models of Solar System formation show both KBOs and SDOs first forming in a primordial belt, with later gravitational interactions, particularly with Neptune, sending the objects outward, some into stable orbits (the KBOs) and some into unstable orbits, the scattered disc. Due to its unstable nature, the scattered disc is suspected to be the point of origin of many of the Solar System's short-period comets. Their dynamic orbits occasionally force them into the inner Solar System, first becoming

text: centaurs

text: , and then short-period comets.

text: One of the many possible reasons for the existence of the desert relates to planetary (and brown dwarf) migration. If a brown dwarf were to form within 5 AU of its companion star, it could plausibly begin migrating inwards towards the central star and eventually fall into the star itself. That being said, the exact details of migration within a proto-planetary disk are not completely understood, and it is equally plausible that brown dwarf companions to FGK dwarfs would not undergo appreciable migration after their formation. A second possible reason is, depending on which formation paradigm is invoked, that a formation by core accretion should make the formation of higher mass brown dwarfs unlikely, as the gas accretion rate during runaway accretion onto high mass forming objects is reduced due to gap formation in the disk. The limited disk life time then truncates the mass range, limiting the maximum masses to approximately 10 Jupiter masses ().This effect might be somewhat mitigated by the fact that objects of  and above might excite eccentric perturbations in the disk, allowing for non-negligible mass accretion even in the presence of a gap.Objects that form further outside (a>80 AU), where the disk is prone to gravitational instabilities, might be able to reach the masses required to cross the planet—brown dwarf threshold. For these objects it might be unlikely to migrate into the inner regions of the disk, however, due to the long type-II migration timescale for massive objects in the brown dwarf mass regime.

text: One of the many possible reasons for the existence of the desert relates to

text: planetary (and brown dwarf) migration

text: . If a brown dwarf were to form within 5 AU of its companion star, it could plausibly begin migrating inwards towards the central star and eventually fall into the star itself. That being said, the exact details of migration within a

text: proto-planetary disk

text: are not completely understood, and it is equally plausible that brown dwarf companions to FGK dwarfs would not undergo appreciable migration after their formation. A second possible reason is, depending on which formation paradigm is invoked, that a formation by

text: core accretion

text: should make the formation of higher mass brown dwarfs unlikely, as the gas accretion rate during runaway accretion onto high mass forming objects is reduced due to gap formation in the disk. The limited disk life time then truncates the mass range, limiting the maximum masses to approximately 10 Jupiter masses ().This effect might be somewhat mitigated by the fact that objects of  and above might excite eccentric perturbations in the disk, allowing for non-negligible mass accretion even in the presence of a gap.Objects that form further outside (a>80 AU), where the disk is prone to gravitational instabilities, might be able to reach the masses required to cross the planet—brown dwarf threshold. For these objects it might be unlikely to migrate into the inner regions of the disk, however, due to the long type-II migration timescale for massive objects in the brown dwarf mass regime.

text: The asteroid belt occupies the orbit between Mars and Jupiter, between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun. It is thought to be remnants from the Solar System's formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational interference of Jupiter. The asteroid belt contains tens of thousands, possibly millions, of objects over one kilometre in diameter. Despite this, the total mass of the asteroid belt is unlikely to be more than a thousandth of that of Earth. The asteroid belt is very sparsely populated; spacecraft routinely pass through without incident.

text: The asteroid belt occupies the orbit between Mars and Jupiter, between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun. It is thought to be remnants from the Solar System's formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational interference of Jupiter. The asteroid belt contains tens of thousands, possibly millions, of objects over one kilometre in diameter. Despite this, the total mass of the asteroid belt is unlikely to be more than a thousandth of that of Earth. The asteroid belt is very sparsely populated;

text: spacecraft

text: routinely pass through without incident.

text: Most other large trans-Neptunian objects have at least one satellite:  has one,  has two, Pluto has five, and  has one satellite. 10% to 20% of all trans-Neptunian objects are expected to have one or more satellites. Because satellites offer a simple method to measure an object's mass, Makemake's satellite should lead to better estimates of its mass.

text: Most other large trans-Neptunian objects have at least one satellite:  has

text: one

text: ,  has

text: two

text: Pluto

text: has

text: five

text: , and  has one satellite. 10% to 20% of all

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s are expected to have one or more satellites. Because satellites offer a simple method to measure an object's mass, Makemake's satellite should lead to better estimates of its mass.

text: Jeanne Cavelos theorized in The Science of Star Wars that the frequency of meteoroids bombarding Hoth indicated that the planet was relatively young since in older solar systems, the debris is more cleared out. Since Hoth has complex lifeforms, Cavolos said the planet's age may be older, in the range of several billion years. The author said Hoth could be similar to Earth in age but lack neighboring planets like Jupiter and Saturn to shelter it from meteoroid impacts. She also said with the asteroid belt depicted in the film as close to Hoth that the belt was a likely source for meteoroids. (The asteroid belt itself is unrealistically depicted as being closely clustered, which would normally mean that the asteroids would be reduced to sand-sized rubble over a long enough timespan.)

text: Jeanne Cavelos theorized in

text: The Science of Star Wars

text: that the frequency of

text: meteoroid

text: s bombarding Hoth indicated that the planet was relatively young since in older solar systems, the debris is more cleared out. Since Hoth has complex lifeforms, Cavolos said the planet's age may be older, in the range of several billion years. The author said Hoth could be similar to

text: Earth

text: in age but lack neighboring planets like

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Saturn

text: to shelter it from meteoroid impacts. She also said with the

text: asteroid belt

text: depicted in the film as close to Hoth that the belt was a likely source for meteoroids. (The asteroid belt itself is unrealistically depicted as being closely clustered, which would normally mean that the asteroids would be reduced to sand-sized rubble over a long enough timespan.)

text: This is a partial list of Solar System objects by size, arranged in descending order of mean volumetric radius, and subdivided into several size classes. These lists can also be sorted according to an object's mass and, for the largest objects, volume, density and surface gravity, insofar as these values are available. This list contains the Sun, the planets, dwarf planets, many of the larger small Solar System bodies (which includes the asteroids), all named natural satellites, and a number of smaller objects of historical or scientific interest, such as comets and near-Earth objects.

text: This is a partial list of Solar System objects by size, arranged in descending order of mean volumetric

text: radius

text: , and subdivided into several size classes. These lists can also be sorted according to an object's mass and, for the largest objects, volume, density and surface gravity, insofar as these values are available. This list contains the

text: Sun

text: , the

text: planet

text: s,

text: dwarf planet

text: s, many of the larger

text: small Solar System bodies

text: (which includes the

text: asteroid

text: s), all named

text: natural satellite

text: s, and a number of smaller objects of historical or scientific interest, such as

text: comet

text: s and

text: near-Earth object

text: s.

text: , also written as 2008 ST291, is a trans-Neptunian object with an absolute magnitude of 4.2, making it possibly a dwarf planet.

text: , also written as 2008 ST291, is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: with an

text: absolute magnitude

text: of 4.2, making it

text: possibly a dwarf planet

text: Moons of solid Solar System bodies have been created by both collisions and capture. Mars's two small moons, Deimos and Phobos, are thought to be captured asteroids.The Earth's Moon is thought to have formed as a result of a single, large head-on collision.The impacting object probably had a mass comparable to that of Mars, and the impact probably occurred near the end of the period of giant impacts. The collision kicked into orbit some of the impactor's mantle, which then coalesced into the Moon. The impact was probably the last in the series of mergers that formed the Earth.It has been further hypothesized that the Mars-sized object may have formed at one of the stable Earth–Sun Lagrangian points (either  or ) and drifted from its position. The moons of trans-Neptunian objects Pluto (Charon) and Orcus (Vanth) may also have formed by means of a large collision: the Pluto–Charon, Orcus–Vanth and Earth–Moon systems are unusual in the Solar System in that the satellite's mass is at least 1% that of the larger body.

text: Moons of solid Solar System bodies have been created by both collisions and capture.

text: Mars

text: 's two small moons,

text: Deimos

text: and

text: Phobos

text: , are thought to be captured

text: asteroid

text: s.The Earth's

text: Moon

text: is thought to have formed as a result of a single, large head-on

text: collision

text: .The impacting object probably had a mass comparable to that of Mars, and the impact probably occurred near the end of the period of giant impacts. The collision kicked into orbit some of the impactor's mantle, which then coalesced into the Moon. The impact was probably the last in the series of mergers that formed the Earth.It has been further hypothesized that the Mars-sized object may have formed at one of the stable Earth–Sun

text: Lagrangian point

text: s (either  or ) and drifted from its position. The moons of

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s Pluto (

text: Charon

text: ) and

text: Orcus

text: Vanth

text: ) may also have formed by means of a large collision: the Pluto–Charon, Orcus–Vanth and Earth–Moon systems are unusual in the Solar System in that the satellite's mass is at least 1% that of the larger body.

text: Estimates for the habitable zone within the Solar System range from 0.5 to 3.0 astronomical units, though arriving at these estimates has been challenging for a variety of reasons. Numerous planetary mass objects orbit within, or close to, this range and as such receive sufficient sunlight to raise temperatures above the freezing point of water. However their atmospheric conditions vary substantially. The aphelion of Venus, for example, touches the inner edge of the zone and while atmospheric pressure at the surface is sufficient for liquid water, a strong greenhouse effect raises surface temperatures to  at which water can only exist as vapour. The entire orbits of the Moon, Mars, and numerous asteroids also lie within various estimates of the habitable zone. Only at Mars' lowest elevations (less than 30% of the planet's surface) is atmospheric pressure and temperature sufficient for water to, if present, exist in liquid form for short periods. At Hellas Basin, for example, atmospheric pressures can reach 1,115 Pa and temperatures above zero Celsius (around the triple point for water) for 70 days in the Martian year. Despite indirect evidence in the form of seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes, no confirmation has been made of the presence of liquid water there. While other objects orbit partly within this zone, including comets, Ceres is the only one of planetary mass. A combination of low mass and an inability to mitigate evaporation and atmosphere loss against the solar wind make it impossible for these bodies to sustain liquid water on their surface. Most estimates, therefore, are inferred from the effect that a repositioned orbit would have on the habitability of Earth or Venus.

text: Estimates for the habitable zone within the Solar System range from 0.5 to 3.0

text: astronomical units

text: , though arriving at these estimates has been challenging for a variety of reasons. Numerous planetary mass objects orbit within, or close to, this range and as such receive sufficient sunlight to raise temperatures above the freezing point of water. However their atmospheric conditions vary substantially. The aphelion of Venus, for example, touches the inner edge of the zone and while atmospheric pressure at the surface is sufficient for liquid water, a strong greenhouse effect raises surface temperatures to  at which water can only exist as vapour. The entire orbits of the

text: Moon

text: Mars

text: , and numerous asteroids also lie within various estimates of the habitable zone. Only at Mars' lowest elevations (less than 30% of the planet's surface) is atmospheric pressure and temperature sufficient for water to, if present, exist in liquid form for short periods. At

text: Hellas Basin

text: , for example, atmospheric pressures can reach 1,115 Pa and temperatures above zero Celsius (around the triple point for water) for 70 days in the Martian year. Despite indirect evidence in the form of

text: seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes

text: , no confirmation has been made of the presence of liquid water there. While other objects orbit partly within this zone, including comets,

text: Ceres

text: is the only one of planetary mass. A combination of low mass and an inability to mitigate evaporation and atmosphere loss against the solar wind make it impossible for these bodies to sustain liquid water on their surface. Most estimates, therefore, are inferred from the effect that a repositioned orbit would have on the habitability of Earth or Venus.

text: This mode displays the major solar system objects from the Sun to Pluto, and Jupiter's moons, orbits of all solar system moons, all 550,000+ minor planets all positioned with their correct scale, position and phase. The user can move forward and backward in time at various rates, or type in a time and date for which to view the positions of the planets, and can select viewing location. The program can show the solar system the way it would look from any location at any time between 1 AD and 4000 AD. Using this tool a user can watch an eclipse  (e.g., 2017 total solar eclipse) occultation, or astronomical alignment, and preview where the best spot might be to observe a future event. In this mode it is possible to zoom away from the Solar System, through the Milky Way, and out into the cosmos to see a hypothetical view of the entire known universe. Other bodies, spacecraft and orbital reference frames can be added and visualized in the Solar System Mode using the layer manager.

text: This mode displays the major solar system objects from the Sun to Pluto, and Jupiter's moons, orbits of all solar system moons, all 550,000+ minor planets all positioned with their correct scale, position and phase. The user can move forward and backward in time at various rates, or type in a time and date for which to view the positions of the planets, and can select viewing location. The program can show the solar system the way it would look from any location at any time between 1 AD and 4000 AD. Using this tool a user can watch an

text: eclipse

text: (e.g., 2017 total solar eclipse)

text: occultation

text: , or astronomical alignment, and preview where the best spot might be to observe a future event. In this mode it is possible to zoom away from the Solar System, through the Milky Way, and out into the cosmos to see a hypothetical view of the entire known universe. Other bodies, spacecraft and orbital reference frames can be added and visualized in the Solar System Mode using the layer manager.

text: LEPOR series have shown their good performances in the ACL's annual international workshop of statistical machine translation (ACL-WMT). ACL-WMT is held by the special interest group of machine translation (SIGMT) in the international association for computational linguistics (ACL). In the ACL-WMT 2013, there are two translation and evaluation tracks, English-to-other and other-to-English. The "other" languages include Spanish, French, German, Czech and Russian. In the English-to-other direction, nLEPOR metric achieves the highest system-level correlation score with human judgments using the Pearson correlation coefficient, the second highest system-level correlation score with human judgments using the Spearman rank correlation coefficient. In the other-to-English direction, nLEPOR performs moderate and METEOR yields the highest correlation score with human judgments, which is due to the fact that nLEPOR only uses the concise linguistic feature, part-of-speech information, except for the officially offered training data; however, METEOR has used many other external resources, such as the synonyms dictionaries, paraphrase, and stemming, etc.

text: LEPOR series have shown their good performances in the ACL's annual international workshop of statistical machine translation (ACL-WMT). ACL-WMT is held by the special interest group of machine translation (SIGMT) in the international association for computational linguistics (ACL). In the ACL-WMT 2013, there are two translation and evaluation tracks, English-to-other and other-to-English. The "other" languages include Spanish, French, German, Czech and Russian. In the English-to-other direction, nLEPOR metric achieves the highest system-level correlation score with human judgments using the Pearson correlation coefficient, the second highest system-level correlation score with human judgments using the

text: Spearman rank correlation coefficient

text: . In the other-to-English direction, nLEPOR performs moderate and

text: METEOR

text: yields the highest correlation score with human judgments, which is due to the fact that nLEPOR only uses the concise linguistic feature, part-of-speech information, except for the officially offered training data; however, METEOR has used many other external resources, such as the

text: synonym

text: s dictionaries,

text: paraphrase

text: , and

text: stemming

text: , etc.

text: Provisionally, they assigned these objects to Category II. However, they state that more research is needed, because there is a remote possibility that the tidal interactions of Pluto and Charon could maintain some water reservoir below the surface. Similar considerations apply to the other larger KBOs.

text: Research that involves the small bodies of the solar system is also published. Small bodies describes dust, objects of rings, asteroids, comets, zodiacal light. This research also describes their interaction with solar radiation and the solar wind.

text: The most notable examples of mass-independent fractionation in nature are found in the isotopes of oxygen and sulfur. The first example was discovered by Robert N. Clayton, Toshiko Mayeda, and Lawrence Grossman in 1973, in the oxygen isotopic composition of refractory calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions in the Allende meteorite. The inclusions, thought to be among the oldest solid materials in the Solar System, show a pattern of low O/O and O/O relative to samples from the Earth and Moon. Both ratios vary by the same amount in the inclusions, although the mass difference between O and O is almost twice as large as the difference between O and O. Originally this was interpreted as evidence of incomplete mixing of O-rich material (created and distributed by a large star in a supernova) into the Solar nebula. However, recent measurement of the oxygen-isotope composition of the Solar wind, using samples collected by the Genesis spacecraft, shows that the most O-rich inclusions are close to the bulk composition of the solar system. This implies that Earth, the Moon, Mars and asteroids all formed from O- and O-enriched material.  Photochemical dissociation of carbon monoxide in the Solar nebula has been proposed to explain this isotope fractionation.

text: The most notable examples of mass-independent fractionation in nature are found in the isotopes of

text: oxygen

text: and

text: sulfur

text: . The first example was discovered by Robert N. Clayton, Toshiko Mayeda, and Lawrence Grossman in 1973, in the oxygen isotopic composition of

text: refractory

text: calcium-aluminium-rich inclusion

text: s in the

text: Allende meteorite

text: . The inclusions, thought to be among the oldest solid materials in the

text: Solar System

text: , show a pattern of low O/O and O/O relative to samples from the Earth and

text: Moon

text: . Both ratios vary by the same amount in the inclusions, although the mass difference between O and O is almost twice as large as the difference between O and O. Originally this was interpreted as evidence of incomplete mixing of O-rich material (created and distributed by a large star in a

text: supernova

text: ) into the

text: Solar nebula

text: . However, recent measurement of the oxygen-isotope composition of the

text: Solar wind

text: , using samples collected by the

text: Genesis spacecraft

text: , shows that the most O-rich inclusions are close to the bulk composition of the solar system. This implies that Earth, the Moon, Mars and asteroids all formed from O- and O-enriched material.  Photochemical dissociation of

text: carbon monoxide

text: in the Solar nebula has been proposed to explain this isotope fractionation.

text: Up to the present, humanity has collected samples of six identified Solar System bodies, as well as samples of the solar wind.  These samples were acquired through three methods: The collection of samples of Earth itself, the collection of meteorites that have fallen on Earth, and the collection of samples through sample-return missions.  Samples of Moon rock from Earth's Moon were collected both from meteorites and through unmanned and manned sample-return missions.  The comet Wild 2 and the asteroid 25143 Itokawa were visited by unmanned spacecraft, which returned samples to Earth.  Furthermore, samples for three identified Solar System bodies were only collected by means other than sample-return missions: samples from Earth itself, samples from Vesta in the form of HED meteorites, and samples from Mars in the form of Martian meteorites.

text: Up to the present, humanity has collected samples of six identified Solar System bodies, as well as samples of the solar wind.  These samples were acquired through three methods: The collection of samples of Earth itself, the collection of meteorites that have fallen on Earth, and the collection of samples through sample-return missions.  Samples of

text: Moon rock

text: from Earth's

text: Moon

text: were collected both from

text: meteorites

text: and through unmanned and manned sample-return missions.  The comet

text: Wild 2

text: and the asteroid

text: 25143 Itokawa

text: were visited by unmanned spacecraft, which returned samples to Earth.  Furthermore, samples for three identified Solar System bodies were only collected by means other than sample-return missions: samples from Earth itself, samples from

text: Vesta

text: in the form of

text: HED meteorite

text: s, and samples from

text: Mars

text: in the form of

text: Martian meteorite

text: s.

text: The size of a Solar System object can be deduced from its optical magnitude, its distance, and its albedo. Objects appear bright to Earth observers either because they are large or because they are highly reflective. If their reflectivity (albedo) can be ascertained, then a rough estimate can be made of their size. For most distant objects, the albedo is unknown, but Haumea is large and bright enough for its thermal emission to be measured, which has given an approximate value for its albedo and thus its size. However, the calculation of its dimensions is complicated by its rapid rotation. The rotational physics of deformable bodies predicts that over as little as a hundred days, a body rotating as rapidly as Haumea will have been distorted into the equilibrium form of a triaxial ellipsoid. It is thought that most of the fluctuation in Haumea's brightness is caused not by local differences in albedo but by the alternation of the side view and end view as seen from Earth.

text: The size of a Solar System object can be deduced from its

text: optical magnitude

text: , its distance, and its

text: albedo

text: . Objects appear bright to Earth observers either because they are large or because they are highly reflective. If their reflectivity (albedo) can be ascertained, then a rough estimate can be made of their size. For most distant objects, the albedo is unknown, but Haumea is large and bright enough for its

text: thermal emission

text: to be measured, which has given an approximate value for its albedo and thus its size. However, the calculation of its dimensions is complicated by its rapid rotation. The

text: rotational physics

text: of

text: deformable bodies

text: predicts that over as little as a hundred days, a body rotating as rapidly as Haumea will have been distorted into the

text: equilibrium form

text: of a

text: triaxial ellipsoid

text: . It is thought that most of the fluctuation in Haumea's brightness is caused not by local differences in albedo but by the alternation of the side view and end view as seen from Earth.

text: Some studies indicate that there is a natural limit, set at 1.6R, below which nearly all planets are terrestrial, composed primarily of rock-iron-water mixtures. Generally, objects with a mass below 6 M are very likely to be of similar composition as Earth. Above this limit, the density of the planets decreases with increasing size, the planet will become a "water world" and finally a gas giant. In addition, most super-Earths' high mass may cause them to lack plate tectonics.  Thus, it is expected that any exoplanet similar to Earth's density and with a radius under 1.6 R may be suitable for life. However, other studies indicate that water worlds represent a transitional stage between mini-Neptunes and the terrestrial planets, especially if they belong to red dwarfs or K dwarfs. Although water planets may be habitable, the average depth of the water and the absence of land area would not make them superhabitable as defied by Heller and Armstrong. From a geological perspective, the optimal mass of a planet is about 2 M, so it must have a radius that keeps the density of the Earth among 1.2 and 1.3R.

text: Some studies indicate that there is a natural limit, set at 1.6R, below which nearly all planets are

text: terrestrial

text: , composed primarily of rock-iron-water mixtures. Generally, objects with a mass below 6

text: M

text: are very likely to be of similar composition as Earth. Above this limit, the density of the planets decreases with increasing size, the planet will become a

text: "water world"

text: and finally a

text: gas giant

text: . In addition, most

text: super-Earth

text: s' high mass may cause them to lack

text: plate tectonics

text: .  Thus, it is expected that any exoplanet similar to Earth's density and with a radius under 1.6 R may be suitable for life. However, other studies indicate that water worlds represent a transitional stage between

text: mini-Neptune

text: s and the terrestrial planets, especially if they belong to

text: red dwarf

text: s or

text: K dwarfs

text: . Although water planets may be habitable, the average depth of the water and the absence of land area would not make them superhabitable as defied by Heller and Armstrong. From a geological perspective, the optimal mass of a planet is about 2 M, so it must have a

text: radius

text: that keeps the density of the

text: Earth

text: among 1.2 and 1.3R.

text: The Sentinel Mission program is the cornerstone of the B612 Foundation's current efforts, with its preliminary design and system architecture level reviews planned for 2014, and its critical design review to be conducted in 2015. The infrared telescope would be launched atop a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, to be placed into a Venus-trailing Heliocentric orbit around the Sun. Orbiting between the Sun and Earth, the Sun's rays would always be behind the telescope's lens and thus never inhibit the space observatory's ability to detect asteroids or other near-Earth objects (NEOs). From the vantage of its inner-solar system orbit around the Sun, Sentinel will be able to "pick up objects that are currently difficult, if not impossible, to see in advance from Earth", such as occurred with the Chelyabinsk meteor of 2013 that went undetected until its explosion over Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia. With the Sentinel Mission providing an accurate dynamic catalog of asteroids and other NEOs made available to scientists worldwide from the International Astronomical Union's Minor Planet Center, the data collected will calculate the risk of impact events with our planet, allowing for asteroid deflection by the use of gravity tractors to divert their trajectories away from Earth.

text: The

text: Sentinel Mission

text: program is the cornerstone of the B612 Foundation's current efforts, with its

text: preliminary design

text: and

text: system architecture level

text: reviews planned for 2014, and its

text: critical design review

text: to be conducted in 2015. The

text: infrared telescope

text: would be launched atop a

text: SpaceX

text: Falcon 9

text: rocket, to be placed into a

text: Venus

text: -trailing

text: Heliocentric orbit

text: around the Sun. Orbiting between the Sun and Earth, the Sun's rays would always be behind the telescope's lens and thus never inhibit the

text: space observatory

text: 's ability to detect asteroids or other

text: near-Earth object

text: s (NEOs). From the vantage of its inner-solar system orbit around the Sun, Sentinel will be able to "pick up objects that are currently difficult, if not impossible, to see in advance from Earth", such as occurred with the

text: Chelyabinsk meteor

text: of 2013 that went undetected until its explosion over

text: Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: Russia

text: . With the Sentinel Mission providing an accurate dynamic catalog of asteroids and other NEOs made available to scientists worldwide from the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: 's

text: Minor Planet Center

text: , the data collected will calculate the risk of

text: impact events

text: with our planet, allowing for asteroid deflection by the use of

text: gravity tractor

text: s to divert their trajectories away from Earth.

text: |-id=891| 92891 Bless ||  || Robert C. Bless, American astronomer, and Ph.D. advisor to the discoverer |-id=893| 92893 Michaelperson ||  || 92893 Michaelperson Discovered 2000 Aug. 27 by S. D. Kern at Cerro Tololo. Michael J. Person (b. 1970) is currently a planetary scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He specializes in occultation studies of small bodies in the outer solar system, especially Neptune I (Triton), (134340) Pluto and (134340) Pluto I (Charon).|}

text: 92891 Bless

text: Robert C. Bless

text: , American astronomer, and Ph.D. advisor to the discoverer |-id=893|

text: 92893 Michaelperson

text: ||  || 92893 Michaelperson Discovered 2000 Aug. 27 by S. D. Kern at Cerro Tololo. Michael J. Person (b. 1970) is currently a planetary scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He specializes in occultation studies of small bodies in the outer solar system, especially Neptune I (Triton), (134340) Pluto and (134340) Pluto I (Charon).|}

text: John H. Reynolds was born  in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States.  He studied first at Harvard University and, after serving in the Navy during World War II, at the University of Chicago.  There, he was influenced by his Ph.D. thesis advisor Mark Inghram and by two other famous physicists, Harold Urey and Enrico Fermi. He specialized in mass spectrometry and utilized this method to determine isotope ratios needed for the radiometric dating of geologically and cosmologically relevant samples. In 1950 he was appointed as professor to the University of California, Berkeley where he continued his research on isotope ratios in meteorites, leading to the discovery in 1960 that the Richardton meteorite and other meteorites had an excess of xenon-129, thought to be a result of the beta decay of iodine-129 in the early solar system.  His improvement of potassium-argon dating was adopted by several institutions.

text: John H. Reynolds was born  in

text: Cambridge

text: Massachusetts

text: , United States.  He studied first at

text: Harvard University

text: and, after serving in the Navy during

text: World War II

text: , at the

text: University of Chicago

text: .  There, he was influenced by his

text: Ph.D.

text: thesis advisor

text: Mark Inghram

text: and by two other famous

text: physicists

text: Harold Urey

text: and

text: Enrico Fermi

text: . He specialized in

text: mass spectrometry

text: and utilized this method to determine isotope ratios needed for the

text: radiometric dating

text: of geologically and cosmologically relevant samples. In 1950 he was appointed as professor to the

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: where he continued his research on isotope ratios in meteorites, leading to the discovery in 1960 that the

text: Richardton meteorite

text: and other meteorites had an excess of

text: xenon

text: -129, thought to be a result of the beta decay of

text: in the early

text: solar system

text: .  His improvement of

text: potassium-argon dating

text: was adopted by several institutions.

text: The entry of meteoroids into Earth's atmosphere produces three main effects: ionization of atmospheric molecules, dust that the meteoroid sheds, and the sound of passage. During the entry of a meteoroid or asteroid into the upper atmosphere, an ionization trail is created, where the air molecules are ionized by the passage of the meteor. Such ionization trails can last up to 45 minutes at a time.

text: The entry of meteoroids into Earth's atmosphere produces three main effects: ionization of atmospheric molecules, dust that the meteoroid sheds, and the sound of passage. During the entry of a meteoroid or asteroid into the

text: upper atmosphere

text: , an ionization trail is created, where the air molecules are

text: ionized

text: by the passage of the meteor. Such ionization trails can last up to 45 minutes at a time.

text: Eris (; , "Strife") is the Greek goddess of strife and discord. Her name is the equivalent of Latin Discordia, which means "discord". Eris' Greek opposite is Harmonia, whose Latin counterpart is Concordia. Homer equated her with the war-goddess Enyo, whose Roman counterpart is Bellona. The dwarf planet Eris is named after the goddess, as is the religion Discordianism.

text: Eris (; , "Strife") is the

text: Greek

text: goddess

text: of strife and discord. Her name is the equivalent of

text: Latin

text: Discordia, which means "discord". Eris' Greek opposite is

text: Harmonia

text: , whose Latin counterpart is

text: Concordia

text: Homer

text: equated her with the war-goddess

text: Enyo

text: , whose Roman counterpart is

text: Bellona

text: . The

text: dwarf planet

text: Eris

text: is named after the goddess, as is the religion

text: Discordianism

text: The migrations of the giant planets have many impact throughout the Solar System. The planetesimals scattered inward by Neptune enter planet-crossing orbits, initiating the Late Heavy Bombardment. Some of these planetesimals are jump-captured as Jupiter trojans during encounters between Jupiter and the ejected ice giant as Jupiter's semi-major axis changes.Others are captured as irregular satellites of the giant planets via three-body interactions during encounters between the ejected ice giant and the other planets. These encounters can also disturb the orbits of the regular satellites and may be responsible for the inclination of Iapetus's orbit. Saturn's rotational axis is tilted when it slowly crosses a spin-orbit resonance with Neptune. While Neptune migrates outward several AU, the hot classical Kuiper disk is formed as some planetesimals scattered outward by Neptune are captured in resonances, undergo an exchange of eccentricity vs inclination via the Kozai mechanism, and are released onto higher perihelion, stable orbits. Planetesimals captured in Neptune's 2:1 resonance during this early migration are released when an encounter with the ice giant causes its semi-major axis to jump outward, leaving behind a group of low-inclination, low-eccentricity objects with semi-major axes near 44 AU.  As Neptune slowly approaches its current orbit objects are left in fossilized high-perihelion orbits in the scattered disk. In the inner Solar System, the rapid separation of the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn reduces the excitation of the eccentricities of the inner planets due to resonance sweeping. Modest changes in the asteroids orbits also occur, shifting the distribution of eccentricities from that of the Grand Tack model toward the current distribution. Asteroid collisional families can be dispersed as the ice giant crosses the asteroid belt, and planetesimals from the outer belt are embedded in the asteroid belt as P-  and D-type asteroids. When the planets reach their present position the innermost part of the asteroid belt is disrupted leading to an extended Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner planets by rocky objects.

text: The migrations of the giant planets have many impact throughout the Solar System. The planetesimals scattered inward by Neptune enter planet-crossing orbits, initiating the Late Heavy Bombardment. Some of these planetesimals are

text: jump-captured

text: as Jupiter trojans during encounters between Jupiter and the ejected ice giant as Jupiter's semi-major axis changes.Others are captured as irregular satellites of the giant planets via

text: three-body interactions

text: during encounters between the ejected ice giant and the other planets. These encounters can also

text: disturb

text: the orbits of the regular satellites and may be responsible for the inclination of Iapetus's orbit. Saturn's rotational axis is

text: tilted

text: when it slowly crosses a spin-orbit resonance with Neptune. While Neptune migrates outward several AU, the hot classical Kuiper disk is

text: formed

text: as some planetesimals scattered outward by Neptune are captured in resonances, undergo an exchange of eccentricity vs inclination via the Kozai mechanism, and are released onto higher perihelion, stable orbits. Planetesimals captured in Neptune's 2:1 resonance during this early migration are released when an encounter with the ice giant causes its semi-major axis to jump outward,

text: leaving behind

text: a group of low-inclination, low-eccentricity objects with semi-major axes near 44 AU.  As Neptune slowly

text: approaches

text: its current orbit objects are left in fossilized high-perihelion orbits in the scattered disk. In the inner Solar System, the rapid separation of the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn

text: reduces

text: the excitation of the eccentricities of the inner planets due to resonance sweeping. Modest

text: changes

text: in the asteroids orbits also occur, shifting the distribution of eccentricities from that of the Grand Tack model toward the current distribution. Asteroid collisional families can be dispersed as the ice giant crosses the asteroid belt, and planetesimals from the outer belt are

text: embedded

text: in the asteroid belt as

text: P-

text: and

text: D-type asteroid

text: s. When the planets reach their present position the innermost part of the asteroid belt is

text: disrupted

text: leading to an extended Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner planets by rocky objects.

text: Mike Brown considers an additional six trans-Neptunian objects to be "nearly certainly" dwarf planets with diameters at or above 900 kilometers. These objects are:

text: In 1922 he correctly predicted the frequency of craters on Mars long before they were detected by space probes. In 1932 he postulated a theory concerning the origins of comets in our solar system. He believed that they originated in a cloud orbiting far beyond the orbit of Pluto. This cloud is now known as the Oort cloud or alternatively the Öpik-Oort Cloud in his honour. From October 1931 to the end of July 1933, Öpik, Harlow Shapley and Samuel L. Boothroyd headed the Arizona meteor expedition, which detected approximately 22,000 meteors. He also invented a rocking camera for the study of meteors. In 1951 he published a paper concerning the triple-alpha process, describing the burning of helium-4 into carbon-12 in the cores of red giant stars. However, this achievement is often overlooked because Edwin Salpeter's paper on the same subject had already been published by the time Öpik's paper reached Britain and the United States.

text: In 1922 he correctly predicted the frequency of

text: crater

text: s on

text: Mars

text: long before they were detected by

text: space probe

text: s. In 1932 he postulated a theory concerning the origins of comets in our

text: solar system

text: . He believed that they originated in a cloud orbiting far beyond the orbit of

text: Pluto

text: . This cloud is now known as the

text: Oort cloud

text: or alternatively the Öpik-Oort Cloud in his honour. From October 1931 to the end of July 1933, Öpik,

text: Harlow Shapley

text: and Samuel L. Boothroyd headed the Arizona meteor expedition, which detected approximately 22,000 meteors. He also invented a

text: rocking camera

text: for the study of meteors. In 1951 he published a paper concerning the

text: triple-alpha process

text: , describing the burning of

text: into

text: in the cores of

text: red giant

text: stars. However, this achievement is often overlooked because

text: Edwin Salpeter

text: 's paper on the same subject had already been published by the time Öpik's paper reached Britain and the United States.

text: 119P/Parker–Hartley is a periodic comet in the solar system.

text: 119P/Parker–Hartley is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: solar system

text: According to Pribulla et al. (2000) a third object could be present in the system. Minimum mass is estimated 5 percent of Solar mass (roughly 50 times the mass of Jupiter), orbital period close to 85 years and eccentricity is inferred to be high (e=0.56). Such object could likely turn out a brown dwarf or even a massive jovian planet. Nevertheless, recent paper of Manzoori (2009) states that minimum mass of the third body is likely close to 0.6 Solar masses, making the object stellar rather substellar. Also orbital period turns out longer than 85 years.

text: According to Pribulla et al. (2000) a third object could be present in the system. Minimum mass is estimated 5 percent of

text: Solar mass

text: (roughly 50 times the mass of

text: Jupiter

text: ), orbital period close to 85 years and eccentricity is inferred to be high (e=0.56). Such object could likely turn out a

text: brown dwarf

text: or even a massive

text: jovian planet

text: . Nevertheless, recent paper of Manzoori (2009) states that minimum mass of the third body is likely close to 0.6

text: Solar mass

text: es, making the object stellar rather substellar. Also orbital period turns out longer than 85 years.

text: At around that time, Pablo Santos Sanz, a student of José Luis Ortiz Moreno at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía at Sierra Nevada Observatory in southern Spain, claims to have examined the backlog of photos that the Ortiz team had started taking in December 2002. He says that he found Haumea in late July 2005, on images taken on March 7, 9, and 10, 2003. He further said that in checking whether this was a known object, the team came across Brown's internet summary, describing a bright TNO much like the one they had just found. Googling the reference number for object K40506A on the morning of July 26, they found the Caltech observation logs of Haumea, but according to their account, those logs contained too little information for Ortiz to tell if they were the same object. The Ortiz team also checked with the Minor Planet Center (MPC), which had no record of this object. Wanting to establish priority, they emailed the MPC with their discovery on the night of July 27, 2005, titled "Big TNO discovery, urgent", without making any mention of the Caltech logs. The next morning they again accessed the Caltech logs, including observations from several additional nights. They then asked Reiner Stoss at the amateur Astronomical Observatory of Mallorca for further observations. Stoss found precovery images of Haumea in digitized Palomar Observatory slides from 1955, and located Haumea with his own telescope that night, July 28. Within an hour, the Ortiz team submitted a second report to the MPC that included this new data. Again, no mention was made of having accessed the Caltech logs. The data was published by the MPC on July 29.

text: At around that time, Pablo Santos Sanz, a student of

text: José Luis Ortiz Moreno

text: at the

text: Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía

text: at

text: Sierra Nevada Observatory

text: in southern Spain, claims to have examined the backlog of photos that the Ortiz team had started taking in December 2002. He says that he found Haumea in late July 2005, on images taken on March 7, 9, and 10, 2003. He further said that in checking whether this was a known object, the team came across Brown's internet summary, describing a bright TNO much like the one they had just found.

text: Googling

text: the reference number for object K40506A on the morning of July 26, they found the Caltech observation logs of Haumea, but according to their account, those logs contained too little information for Ortiz to tell if they were the same object. The Ortiz team also checked with the

text: Minor Planet Center

text: (MPC), which had no record of this object. Wanting to establish priority, they emailed the MPC with their discovery on the night of July 27, 2005, titled "Big TNO discovery, urgent", without making any mention of the Caltech logs. The next morning they again accessed the Caltech logs, including observations from several additional nights. They then asked Reiner Stoss at the amateur Astronomical Observatory of

text: Mallorca

text: for further observations. Stoss found

text: precovery

text: images of Haumea in digitized

text: Palomar Observatory

text: slides from 1955, and located Haumea with his own telescope that night, July 28. Within an hour, the Ortiz team submitted a second report to the MPC that included this new data. Again, no mention was made of having accessed the Caltech logs. The data was published by the MPC on July 29.

text: Alexander was elected an Associate Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1850. He was one of the original members of the National Academy of Sciences in 1862, and a member of the American Philosophical Society, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He also served as the president of this last organization in 1859.  His principal writings are "Physical Phenomena attendant upon Solar Eclipses," read before the American philosophical society in 1848- a paper on the "Fundamental Principles of Mathematics," read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1848; another on the "Origin of the Forms and the Present Condition of some of the Clusters of Stars and several of the Nebulm," read before the American Association in 1850; others on the "Form and Equatorial Diameter of the Asteroid Planets" and Harmonies in the Arrangement of the Solar System which seem to be Confirmatory of the Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace," presented to the National Academy of Science ; a "Statement and Exposition of Certain Harmonies of the Solar System," which was published by the Smithsonian Institution in 1875.

text: Alexander was elected an Associate Fellow of the

text: American Academy of Arts and Sciences

text: in 1850. He was one of the original members of the

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: in 1862, and a member of the

text: American Philosophical Society

text: , and the

entity_name: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: . He also served as the president of this last organization in 1859.  His principal writings are "Physical Phenomena attendant upon Solar Eclipses," read before the American philosophical society in 1848- a paper on the "Fundamental Principles of Mathematics," read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1848; another on the "Origin of the Forms and the Present Condition of some of the Clusters of Stars and several of the Nebulm," read before the American Association in 1850; others on the "Form and Equatorial Diameter of the Asteroid Planets" and Harmonies in the Arrangement of the Solar System which seem to be Confirmatory of the Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace," presented to the National Academy of Science ; a "Statement and Exposition of Certain Harmonies of the Solar System," which was published by the

text: Smithsonian Institution

text: in 1875.

text: Asteroids, comets, and meteoroids are all debris remaining from the nebula in which the Solar System formed 4.6 billion years ago.

text: Meteorites have traditionally been divided into three broad categories: stony meteorites are rocks, mainly composed of silicate minerals; iron meteorites that are largely composed of metallic iron-nickel; and, stony-iron meteorites that contain large amounts of both metallic and rocky material. Modern classification schemes divide meteorites into groups according to their structure, chemical and isotopic composition and mineralogy. Meteorites smaller than 2 mm are classified as micrometeorites. Extraterrestrial meteorites are such objects that have impacted other celestial bodies, whether or not they have passed through an atmosphere. They have been found on the moon and Mars.

text: Meteorites have traditionally been divided into three broad categories: stony meteorites are rocks, mainly composed of

text: silicate minerals

text: iron meteorite

text: s that are largely composed of metallic iron-nickel; and, stony-iron meteorites that contain large amounts of both metallic and rocky material. Modern

text: classification

text: schemes divide meteorites into groups according to their structure, chemical and isotopic composition and mineralogy. Meteorites smaller than 2 mm are classified as

text: micrometeorites

text: . Extraterrestrial meteorites are such objects that have impacted other celestial bodies, whether or not they have passed through an atmosphere. They have been found on the

text: moon

text: and

text: Mars

text: Research published in the journal Science estimates that about 30% – 50% of the water in the solar system, like the water on Earth, the discs around Saturn, and the meteorites of other planets was already around even before the birth of the sun.

text: Research published in the journal

text: Science

text: estimates that about 30% – 50% of the water in the

text: solar system

text: , like the water on Earth, the discs around

text: Saturn

text: , and the

text: meteorite

text: s of other planets was already around even before the birth of the sun.

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion describe the orbits of objects about the Sun. Following Kepler's laws, each object travels along an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. Objects closer to the Sun (with smaller semi-major axes) travel more quickly because they are more affected by the Sun's gravity. On an elliptical orbit, a body's distance from the Sun varies over the course of its year. A body's closest approach to the Sun is called its perihelion, whereas its most distant point from the Sun is called its aphelion. The orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits. The positions of the bodies in the Solar System can be predicted using numerical models.

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: describe the orbits of objects about the Sun. Following Kepler's laws, each object travels along an

text: ellipse

text: with the Sun at one

text: focus

text: . Objects closer to the Sun (with smaller

text: semi-major axes

text: ) travel more quickly because they are more affected by the Sun's gravity. On an elliptical orbit, a body's distance from the Sun varies over the course of its year. A body's closest approach to the Sun is called its

text: perihelion

text: , whereas its most distant point from the Sun is called its

text: aphelion

text: . The orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids, and Kuiper belt objects follow highly elliptical orbits. The positions of the bodies in the Solar System can be predicted using

text: numerical models

text: The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a G2 main-sequence star that contains 99.86% of the system's known mass and dominates it gravitationally. The Sun's four largest orbiting bodies, the giant planets, account for 99% of the remaining mass, with Jupiter and Saturn together comprising more than 90%. The remaining objects of the Solar System (including the four terrestrial planets, the dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, and comets) together comprise less than 0.002% of the Solar System's total mass.

text: The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a

text: G2 main-sequence star

text: that contains 99.86% of the system's known mass and dominates it gravitationally. The Sun's four largest orbiting bodies, the

text: giant planet

text: s, account for 99% of the remaining mass, with Jupiter and Saturn together comprising more than 90%. The remaining objects of the Solar System (including the four

text: terrestrial planet

text: s, the

text: dwarf planet

text: s,

text: moons

text: asteroid

text: s, and

text: comet

text: s) together comprise less than 0.002% of the Solar System's total mass.

text: The orbits of the Halley-type comets suggest that they were originally long-period comets whose orbits were perturbed by the gravity of the giant planets and directed into the inner Solar System. If Halley was once a long-period comet, it is likely to have originated in the Oort Cloud, a sphere of cometary bodies that has an inner edge of 20,000–50,000 AU. Conversely the Jupiter-family comets are generally believed to originate in the Kuiper belt, a flat disc of icy debris between 30 AU (Neptune's orbit) and 50 AU from the Sun (in the scattered disc). Another point of origin for the Halley-type comets was proposed in 2008, when a trans-Neptunian object with a retrograde orbit similar to Halley's was discovered, , whose orbit takes it from just outside that of Uranus to twice the distance of Pluto. It may be a member of a new population of small Solar System bodies that serves as the source of Halley-type comets.

text: The orbits of the Halley-type comets suggest that they were originally long-period comets whose orbits were perturbed by the gravity of the giant planets and directed into the inner Solar System. If Halley was once a long-period comet, it is likely to have originated in the

text: Oort Cloud

text: , a sphere of cometary bodies that has an inner edge of

text: 20,000–50,000 AU

text: . Conversely the Jupiter-family comets are generally believed to originate in the

text: Kuiper belt

text: , a flat disc of icy debris between 30 AU (Neptune's orbit) and 50 AU from the Sun (in the

text: scattered disc

text: ). Another point of origin for the Halley-type comets was proposed in 2008, when a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: with a retrograde orbit similar to Halley's was discovered, , whose orbit takes it from just outside that of Uranus to twice the distance of Pluto. It may be a member of a new population of small Solar System bodies that serves as the source of Halley-type comets.

text: RX J1347.5–1145 is one of the most X-ray-luminous and most massive galaxy clusters known. Redshift was noted as z=0.451 with an X-ray luminosity of 10 ergs s in a paper from 2002. In 2013, one study found eight cases of the same object resulting from the intense gravitational bending of light. That study made use of data from Cluster Lensing And Supernova survey with Hubble (CLASH) as well as other sources. The cluster is roughly 5 billion light years away from the Solar System.

text: RX J1347.5–1145 is one of the most

text: X-ray

text: luminous

text: and most

text: mass

text: ive

text: galaxy clusters

text: known.

text: Redshift

text: was noted as z=0.451 with an X-ray luminosity of 10

text: erg

text: s s in a paper from 2002. In 2013, one study found eight cases of the same object resulting from the intense

text: gravitational bending

text: of

text: light

text: . That study made use of data from

entity_name: Cluster Lensing and Supernova survey with Hubble

text: Cluster Lensing And Supernova survey with Hubble

text: (CLASH) as well as other sources. The cluster is roughly 5 billion

text: light years

text: away from the

text: Solar System

text: Vesta, too, has a differentiated interior, though it formed inside the Solar System's frost line, and so is devoid of water; its composition is mainly of basaltic rock such as olivine. Aside from the large crater at its southern pole, Rheasilvia, Vesta also has an ellipsoidal shape.  Vesta is the parent body of the Vestian family and other V-type asteroids, and is the source of the HED meteorites, which constitute 5% of all meteorites on Earth.

text: Vesta, too, has a differentiated interior, though it formed inside the Solar System's

text: frost line

text: , and so is devoid of water; its composition is mainly of basaltic rock such as olivine. Aside from the large crater at its southern pole,

text: Rheasilvia

text: , Vesta also has an ellipsoidal shape.  Vesta is the parent body of the

text: Vestian family

text: and other

text: V-type asteroid

text: s, and is the source of the

text: HED meteorite

text: s, which constitute 5% of all meteorites on Earth.

text: On June 14, 2013 it was announced that the Peoria Rivermen, the AHL farm team of the National Hockey League's Vancouver Canucks would be relocating to the Utica Memorial Auditorium for the 2013-2014 season as the Utica Comets. As the AHL has a strong presence in Western and Central New York State, the league agreed to the move, citing the move would further boost the league's strength in the Northeast while further cutting down on travel expenses. Travis Green was named as the first head coach in team history on July 23, 2013, joining the Comets from the Portland Winterhawks of the WHL. The Comets played their first game in franchise history on October 11, 2013 at Blue Cross Arena in Rochester, losing 4-1 to the Rochester Americans. The first Comet goal ever (and the game's lone Comet goal) was scored by Pascal Pelletier at 13:28 of the third period. On October 23, 2013, the Comets played at "The Aud" for the first time, losing 4-1 to the Albany Devils in front of a sold-out crowd. Frank Corrado scored the first Comet goal on home ice (and the Comets' only goal of the game) with 6:48 remaining. Green named Colin Stuart the first captain in team history on October 30, 2013.

text: On June 14, 2013 it was announced that the

text: Peoria Rivermen

text: , the

text: AHL

text: farm team of the

text: National Hockey League

text: 's

text: Vancouver Canucks

text: would be relocating to the Utica Memorial Auditorium for the 2013-2014 season as the

text: Utica Comets

text: . As the AHL has a strong presence in Western and Central New York State, the league agreed to the move, citing the move would further boost the league's strength in the Northeast while further cutting down on travel expenses. Travis Green was named as the first head coach in team history on July 23, 2013, joining the Comets from the

text: Portland Winterhawks

text: of the

text: WHL

text: . The Comets played their first game in franchise history on October 11, 2013 at Blue Cross Arena in Rochester, losing 4-1 to the Rochester Americans. The first Comet goal ever (and the game's lone Comet goal) was scored by Pascal Pelletier at 13:28 of the third period. On October 23, 2013, the Comets played at "The Aud" for the first time, losing 4-1 to the

text: Albany Devils

text: in front of a sold-out crowd. Frank Corrado scored the first Comet goal on home ice (and the Comets' only goal of the game) with 6:48 remaining. Green named Colin Stuart the first captain in team history on October 30, 2013.

text: Other discoveries made with Hubble data include proto-planetary disks (proplyds) in the Orion Nebula; evidence for the presence of extrasolar planets around Sun-like stars; and the optical counterparts of the still-mysterious gamma ray bursts. HST has also been used to study objects in the outer reaches of the Solar System, including the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris.

text: Other discoveries made with Hubble data include proto-planetary disks (

text: proplyd

text: s) in the

text: Orion Nebula

text: ; evidence for the presence of

text: extrasolar planet

text: s around Sun-like stars; and the optical counterparts of the still-mysterious

text: gamma ray burst

text: s. HST has also been used to study objects in the outer reaches of the Solar System, including the dwarf planets

text: Pluto

text: and

text: Eris

text: Eris was discovered by the team of Mike Brown, Chad Trujillo, and David Rabinowitz on January 5, 2005, from images taken on October 21, 2003. The discovery was announced on July 29, 2005, the same day as  and two days after , due in part to events that would later lead to controversy about Haumea. The search team had been systematically scanning for large outer Solar System bodies for several years, and had been involved in the discovery of several other large TNOs, including 50000 Quaoar, 90482 Orcus, and 90377 Sedna.

text: Eris was discovered by the team of

text: Mike Brown

text: Chad Trujillo

text: , and

text: David Rabinowitz

text: on January 5, 2005, from images taken on October 21, 2003. The discovery was announced on July 29, 2005, the same day as  and two days after , due in part to

text: events that would later lead to controversy about Haumea

text: . The search team had been systematically scanning for large outer

text: Solar System

text: bodies for several years, and had been involved in the discovery of several other large TNOs, including

text: 50000 Quaoar

text: 90482 Orcus

text: , and

text: 90377 Sedna

text: As early as in 1940s, Gerard Kuiper searched evidence for the atmosphere in the spectrum of Pluto, but unsuccessfully. In 1970s, some astronomers considered the hypothesis about thick atmosphere and even oceans of neon: according to some views of those times, all other gases that are abundant in the Solar System would either freeze or escape. However, this hypothesis was based on a heavily overestimated mass of Pluto. No observational data about its atmosphere and chemical composition existed in these days.

text: As early as in 1940s,

text: Gerard Kuiper

text: searched evidence for the atmosphere in the spectrum of Pluto, but unsuccessfully. In 1970s, some astronomers considered the hypothesis about thick atmosphere and even oceans of

text: neon

text: : according to some views of those times, all other gases that are abundant in the Solar System would either freeze or

text: escape

text: . However, this hypothesis was based on a heavily overestimated mass of Pluto. No observational data about its atmosphere and chemical composition existed in these days.

text: A near-Earth object (NEO) is any small Solar System body whose orbit brings it into proximity with Earth. By definition, a solar system body is a NEO if its closest approach to the Sun (perihelion) is less than 1.3 astronomical unit (AU). NEOs include more than fourteen thousand near-Earth asteroids (NEAs), more than one hundred near-Earth comets (NECs), and a number of solar-orbiting spacecraft and meteoroids, large enough to be tracked in space before striking the Earth. It is now widely accepted that collisions in the past have had a significant role in shaping the geological and biological history of the Earth. NEOs have become of increased interest since the 1980s because of increased awareness of the potential danger some of the asteroids or comets pose, and mitigations are being researched. In January 2016, NASA announced the Planetary Defense Coordination Office to track NEOs larger than 30 to 50 meters in diameter and coordinate an effective threat response and mitigation effort.

text: A near-Earth object (NEO) is any

text: small Solar System body

text: whose orbit brings it into proximity with

text: Earth

text: . By definition, a solar system body is a NEO if its closest approach to the Sun (

text: perihelion

text: ) is less than 1.3

text: astronomical unit

text: (AU). NEOs include more than fourteen thousand near-Earth asteroids (NEAs), more than one hundred near-Earth comets (NECs), and a number of solar-orbiting

text: spacecraft

text: and

text: meteoroid

text: s, large enough to be tracked in space before striking the Earth. It is now widely accepted that collisions in the past have had a significant role in shaping the geological and biological history of the Earth. NEOs have become of increased interest since the 1980s because of increased awareness of the potential danger some of the

text: asteroid

text: s or

text: comet

text: s pose, and mitigations are being researched. In January 2016, NASA announced the

text: Planetary Defense Coordination Office

text: to track NEOs larger than 30 to 50 meters in diameter and coordinate an effective threat response and mitigation effort.

text: A meteorite is a portion of a meteoroid or asteroid that survives its passage through the atmosphere and hits the ground without being destroyed. Meteorites are sometimes, but not always, found in association with hypervelocity impact craters; during energetic collisions, the entire impactor may be vaporized, leaving no meteorites. Geologists use the term, "bolide", in a different sense from astronomers to indicate a very large impactor. For example, the USGS uses the term to mean a generic large crater-forming projectile in a manner "to imply that we do not know the precise nature of the impacting body ... whether it is a rocky or metallic asteroid, or an icy comet for example".

text: A meteorite is a portion of a meteoroid or asteroid that survives its passage through the atmosphere and hits the ground without being destroyed. Meteorites are sometimes, but not always, found in association with hypervelocity

text: impact crater

text: s; during energetic collisions, the entire impactor may be vaporized, leaving no meteorites.

text: Geologist

text: s use the term, "bolide", in a different sense from

text: astronomer

text: s to indicate a very large

text: impactor

text: . For example, the

text: USGS

text: uses the term to mean a generic large crater-forming projectile in a manner "to imply that we do not know the precise nature of the impacting body ... whether it is a rocky or metallic asteroid, or an icy comet for example".

text: An ice planet is a theoretical type of exoplanet with an icy surface of volatiles such as water, ammonia, and methane. Ice planets consist of a global cryosphere. They are bigger versions of the small icy worlds of the Solar System, which includes the moons Europa, Enceladus, and Triton, the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris, and many other small Solar System bodies such as comets.

text: An ice planet is a theoretical type of

text: exoplanet

text: with an icy surface of volatiles such as water, ammonia, and methane. Ice planets consist of a global

text: cryosphere

text: . They are bigger versions of the small icy worlds of the

text: Solar System

text: , which includes the moons

text: Europa

text: Enceladus

text: , and

text: Triton

text: , the

text: dwarf planet

text: s

text: Pluto

text: and

text: Eris

text: , and many other

text: small Solar System bodies

text: such as

text: comet

text: s.

text: Makemake was expected to have an atmosphere similar to that of Pluto but with a lower surface pressure. However, on 23 April 2011 Makemake passed in front of an 18th-magnitude star and abruptly blocked its light. The results showed that Makemake presently lacks a substantial atmosphere and placed an upper limit of 4–12 nanobar on the pressure at its surface.

text: Makemake was expected to have an

text: atmosphere

text: similar to that of

text: Pluto

text: but with a lower surface pressure. However, on 23 April 2011 Makemake

text: passed in front

text: of an 18th-magnitude star and abruptly blocked its light. The results showed that Makemake presently lacks a substantial atmosphere and placed an upper limit of 4–12

text: nanobar

text: on the pressure at its surface.

text: Small, sand-grain sized meteoroids are entering the atmosphere constantly, essentially every few seconds in any given region of the atmosphere, and thus ionization trails can be found in the upper atmosphere more or less continuously. When radio waves are bounced off these trails, it is called meteor burst communications. Meteor radars can measure atmospheric density and winds by measuring the decay rate and Doppler shift of a meteor trail. Most meteoroids burn up when they enter the atmosphere. The left-over debris is called meteoric dust or just meteor dust. Meteor dust particles can persist in the atmosphere for up to several months. These particles might affect climate, both by scattering electromagnetic radiation and by catalyzing chemical reactions in the upper atmosphere. Larger meteors can enter dark flight after deceleration where the meteorite (or fragments) fall at terminal velocity. Dark flight starts when the meteorite(s) decelerate to about . Larger fragments will fall further down the strewn field.

text: Small,

text: sand-grain

text: sized meteoroids are entering the atmosphere constantly, essentially every few seconds in any given region of the atmosphere, and thus ionization trails can be found in the upper atmosphere more or less continuously. When radio waves are bounced off these trails, it is called

text: meteor burst communications

text: . Meteor radars can measure atmospheric density and winds by measuring the

text: decay rate

text: and

text: Doppler shift

text: of a meteor trail. Most meteoroids burn up when they enter the atmosphere. The left-over debris is called meteoric dust or just meteor dust. Meteor dust particles can persist in the atmosphere for up to several months. These particles might affect climate, both by scattering electromagnetic radiation and by catalyzing chemical reactions in the upper atmosphere. Larger meteors can enter dark flight after deceleration where the meteorite (or fragments) fall at

text: terminal velocity

text: . Dark flight starts when the meteorite(s) decelerate to about . Larger fragments will fall further down the

text: strewn field

text: In December 2015, astronomers at the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) detected a brief series of 350 GHz pulses that they concluded must either be a series of independent sources, or a single, fast moving source. Deciding that the latter was the most likely, they calculated based on its speed that, were it bound to the Sun, the object, which they named "Gna" after a fast-moving messenger goddess in Norse mythology, would be about 12–25 AU distant and have a dwarf planet-sized diameter of 220 to 880 km. However, if it were a rogue planet not gravitationally bound to the Sun, and as far away as 4000 AU, it could be much larger. The paper was never formally accepted, and has been withdrawn until the detection is confirmed. Scientists' reactions to the notice were largely sceptical; Mike Brown commented that, "If it is true that ALMA accidentally discovered a massive outer solar system object in its tiny, tiny, tiny, field of view, that would suggest that there are something like 200,000 Earth-sized planets in the outer solar system ... Even better, I just realized that this many Earth-sized planets existing would destabilize the entire solar system and we would all die."

text: In December 2015, astronomers at the

text: Atacama Large Millimeter Array

text: (ALMA) detected a brief series of 350 GHz pulses that they concluded must either be a series of independent sources, or a single, fast moving source. Deciding that the latter was the most likely, they calculated based on its speed that, were it bound to the Sun, the object, which they named "Gna" after a

text: fast-moving messenger goddess

text: in Norse mythology, would be about 12–25 AU distant and have a

text: dwarf planet

text: -sized diameter of 220 to 880 km. However, if it were a

text: rogue planet

text: not gravitationally bound to the Sun, and as far away as 4000 AU, it could be much larger. The paper was never formally accepted, and has been withdrawn until the detection is confirmed. Scientists' reactions to the notice were largely sceptical; Mike Brown commented that, "If it is true that ALMA accidentally discovered a massive outer solar system object in its tiny, tiny, tiny, field of view, that would suggest that there are something like 200,000 Earth-sized planets in the outer solar system ... Even better, I just realized that this many Earth-sized planets existing would destabilize the entire solar system and we would all die."

text: Among the largest known explosions in the universe are supernovae, which result when a star explodes from the sudden starting or stopping of nuclear fusion, and gamma ray bursts, whose nature is still in some dispute. Solar flares are an example of explosion common on the Sun, and presumably on most other stars as well. The energy source for solar flare activity comes from the tangling of magnetic field lines resulting from the rotation of the Sun's conductive plasma. Another type of large astronomical explosion occurs when a very large meteoroid or an asteroid impacts the surface of another object, such as a planet.

text: Among the largest known explosions in the

text: universe

text: are

text: supernova

text: e, which result when a

text: star

text: explodes from the sudden starting or stopping of

text: nuclear fusion

text: , and

text: gamma ray burst

text: s, whose nature is still in some dispute.

text: Solar flare

text: s are an example of explosion common on the

text: Sun

text: , and presumably on most other stars as well. The energy source for solar flare activity comes from the tangling of

text: magnetic field

text: lines resulting from the rotation of the Sun's conductive

text: plasma

text: . Another type of large astronomical explosion occurs when a very large meteoroid or an

text: asteroid

text: impacts the surface of another object, such as a

text: planet

text: New Terra's solar system has an asteroid belt, as said both in the game and in the manual. Also, the games hint at one point that there is at least one gas giant planet in the star system. As shown in the title screen, New Terra has a small spherical grey moon that has yet to be named. New Terra's geography is made mostly of an orange sand and rock, although there are some other kinds of terrain. Since New Terra had past volcanism, it has also lava basins and has a non-native plant lifeform, part of an old failed terraforming experiment of Eden. New Terra's poles contained frozen water like Mars, and the sand may be mostly oxidized iron.

text: New Terra's solar system has an asteroid belt, as said both in the game and in the manual. Also, the games hint at one point that there is at least one

text: gas giant

text: planet in the star system. As shown in the title screen, New Terra has a small spherical grey moon that has yet to be named. New Terra's geography is made mostly of an orange sand and rock, although there are some other kinds of terrain. Since New Terra had past volcanism, it has also lava basins and has a non-native plant lifeform, part of an old failed terraforming experiment of Eden. New Terra's poles contained frozen water like Mars, and the sand may be mostly oxidized iron.

text: The presence of the collisional family could imply that Haumea and its "offspring" might have originated in the scattered disc. In today's sparsely populated Kuiper belt, the chance of such a collision occurring over the age of the Solar System is less than 0.1 percent. The family could not have formed in the denser primordial Kuiper belt because such a close-knit group would have been disrupted by Neptune's migration into the belt—the believed cause of the belt's current low density. Therefore, it appears likely that the dynamic scattered disc region, in which the possibility of such a collision is far higher, is the place of origin for the object that generated Haumea and its kin.

text: The presence of the collisional family could imply that Haumea and its "offspring" might have originated in the

text: scattered disc

text: . In today's sparsely populated Kuiper belt, the chance of such a collision occurring over the age of the Solar System is less than 0.1 percent. The family could not have formed in the denser primordial Kuiper belt because such a close-knit group would have been disrupted by

text: Neptune's migration

text: into the belt—the believed cause of the belt's current low density. Therefore, it appears likely that the dynamic scattered disc region, in which the possibility of such a collision is far higher, is the place of origin for the object that generated Haumea and its kin.

text: A meteorite is a solid piece of debris from an object, such as a comet, asteroid, or meteoroid, that originates in outer space and survives its passage through the Earth's atmosphere and impact with the Earth's surface or that of another planet. When the object enters the atmosphere, various factors like friction, pressure, and chemical interactions with the atmospheric gases cause it to heat up and radiate that energy. It then becomes a meteor and forms a fireball, also known as a shooting/falling star; astronomers call the brightest examples "bolides." Meteorites that survive atmospheric entry and impact vary greatly in size. For geologists, a bolide is a meteorite large enough to create a crater.

text: A meteorite is a solid piece of debris from an object, such as a

text: comet

text: asteroid

text: , or

text: meteoroid

text: , that originates in

text: outer space

text: and survives its passage through the Earth's atmosphere and

text: impact with the Earth's surface

text: or that of another planet. When the object enters the atmosphere, various factors like friction, pressure, and chemical interactions with the atmospheric gases cause it to heat up and radiate that energy. It then becomes a

text: meteor

text: and forms a

text: fireball

text: , also known as a shooting/falling star; astronomers call the brightest examples "

text: bolides

text: ." Meteorites that survive atmospheric entry and impact vary greatly in size. For geologists, a

text: bolide

text: is a meteorite large enough to create a crater.

text: Newton's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which dominated scientists' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries.  By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity, and then using the same principles to account for the trajectories of comets, the tides, the precession of the equinoxes, and other phenomena, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the Solar System. This work also demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be described by the same principles.  His prediction that Earth should be shaped as an oblate spheroid was later vindicated by the measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others, which helped convince most Continental European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system of Descartes.

text: Newton's Principia formulated the

text: laws of motion

text: and

text: universal gravitation

text: , which dominated scientists' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries.  By deriving

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

text: from his mathematical description of gravity, and then using the same principles to account for the trajectories of

text: comet

text: s, the

text: tide

text: s, the

text: precession of the equinoxes

text: , and other phenomena, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the

text: heliocentric

text: model of the Solar System. This work also demonstrated that the

text: motion of objects

text: on Earth and of

text: celestial

text: bodies could be described by the same principles.  His prediction that Earth should be shaped as an

text: oblate spheroid

text: was later vindicated by the measurements of

text: Maupertuis

text: La Condamine

text: , and others, which helped convince most

text: Continental Europe

text: an scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system of

text: Descartes

text: About 1 in 20 meteorites consist of the unique iron-nickel minerals taenite (35–80% iron) and kamacite (90–95% iron). Although rare, iron meteorites are the main form of natural metallic iron on the Earth's surface. According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global stock of iron in use in society is 2200 kg per capita. Much of this is in more-developed countries (7000–14000 kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (2000 kg per capita).

text: About 1 in 20

text: meteorite

text: s consist of the unique iron-nickel minerals

text: taenite

text: (35–80% iron) and

text: kamacite

text: (90–95% iron). Although rare,

text: iron meteorite

text: s are the main form of natural metallic iron on the Earth's surface. According to the

text: International Resource Panel

text: 's

text: Metal Stocks in Society report

text: , the global stock of iron in use in society is 2200 kg per capita. Much of this is in more-developed countries (7000–14000 kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (2000 kg per capita).

text: "Meteorite" received mostly positive reviews from contemporary music critics. Eric Henderson for Slant Magazine noted that "Meteorite", along with "You Don't Know What to Do", are two of Carey's "most serious-minded performances" on the album, describing them as "galaxies away" from her 2008 single "I'll Be Lovin' U Long Time". Of "Meteorite", he wrote "The chugging midnight soul train to gorgeous 'Meteorite' burns bright on the still-potent embers of Eddie Kendricks's urgent masterpiece 'Goin' Up in Smoke. PopMatters writer Devone Jones complimented Carey taking "a brave step into untouched territory" in recording a 1980s style song. Labeling the track a "breezy banger" and an album highlight, Corner wrote that the song embodies an "oddly other-worldly" feel.

text: "Meteorite" received mostly positive reviews from contemporary music critics. Eric Henderson for

text: Slant Magazine

text: noted that "Meteorite", along with "You Don't Know What to Do", are two of Carey's "most serious-minded performances" on the album, describing them as "galaxies away" from her 2008 single "

text: I'll Be Lovin' U Long Time

text: ". Of "Meteorite", he wrote "The chugging midnight soul train to gorgeous 'Meteorite' burns bright on the still-potent embers of Eddie Kendricks's urgent masterpiece 'Goin' Up in Smoke.

text: PopMatters

text: writer Devone Jones complimented Carey taking "a brave step into untouched territory" in recording a 1980s style song. Labeling the track a "breezy banger" and an album highlight, Corner wrote that the song embodies an "oddly other-worldly" feel.

text: Geographos is a Mars-crosser asteroid and a near-Earth object belonging to the Apollos. In 1994, during the asteroid's closest approach to Earth in two centuries at 5.0 Gm-which will not be bettered until 2586- a radar study of it was conducted by the Deep Space Network at Goldstone, California. The resultant images show Geographos to be the most elongated object in the solar system; it measures 5.1×1.8 km.

text: Geographos is a

text: Mars-crosser asteroid

text: and a

text: near-Earth object

text: belonging to the

text: Apollos

text: . In 1994, during the asteroid's closest approach to Earth in two centuries at 5.0 Gm-which will not be bettered until 2586- a

text: radar

text: study of it was conducted by the

text: Deep Space Network

text: at

text: Goldstone

text: , California. The resultant images show Geographos to be the most elongated object in the

text: solar system

text: ; it measures 5.1×1.8 km.

text: It is estimated that there may be 200 dwarf planets in the Kuiper belt of the outer Solar System and possibly more than 10,000 in the region beyond. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) has accepted four of these: , , , and , as well as  in the inner Solar System. This article lists these and the more likely of the remaining known possibilities.

text: It is estimated that there may be 200

text: dwarf planet

text: s in the

text: Kuiper belt

text: of the outer Solar System and possibly more than 10,000 in the region beyond. The

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) has accepted four of these: , , , and , as well as  in the inner Solar System. This article lists these and the more likely of the remaining known possibilities.

text: Hydrostatic equilibrium is the current distinguishing criterion between dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies, and has other roles in astrophysics and planetary geology. This qualification typically means that the object is symmetrically rounded into a spheroid or ellipsoid shape, where any irregular surface features are due to a relatively thin solid crust. There are 31 observationally confirmed such objects (apart from the Sun), sometimes called planemos, in the Solar System, seven more that are virtually certain, and a hundred or so more that are likely.

text: Hydrostatic equilibrium is the current distinguishing criterion between

text: dwarf planet

text: s and

text: small Solar System bodies

text: , and has other roles in

text: astrophysics

text: and

text: planetary geology

text: . This qualification typically means that the object is symmetrically rounded into a

text: spheroid

text: or

text: ellipsoid

text: shape, where any irregular surface features are due to a relatively thin solid

text: crust

text: . There are

text: 31 observationally confirmed such objects

text: (apart from the Sun), sometimes called

text: planemo

text: s, in the

text: Solar System

text: , seven more that are virtually certain, and

text: a hundred or so more

text: that are likely.

text: Skirting the outer edge of the asteroid belt is the Cybele group, orbiting between 3.3 and 3.5 AU. These have a 7:4 orbital resonance with Jupiter. The Hilda family orbit between 3.5 and 4.2 AU, and have relatively circular orbits and a stable 3:2 orbital resonance with Jupiter. There are few asteroids beyond 4.2 AU, until Jupiter's orbit. Here the two families of Trojan asteroids can be found, which, at least for objects larger than 1 km, are approximately as numerous as the asteroids of the asteroid belt.

text: Skirting the outer edge of the asteroid belt is the

text: Cybele group

text: , orbiting between 3.3 and 3.5 AU. These have a 7:4 orbital resonance with Jupiter. The

text: Hilda family

text: orbit between 3.5 and 4.2 AU, and have relatively circular orbits and a stable 3:2 orbital resonance with Jupiter. There are few asteroids beyond 4.2 AU, until Jupiter's orbit. Here the two families of

text: Trojan asteroid

text: s can be found, which, at least for objects larger than 1 km, are approximately as numerous as the asteroids of the asteroid belt.

text: Matese, Whitmire and their colleague Patrick Whitman first proposed the existence of this planet in 1999, based on observations of the orbits of long-period comets. Most astronomers agree that long-period comets (those with orbits of thousands to millions of years) have a roughly isotropic distribution; that is, they arrive at random from every point in the sky. Because comets are volatile and dissipate over time, astronomers suspect that they must be held in a spherical cloud tens of thousands of AU distant (known as the Oort cloud) for most of their existence. However, Matese and Whitmire claimed that rather than arriving from random points across the sky as is commonly thought, comet orbits were in fact clustered in a band inclined to the orbital plane of the planets. Such clustering could be explained if they were disturbed by an unseen object at least as large as Jupiter, possibly a brown dwarf, located in the outer part of the Oort cloud. They also suggested that such an object might explain the trans-Neptunian object Sedna's peculiar orbit. However, the sample size of Oort comets was small and the results were inconclusive.

text: Matese, Whitmire and their colleague Patrick Whitman first proposed the existence of this planet in 1999, based on observations of the orbits of long-period comets. Most astronomers agree that long-period comets (those with orbits of thousands to millions of years) have a roughly isotropic distribution; that is, they arrive at random from every point in the sky. Because comets are

text: volatile

text: and dissipate over time, astronomers suspect that they must be held in a spherical cloud tens of thousands of AU distant (known as the

text: Oort cloud

text: ) for most of their existence. However, Matese and Whitmire claimed that rather than arriving from random points across the sky as is commonly thought, comet orbits were in fact clustered in a band inclined to the

text: orbital plane of the planets

text: . Such clustering could be explained if they were disturbed by an unseen object at least as large as

text: Jupiter

text: , possibly a

text: brown dwarf

text: , located in the outer part of the

text: Oort cloud

text: . They also suggested that such an object might explain the

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: Sedna

text: 's peculiar orbit. However, the sample size of Oort comets was small and the results were inconclusive.

text: On the other hand, the object (1) will be scanned by CT scanner is fixed to xy coordination system. Hence, object (1) will not be moved while the parallel beam irradiation optical system are rotated around the object (1). The object (1) must be smaller than datum circle.

text: V774104 is a trans-Neptunian object (TNO) with a radius roughly half that of Pluto or somewhat smaller. Currently it is approximately 103 AU from the Sun, a distance of 15.4 billion kilometers (9.6 billion miles). As of the discovery announcement in November 2015, it is the most distant observed object in the Solar System. No astrometry has been submitted to the Minor Planet Center, so there are no publicly known orbital elements.

text: V774104 is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: (TNO) with a radius roughly half that of

text: Pluto

text: or somewhat smaller. Currently it is approximately 103

text: AU

text: from the Sun, a distance of 15.4 billion kilometers (9.6 billion miles). As of the discovery announcement in November 2015, it is the most distant observed object in the Solar System. No

text: astrometry

text: has been submitted to the

text: Minor Planet Center

text: , so there are no publicly known

text: orbital element

text: s.

text: Haumea (pronounced  in the Hawaiian language) is the goddess of fertility and childbirth in Hawaiian mythology.

text: Haumea (pronounced  in the

text: Hawaiian language

text: ) is the goddess of fertility and childbirth in

text: Hawaiian mythology

text: The region of a planetary system adjacent to the giant planets will be influenced in a different way. In such a region, eccentricities of embryos may become so large that the embryos pass close to a giant planet, which may cause them to be ejected from the system. If all embryos are removed, then no planets will form in this region. An additional consequence is that a huge number of small planetesimals will remain, because giant planets are incapable of clearing them all out without the help of embryos. The total mass of remaining planetesimals will be small, because cumulative action of the embryos before their ejection and giant planets is still strong enough to remove 99% of the small bodies. Such a region will eventually evolve into an asteroid belt, which is a full analog of the asteroid belt in the Solar System, located from 2 to 4 AU from the Sun.

text: The region of a planetary system adjacent to the giant planets will be influenced in a different way. In such a region, eccentricities of embryos may become so large that the embryos pass close to a giant planet, which may cause them to be ejected from the system. If all embryos are removed, then no planets will form in this region. An additional consequence is that a huge number of small planetesimals will remain, because giant planets are incapable of clearing them all out without the help of embryos. The total mass of remaining planetesimals will be small, because cumulative action of the embryos before their ejection and giant planets is still strong enough to remove 99% of the small bodies. Such a region will eventually evolve into an

text: asteroid belt

text: , which is a full analog of the asteroid belt in the Solar System, located from 2 to 4 AU from the Sun.

text: Meteorites are one of the most important tools that cosmochemists have for studying the chemical nature of the Solar System. Many meteorites come from material that is as old as the Solar System itself, and thus provide scientists with a record from the early solar nebula. Carbonaceous chondrites are especially primitive; that is they have retained many of their chemical properties since their formation 4.56 billion years ago, and are therefore a major focus of cosmochemical investigations.

text: Meteorite

text: s are one of the most important tools that cosmochemists have for studying the chemical nature of the Solar System. Many meteorites come from material that is as old as the Solar System itself, and thus provide scientists with a record from the early

text: solar nebula

text: Carbonaceous chondrite

text: s are especially primitive; that is they have retained many of their chemical properties since their formation 4.56 billion years ago, and are therefore a major focus of cosmochemical investigations.

text: The apparent position of a planet or other object in the Solar System is also affected by Light-time correction, which is caused by the finite time it takes light from a moving body to reach the observer. Simply put, the observer sees the object in the position where it was when the light left it.

text: The apparent position of a

text: planet

text: or other object in the

text: Solar System

text: is also affected by

text: Light-time correction

text: , which is caused by the finite time it takes light from a moving body to reach the observer. Simply put, the observer sees the object in the position where it was when the light left it.

text: The tables below list selected orbital elements and physical properties of radar-detected minor planets listed by region of the Solar System: asteroid belt, near-Earth objects, or trans-Neptunian objects. The semi-major axis (a), orbital eccentricity (e), inclination (i) to the ecliptic, and orbital period (P) is shown. Where possible, the number of decimals in maintained to the same limited level of significance in each column. This is because further detail is not needed for comparison purposes, and because the values can slightly change over time due to new measurements or gravitational perturbations. Where the SMASS spectral type is not available, the Tholen spectral type is listed in square brackets. For more detailed information on these objects, see their respective articles.

text: The tables below list selected

text: orbital elements

text: and physical properties of radar-detected minor planets listed by region of the Solar System:

text: asteroid belt

text: near-Earth object

text: s, or

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s. The

text: semi-major axis

text: (a),

text: orbital eccentricity

text: (e),

text: inclination

text: (i) to the ecliptic, and

text: orbital period

text: (P) is shown. Where possible, the number of decimals in maintained to the same limited level of significance in each column. This is because further detail is not needed for comparison purposes, and because the values can slightly change over time due to new measurements or gravitational perturbations. Where the SMASS spectral type is not available, the Tholen spectral type is listed in square brackets. For more detailed information on these objects, see their respective articles.

text: From 1960-1965, the Comet was based on the Ford Falcon platform (stretched  for sedans, but not for wagons). The 1960-1963 Comets share a similar basic shape. These are sometimes referred to as the "round body" Comets. For 1962 and 1963, the Comet shared a considerable number of body and mechanical parts with the short-lived Fairlane-based Mercury Meteor intermediate.

text: From 1960-1965, the Comet was based on the

text: Ford Falcon

text: platform (stretched  for sedans, but not for wagons). The 1960-1963 Comets share a similar basic shape. These are sometimes referred to as the "round body" Comets. For 1962 and 1963, the Comet shared a considerable number of body and mechanical parts with the short-lived

text: Fairlane

text: -based

text: Mercury Meteor

text: intermediate.

text: Haumea may not be the only elongated, rapidly rotating, large object in the Kuiper belt.  In 2002, Jewitt and Sheppard suggested that  should be elongated, based on its rapid rotation. In the early history of the Solar System, the trans-Neptunian region would have contained many more objects than it does at present, increasing the likelihood of collisions between objects. Gravitational interaction with Neptune has since scattered many objects out of the Kuiper belt to the scattered disc.

text: Haumea may not be the only elongated, rapidly rotating, large object in the

text: Kuiper belt

text: .  In 2002, Jewitt and Sheppard

text: suggested

text: that  should be elongated, based on its rapid rotation. In the early history of the

text: Solar System

text: , the trans-Neptunian region would have contained many more objects than it does at present, increasing the likelihood of collisions between objects. Gravitational interaction with

text: Neptune

text: has since scattered many objects out of the Kuiper belt to the

text: scattered disc

text: Because Haumea has moons, the mass of the system can be calculated from their orbits using [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion##Third law|Kepler's third law]]. The result is  28% the mass of the Plutonian system and 6% that of the Moon. Nearly all of this mass is in Haumea.

text: Because Haumea has moons, the mass of the system can be calculated from their orbits using [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion##Third law|Kepler's third law]]. The result is  28% the mass of the Plutonian system and 6% that of the

text: Moon

text: . Nearly all of this mass is in Haumea.

text: The story revolves around Kio Kakazu. During a memorial service for one of his family ancestors he is introduced to a girl with cat ears. The girl calls herself Eris and claims she is an alien. Before long, fanatical alien worshipers and a mysterious government agency are in hot pursuit of Eris, but Kio's childhood friend Manami—who wants to follow in her father's footsteps in the CIA—captures Eris. Kio finds himself having to protect Eris from everyone.

text: The story revolves around Kio Kakazu. During a memorial service for one of his family ancestors he is introduced to a

text: girl with cat ears

text: . The girl calls herself Eris and claims she is an alien. Before long, fanatical alien worshipers and a mysterious government agency are in hot pursuit of Eris, but Kio's childhood friend Manami—who wants to follow in her father's footsteps in the CIA—captures Eris. Kio finds himself having to protect Eris from everyone.

text: The discovery at California Institute of Technology in 1977 of new forms of the elements calcium, barium and neodymium in the meteorite was believed to show that those elements came from some source outside the early clouds of gas and dust that formed the Solar System.  This supports the theory that shockwaves from a supernova - the explosion of an aging star - may have triggered the formation of, or contributed to the formation of the Solar System.  As further evidence, the Caltech group said the meteorite contained Aluminum 26, a rare form of aluminum.  This acts as a "clock" on the meteorite, dating the explosion of the supernova to within less than 2 million years before the Solar System was formed.  Subsequent studies have found isotopic ratios of krypton, xenon, nitrogen and some other elements whose forms are also unknown in the Solar System.  The conclusion, from many studies with similar findings, is that there were a lot of substances in the presolar disc that were introduced as fine "dust" from nearby stars, including novas, supernovas, and red giants.  These specks persist to this day in meteorites like Allende, and are known as presolar grains.

text: The discovery at

text: California Institute of Technology

text: in 1977 of new forms of the elements

text: calcium

text: barium

text: and

text: neodymium

text: in the meteorite was believed to show that those elements came from some source outside the early clouds of gas and dust that formed the Solar System.  This supports the theory that shockwaves from a

text: supernova

text: - the explosion of an aging star - may have triggered the formation of, or contributed to the formation of the Solar System.  As further evidence, the Caltech group said the meteorite contained

text: Aluminum

text: 26, a rare form of aluminum.  This acts as a "clock" on the meteorite, dating the explosion of the supernova to within less than 2 million years before the Solar System was formed.  Subsequent studies have found isotopic ratios of

text: krypton

text: xenon

text: nitrogen

text: and some other elements whose forms are also unknown in the Solar System.  The conclusion, from many studies with similar findings, is that there were a lot of substances in the presolar disc that were introduced as fine "dust" from nearby stars, including novas, supernovas, and

text: red giant

text: s.  These specks persist to this day in meteorites like Allende, and are known as

text: presolar grains

text: Reported details about the event, such as water boiling in the muddy crater for ten minutes from the heat of the impact, presented a problem for experts. Because the impact site is at a high altitude of more than , the meteoroid may not have been slowed down as much as it ordinarily would have been by passage through the Earth’s denser lower atmosphere, and kinetic energy at impact may have been unusually high for a terrestrial impact of an object of this size and mass. Most larger meteorites are cold in their bulk mass when they land on Earth, since their heated outer layers ablate from the objects before impacting. It was later confirmed that the meteorite contained a large amount of iron and possessed magnetic properties common to similar metallic objects, which contributed to its capacity to retain heat during atmospheric entry.

text: Reported details about the event, such as water boiling in the muddy crater for ten minutes from the heat of the impact, presented a problem for experts. Because the impact site is at a high altitude of more than , the meteoroid may not have been slowed down as much as it ordinarily would have been by passage through the Earth’s denser lower atmosphere, and kinetic energy at impact may have been unusually high for a terrestrial impact of an object of this size and mass. Most larger meteorites are cold in their bulk mass when they land on Earth, since their heated outer layers

text: ablate

text: from the objects before impacting. It was later confirmed that the meteorite contained a large amount of

text: iron

text: and possessed magnetic properties common to similar metallic objects, which contributed to its capacity to retain heat during

text: atmospheric entry

text: Eris and Alistair travel to Aquellia so that Eris can perform the Changing of Tides ceremony herself. Along the way they meet Stargazers, a group of large, powerful fish. Eris threatens them with her new spell to bring people's worst fears to life, and they agree to follow and obey her. They reach Aquellia while Calissa and the ambassadors of the ocean: Mirabella, Kattrin, Selena, and Renata, are waiting for the midday sun for the ceremony to begin. A fight ensues, and Eris manages to cast her spell on Calissa, whose tail fin becomes heavy and drags her down to the bottom of the ocean. Eris also casts the spell on all the ambassadors and puts them in a trap.

text: Planetesimals within the region which would become the asteroid belt were too strongly perturbed by Jupiter's gravity to form a planet. Instead they continued to orbit the Sun as before, occasionally colliding. In regions where the average velocity of the collisions was too high, the shattering of planetesimals tended to dominate over accretion, preventing the formation of planet-sized bodies. Orbital resonances occurred where the orbital period of an object in the belt formed an integer fraction of the orbital period of Jupiter, perturbing the object into a different orbit; the region lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter contains many such orbital resonances. As Jupiter migrated inward following its formation, these resonances would have swept across the asteroid belt, dynamically exciting the region's population and increasing their velocities relative to each other.

text: Planetesimals within the region which would become the asteroid belt were too strongly

text: perturbed

text: by Jupiter's gravity to form a planet. Instead they continued to orbit the Sun as before, occasionally colliding. In regions where the average velocity of the collisions was too high, the shattering of planetesimals tended to dominate over accretion, preventing the formation of planet-sized bodies.

text: Orbital resonance

text: s occurred where the orbital period of an object in the belt formed an integer fraction of the orbital period of Jupiter, perturbing the object into a different orbit; the region lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter contains many such orbital resonances. As

text: Jupiter migrated inward

text: following its formation, these resonances would have swept across the asteroid belt, dynamically exciting the region's population and increasing their velocities relative to each other.

text: There are three main versions of the "seeded from elsewhere" hypothesis: from elsewhere in our Solar System via fragments knocked into space by a large meteor impact, in which case the most credible sources are Mars and Venus; by alien visitors, possibly as a result of accidental contamination by microorganisms that they brought with them; and from outside the Solar System but by natural means.

text: There are three main versions of the "seeded from elsewhere" hypothesis: from elsewhere in our Solar System via fragments knocked into space by a large

text: meteor

text: impact, in which case the most credible sources are

text: Mars

text: and

text: Venus

text: ; by

text: alien visitors

text: , possibly as a result of accidental

text: contamination

text: by microorganisms that they brought with them; and from outside the Solar System but by natural means.

text: The migration of the outer planets is also necessary to account for the existence and properties of the Solar System's outermost regions. Beyond Neptune, the Solar System continues into the Kuiper belt, the scattered disc, and the Oort cloud, three sparse populations of small icy bodies thought to be the points of origin for most observed comets. At their distance from the Sun, accretion was too slow to allow planets to form before the solar nebula dispersed, and thus the initial disc lacked enough mass density to consolidate into a planet. The Kuiper belt lies between 30 and 55 AU from the Sun, while the farther scattered disc extends to over 100 AU, and the distant Oort cloud begins at about 50,000 AU. Originally, however, the Kuiper belt was much denser and closer to the Sun, with an outer edge at approximately 30 AU. Its inner edge would have been just beyond the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, which were in turn far closer to the Sun when they formed (most likely in the range of 15–20 AU), and in opposite locations, with Uranus farther from the Sun than Neptune.

text: The migration of the outer planets is also necessary to account for the existence and properties of the Solar System's outermost regions.

text: Beyond Neptune

text: , the Solar System continues into the

text: Kuiper belt

text: , the

text: scattered disc

text: , and the

text: Oort cloud

text: comet

text: s. At their distance from the Sun, accretion was too slow to allow planets to form before the solar nebula dispersed, and thus the initial disc lacked enough mass density to consolidate into a planet. The Kuiper belt lies between 30 and 55 AU from the Sun, while the farther scattered disc extends to over 100 AU, and the distant Oort cloud begins at about 50,000 AU. Originally, however, the Kuiper belt was much denser and closer to the Sun, with an outer edge at approximately 30 AU. Its inner edge would have been just beyond the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, which were in turn far closer to the Sun when they formed (most likely in the range of 15–20 AU), and in opposite locations, with Uranus farther from the Sun than Neptune.

text: For more about very small objects in the Solar System, see meteoroid, micrometeoroid, and interplanetary dust cloud. (See also Visited/imaged bodies.)

text: For more about very small objects in the Solar System, see

text: meteoroid

text: micrometeoroid

text: , and

text: interplanetary dust cloud

text: . (See also

entity_name: Discovery and exploration of the Solar System

text: Visited/imaged

text: bodies.)

text: The Makemakes is the debut studio album by Austrian pop rock band The Makemakes. It was released in Austria on 13 May 2015, through Almost Perfecto Records. The album has peaked to number 20 on the Austrian Albums Chart. The album includes the single "I Am Yours".

text: The Makemakes is the debut studio album by Austrian pop rock band

text: The Makemakes

text: . It was released in

text: Austria

text: on 13 May 2015, through Almost Perfecto Records. The album has peaked to number 20 on the

text: Austrian Albums Chart

text: . The album includes the single "

text: I Am Yours

text: A dwarf planet is a planetary-mass object that is neither a planet nor a natural satellite. That is, it is in direct orbit of the Sun, and is massive enough for its gravity to crush it into a hydrostatic equilibrium shape (usually a spheroid), but has not cleared the neighborhood of other material around its orbit.

text: A dwarf planet is a

text: planetary-mass object

text: that is neither a

text: planet

text: nor a

text: natural satellite

text: . That is, it is in direct orbit of the Sun, and is massive enough for its gravity to crush it into a

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: shape (usually a

text: spheroid

text: ), but has not

text: cleared the neighborhood

text: of other material around its orbit.

text: The dispute over who had actually discovered the object delayed the acceptance of any name, or of formal classification of the object as a dwarf planet. On 17 September 2008, the IAU announced that the two bodies in charge of naming dwarf planets, the Committee on Small Body Nomenclature (CSBN) and the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN), had decided on the Caltech proposal of Haumea. At the CSBN, the outcome of the voting was very close, eventually being decided by a single vote. However, the date of the discovery was listed on the announcement as March 7, 2003, the location of discovery as the Sierra Nevada Observatory, and the name of the discoverer was left blank.

text: The dispute over who had actually discovered the object delayed the acceptance of any name, or of formal classification of the object as a dwarf planet. On 17 September 2008, the IAU announced that the two bodies in charge of naming dwarf planets, the

text: Committee on Small Body Nomenclature

text: (CSBN) and the

text: Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature

text: (WGPSN), had decided on the Caltech proposal of Haumea. At the CSBN, the outcome of the voting was very close, eventually being decided by a single vote. However, the date of the discovery was listed on the announcement as March 7, 2003, the location of discovery as the Sierra Nevada Observatory, and the name of the discoverer was left blank.

text: “Synechosunshine” was created with a clear main objective, to develop and build a self-sufficient biolamp that was powered by solar light. In order to reach that objective the Valencia Team used two coexisting microorganisms, Synechococcus elongatus to make the biolamp able to be fed by solar light and Aliivibrio fischeri to produce the luminiscence.

text: “Synechosunshine” was created with a clear main objective, to develop and build a self-sufficient biolamp that was powered by solar light. In order to reach that objective the Valencia Team used two coexisting

text: microorganisms

text: Synechococcus elongatus

text: to make the biolamp able to be fed by solar light and

text: Aliivibrio fischeri

text: to produce the luminiscence.

text: When the theme of interplanetary colonization first entered science fiction, the Asteroid Belt was quite low on the list of desirable real estate, far behind such planets as Mars and Venus (often conceived as a kind of paradise planet, until probes in the 1960s revealed the appalling temperatures and conditions under its clouds). Thus, in many stories and books the Asteroid Belt, if not a positive hazard, is still a rarely visited backwater in a colonized Solar System.

text: When the theme of interplanetary colonization first entered science fiction, the Asteroid Belt was quite low on the list of desirable real estate, far behind such planets as

text: Mars

text: and

text: Venus

text: (often conceived as a kind of paradise planet, until probes in the 1960s revealed the appalling temperatures and conditions under its clouds). Thus, in many stories and books the Asteroid Belt, if not a positive hazard, is still a rarely visited backwater in a colonized Solar System.

text: Composed primarily of silicate rock and iron, Io is closer in bulk composition to the terrestrial planets than to other satellites in the outer Solar System, which are mostly composed of a mix of water ice and silicates. Io has a density of 3.5275 g/cm, the highest of any moon in the Solar System; significantly higher than the other Galilean satellites (Ganymede and Callisto in particular, whose densities are around 1.9 g/cm) and slightly higher than the Moon. Models based on the Voyager and Galileo measurements of Io's mass, radius, and quadrupole gravitational coefficients (numerical values related to how mass is distributed within an object) suggest that its interior is differentiated between a silicate-rich crust and mantle and an iron- or iron-sulfide-rich core. Io's metallic core makes up approximately 20% of its mass. Depending on the amount of sulfur in the core, the core has a radius between  if it is composed almost entirely of iron, or between  for a core consisting of a mix of iron and sulfur. Galileo

text: Composed primarily of

text: silicate

text: rock

text: and

text: iron

text: , Io is closer in bulk composition to the terrestrial planets than to other satellites in the outer Solar System, which are mostly composed of a mix of water ice and silicates. Io has a density of 3.5275 g/cm, the highest of any moon in the

text: Solar System

text: ; significantly higher than the other Galilean satellites (Ganymede and Callisto in particular, whose densities are around 1.9 g/cm) and slightly higher than the Moon. Models based on the Voyager and Galileo measurements of Io's mass, radius, and quadrupole gravitational coefficients (numerical values related to how mass is distributed within an object) suggest that its interior is differentiated between a silicate-rich

text: crust

text: and

text: mantle

text: and an iron- or

text: iron-sulfide

text: -rich

text: core

text: . Io's metallic core makes up approximately 20% of its mass. Depending on the amount of sulfur in the core, the core has a radius between  if it is composed almost entirely of iron, or between  for a core consisting of a mix of iron and sulfur. Galileo

text: Schumann resonance -sector boundary -selective fading -Shadow loss -shortwave relay station -side lobe -Signal-to-Interference Ratio -single event upset (SEU) -Single Vegetative Obstruction Model -SINPO code-skip (radio) -skip zone -sky wave -skywave -Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) -Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS) -Software-defined radio -solar activity -solar constant -solar cycle -solar flare -solar flux -solar flux unit -solar maximum -solar minimum -solar radiation storm level -solar rotation rate -solar transition region -solar wind -solstice -Solar Observing Optical Network (SOON) -South Atlantic anomaly -Southern Hemisphere Auroral Radar Experiment -Space weather -spicule (solar physics) -SPLAT!-Sporadic E propagation -spray (solar physics) -Spread spectrum -stratosphere -substorm -sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) -sunspot -sunspot cycle -sunspot number -super high frequency (SHF) -supergranulation -Surface wave -Solar X-ray Imager (SXI) -synodic -synoptic chart -

text: Schumann resonance

text: sector boundary

text: selective fading

text: Shadow loss

text: shortwave relay station

text: side lobe

text: Signal-to-Interference Ratio

text: single event upset

text: (SEU) -

text: Single Vegetative Obstruction Model

text: SINPO code

text: skip (radio)

text: skip zone

text: sky wave

text: skywave

text: Solar Maximum Mission

text: (SMM) -

text: Synchronous Meteorological Satellite

text: (SMS) -

text: Software-defined radio

text: solar activity

text: solar constant

text: solar cycle

text: solar flare

text: solar flux

text: solar flux unit

text: solar maximum

text: solar minimum

text: solar radiation storm level

text: solar rotation rate

text: solar transition region

text: solar wind

text: solstice

text: Solar Observing Optical Network

text: (SOON) -

text: South Atlantic anomaly

entity_name: Southern Hemisphere Auroral Radar Experiment

text: Southern Hemisphere Auroral Radar Experiment

text: Space weather

text: spicule (solar physics)

text: SPLAT!

text: Sporadic E propagation

text: spray (solar physics)

text: Spread spectrum

text: stratosphere

text: substorm

text: sudden ionospheric disturbance

text: (SID) -

text: sunspot

text: sunspot cycle

text: sunspot number

text: super high frequency

text: (SHF) -

text: supergranulation

text: Surface wave

text: Solar X-ray Imager

text: (SXI) -

text: synodic

text: synoptic chart

text: He is conducting research about the isotopic compositions of refractory inclusions in meteorites to understand the earliest history of the Solar System. Short-lived chronometers such as the 26Al-26Mg system can resolve time differences of only a few tens of thousands of years for events that occurred 4.55 billion years ago. Isotopic fractionation effects and the relative abundances of trace elements are used to constrain thermal histories and redox conditions in the solar nebula and on the asteroidal parent bodies of meteorites.

text: He is conducting research about the isotopic compositions of refractory inclusions in

text: meteorites

text: to understand the earliest history of the

text: Solar System

text: . Short-lived chronometers such as the 26Al-26Mg system can resolve time differences of only a few tens of thousands of years for events that occurred 4.55 billion years ago. Isotopic fractionation effects and the relative abundances of trace elements are used to constrain thermal histories and redox conditions in the

text: solar nebula

text: and on the asteroidal parent bodies of meteorites.

text: Resonance happens when any two periods have a simple numerical ratio. The most fundamental period for an object in the Solar System is its orbital period, and orbital resonances pervade the Solar System. In 1867, the American astronomer Daniel Kirkwood noticed that asteroids in the asteroid belt are not randomly distributed. There were distinct gaps in the belt at locations that corresponded to resonances with Jupiter. For example, there were no asteroids at the 3:1 resonance – a distance of 2.5 AU – or at the 2:1 resonance at 3.3 AU (AU is the astronomical unit, or essentially the distance from sun to earth).

text: Resonance happens when any two periods have a simple numerical ratio. The most fundamental period for an object in the Solar System is its

text: orbital period

text: , and orbital resonances pervade the Solar System. In 1867, the American astronomer

text: Daniel Kirkwood

text: noticed that asteroids in the

text: asteroid belt

text: are not randomly distributed. There were distinct gaps in the belt at locations that corresponded to resonances with

text: Jupiter

text: . For example, there were no asteroids at the 3:1 resonance – a distance of 2.5 AU – or at the 2:1 resonance at 3.3 AU (AU is the

text: astronomical unit

text: , or essentially the distance from sun to earth).

text: A Small Solar System Body (SSSB) is an object in the Solar System that is neither a planet, nor a dwarf planet, nor a natural satellite. The term was first defined in 2006 by the International Astronomical Union.

text: A Small Solar System Body (SSSB) is an object in the

text: Solar System

text: that is neither a

text: planet

text: , nor a

text: dwarf planet

text: , nor a

text: natural satellite

text: . The term was first

text: defined in 2006

text: by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: This encompasses all comets and all minor planets other than those that are dwarf planets. Thus SSSBs are: the classical asteroids with the exception of the dwarf planet Ceres; the trojans; and the centaurs and trans-Neptunian objects with the exception of Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, Eris, and others that may turn out to be dwarf planets.

text: This encompasses all

text: comet

text: s and all

text: minor planet

text: s other than those that are

text: dwarf planet

text: s. Thus SSSBs are: the classical

text: asteroid

text: s with the exception of the dwarf planet

text: Ceres

text: ; the

text: trojan

text: s; and the

text: centaur

text: s and

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s with the exception of

text: Pluto

text: Haumea

text: Makemake

text: Eris

text: , and

text: others that may turn out to be dwarf planets

text: In March 1972, scientists at NASA launched Pioneer 10 to gather scientific data about the solar system's largest planet, Jupiter, while the vessel was also receiving radio control and guidance signals and other information from Earth.  The Pioneer space craft was expected to last for 21 months in the solar system and deliver accurate information over that period of time. The fastest man made object to enter space from Earth, the spacecraft was to begin collecting data at the Asteroid Belt and Jupiter and continue to relay information about other areas and phenomena of the solar system.

text: In March 1972, scientists at

text: NASA

text: launched

text: Pioneer 10

text: to gather scientific data about the solar system's largest planet,

text: Jupiter

text: , while the vessel was also receiving radio control and guidance signals and other information from Earth.  The Pioneer space craft was expected to last for 21 months in the solar system and deliver accurate information over that period of time. The fastest man made object to enter space from Earth, the spacecraft was to begin collecting data at the

text: Asteroid Belt

text: and Jupiter and continue to relay information about other areas and phenomena of the solar system.

text: When launching interplanetary probes from the surface of Earth, carrying all energy needed for the long-duration mission, payload quantities are necessarily extremely limited, due to the basis mass limitations described theoretically by the rocket equation.  One alternative to transport more mass on interplanetary trajectories is to use up nearly all of the upper stage propellant on launch, and then refill propellants in Earth orbit before firing the rocket to escape velocity for a heliocentric trajectory.  These propellants could be stored on orbit at a propellant depot, or carried to orbit in a propellant tanker to be directly transferred to the interplanetary spacecraft.  For returning mass to Earth, a related option is to mine raw materials from a solar system celestial object, refine, process, and store the reaction products (propellant) on the Solar System body until such time as a vehicle needs to be loaded for launch.

text: When launching interplanetary probes from the surface of Earth, carrying all energy needed for the long-duration mission, payload quantities are necessarily extremely limited, due to the basis mass limitations described theoretically by the

text: rocket equation

text: .  One alternative to transport more mass on interplanetary trajectories is to use up nearly all of the

text: upper stage

text: propellant on launch, and then refill propellants in Earth orbit before firing the rocket to

text: escape velocity

text: for a

text: heliocentric

text: trajectory.  These propellants could be stored on orbit at a

text: propellant depot

text: , or carried to orbit in a

text: propellant tanker

text: to be directly transferred to the interplanetary spacecraft.  For returning mass to Earth, a related option is to mine raw materials from a solar system celestial object, refine, process, and store the reaction products (propellant) on the Solar System body until such time as a vehicle needs to be loaded for launch.

text: The presence of the collisional family hints that Haumea and its "offspring" might have originated in the scattered disc. In today's sparsely populated Kuiper belt, the chance of such a collision occurring over the age of the Solar System is less than 0.1 percent. The family could not have formed in the denser primordial Kuiper belt because such a close-knit group would have been disrupted by Neptune's subsequent migration into the belt, which is thought to have been the cause of its current low density. Therefore, it appears likely that the dynamic scattered disc region, in which the possibility of such a collision is far higher, is the place of origin for the object which would become Haumea and its kin. Simulations suggest the probability of one such family in the Solar System is approximately 50%, so it is possible that the Haumea family is unique.

text: The presence of the collisional family hints that Haumea and its "offspring" might have originated in the

text: scattered disc

text: Neptune's subsequent migration

text: into the belt, which is thought to have been the cause of its current low density. Therefore, it appears likely that the dynamic scattered disc region, in which the possibility of such a collision is far higher, is the place of origin for the object which would become Haumea and its kin. Simulations suggest the probability of one such family in the Solar System is approximately 50%, so it is possible that the Haumea family is unique.

text: It was later discovered that The Makemakes had actually stolen the majority of "Million Euro Smile"  from American pop band "1985" who had initially written the song "Million Dollar Smile." 1985 reclaimed 100% of the copyright on Million Euro Smile but allowed The Makemakes to continue to use the song as a "cover."

text: The Taiwanese–American Occultation Survey (TAOS) is a robotic survey of the Outer Solar System. TAOS uses an array of four 50 cm aperture telescopes to monitor background stars awaiting the alignment of an Outer Solar System with a star target: an occultation. Small objects in the Outer Solar System that are too small to be observed by direct observations at this time can be probed with this technique. Occultation surveys take advantage of diffraction effects during the transit of the occulting object (the occulter) in front of a background star to constraint the size and distance of the occulter. TAOS is sensitive to occultations by Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs) larger than about 500 m in diameter  and to Sedna-like objects.

text: The Taiwanese–American Occultation Survey (TAOS) is a robotic survey of the

text: Outer Solar System

text: . TAOS uses an array of four 50 cm aperture telescopes to monitor background stars awaiting the alignment of an

text: Outer Solar System

text: with a star target: an occultation. Small objects in the

text: Outer Solar System

text: that are too small to be observed by direct observations at this time can be probed with this technique.

text: Occultation

text: surveys take advantage of

text: diffraction

text: effects during the transit of the occulting object (the occulter) in front of a background star to constraint the size and distance of the occulter. TAOS is sensitive to occultations by

text: Kuiper Belt Objects

text: (KBOs) larger than about 500 m in diameter  and to

text: Sedna

text: -like objects.

text: Because it would have taken at least a billion years for the group to have diffused as far as it has, the collision which created the Haumea family is believed to have occurred very early in the Solar System's history.

text: In 2014, the Rosetta spacecraft arrived at comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. A few months after arriving at the comet, Rosetta released a small lander, named Philae, onto its surface. The plan was to investigate Churyumov-Gerasimenko up close for two years. Philae's battery has since died. Scientists hoped that as the comet was travelling toward the sun greater solar energy would recharge Philae (via its solar panels) and Philae would resume operation, but eventually they released information that the chances of contact are close to zero. Rosetta's Project Scientist, Gerhard Schwehm, stated that sterilization is generally not crucial since comets are usually regarded as objects where prebiotic molecules can be found, but not living microorganisms.  Notwithstanding, other scientists think it would be an opportunity to gather evidence for one of panspermia's hypotheses: the possibility of both active and dormant microbes inside comets.

text: In 2014, the

text: Rosetta

text: spacecraft arrived at comet

text: . A few months after arriving at the comet, Rosetta released a small lander, named

text: Philae

text: , onto its surface. The plan was to investigate Churyumov-Gerasimenko up close for two years. Philae's battery has since died. Scientists hoped that as the comet was travelling toward the sun greater solar energy would recharge Philae (via its solar panels) and Philae would resume operation, but eventually they released information that the chances of contact are close to zero. Rosetta's Project Scientist, Gerhard Schwehm, stated that sterilization is generally not crucial since comets are usually regarded as objects where prebiotic molecules can be found, but not living microorganisms.  Notwithstanding, other scientists think it would be an opportunity to gather evidence for one of panspermia's hypotheses: the possibility of both active and dormant microbes inside comets.

text: The asteroid belt is the circumstellar disc in the Solar System located roughly between the orbits of the planets Mars and Jupiter. It is occupied by numerous irregularly shaped bodies called asteroids or minor planets. The asteroid belt is also termed the main asteroid belt or main belt to distinguish it from other asteroid populations in the Solar System such as near-Earth asteroids and trojan asteroids. About half the mass of the belt is contained in the four largest asteroids: Ceres, Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea. The total mass of the asteroid belt is approximately 4% that of the Moon, or 22% that of Pluto, and roughly twice that of Pluto's moon Charon (whose diameter is 1200 km).

text: The asteroid belt is the

text: circumstellar disc

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: located roughly between the orbits of the

text: planet

text: s

text: Mars

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: . It is occupied by numerous irregularly shaped bodies called

text: asteroid

text: s or

text: minor planet

text: s. The asteroid belt is also termed the main asteroid belt or main belt to distinguish it from other asteroid populations in the Solar System such as

text: near-Earth asteroids

text: and

text: trojan asteroids

text: . About half the mass of the belt is contained in the four largest asteroids:

text: Ceres

text: Vesta

text: Pallas

text: , and

text: Hygiea

text: . The total mass of the asteroid belt is approximately 4% that of the

text: Moon

text: , or 22% that of

text: Pluto

text: , and roughly twice that of Pluto's moon

text: Charon

text: (whose diameter is 1200 km).

text: A planetary surface is where the solid (or liquid) material of the outer crust on certain types of astronomical objects contacts the atmosphere or outer space; planetary surfaces are found on solid objects of planetary mass (PMO)s, including terrestrial planets, dwarf planets, natural satellites, planetesimals and many other Small Solar System bodies (SSSB)s. The study of planetary surfaces is a field of planetary geology known as surface geology but also a focus of a number of fields including planetary cartography, topography, geomorphology, atmospheric sciences and astronomy.  Land (or ground) is the term given to non-liquid planetary surfaces. The term "landing" is used to describe the collision of an object with a planetary surface and is usually at a velocity in which the object can remain intact and remain attached.

text: A planetary surface is where the solid (or liquid) material of the outer

text: crust

text: on certain types of

text: astronomical object

text: s contacts the

text: atmosphere

text: or

text: outer space

text: ; planetary surfaces are found on solid objects of

text: planetary mass

text: (PMO)s, including

text: terrestrial planet

text: s,

text: dwarf planet

text: s,

text: natural satellite

text: s,

text: planetesimal

text: s and many other

text: Small Solar System bodies

text: (SSSB)s. The study of planetary surfaces is a field of

text: planetary geology

text: known as surface geology but also a focus of a number of fields including

text: planetary cartography

text: topography

text: geomorphology

text: atmospheric sciences

text: and

text: astronomy

text: .  Land (or ground) is the term given to non-liquid planetary surfaces. The term "

text: landing

text: " is used to describe the collision of an object with a planetary surface and is usually at a velocity in which the object can remain intact and remain attached.

text: A dwarf planet, by definition, is not massive enough to have gravitationally cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals: it is not known quite how large a planet must be before it can effectively clear its neighbourhood, but one tenth of the Earth's mass is certainly sufficient.

text: A dwarf planet, by definition, is not massive enough to have gravitationally

text: cleared its neighbouring region

text: of

text: planetesimal

text: s: it is not known quite how large a planet must be before it can effectively clear its neighbourhood, but one tenth of the Earth's mass is certainly sufficient.

text: Makemake is currently visually the second-brightest Kuiper belt object after Pluto, having a March opposition apparent magnitude of 17.0 in the constellation Coma Berenices. This is bright enough to be visible using a high-end amateur telescope.

text: Makemake is currently visually the second-brightest

text: Kuiper belt

text: object after

text: Pluto

text: , having a March

text: opposition

text: apparent magnitude

text: of 17.0 in the

text: constellation

text: Coma Berenices

text: . This is bright enough to be visible using a high-end

text: amateur

text: telescope

text: This list contains a selection of objects 50 and 100 km in radius (100 km to 200 km in average diameter). The listed objects currently include most objects in the asteroid belt and moons of the giant planets in this size range, but many newly discovered objects in the outer Solar System are missing, such as those included in the following reference. Asteroid spectral types are mostly Tholen, but some might be SMASS.

text: This list contains a selection of objects 50 and 100 km in radius (100 km to 200 km in average diameter). The listed objects currently include most objects in the

text: asteroid belt

text: and moons of the

text: giant planet

text: s in this size range, but many newly discovered objects in the outer Solar System are missing, such as those included in the following reference.

text: Asteroid spectral types

text: are mostly Tholen, but some might be SMASS.

text: Detached objects are a dynamical class of minor planets in the outer reaches of the Solar System and belong to the broader family of trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs). These objects have orbits whose points of closest approach to the Sun (perihelion) are sufficiently distant from the gravitational influence of Neptune that they are only moderately affected by Neptune and the other known planets: this makes them appear to be "detached" from the Solar System.

text: Detached objects are a

text: dynamical

text: class of

text: minor planet

text: s in the outer reaches of the

text: Solar System

text: and belong to the broader family of

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s (TNOs). These objects have orbits whose points of closest approach to the Sun (

text: perihelion

text: ) are sufficiently distant from the

text: gravitational influence

text: of

text: Neptune

text: that they are only moderately affected by Neptune and the other known planets: this makes them appear to be "detached" from the Solar System.

text: The Meteors are a troop of executioners of Athos, known for their might and ruthlessness, according to Sasha they destroy everything that stands in their way. The Meteors have their vision of Athos and believe the current organization to not be enough to save the world, thus taking matters in their own hands. Their main officers was called "Five Faculties"

text: Preliminary results by Esko Lyytinen and Peter Jenniskens, later confirmed by other researchers, predicted 209P/LINEAR might generate the next big meteor shower which would come from the constellation Camelopardalis on the night of 23/24 May 2014. It was possible that there could be 100 to 400 meteors per hour. All the trails from the comet from 1803 through 1924 were expected to intersect Earth's orbit during May 2014. The peak activity was expected to occur around 24 May 2014 7h UT when dust trails produced from past returns of the comet could pass  from Earth. The 2014 Camelopardalids only generated 10–15 visual meteors per hour. But the expected radiant and date of visual maximum were correctly predicted. The shower peaked around 6h UT on 24 May 2014. The Canadian Meteor Orbit Radar (CMOR) detected the shower using HF/VHF radar echos but the particles were too small for visual detection. Earth will encounter the 1939 stream around 24 May 2019 8h UT with a ZHR of ~5. The Eta Aquariids also occur at this time of year.

text: Preliminary results by Esko Lyytinen and

text: Peter Jenniskens

text: , later confirmed by other researchers, predicted 209P/LINEAR might generate the next big

text: meteor shower

text: which would come from the

text: constellation

text: Camelopardalis

text: on the night of 23/24 May 2014. It was possible that there could be 100 to 400 meteors per hour. All the trails from the comet from 1803 through 1924 were expected to intersect Earth's orbit during May 2014. The peak activity was expected to occur around 24 May 2014 7h

text: UT

text: when dust trails produced from past returns of the comet could pass  from Earth. The 2014 Camelopardalids only generated 10–15 visual meteors per hour. But the expected

text: radiant

text: and date of visual maximum were correctly predicted. The shower peaked around 6h UT on 24 May 2014. The Canadian Meteor Orbit Radar (CMOR) detected the shower using HF/VHF radar echos but the particles were too small for visual detection. Earth will encounter the 1939 stream around 24 May 2019 8h UT with a

text: ZHR

text: of ~5. The

text: Eta Aquariids

text: also occur at this time of year.

text: People may be mistaken by the art object analogy. For instance, a sandhill crane is not an art object; an art object is not a sandhill crane. In fact, an art object should be called an artifact. The crane is wildlife on its own and is not an art object. This can be related to Satio's definition of the cognitive view. In elaboration, the crane lives through various ecosystems such as Yellowstone. Nature is a living system which includes animals, plants, and Eco-systems. In contrast, an art object has no regeneration, evolutionary history, or metabolism. An individual may be in the forest and perceive it as beautiful because of the plethora of colors such as red, green, and yellow. This is a result of the chemicals interacting with chlorophyll. An individual's aesthetic experience may increase; however, none of the things mentioned have anything to do with what is really going on in the forest. The chlorophyll is capturing solar energy and the residual chemicals protect the trees from insect grazing.

text: People may be mistaken by the

text: art object

text: analogy. For instance, a

text: sandhill crane

text: is not an art object; an art object is not a sandhill crane. In fact, an art object should be called an artifact. The crane is wildlife on its own and is not an art object. This can be related to Satio's definition of the cognitive view. In elaboration, the crane lives through various ecosystems such as Yellowstone. Nature is a living system which includes animals, plants, and Eco-systems. In contrast, an art object has no regeneration, evolutionary history, or metabolism. An individual may be in the forest and perceive it as beautiful because of the plethora of colors such as red, green, and yellow. This is a result of the chemicals interacting with chlorophyll. An individual's aesthetic experience may increase; however, none of the things mentioned have anything to do with what is really going on in the forest. The chlorophyll is capturing solar energy and the residual chemicals protect the trees from insect grazing.

text: H. Jay Melosh proposed to deflect an asteroid or comet by focusing solar energy onto its surface to create thrust from the resulting vaporization of material, or to amplify the Yarkovsky effect. Over a span of months or years enough solar radiation can be directed onto the object to deflect it.

text: H. Jay Melosh

text: proposed to deflect an asteroid or comet by focusing

text: solar energy

text: onto its surface to create thrust from the resulting vaporization of material, or to amplify the

text: Yarkovsky effect

text: . Over a span of months or years enough

text: solar radiation

text: can be directed onto the object to deflect it.

text: In this approach, theories are a specific category of models that fulfill the necessary criteria (see above). One can use language to describe a model; however, the theory is the model (or a collection of similar models), and not the description of the model. A model of the solar system, for example, might consist of abstract objects that represent the sun and the planets. These objects have associated properties, e.g., positions, velocities, and masses. The model parameters, e.g., Newton's Law of Gravitation, determine how the positions and velocities change with time. This model can then be tested to see whether it accurately predicts future observations; astronomers can verify that the positions of the model's objects over time match the actual positions of the planets. For most planets, the Newtonian model's predictions are accurate; for Mercury, it is slightly inaccurate and the model of general relativity must be used instead.

text: In this approach, theories are a specific category of models that fulfill the necessary criteria (see

text: above

text: ). One can use language to describe a model; however, the theory is the model (or a collection of similar models), and not the description of the model. A model of the solar system, for example, might consist of abstract objects that represent the sun and the planets. These objects have associated properties, e.g., positions, velocities, and masses. The model parameters, e.g., Newton's Law of Gravitation, determine how the positions and velocities change with time. This model can then be tested to see whether it accurately predicts future observations; astronomers can verify that the positions of the model's objects over time match the actual positions of the planets. For most planets, the Newtonian model's predictions are accurate; for

text: Mercury

text: , it is slightly inaccurate and the model of

text: general relativity

text: must be used instead.

text: Alien life, such as microorganisms, has been hypothesized to exist in the Solar System and throughout the universe. This hypothesis relies on the vast size and consistent physical laws of the observable universe. According to this argument, made by scientists such as Carl Sagan and Stephen Hawking, it would be improbable for life not to exist somewhere other than Earth. This argument is embodied in the Copernican principle, which states that Earth does not occupy a unique position in the Universe, and the mediocrity principle, which states that there is nothing special about life on Earth. The chemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during a habitable epoch when the universe was only 10–17 million years old. Life may have emerged independently at many places throughout the universe. Alternatively, life may have formed less frequently, then spread—by meteoroids, for example—between habitable planets in a process called panspermia. In any case, complex organic molecules may have formed in the protoplanetary disk of dust grains surrounding the Sun before the formation of Earth. According to these studies, this process may occur outside Earth on several planets and moons of the Solar System and on planets of other stars.

text: Alien life, such as

text: microorganism

text: s, has been hypothesized to exist in the

text: Solar System

text: and throughout the universe. This hypothesis relies on the

text: vast size

text: and consistent

text: physical law

text: s of the

text: observable universe

text: . According to this argument, made by scientists such as

text: Carl Sagan

text: and

text: Stephen Hawking

text: , it would be improbable for life not to exist somewhere other than Earth. This argument is embodied in the

text: Copernican principle

text: , which states that Earth does not occupy a unique position in the Universe, and the

text: mediocrity principle

text: , which states that there is nothing special about life on Earth. The

text: chemistry of life

text: may have begun shortly after the

text: Big Bang

text: 13.8 billion years ago

text: , during a habitable epoch when the

text: universe

text: was only 10–17 million years old. Life may have emerged independently at many places throughout the

text: universe

text: . Alternatively, life may have formed less frequently, then spread—by

text: meteoroid

text: s, for example—between

text: habitable planet

text: s in a process called

text: panspermia

text: . In any case,

text: complex organic molecules

text: may have formed in the

text: protoplanetary disk

text: of

text: dust grains

text: surrounding the

text: Sun

text: before the formation of Earth. According to these studies, this process may occur outside Earth on several planets and moons of the Solar System and on planets of other stars.

text: New Horizons has been called "the fastest spacecraft ever launched" because it left Earth at , faster than any other spacecraft to date. It is also the first spacecraft launched directly into a solar escape trajectory, which requires an approximate speed while near Earth of , and additional delta-v to cover air and gravity drag, all to be provided by the launcher, but it is not the fastest spacecraft to leave the Solar System. , this record is held by Voyager 1, traveling at  relative to the Sun. Voyager 1 attained greater hyperbolic excess velocity from Jupiter and Saturn gravitational slingshots than New Horizons. Other spacecraft, such as the Helios probes, can also be measured as the fastest objects, because of their orbital speed relative to the Sun at perihelion. Because they remain in solar orbit, their specific orbital energy relative to the Sun is lower than New Horizons and other artificial objects escaping the Solar System.

text: New Horizons has been called "the fastest spacecraft ever launched" because it left Earth at , faster than any other spacecraft to date. It is also the first spacecraft launched directly into a solar escape trajectory, which requires an approximate speed while near Earth of , and additional

text: delta-v

text: to cover

text: air

text: and

text: gravity drag

text: , all to be provided by the launcher, but it is not the fastest spacecraft to leave the Solar System. , this record is held by Voyager 1, traveling at  relative to the Sun. Voyager 1 attained greater

text: hyperbolic excess velocity

text: from Jupiter and Saturn

text: gravitational slingshot

text: s than New Horizons. Other spacecraft, such as the

text: Helios probes

text: , can also be measured as the fastest objects, because of their orbital speed relative to the Sun at

text: perihelion

text: . Because they remain in solar orbit, their

text: specific orbital energy

text: relative to the Sun is lower than New Horizons and other

entity_name: List of artificial objects leaving the Solar System

text: artificial objects escaping the Solar System

text: The inner Solar System's period of giant impacts probably played a role in the Earth acquiring its current water content (~6 kg) from the early asteroid belt. Water is too volatile to have been present at Earth's formation and must have been subsequently delivered from outer, colder parts of the Solar System. The water was probably delivered by planetary embryos and small planetesimals thrown out of the asteroid belt by Jupiter. A population of main-belt comets discovered in 2006 has been also suggested as a possible source for Earth's water. In contrast, comets from the Kuiper belt or farther regions delivered not more than about 6% of Earth's water. The panspermia hypothesis holds that life itself may have been deposited on Earth in this way, although this idea is not widely accepted.

text: The inner Solar System's period of giant impacts probably played a role in the Earth acquiring its current water content (~6 kg) from the early asteroid belt. Water is too volatile to have been present at Earth's formation and must have been subsequently delivered from outer, colder parts of the Solar System. The water was probably delivered by planetary embryos and small planetesimals thrown out of the asteroid belt by Jupiter. A population of

text: main-belt comet

text: s discovered in 2006 has been also suggested as a possible source for Earth's water. In contrast,

text: comet

text: s from the Kuiper belt or farther regions delivered not more than about 6% of Earth's water. The

text: panspermia

text: hypothesis holds that life itself may have been deposited on Earth in this way, although this idea is not widely accepted.

text: The area was known as Retina in Roman times, later the name changed to Rutone and then to Ruton. In the Domesday Book it is recorded as Rugheton.  In 1876 a meteorite was observed to fall and recovered. It was described in a 2012 BBC web article as  "significant" in the study of how the solar system formed."  Rowton Brewery was established in October 2008 .

text: The area was known as Retina in Roman times, later the name changed to Rutone and then to Ruton. In the

text: Domesday Book

text: it is recorded as Rugheton.  In 1876 a meteorite was observed to fall and recovered. It was described in a 2012 BBC web article as  "significant" in the study of how the solar system formed."  Rowton Brewery was established in October 2008 .

text: In 2011, Vivint Inc. launched a standalone company, Vivint Solar, as a solar electricity provider that designs, installs, and maintains residential photovoltaic systems. The company offers solar panels via a power purchase agreement (PPA). Vivint Solar owns, installs, and maintains solar panels on customers’ homes in exchange for customers agreeing to purchase the solar energy their panels produce. Customers do not pay for installation, but pay for energy that the panel's produce, for the life of the contracts.  Vivint Solar is similar to other alternative solar companies like SolarCity, SunRun, and Sungevity. Its innovation in the field is the use of microinverters for each separate solar panel, allowing maximum production when some of the panels are in the shade.

text: In 2011, Vivint Inc. launched a standalone company,

text: Vivint Solar

text: , as a

text: solar electricity

text: provider that designs, installs, and maintains residential

text: photovoltaic system

text: s. The company offers solar panels via a

text: power purchase agreement

text: (PPA). Vivint Solar owns, installs, and maintains

text: solar panel

text: s on customers’ homes in exchange for customers agreeing to purchase the solar energy their panels produce. Customers do not pay for installation, but pay for energy that the panel's produce, for the life of the contracts.  Vivint Solar is similar to other alternative solar companies like

text: SolarCity

text: SunRun

text: , and

text: Sungevity

text: . Its innovation in the field is the use of

text: microinverter

text: s for each separate solar panel, allowing maximum production when some of the panels are in the shade.

text: The theory was based on the idea that a star passed close enough to the sun early in its life to cause tidal bulges to form on its surface, which along with the internal process that leads to solar prominences, caused material to be ejected repeatedly from the sun. Due to the gravitational effects of the passing star, two spiral-like arms would have extended from the sun, and while most of the material would have fallen back, part of it would remain in orbit. This orbiting material would cool and condense into numerous small bodies that they termed planetesimals and a few larger protoplanets. Their theory proposed that as these objects collided over time, the planets and their moons were built up, with comets and asteroids being the leftover debris. The "spiral nebulae" photographed at Lick Observatory were thought to possibly be views of other suns undergoing this process. These nebulae are now known to be galaxies rather than developing solar systems.

text: The theory was based on the idea that a star passed close enough to the sun early in its life to cause tidal bulges to form on its surface, which along with the internal process that leads to

text: solar prominence

text: s, caused material to be ejected repeatedly from the sun. Due to the gravitational effects of the passing star, two spiral-like arms would have extended from the sun, and while most of the material would have fallen back, part of it would remain in orbit. This orbiting material would cool and condense into numerous small bodies that they termed

text: planetesimal

text: s and a few larger

text: protoplanet

text: s. Their theory proposed that as these objects collided over time, the planets and their moons were built up, with

text: comet

text: s and

text: asteroid

text: s being the leftover debris. The "spiral nebulae" photographed at

text: Lick Observatory

text: were thought to possibly be views of other suns undergoing this process. These nebulae are now known to be

text: galaxies

text: rather than developing solar systems.

text: In the Solar System, the inclination of the orbit of a planet is defined as the angle between the plane of the orbit of the planet and the ecliptic. Therefore, Earth's inclination is, by definition, zero. Inclination could instead be measured with respect to another plane, such as the Sun's equator or even Jupiter's orbital plane, but the ecliptic is more practical for Earth-bound observers. Most planetary orbits in the Solar System have relatively small inclinations, both in relation to each other and to the Sun's equator. On the other hand, the dwarf planets Pluto and Eris have inclinations to the ecliptic of 17° and 44° respectively, and the large asteroid Pallas is inclined at 34°.

text: In the

text: Solar System

text: , the inclination of the orbit of a

text: planet

text: is defined as the angle between the plane of the orbit of the planet and the ecliptic. Therefore, Earth's inclination is, by definition, zero. Inclination could instead be measured with respect to another plane, such as the

text: Sun

text: 's equator or even

text: Jupiter

text: 's orbital plane, but the ecliptic is more practical for Earth-bound observers. Most planetary orbits in the Solar System have relatively small inclinations, both in relation to each other and to the Sun's equator. On the other hand, the

text: dwarf planet

text: s

text: Pluto

text: and

text: Eris

text: have inclinations to the ecliptic of 17° and 44° respectively, and the large

text: asteroid

text: Pallas

text: is inclined at 34°.

text: A preliminary examination of the imagery suggests that S/2015 (136472) 1 has a reflectivity similar to charcoal, making it an extremely dark object. This is somewhat surprising because Makemake is the second-brightest known object in the Kuiper belt. One hypothesis to explain this is that its gravity is not strong enough to prevent bright but volatile ices from being lost to space when it is heated by the distant Sun.

text: A preliminary examination of the imagery suggests that S/2015 (136472) 1 has a

text: reflectivity

text: similar to

text: charcoal

text: , making it an extremely dark object. This is somewhat surprising because Makemake is the second-brightest known object in the

text: Kuiper belt

text: . One hypothesis to explain this is that its gravity is not strong enough to prevent bright but volatile ices from being lost to space when it is heated by the distant Sun.

text: Solar panels can also be mounted as shade structures where the solar panels can provide shade instead of patio covers. The cost of such shading systems are generally different from standard patio covers, especially in cases where the entire shade required is provided by the panels. The support structure for the shading systems can be normal systems as the weight of a standard PV array is between 3 and 5 pounds/ft. If the panels are mounted at an angle steeper than normal patio covers, the support structures may require additional strengthening. Other issues that are considered include:

text: In this way, detached objects differ substantially from most other known TNOs, which form a loosely defined set of populations that have been perturbed to varying degrees onto their current orbit by gravitational encounters with the giant planets, predominantly Neptune. Detached objects have larger perihelia than these other TNO populations, including the objects in orbital resonance with Neptune, such as Pluto, the classical Kuiper belt objects in non-resonant orbits such as Makemake, and the scattered disk objects like Eris.

text: In this way, detached objects differ substantially from most other known TNOs, which form a loosely defined set of populations that have been

text: perturbed

text: to varying degrees onto their current orbit by gravitational encounters with the

text: giant planets

text: , predominantly Neptune. Detached objects have larger perihelia than these other TNO populations, including the objects in

text: orbital resonance

text: with Neptune, such as

text: Pluto

text: , the

text: classical Kuiper belt object

text: s in non-resonant orbits such as

text: Makemake

text: , and the

text: scattered disk object

text: s like

text: Eris

text: A completed object (an object with emergy, or embodied energy) can however create more energy than was used to create it. I.e. a solar panel outputting more energy than its given embodied energy. However the system used to make up the solar panel: the inputs such as the materials for the object (silicon) and the solar radiation can only be regenerated if enough energy is produced to generate the materials used to make up the solar panel. However, today's solar panels are not yet that energy efficient .

text: A completed object (an object with

text: emergy

text: , or embodied energy) can however create more energy than was used to create it. I.e. a

text: solar panel

text: outputting more energy than its given embodied energy. However the system used to make up the solar panel: the inputs such as the materials for the object (silicon) and the solar radiation can only be regenerated if enough energy is produced to generate the materials used to make up the solar panel. However, today's solar panels are not yet that

text: energy efficient

text: Pluto is more than twice the diameter and a dozen times the mass of the dwarf planet Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. It is less massive than the dwarf planet Eris, a trans-Neptunian object discovered in 2005, though Pluto has a larger diameter of 2374 km compared to Eris's approximate diameter of 2326 km.

text: Pluto is more than twice the diameter and a dozen times the mass of the

text: dwarf planet

text: Ceres

text: , the largest object in the

text: asteroid belt

text: . It is less massive than the dwarf planet

text: Eris

text: , a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: discovered in 2005, though Pluto has a larger diameter of 2374 km compared to Eris's approximate diameter of 2326 km.

text: Melilite is a constituent of some calcium- and aluminium-rich inclusions (CAIs) in chondritic meteorites. Isotope ratios of magnesium and some other elements in these inclusions are of great importance in deducing processes that formed our solar system.

text: Melilite is a constituent of some

text: calcium

text: - and

text: aluminium

text: -rich inclusions (

text: CAIs

text: ) in

text: chondritic meteorites

text: Isotope

text: ratios of

text: magnesium

text: and some other elements in these inclusions are of great importance in deducing processes that formed our

text: solar system

text: In April 2011, the satellite was found to have switched itself into power-saving mode due to deterioration of its solar arrays.  Technicians could no longer confirm that any power was being generated. It was suggested that meteoroids may have struck ALOS, creating the anomaly which eventually led to its shutdown.

text: In April 2011, the satellite was found to have switched itself into power-saving mode due to deterioration of its solar arrays.  Technicians could no longer confirm that any power was being generated. It was suggested that

text: meteoroid

text: s may have struck ALOS, creating the anomaly which eventually led to its shutdown.

text: 1999 CW8 is an Apollo asteroid and near-Earth object that is a B-type asteroid, relatively rare in the asteroid belt but common in the inner solar system. The asteroid never approaches Earth closer than 0.2 AU, but occasionally makes close approaches to Mars of 0.07 AU. It makes one such approach in 2073, at 0.067 AU, and another one in 2103, at 0.094 AU. Due to 1999 CW8's relatively high inclination, although it passes closer to the Sun than the Earth (0.9 AU), it never comes closer than 0.2 AU.

text: 1999 CW8 is an Apollo asteroid and near-Earth object that is a

text: B-type asteroid

text: , relatively rare in the asteroid belt but common in the inner solar system. The asteroid never approaches Earth closer than 0.2 AU, but occasionally makes close approaches to Mars of 0.07 AU. It makes one such approach in 2073, at 0.067 AU, and another one in 2103, at 0.094 AU. Due to 1999 CW8's relatively high inclination, although it passes closer to the Sun than the Earth (0.9 AU), it never comes closer than 0.2 AU.

text: Pluto's moons are hypothesized to have been formed by a collision between Pluto and a similar-sized body, early in the history of the Solar System. The collision released material that consolidated into the moons around Pluto. However, Kerberos has a much lower albedo than the other moons of Pluto, which is difficult to explain with a giant collision.

text: 90377 Sedna is a large minor planet in the outer reaches of the Solar System that was, , at a distance of about 86 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun, about three times as far as Neptune. Spectroscopy has revealed that Sedna's surface composition is similar to that of some other trans-Neptunian objects, being largely a mixture of water, methane, and nitrogen ices with tholins. Its surface is one of the reddest among Solar System objects. It is most likely a dwarf planet.

text: 90377 Sedna is a large

text: minor planet

text: in the

text: outer reaches of the Solar System

text: that was, , at a distance of about 86

text: astronomical unit

text: s (AU) from the

text: Sun

text: , about three times as far as

text: Neptune

text: Spectroscopy

text: has revealed that Sedna's surface composition is similar to that of some other

text: trans-Neptunian objects

text: , being largely a mixture of water,

text: methane

text: , and

text: nitrogen

text: ices

text: with

text: tholin

text: s. Its surface is one of the

text: reddest

text: among Solar System objects. It is most

text: likely a dwarf planet

text: The ultimate goal of meteorite classification is to group all meteorite specimens that share a common origin on a single, identifiable parent body. This could be a planet, asteroid, Moon, or other current Solar System object, or one that existed some time in the past (e.g. a shattered asteroid). However, with a few exceptions, this goal is beyond the reach of current science, mostly because there is inadequate information about the nature of most Solar System bodies (especially asteroids and comets) to achieve such a classification. Instead, modern meteorite classification relies on placing specimens into "groups" in which all members share certain key physical, chemical, isotopic, and mineralogical properties consistent with a common origin on a single parent body, even if that body is unidentified. Several meteorite groups classified this way may come from a single, heterogeneous parent body or a single group may contain members that came from a variety of very similar but distinct parent bodies. As such information comes to light, the classification system will most likely evolve.

text: The ultimate goal of meteorite classification is to group all

text: meteorite

text: specimens that share a common origin on a single, identifiable parent body. This could be a

text: planet

text: asteroid

text: Moon

text: , or other current

text: Solar System

text: object, or one that existed some time in the past (e.g. a shattered asteroid). However, with a few exceptions, this goal is beyond the reach of current science, mostly because there is inadequate information about the nature of most Solar System bodies (especially asteroids and

text: comet

text: s) to achieve such a classification. Instead, modern meteorite classification relies on placing specimens into "groups" in which all members share certain key physical,

text: chemical

text: isotopic

text: , and

text: mineral

text: ogical properties consistent with a common origin on a single parent body, even if that body is unidentified. Several meteorite groups classified this way may come from a single, heterogeneous parent body or a single group may contain members that came from a variety of very similar but distinct parent bodies. As such information comes to light, the classification system will most likely evolve.

text: Moreover, the Pluto-Charon system moves in an ellipse around its barycenter with the Sun, as does the Earth-Moon system (and every other planet-moon system or moonless planet in the solar system). In both cases the barycenter is well within the body of the Sun.

text: Moreover, the Pluto-Charon system moves in an ellipse around its barycenter with the

text: Sun

text: , as does the Earth-Moon system (and every other planet-moon system or moonless planet in the solar system). In both cases the barycenter is well within the body of the Sun.

text: The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries. Prior to the early 20th century, most comets were simply referred to by the year when they appeared, sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets; thus, the "Great Comet of 1680", the "Great Comet of 1882", and the "Great January Comet of 1910".

text: The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries. Prior to the early 20th century, most comets were simply referred to by the year when they appeared, sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets; thus, the "

text: Great Comet of 1680

text: ", the "

text: Great Comet of 1882

text: ", and the "

text: Great January Comet of 1910

text: Whipple, in collaboration with Fletcher Watson of the Harvard Observatory, led an effort to build an observatory to directly measure the velocity of the meteors that could be seen. At the time the source of the micro-meteorites was not known. Direct measurements at the new observatory were used to locate the source of the meteors, demonstrating that the bulk of material was left over from comet tails, and that none of it could be shown to have an extra-solar origin. Today it is understood that meteoroids of all sorts are leftover material from the formation of the Solar System, consisting of particles from the interplanetary dust cloud or other objects made up from this material, like comets.

text: Whipple, in collaboration with Fletcher Watson of the

text: Harvard Observatory

text: , led an effort to build an observatory to directly measure the velocity of the meteors that could be seen. At the time the source of the micro-meteorites was not known. Direct measurements at the new observatory were used to locate the source of the meteors, demonstrating that the bulk of material was left over from

text: comet

text: tails, and that none of it could be shown to have an extra-solar origin. Today it is understood that meteoroids of all sorts are leftover material from the formation of the Solar System, consisting of particles from the

text: interplanetary dust cloud

text: or other objects made up from this material, like comets.

text: Another way in which asteroids could be considered a source of danger is by depicting them as a hazard to navigation, especially threatening to ships travelling from Earth to the outer parts of the Solar System and thus needing to pass the Asteroid Belt (or make a time- and fuel-consuming detour around it). Asteroids in this context provide to space travel stories a space equivalent of reefs and underwater rocks in the older genre of seafaring adventures stories. And like reefs and rocks in the ocean, asteroids as navigation hazards can also be used by bold outlaws to avoid pursuit.

text: Following their Philippine tour, the band released the full-length album ‘METEORS’ in September 2012 as UCHUSENTAI:NOIZ. In 2013, the band released the singles PRECOG, Parallel Mind, Corona, One Order and Laika, as well as the tour performance album METEORS FINAL ATTACK AT OSAKA Bigcat. The band’s vocalist ANGEL-TAKA set out on a humanitarian mission to Tacloban, Philippines in December 2013, visiting the victims of Typhoon Yolanda (international name Haiyan) and sending school supplies to elementary school children.

text: Following their Philippine tour, the band released the full-length album ‘METEORS’ in September 2012 as UCHUSENTAI:NOIZ. In 2013, the band released the singles PRECOG, Parallel Mind, Corona, One Order and Laika, as well as the tour performance album METEORS FINAL ATTACK AT OSAKA Bigcat. The band’s vocalist ANGEL-TAKA set out on a humanitarian mission to

text: Tacloban

text: Philippines

text: in December 2013, visiting the victims of Typhoon Yolanda (international name Haiyan) and sending school supplies to elementary school children.

text: A mysterious train-shaped object begins moving through the tunnels, swallowing passengers and pirate free-surfers (who use special boards to traverse the tunnels illegally). Its victims are re-engineered into mutant soldiers to serve the intelligence that has invaded the tunnels. Francine contacts Old Sam about Blondie, but he convinces them that he knows nothing about the moneypin. Using the tunnel surveillance system, they locate Kadiatu and the Doctor heading for Pluto. Old Sam and Blondie set off to investigate, intending to rescue Kadiatu.

text: In Sydney, The Meteors made their first Australian television appearance on Johnny O'Keefe's Sing Sing Sing. By April 1965, the second Meteor's album was finally released on RCA Records and contained a range of styles, including the single "So Long Babe". Other singles followed but Toi and Dick left to join Billy Thorpe & The Aztecs and were eventually replaced by former member Kristian on bass and Bruno Lawrence on drums. During February 1966, visiting UK acts The Rolling Stones and The Searchers were supported on tour by Max Merritt and The Meteors. After a cruise ship gig to New Zealand (during which Bruno abruptly left the group) Merritt heard Otis Redding's version of "Try a Little Tenderness" and recorded his own cover in 1967. Turmoil within The Meteors saw a rapid turn-over of members and by May, Merritt with Bob Bertles on saxophone, Stewart "Stewie" Speer on drums and John "Yuk" Harrison on bass guitar, decided to relocate to Melbourne.

text: In Sydney, The Meteors made their first Australian television appearance on

text: Johnny O'Keefe's

text: Sing Sing Sing. By April 1965, the second Meteor's album was finally released on

text: RCA Records

text: and contained a range of styles, including the single "So Long Babe". Other singles followed but Toi and Dick left to join

text: Billy Thorpe & The Aztecs

text: and were eventually replaced by former member Kristian on bass and

text: Bruno Lawrence

text: on drums. During February 1966, visiting UK acts

text: The Rolling Stones

text: and

text: The Searchers

text: were supported on tour by Max Merritt and The Meteors. After a cruise ship gig to New Zealand (during which Bruno abruptly left the group) Merritt heard

text: Otis Redding's

text: version of "

text: Try a Little Tenderness

text: " and recorded his own cover in 1967. Turmoil within The Meteors saw a rapid turn-over of members and by May, Merritt with

text: Bob Bertles

text: on saxophone,

text: Stewart "Stewie" Speer

text: on drums and John "Yuk" Harrison on bass guitar, decided to relocate to Melbourne.

text: The lifetimes of these dust particles are very short compared to the lifetime of the Solar System. If one finds grains around a star that is older than about 10,000,000 years, then the grains must have been from recently released fragments of larger objects, i.e. they cannot be leftover grains from the protoplanetary disk (Backman, private communication). Therefore, the grains would be "later-generation" dust. The zodiacal dust in the Solar System is 99.9% later-generation dust and 0.1% intruding interstellar medium dust. All primordial grains from the Solar System's formation were removed long ago.

text: The lifetimes of these dust particles are very short compared to the lifetime of the Solar System. If one finds grains around a star that is older than about 10,000,000 years, then the grains must have been from recently released fragments of larger objects, i.e. they cannot be leftover grains from the

text: protoplanetary disk

text: (Backman, private communication). Therefore, the grains would be "later-generation" dust. The zodiacal dust in the Solar System is 99.9% later-generation dust and 0.1% intruding

text: interstellar medium

text: dust. All primordial grains from the Solar System's formation were removed long ago.

text: 49P/Arend–Rigaux is a periodic comet in the Solar System.

text: 49P/Arend–Rigaux is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: The lifespan of the accretion disks is about 10 million years. By the time the star reaches the classical T-Tauri stage, the disk becomes thinner and cools. Less volatile materials start to condense close to its center, forming 0.1–1 μm dust grains that contain crystalline silicates. The transport of the material from the outer disk can mix these newly formed dust grains with primordial ones, which contain organic matter and other volatiles. This mixing can explain some peculiarities in the composition of Solar System bodies such as the presence of interstellar grains in the primitive meteorites and refractory inclusions in comets.

text: The lifespan of the accretion disks is about 10 million years. By the time the star reaches the classical T-Tauri stage, the disk becomes thinner and cools. Less volatile materials start to

text: condense

text: close to its center, forming 0.1–1 μm dust grains that contain

text: crystalline

text: silicate

text: s. The transport of the material from the outer disk can mix these newly formed

text: dust grains

text: with

text: primordial

text: ones, which contain organic matter and other volatiles. This mixing can explain some peculiarities in the composition of Solar System bodies such as the presence of

text: interstellar

text: grains in the primitive

text: meteorite

text: s and refractory inclusions in comets.

text: Fashion designer Donatella Versace and friend of Carey's told Vogue that "Meteorite" is "upbeat" and "has the power to lift your mood". Jim Farber of New York Daily News complimented the track, writing that the disco beat and the Warhol quote was reminiscent of Studio 54. John Sargent for Pitchfork Media was less impressed with the song, simply commenting that the song "is a gloopy scoop of Cher schmaltz". AXS writer John Shetler was critical of "Meteorite" and included it on his four worst songs list from the album, writing Meteorite' gets bonus points for opening with an Andy Warhol quote, but that’s not enough to save the non-descript dance track with a grating, repetitive chorus and unimaginative lyrics about shooting stars and burning up the night sky."

text: Fashion designer

text: Donatella Versace

text: and friend of Carey's told

text: Vogue

text: that "Meteorite" is "upbeat" and "has the power to lift your mood". Jim Farber of

text: New York Daily News

text: complimented the track, writing that the disco beat and the Warhol quote was reminiscent of

text: Studio 54

text: . John Sargent for

text: Pitchfork Media

text: was less impressed with the song, simply commenting that the song "is a gloopy scoop of

text: Cher

text: schmaltz".

text: AXS

text: writer John Shetler was critical of "Meteorite" and included it on his four worst songs list from the album, writing Meteorite' gets bonus points for opening with an Andy Warhol quote, but that’s not enough to save the non-descript dance track with a grating, repetitive chorus and unimaginative lyrics about shooting stars and burning up the night sky."

text: It was calculated that a flyby mission to Haumea could take 14.25 years using a Jupiter gravity assist, based on a launch date of 25 September 2025. Haumea would be 48.18 AU from the Sun when the spacecraft arrives. A flight time of 16.45 years can be achieved with launch dates on 1 November 2026, 23 September 2037 and 29 October 2038.Haumea could become a target for an exploration mission, and an example of this work is a preliminary study on a probe to Haumea and its moons (at 35–51 AU). Probe mass, power source, and propulsion systems are key technology areas for this type of mission.

text:
|-| Photovoltaic power systems and components:
Top: solar string inverter and other BOS components Solar array on rooftop in Hong Kong, China BIPV on balcony in Helsinki, Finland
Middle: rooftop system in Boston, United States Westmill solar park in the United Kingdom Dual axis tracker with CPV modules Topaz, one of the world’s largest solar power station, as seen from space
Bottom: commercial rooftop PV system of about 400 kW Power plant on Mt. Komekura, Japan Solar PV system on Germany's highest mountain-top|}

text: |-| Photovoltaic power systems and components:<br>Top: solar string

text: inverter

text: and other

text: BOS

text: components

text: Solar array

text: on rooftop in Hong Kong, China

text: BIPV

text: on balcony in Helsinki, Finland<br>Middle:

text: rooftop system

text: in Boston, United States Westmill

text: solar park

text: in the United Kingdom Dual axis

text: tracker

text: with

text: CPV

text: modules

text: Topaz

text: , one of the

entity_section: World's largest photovoltaic power stations

text: world’s largest

text: solar power station, as seen from space<br>Bottom: commercial rooftop PV system of about 400

text: kW

text: Power plant

text: on Mt. Komekura, Japan Solar PV system on Germany's highest mountain-top|}

text: Makemake (minor-planet designation 136472 Makemake) is a dwarf planet and perhaps the largest Kuiper belt object (KBO) in the classical population, with a diameter approximately two thirds that of Pluto. Makemake has one known satellite, S/2015 (136472) 1. Makemake’s extremely low average temperature, about , means its surface is covered with methane, ethane, and possibly nitrogen ices.

text: Makemake (

text: minor-planet designation

text: 136472 Makemake) is a

text: dwarf planet

text: and perhaps the largest

text: Kuiper belt

text: object (KBO) in the

text: classical population

text: , with a diameter approximately two thirds that of

text: Pluto

text: . Makemake has one known satellite,

text: S/2015 (136472) 1

text: . Makemake’s extremely low average temperature, about , means its surface is covered with

text: methane

text: ethane

text: , and possibly

text: nitrogen ices

text: Studies of ring systems inform us of many-body dynamics.  This is applicable to the asteroid and Kuiper Belts, and the early Solar System, which had more objects, dust, and gas.  It is relevant to the magnetospherics of those bodies.  It is also relevant to the dynamics of our galaxy and others.  In turn, though the Saturnian system is readily studied (by Cassini, ground telescopes, and space telescopes), the simpler and lower mass ring systems of the other giants makes their explanations somewhat easier to fathom.  The Jupiter ring system is perhaps more completely understood at present than any of the other three.

text: Studies of ring systems inform us of many-body dynamics.  This is applicable to the asteroid and Kuiper Belts, and the early Solar System, which had more objects, dust, and gas.  It is relevant to the magnetospherics of those bodies.  It is also relevant to the dynamics of our galaxy and others.  In turn, though the

text: Saturnian system

text: is readily studied (by

text: Cassini

text: , ground telescopes, and space telescopes), the simpler and lower mass ring systems of the other giants makes their explanations somewhat easier to fathom.  The Jupiter ring system is perhaps more completely understood at present than any of the other three.

text: The Middlesbrough meteorite is classified as a chondrite. It is approximately 4,500 million years old and was formed at the same time as the Earth and the solar system. It is approximately 6 inches in diameter, weighs 3 pounds 8.75 ounces (approximately 1.5 kg) and has a crust of unusual thickness - it was recovered in one piece. A 3D scan of the object was made by NASA scientists in 2010.

text: The Middlesbrough meteorite is classified as a

text: chondrite

text: . It is approximately 4,500 million years old and was formed at the same time as the Earth and the solar system. It is approximately 6 inches in diameter, weighs 3 pounds 8.75 ounces (approximately 1.5 kg) and has a crust of unusual thickness - it was recovered in one piece. A

text: 3D scan

text: of the object was made by NASA scientists in 2010.

text: Ceres (; minor-planet designation: 1 Ceres) is the largest object in the asteroid belt that lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Its diameter is approximately , making it the largest of the minor planets within the orbit of Neptune. The 33rd-largest known body in the Solar System, it is the only dwarf planet within the orbit of Neptune. Composed of rock and ice, Ceres is estimated to comprise approximately one third of the mass of the entire asteroid belt. Ceres is the only object in the asteroid belt known to be rounded by its own gravity. From Earth, the apparent magnitude of Ceres ranges from 6.7 to 9.3, and hence even at its brightest, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, except under extremely dark skies.

text: Ceres (;

text: minor-planet designation

text: : 1 Ceres) is the

text: largest object

text: in the

text: asteroid belt

text: that lies between the orbits of

text: Mars

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: . Its diameter is approximately , making it the largest of the

text: minor planet

text: s within the

text: orbit of Neptune

text: . The 33rd-

text: largest known body

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: , it is the only

text: dwarf planet

text: within the orbit of Neptune. Composed of rock and ice, Ceres is estimated to comprise approximately one third of the mass of the entire asteroid belt. Ceres is the only object in the asteroid belt known to be

text: rounded by its own gravity

text: . From

text: Earth

text: , the

text: apparent magnitude

text: of Ceres ranges from 6.7 to 9.3, and hence even at its brightest, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye, except under extremely dark skies.

text: This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these are pieces blasted off the Moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, particularly ALH84001 discovered by ANSMET, are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.

text: This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these are pieces blasted off the Moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, particularly

text: discovered by

text: ANSMET

text: , are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.

text: Finally, colonizing other parts of the Solar System would prevent the whole human species from being exterminated by any one of a number of possible events (see Human extinction).  One of these possible events is an asteroid impact like the one which may have resulted in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Although various Spaceguard projects monitor the Solar System for objects that might come dangerously close to Earth, current asteroid deflection strategies are crude and untested. To make the task more difficult, carbonaceous chondrites are rather sooty and therefore very hard to detect. Although carbonaceous chondrites are thought to be rare, some are very large and the suspected "dinosaur-killer" may have been a carbonaceous chondrite.

text: Finally, colonizing other parts of the Solar System would prevent the whole human species from being exterminated by any one of a number of possible events (see

text: Human extinction

text: ).  One of these possible events is an

text: asteroid impact

text: like the one which may have resulted in the

text: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event

text: . Although various

text: Spaceguard

text: projects monitor the Solar System for objects that might come dangerously close to Earth, current

text: asteroid deflection strategies

text: are crude and untested. To make the task more difficult,

text: carbonaceous chondrite

text: s are rather sooty and therefore very hard to detect. Although carbonaceous chondrites are thought to be rare, some are very large and the suspected "

text: dinosaur-killer

text: " may have been a carbonaceous chondrite.

text: A meteoroid () is a small rocky or metallic body in outer space. Meteoroids are significantly smaller than asteroids, and range in size from small grains to 1 meter-wide objects. Objects smaller than this are classified as micrometeoroids or space dust. Most are fragments from comets or asteroids, whereas others are collision impact debris ejected from bodies such as the Moon or Mars.

text: A meteoroid () is a small rocky or metallic body in

text: outer space

text: . Meteoroids are significantly smaller than

text: asteroid

text: s, and range in size from small grains to 1 meter-wide objects. Objects smaller than this are classified as

text: micrometeoroids

text: or

text: space dust

text: . Most are fragments from

text: comet

text: s or asteroids, whereas others are

text: collision impact

text: debris

text: ejected from bodies such as the

text: Moon

text: or

text: Mars

text: They are defeated by the skills of Giles Habibula. Giles broke into a secret chamber guarded by complex locks and force fields that the incorporeal Cometeers could not penetrate. In it the ruler of the Cometeers had kept its own weapon of mass destruction, one that would cause the Cometeers to disintegrate. The ruling Cometeer kept this weapon to enforce its rule over the others of its kind. Once the Cometeers were destroyed, their slaves were ordered by the Legion to take the comet and leave the Solar System, and never return.

text: The planetary systems of stars other than the Sun and the Solar System are a staple element in much science fiction. Tau Ceti is the second closest main sequence star to the Sun (after Alpha Centauri A) having spectral class G, making it a popular story setting or system of origin in science fiction tales. The Sun, itself of spectral class G, provides an obvious model for the possibility that the star might harbor worlds capable of supporting life. But Tau Ceti, weighing in at ~0.78 , is metal-poor and so is thought to be unlikely to host rocky planets (see Destination: Void by Frank Herbert below); on the other hand, observations have detected more than ten times as much dust around the star than exists in the Solar System, a condition tending to enhance the probability of such bodies. Since the star's luminosity is barely 55% that of the Sun, those planets would need to circle it at the orbital radius of Venus in order to match the insolation received by the Earth. (See Time for the Stars by Robert Heinlein below.)

text: The

text: planetary system

text: s of

text: star

text: s other than the

text: Sun

text: and the

text: Solar System

text: are a staple element in much

text: science fiction

text: Tau Ceti

text: is the second closest

text: main sequence

text: star to the Sun (after

text: Alpha Centauri A

text: ) having

text: spectral class G

text: , making it a popular story setting or system of origin in science fiction tales. The Sun, itself of spectral class G, provides an obvious model for the possibility that the star might harbor worlds capable of supporting life. But Tau Ceti, weighing in at ~0.78 , is metal-poor and so is thought to be unlikely to host rocky planets (see

text: Destination: Void

text: by Frank Herbert below); on the other hand, observations have detected more than ten times as much dust around the star than exists in the Solar System, a condition tending to enhance the probability of such bodies. Since the star's luminosity is barely 55% that of the

text: Sun

text: , those planets would need to circle it at the orbital radius of

text: Venus

text: in order to match the

text: insolation

text: received by the Earth. (See

text: Time for the Stars

text: by Robert Heinlein below.)

text: The habitable zone varies with the type and age of the central star. For advanced life the star must have a high degree of stability. Stars with an age of 4.6 billion years, middle star life, are at the most stable state. Proper metallicity and size are also very important to stability. The Sun as a low 0.1% solar luminosity variation. A solar twin star, would be a star with low luminosity variation. To date no solar twin with an exact match as that of the Sun has been found, however, there are some stars that come close to being identical. The star must have no stellar companions, other close by stars as in binary systems, would disrupt the orbits of planets. Estimates suggest that 50% or more of all star systems are binary systems. The habitable zone for a main sequence star very gradually moves out over time until the star becomes a white dwarf, at which time the habitable zone vanishes. The habitable zone is closely connected to the greenhouse warming afforded by atmospheric water vapor (), carbon dioxide (), and/or other greenhouse gases. Even though the Earth's atmosphere contains a water vapor concentration from 0% (in arid regions) to 4% (in rain forest and ocean regions) and -as of June 2013- only 400 parts per million of , these small amounts suffice to raise the average surface temperature of the Earth by about 40 °C from what it would otherwise be, with the dominant contribution being due to water vapor, which together with clouds makes up between 66% and 85% of Earth's greenhouse effect, with  contributing between 9% and 26% of the effect.

text: The habitable zone varies with the type and age of the central star. For advanced life the star must have a high degree of stability. Stars with an age of 4.6 billion years, middle star life, are at the most stable state. Proper

text: metallicity

text: and size are also very important to stability. The Sun as a low 0.1%

text: solar luminosity

text: variation. A

text: solar twin

text: star, would be a star with low luminosity variation. To date no solar twin with an exact match as that of the Sun has been found, however, there are some stars that come close to being identical. The star must have no stellar companions, other close by stars as in

text: binary systems

text: , would disrupt the orbits of planets. Estimates suggest that 50% or more of all star systems are binary systems. The habitable zone for a main sequence star very gradually moves out over time until the star becomes a white dwarf, at which time the habitable zone vanishes. The habitable zone is closely connected to the

text: greenhouse warming

text: afforded by atmospheric water vapor (), carbon dioxide (), and/or other greenhouse gases. Even though the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: contains a water vapor concentration from 0% (in arid regions) to 4% (in rain forest and ocean regions) and -as of June 2013- only 400 parts per million of , these small amounts suffice to raise the average surface temperature of the Earth by about 40 °C from what it would otherwise be, with the dominant contribution being due to water vapor, which together with clouds makes up between 66% and 85% of Earth's greenhouse effect, with  contributing between 9% and 26% of the effect.

text: Impacts are thought to be a regular (if currently infrequent) part of the evolution of the Solar System. That they continue to happen is evidenced by the collision of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994, the 2009 Jupiter impact event, the Tunguska event, the Chelyabinsk meteor and the impact feature Meteor Crater in Arizona. The process of accretion, therefore, is not complete, and may still pose a threat to life on Earth.

text: Impacts are thought to be a regular (if currently infrequent) part of the evolution of the Solar System. That they continue to happen is evidenced by the collision of

text: Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9

text: with

text: Jupiter

text: in 1994, the

text: 2009 Jupiter impact event

text: , the

text: Tunguska event

text: , the

text: Chelyabinsk meteor

text: and the impact feature

text: Meteor Crater

text: in

text: Arizona

text: . The process of accretion, therefore, is not complete, and may still pose a threat to life on Earth.

text: The asteroid itself is an elongated prolate spheroid which appears to be virtually identical to Juno, a large asteroid in the main belt. It has been hollowed out along its long axis, and subdivided into seven vast cylindrical chambers, and rotates to provide artificial gravity. The chambers are terraformed, with the second and third containing vast abandoned cities which have been maintained by automatic systems for centuries. As the Earth investigators explore the asteroid's interior, they make an even more stunning discovery — the end of the Stone's seventh chamber opens out into a vast cylindrical corridor ("The Way"), a "pocket universe" that extends far beyond the physical limit of the asteroid, and may possibly be infinite. These discoveries indicate both that the Stone's creators (who are dubbed the "Stoners") have mastered the technology to open portals into other dimensions and alternate universes, and that, for unknown reasons, these original inhabitants had been evacuated from the Stone at some time in its past, and could well be living somewhere further along the Way.

text: The asteroid itself is an elongated

text: prolate spheroid

text: which appears to be virtually identical to

text: Juno

text: , a large asteroid in the

text: main belt

text: . It has been hollowed out along its long axis, and subdivided into seven vast cylindrical chambers, and rotates to provide

text: artificial gravity

text: . The chambers are

text: terraformed

text: , with the second and third containing vast abandoned cities which have been maintained by automatic systems for centuries. As the Earth investigators explore the asteroid's interior, they make an even more stunning discovery — the end of the Stone's seventh chamber opens out into a vast cylindrical corridor ("The Way"), a "pocket universe" that extends far beyond the physical limit of the asteroid, and may possibly be infinite. These discoveries indicate both that the Stone's creators (who are dubbed the "Stoners") have mastered the technology to open portals into other dimensions and alternate universes, and that, for unknown reasons, these original inhabitants had been evacuated from the Stone at some time in its past, and could well be living somewhere further along the Way.

text: Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond Neptune. It was the first Kuiper belt object to be discovered. It is the largest and second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object directly orbiting the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume but is less massive than Eris, a dwarf planet in the scattered disc. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is primarily made of ice and rock and is relatively small—about one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third its volume. It has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to 49 astronomical units or AU (4.4–7.4 billion km) from the Sun. This means that Pluto periodically comes closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance with Neptune prevents them from colliding.  Light from the Sun takes about 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its average distance (39.5 AU).

text: Pluto (

text: minor-planet designation

text: : 134340 Pluto) is a

text: dwarf planet

text: in the

text: Kuiper belt

text: , a ring of

text: bodies beyond Neptune

text: . It was the first Kuiper belt object to be discovered. It is the largest and second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the

text: Solar System

text: and the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object directly orbiting the

text: Sun

text: . It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume but is less massive than

text: Eris

text: , a dwarf planet in the

text: scattered disc

text: . Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is primarily made of ice and rock and is relatively small—about one-sixth the mass of the

text: Moon

text: and one-third its volume. It has a moderately

text: eccentric

text: and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to 49

text: astronomical unit

text: s or AU (4.4–7.4 billion km) from the Sun. This means that Pluto periodically comes closer to the Sun than

text: Neptune

text: , but a stable

text: orbital resonance

text: with Neptune prevents them from colliding.  Light from the Sun takes about 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its average distance (39.5 AU).

text: Radiation in space usually comes from three main sources: (i) the Van Allen radiation belts; (ii) solar proton events and solar energetic particles; and (iii) galactic cosmic rays. For long duration missions, the high doses of radiation can damage electronic components and solar cells. A major concern is also radiation-induced "single-event effects" such as single event upset. Manned missions usually avoid the radiation belts and the international space station is at an altitude well below the most severe regions of the radiation belts. During solar energetic events (solar flares and coronal mass ejections) particles can be accelerated to very high energies and can reach the Earth in times as short as 30 minutes (but usually take some hours). These particles are mainly protons and heavier ions that can cause radiation damage, disruption to logic circuits and even hazards to astronauts. Manned missions to return to the Moon or to travel to Mars will have to deal with the major problems presented by solar particle events to radiation safety, in addition to the important contribution to doses from the low-level background cosmic rays. In near-Earth orbits, the Earth's geomagnetic field screens spacecraft from a large part of these hazards - a process called geomagnetic shielding.Space debris and meteoroids can impact spacecraft at high speeds, causing mechanical or electrical damage.  The average speed of space debris is 10 km/s  while the average speed of meteoroids is much greater.  For example, the meteoroids associated with the Perseid meteor shower travel at an average speed of 58 km/s.  Mechanical damage from debris impacts have been studied through space missions including LDEF, which had over 20,000 documented impacts through its 5.7 year mission.  Electrical anomalies associated with impact events include ESA's Olympus spacecraft, which lost attitude control during the 1993 Perseid meteor shower.  A similar event occurred with the Landsat 5 spacecraft during the 2009 Perseid meteor shower.

text: Radiation in space usually comes from three main sources: (i) the

text: Van Allen radiation belts

text: ; (ii)

text: solar proton event

text: s and

text: solar energetic particle

text: s; and (iii) galactic

text: cosmic rays

text: . For long duration missions, the high doses of radiation can damage electronic components and solar cells. A major concern is also radiation-induced "single-event effects" such as

text: single event upset

text: . Manned missions usually avoid the radiation belts and the

text: international space station

text: is at an altitude well below the most severe regions of the radiation belts. During solar energetic events (

text: solar flares

text: and

text: coronal mass ejections

text: ) particles can be accelerated to very high energies and can reach the Earth in times as short as 30 minutes (but usually take some hours). These particles are mainly protons and heavier ions that can cause radiation damage, disruption to logic circuits and even hazards to astronauts. Manned missions to return to the Moon or to travel to Mars will have to deal with the major problems presented by solar particle events to radiation safety, in addition to the important contribution to doses from the low-level background

text: cosmic rays

text: . In near-Earth orbits, the Earth's

text: geomagnetic field

text: screens spacecraft from a large part of these hazards - a process called

text: geomagnetic shielding

text: .Space debris and meteoroids can impact spacecraft at high speeds, causing mechanical or electrical damage.  The average speed of space debris is 10 km/s  while the average speed of meteoroids is much greater.  For example, the meteoroids associated with the

text: Perseid meteor shower

text: travel at an average speed of 58 km/s.  Mechanical damage from debris impacts have been studied through space missions including

text: LDEF

text: , which had over 20,000 documented impacts through its 5.7 year mission.  Electrical anomalies associated with impact events include

text: ESA

text: 's Olympus spacecraft, which lost attitude control during the 1993 Perseid meteor shower.  A similar event occurred with the

text: Landsat 5

text: spacecraft during the 2009 Perseid meteor shower.

text: The solar system of Magical Starsign consists of 6 planets: the planets of fire, wood, wind, water, earth, and another small planet on the fringes of the solar system called Kovomaka. Kovomaka houses the Will-O-Wisp academy of magic, where 6 aspiring magicians are studying in the same class under the guidance of their teacher, Miss Madeline. One day, Principal Biscotti receives word that Master Kale, a graduate of the academy, has become the leader of the space pirates, and is planning to destroy the solar system. He sends Miss Madeline out into space on a mission to prevent Master Kale from achieving his evil plans, but loses all contact with her shortly afterwards. 3 months later, Lassi, one of the current students in the academy, discovers a small spaceship hidden on the roof of the academy building, and goes off into space in search of Miss Madeline. The hero of the story pursues Lassi in another spaceship, but is forced to crash land on another planet. The player must reunite with the other 5 classmates, rescue Miss Madeline, and derail Master Kale's evil plans in a wild journey across outer-space.

text: There do exist orbits within these empty regions where objects can survive for the age of the Solar System. These resonances occur when Neptune's orbital period is a precise fraction of that of the object, such as 1:2, or 3:4. If, say, an object orbits the Sun once for every two Neptune orbits, it will only complete half an orbit by the time Neptune returns to its original position. The most heavily populated resonance in the Kuiper belt, with over 200 known objects, is the 2:3 resonance. Objects in this resonance complete 2 orbits for every 3 of Neptune, and are known as plutinos because the largest of the known Kuiper belt objects, Pluto, is among them. Although Pluto crosses Neptune's orbit regularly, the 2:3 resonance ensures they can never collide. The 3:4, 3:5, 4:7 and 2:5 resonances are less populated.

text: There do exist orbits within these empty regions where objects can survive for the age of the Solar System. These

text: resonances

text: occur when Neptune's orbital period is a precise fraction of that of the object, such as 1:2, or 3:4. If, say, an object orbits the Sun once for every two Neptune orbits, it will only complete half an orbit by the time Neptune returns to its original position. The most heavily populated resonance in the Kuiper belt, with over 200 known objects, is the 2:3 resonance. Objects in this resonance complete 2 orbits for every 3 of Neptune, and are known as

text: plutino

text: s because the largest of the known Kuiper belt objects,

text: Pluto

text: , is among them. Although Pluto crosses Neptune's orbit regularly, the 2:3 resonance ensures they can never collide. The 3:4, 3:5, 4:7 and 2:5 resonances are less populated.

text: A meteor is a poi-like manipulative whose ends, opposite the poi heads, are connected. See: meteor (juggling) and Eskimo yo-yo.

text: A meteor is a poi-like manipulative whose ends, opposite the poi heads, are connected. See:

text: meteor (juggling)

text: and

text: Eskimo yo-yo

text: is a planetoid in the outer reaches of the Solar System.  It is the object with the farthest known perihelion (closest approach to the Sun) in the Solar System, farther than Sedna's. Its discovery was announced on 26 March 2014. It has an absolute magnitude (H) of 4.0, which makes it likely to be a dwarf planet, and it is accepted as a dwarf planet by some.  It is expected to be about half the size of Sedna and similar in size to Huya.  The similarity of 2012 VP113's orbit to the orbits of other known extreme trans-Neptunian objects led Scott Sheppard and Chad Trujillo to suggest that an undiscovered super-Earth in the outer Solar System is shepherding these distant objects into similar type orbits.

text: is a

text: planetoid

text: in the

text: outer reaches of the Solar System

text: .  It is the object with the farthest known

text: perihelion

text: (closest approach to the Sun) in the Solar System, farther than

text: Sedna

text: 's. Its discovery was announced on 26 March 2014. It has an

text: absolute magnitude (H)

text: of 4.0, which makes it

text: likely to be a dwarf planet

text: , and it is accepted as a dwarf planet by some.  It is expected to be about half the size of

text: Sedna

text: and similar in size to

text: Huya

text: .  The similarity of 2012 VP113's orbit to the orbits of other known extreme trans-Neptunian objects led

text: Scott Sheppard

text: and

text: Chad Trujillo

text: to suggest that an undiscovered super-Earth in the outer Solar System is shepherding these distant objects into similar type orbits.

text: |-| Makemake| | | | | | |-| Haumea| | | | | | |-|colspan=7|

text: Makemake

text: Haumea

text: | | | | | | |-|colspan=7|

text: The lyrics frequently reference astral objects, solar bodies, and mythological figures.

text: |-| 10601 Hiwatashi || 1996 UC || Kenji Hiwatashi, electrical engineer at NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) from 1947 to 1979. |-id=602| 10602 Masakazu ||  || Masakazu Kusakabe, a ceramic artist. |-id=604| 10604 Susanoo || 1996 VJ || Susanoo-no-mikoto is the Japanese god of heroes and the ancestor soul and a younger brother of the goddess Amaterasu. |-id=605| 10605 Guidoni ||  || Umberto Guidoni, Italian astronaut †|-id=606| 10606 Crocco ||  || Gaetano Arturo Crocco, Italian pioneer of aeronautics and space science †|-id=607| 10607 Amandahatton ||  || Amanda H. Hatton, the discoverer's stepdaughter. |-id=608| 10608 Mameta ||  || Katsuhiko Mameta, one of Japan's top meteor observers. |-id=609| 10609 Hirai ||  || Yuzo Hirai, a professor at the Institute of Information Sciences and Electronics. |-id=611| 10611 Yanjici ||  || Yan Jici (1901–1996) was a renowned physical scientist and educator, and a member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. He was one of the Chinese pioneers of physics research, one of the founders of optical instrument development and was President of the University of Science and Technology of China from 1980 to 1984.|-id=612| 10612 Houffalize ||  || Houffalize, Belgium, on the Ourthe River |-id=613| 10613 Kushinadahime ||  ||  Kushinadahime, the mythical empress of the god Susanoo-no-mikoto, was offered as a sacrifice to the giant snake Yamata-no-orochi but was saved by the god Susanoo.|-id=616| 10616 Inouetakeshi ||  || Takeshi Inoue (b. 1969) is astronomy curator of Akashi Municipal Planetarium, where he has been engaged in popularizing astronomy since 1997.|-id=617| 10617 Takumi ||  || Amateur astronomer Takumi Takahata (b. 1941) has created many computer programs that are used for astronomical calculations. The "measurescope" Takumi lent to the discoverers was used to determine the coordinates of this minor planet.|-id=619| 10619 Ninigi ||  || According to the Japanese myth, the god Ninigi-no-mikoto is a grandson of the goddess Amaterasu. By the order of Amaterasu he descended from the heaven Takamagahara to the peak Takachiho to dominate the land.|-id=626| 10626 Zajíc ||  || Jan Zajíc (b. 1910), founder and for a long time director of the observatory in Vlašim, has brought astronomy to many young people. In spite of many problems, this public observatory is currently one of the most active in the Czech Republic. The naming is on the occasion of Zají c's 90th birthday.|-id=627| 10627 Ookuninushi ||  || The mythical Japanese god Ookuninushi-no-mikoto created the land, together with the god Sukunabikona-no-mikoto. The name means "king of great land" and is a frequent reference in literature and folklore. A well-known story is that he helped a white rabbit skinned by a shark as the retribution for trickery.|-id=628| 10628 Feuerbacher ||  || Berndt P. Feuerbacher, German physicist, head of the Institute of Space Simulation at the German Aerospace Center in Cologne since 1981 |-id=633| 10633 Akimasa ||  ||  Named in honor of Akimasa Nakamura (b. 1961), a prolific Japanese observer of minor planets and comets. In the course of his observing program at the Kuma Kogen Astronomical Observatory he has obtained thousands of precise positions of minor bodies. His estimates of the magnitudes of minor planets are of particularly high quality and serve as the standard in the analysis of "astrometric" magnitude estimates. He is also Japanese coordinator for the International Comet Quarterly. This name marks the occasion of Nakamura's becoming a father in early 1999.|-id=634| 10634 Pepibican ||  || Josef "Pepi" Bican, Czech footballer*|-id=637| 10637 Heimlich ||  || Henry J. Heimlich is an American surgeon who in the early 1970s devised the "Heimlich maneuver", a potentially life-saving procedure for propelling food or other foreign objects up and out of the throat.|-id=638| 10638 McGlothlin ||  || Gerald R. McGlothlin (b. 1952) was responsible for refurbishing much of the LONEOS dome, turning a bare photographic darkroom into a modern control room and computer room. In his spare time he is a skilled potter.|-id=639| 10639 Gleason ||  || Arianna Gleason (b. 1980) is a student observer with the Spacewatch Project. She has been instrumental in the data reduction for two Spacewatch papers on the outer solar system and is a prolific discoverer of Near-Earth Objects.|-id=642| 10642 Charmaine ||  || Charmaine Wilkerson, American-born writer and broadcaster. Discovered by Andrea Boattini †|-id=645| 10645 Brač ||  || Brač island, Croatia, home of the Pustinja Blaca Observatory ("Blaca Desert" Observatory) |-id=646| 10646 Machielalberts || 2077 P-L || Machiel Alberts, one of the first people in the Netherlands to photograph a meteor †|-id=647| 10647 Meesters || 3074 P-L || Piet Meesters, Dutch amateur astronomer †|-id=648| 10648 Plancius || 4089 P-L || Petrus Plancius (Pieter Platevoet), Dutch cartographer and astronomer for the Dutch East India Company †|-id=649| 10649 VOC || 4098 P-L || Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, Dutch for Dutch East India Company †|-id=650| 10650 Houtman || 4110 P-L || Frederick de Houtman, Dutch navigator who travelled to the East Indies in 1595 as assistant to Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser †|-id=651| 10651 van Linschoten || 4522 P-L || Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, Dutch cartographer and spy for the Dutch East India Company †|-id=652| 10652 Blaeu || 4599 P-L || Willem Janszoon Blaeu, Dutch cartographer and hydrographer for the Dutch East India Company †|-id=653| 10653 Witsen || 6030 P-L || Nicolaas Witsen, Dutch mayor of Amsterdam and member of the board of the Dutch East India Company †|-id=654| 10654 Bontekoe || 6673 P-L || Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe, Dutch East India Company skipper whose ship flew into a hundred thousand pieces on the way to the East Indies †|-id=655| 10655 Pietkeyser || 9535 P-L || Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser, Dutch navigator who travelled to the East Indies in 1595 with Frederik de Houtman as his assistant †|-id=656| 10656 Albrecht || 2213 T-1 || Carl Theodor Albrecht  (1843–1915), German astronomer and geodesist, first director of the International Latitude Service.|-id=657| 10657 Wanach || 2251 T-1 || Bernhard Karl Wanach  (1867–1928), Latvian-born astronomer and geodesist, second head of the International Latitude Service.|-id=658| 10658 Gretadevries || 2281 T-1 || Greta de Vries (1967–2006) was the assistant to the director of the Kapteyn Astronomical Institute in Groningen, when she tragically died while on holiday. She was a beloved key staff member of the institute.|-id=659| 10659 Sauerland || 3266 T-1 || Sauerland, German rural hilly area*|-id=660| 10660 Felixhormuth || 4348 T-1 || Felix Hormuth, German astronomer |-id=661| 10661 Teutoburgerwald || 1211 T-2 || Teutoburg Forest of Germany*|-id=662| 10662 Peterwisse || 3201 T-2 || Peter Wisse, Dutch curator of the "Museon", the Dutch Center for educational exhibitions |-id=663| 10663 Schwarzwald || 4283 T-2 || Schwarzwald, the Black Forest of Germany*|-id=664| 10664 Phemios || 5187 T-2 || Phemios was a singer with Telemachos, forced to play for Penelope's suitors, spared by Odysseus for friendly deeds and because a singer is sacred.|-id=665| 10665 Ortigão || 3019 T-3 || Catarina Ortigão (b. 1974) is a person of rare inner beauty, to whom Pedro Lacerda, a colleague of the discoverers, would like to pay tribute. She is a Portuguese-born scientist working in the field of medical physics.|-id=666| 10666 Feldberg || 4171 T-3 || The Feldberg is the highest mountain (1490 m) of the Schwarzwald. Winter and summer, its wonderful surrounding area attracts tourists, hikers and skiers.|-id=667| 10667 van Marxveldt || 1975 UA || Cissy van Marxveldt (Setske de Haan), 19th-20th-century Dutch writer, author of the humorous Joop ter Heul novels for teenage girls; Anne Frank addressed her diary letters to an imaginary friend based on one of van Marxveldt's characters |-id=669| 10669 Herfordia || 1977 FN || Herford, a town in what is sometimes called "Eastern Westfalia", is known for its numerous light industries and beautiful surrounding countryside. It was in Herford that Walter Baade, born in nearby Schröttinghausen, first realized his love of astronomy.|-id=670| 10670 Seminozhenko ||  || Ukrainian physicist Vladimir Petrovich Seminozhenko (b. 1950) is known for his research on the kinetics of excitation in superconductors and semiconductors and on high-temperature superconductivity.|-id=671| 10671 Mazurova ||  || Ekaterina Yakovlevna Mazurova (1900–1995) was a Russian actress who worked in Moscow theaters and played many roles in films. In her youth and at the beginning of her artistic career she was connected with the town of Shuya, and she gave to the museum in Shuya her collection of more than 1000 pieces of Russian and foreign art.|-id=672| 10672 Kostyukova || 1978 QE || Tatiana Andreevna Kostyukova (b. 1957) is a botanist and cultivator of flowers in Kiev. Her collection of flowers won a diploma at the 2001 Moscow Autumn Flower Show.|-id=675| 10675 Kharlamov ||  || Valerij Borisovich Kharlamov (1948–1981) was an outstanding Russian ice hockey player. As a team member he repeatedly won world championships and was champion of the Olympic Games in 1972 and 1976.|-id=676| 10676 Jamesmcdanell ||  ||  James P. McDanell (b. 1937) spent nearly three decades with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory before retiring in 1999. He was the Voyager Navigation Team Chief during the highly successful encounters with Saturn and its satellites. He subsequently became manager of the Navigation Systems Section.|-id=681| 10681 Khture ||  ||  The Kharkiv Technical University of Radioelectronics, founded in 1930, is a recognized school of specialists in radioelectronics, computer science, telecommunication, metrology and biotechnical and medical systems. Khture is also known for its time service and for radioastronomical research on meteors.|-id=683| 10683 Carter || 1980 LY || Carter Worth Roberts (b. 1946), president of the Eastbay Astronomical Society, is known for superlative dabbling in photography and puns and his ability to fix things. He collaborated on a safe solar-eclipse-viewing booklet and helped restore "Rachel", the 0.5-m Brashear refractor for the Chabot Space and Science Center.|-id=684| 10684 Babkina ||  || Nadezhda Georgievna Babkina (b. 1950) is a People's artist of Russia and the artistic director of the ensemble "Russian song".|-id=685| 10685 Kharkivuniver || 1980 VO || V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University (В. Н. Каразіна Харківський Національний Університет) of Ukraine|}

text: 10601 Hiwatashi

text: || 1996 UC || Kenji Hiwatashi, electrical engineer at NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) from 1947 to 1979. |-id=602|

text: 10602 Masakazu

text: Masakazu Kusakabe

text: , a ceramic artist. |-id=604|

text: 10604 Susanoo

text: || 1996 VJ || Susanoo-no-mikoto is the Japanese god of heroes and the ancestor soul and a younger brother of the goddess Amaterasu. |-id=605|

text: 10605 Guidoni

text: Umberto Guidoni

text: , Italian astronaut †|-id=606|

text: 10606 Crocco

text: Gaetano Arturo Crocco

text: , Italian pioneer of aeronautics and space science †|-id=607|

text: 10607 Amandahatton

text: ||  || Amanda H. Hatton, the discoverer's stepdaughter. |-id=608|

text: 10608 Mameta

text: Katsuhiko Mameta

text: , one of Japan's top meteor observers. |-id=609|

text: 10609 Hirai

text: ||  || Yuzo Hirai, a professor at the Institute of Information Sciences and Electronics. |-id=611|

text: 10611 Yanjici

text: ||  || Yan Jici (1901–1996) was a renowned physical scientist and educator, and a member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. He was one of the Chinese pioneers of physics research, one of the founders of optical instrument development and was President of the University of Science and Technology of China from 1980 to 1984.|-id=612|

text: 10612 Houffalize

text: Houffalize

text: , Belgium, on the

text: Ourthe River

text: 10613 Kushinadahime

text: ||  ||  Kushinadahime, the mythical empress of the god Susanoo-no-mikoto, was offered as a sacrifice to the giant snake Yamata-no-orochi but was saved by the god Susanoo.|-id=616|

text: 10616 Inouetakeshi

text: ||  || Takeshi Inoue (b. 1969) is astronomy curator of Akashi Municipal Planetarium, where he has been engaged in popularizing astronomy since 1997.|-id=617|

text: 10617 Takumi

text: ||  || Amateur astronomer Takumi Takahata (b. 1941) has created many computer programs that are used for astronomical calculations. The "measurescope" Takumi lent to the discoverers was used to determine the coordinates of this minor planet.|-id=619|

text: 10619 Ninigi

text: ||  || According to the Japanese myth, the god Ninigi-no-mikoto is a grandson of the goddess Amaterasu. By the order of Amaterasu he descended from the heaven Takamagahara to the peak Takachiho to dominate the land.|-id=626|

text: 10626 Zajíc

text: ||  || Jan Zajíc (b. 1910), founder and for a long time director of the observatory in Vlašim, has brought astronomy to many young people. In spite of many problems, this public observatory is currently one of the most active in the Czech Republic. The naming is on the occasion of Zají c's 90th birthday.|-id=627|

text: 10627 Ookuninushi

text: ||  || The mythical Japanese god Ookuninushi-no-mikoto created the land, together with the god Sukunabikona-no-mikoto. The name means "king of great land" and is a frequent reference in literature and folklore. A well-known story is that he helped a white rabbit skinned by a shark as the retribution for trickery.|-id=628|

text: 10628 Feuerbacher

text: Berndt P. Feuerbacher

text: , German physicist, head of the Institute of Space Simulation at the German Aerospace Center in Cologne since 1981 |-id=633|

text: 10633 Akimasa

text: ||  ||  Named in honor of Akimasa Nakamura (b. 1961), a prolific Japanese observer of minor planets and comets. In the course of his observing program at the Kuma Kogen Astronomical Observatory he has obtained thousands of precise positions of minor bodies. His estimates of the magnitudes of minor planets are of particularly high quality and serve as the standard in the analysis of "astrometric" magnitude estimates. He is also Japanese coordinator for the International Comet Quarterly. This name marks the occasion of Nakamura's becoming a father in early 1999.|-id=634|

text: 10634 Pepibican

text: Josef "Pepi" Bican

text: , Czech footballer*|-id=637|

text: 10637 Heimlich

text: ||  || Henry J. Heimlich is an American surgeon who in the early 1970s devised the "Heimlich maneuver", a potentially life-saving procedure for propelling food or other foreign objects up and out of the throat.|-id=638|

text: 10638 McGlothlin

text: ||  || Gerald R. McGlothlin (b. 1952) was responsible for refurbishing much of the LONEOS dome, turning a bare photographic darkroom into a modern control room and computer room. In his spare time he is a skilled potter.|-id=639|

text: 10639 Gleason

text: ||  || Arianna Gleason (b. 1980) is a student observer with the Spacewatch Project. She has been instrumental in the data reduction for two Spacewatch papers on the outer solar system and is a prolific discoverer of Near-Earth Objects.|-id=642|

text: 10642 Charmaine

text: Charmaine Wilkerson

text: , American-born writer and broadcaster. Discovered by

text: Andrea Boattini

text: 10645 Brač

text: Brač

text: island,

text: Croatia

text: , home of the

text: Pustinja Blaca Observatory

text: ("Blaca Desert" Observatory) |-id=646|

text: 10646 Machielalberts

text: || 2077 P-L ||

text: Machiel Alberts

text: , one of the first people in the Netherlands to photograph a meteor †|-id=647|

text: 10647 Meesters

text: || 3074 P-L ||

text: Piet Meesters

text: , Dutch amateur astronomer †|-id=648|

text: 10648 Plancius

text: || 4089 P-L ||

text: Petrus Plancius

text: (Pieter Platevoet), Dutch cartographer and astronomer for the Dutch East India Company †|-id=649|

text: 10649 VOC

text: || 4098 P-L || Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, Dutch for

text: Dutch East India Company

text: 10650 Houtman

text: || 4110 P-L ||

text: Frederick de Houtman

text: , Dutch navigator who travelled to the East Indies in 1595 as assistant to

text: Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser

text: 10651 van Linschoten

text: || 4522 P-L ||

text: Jan Huyghen van Linschoten

text: , Dutch cartographer and spy for the Dutch East India Company †|-id=652|

text: 10652 Blaeu

text: || 4599 P-L ||

text: Willem Janszoon Blaeu

text: , Dutch cartographer and hydrographer for the Dutch East India Company †|-id=653|

text: 10653 Witsen

text: || 6030 P-L ||

text: Nicolaas Witsen

text: , Dutch mayor of Amsterdam and member of the board of the Dutch East India Company †|-id=654|

text: 10654 Bontekoe

text: || 6673 P-L ||

text: Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe

text: , Dutch East India Company skipper whose ship flew into a hundred thousand pieces on the way to the East Indies †|-id=655|

text: 10655 Pietkeyser

text: || 9535 P-L ||

text: Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser

text: , Dutch navigator who travelled to the East Indies in 1595 with

text: Frederik de Houtman

text: as his assistant †|-id=656|

text: 10656 Albrecht

text: || 2213 T-1 ||

text: Carl Theodor Albrecht

text: (1843–1915), German astronomer and geodesist, first director of the International Latitude Service.|-id=657|

text: 10657 Wanach

text: || 2251 T-1 ||

text: Bernhard Karl Wanach

text: (1867–1928), Latvian-born astronomer and geodesist, second head of the International Latitude Service.|-id=658|

text: 10658 Gretadevries

text: || 2281 T-1 || Greta de Vries (1967–2006) was the assistant to the director of the Kapteyn Astronomical Institute in Groningen, when she tragically died while on holiday. She was a beloved key staff member of the institute.|-id=659|

text: 10659 Sauerland

text: || 3266 T-1 ||

text: Sauerland

text: , German rural hilly area*|-id=660|

text: 10660 Felixhormuth

text: || 4348 T-1 ||

text: Felix Hormuth

text: , German astronomer |-id=661|

text: 10661 Teutoburgerwald

text: || 1211 T-2 ||

text: Teutoburg Forest

text: of Germany*|-id=662|

text: 10662 Peterwisse

text: || 3201 T-2 || Peter Wisse, Dutch curator of the "Museon", the Dutch Center for educational exhibitions |-id=663|

text: 10663 Schwarzwald

text: || 4283 T-2 ||

text: Schwarzwald

text: , the Black Forest of Germany*|-id=664|

text: 10664 Phemios

text: || 5187 T-2 || Phemios was a singer with Telemachos, forced to play for Penelope's suitors, spared by Odysseus for friendly deeds and because a singer is sacred.|-id=665|

text: 10665 Ortigão

text: || 3019 T-3 || Catarina Ortigão (b. 1974) is a person of rare inner beauty, to whom Pedro Lacerda, a colleague of the discoverers, would like to pay tribute. She is a Portuguese-born scientist working in the field of medical physics.|-id=666|

text: 10666 Feldberg

text: || 4171 T-3 || The Feldberg is the highest mountain (1490 m) of the Schwarzwald. Winter and summer, its wonderful surrounding area attracts tourists, hikers and skiers.|-id=667|

text: 10667 van Marxveldt

text: || 1975 UA ||

text: Cissy van Marxveldt

text: (Setske de Haan), 19th-20th-century Dutch writer, author of the humorous Joop ter Heul novels for teenage girls;

text: Anne Frank

text: addressed her diary letters to an imaginary friend based on one of van Marxveldt's characters |-id=669|

text: 10669 Herfordia

text: || 1977 FN || Herford, a town in what is sometimes called "Eastern Westfalia", is known for its numerous light industries and beautiful surrounding countryside. It was in Herford that Walter Baade, born in nearby Schröttinghausen, first realized his love of astronomy.|-id=670|

text: 10670 Seminozhenko

text: ||  || Ukrainian physicist Vladimir Petrovich Seminozhenko (b. 1950) is known for his research on the kinetics of excitation in superconductors and semiconductors and on high-temperature superconductivity.|-id=671|

text: 10671 Mazurova

text: ||  || Ekaterina Yakovlevna Mazurova (1900–1995) was a Russian actress who worked in Moscow theaters and played many roles in films. In her youth and at the beginning of her artistic career she was connected with the town of Shuya, and she gave to the museum in Shuya her collection of more than 1000 pieces of Russian and foreign art.|-id=672|

text: 10672 Kostyukova

text: || 1978 QE || Tatiana Andreevna Kostyukova (b. 1957) is a botanist and cultivator of flowers in Kiev. Her collection of flowers won a diploma at the 2001 Moscow Autumn Flower Show.|-id=675|

text: 10675 Kharlamov

text: ||  || Valerij Borisovich Kharlamov (1948–1981) was an outstanding Russian ice hockey player. As a team member he repeatedly won world championships and was champion of the Olympic Games in 1972 and 1976.|-id=676|

text: 10676 Jamesmcdanell

text: ||  ||  James P. McDanell (b. 1937) spent nearly three decades with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory before retiring in 1999. He was the Voyager Navigation Team Chief during the highly successful encounters with Saturn and its satellites. He subsequently became manager of the Navigation Systems Section.|-id=681|

text: 10681 Khture

text: ||  ||  The Kharkiv Technical University of Radioelectronics, founded in 1930, is a recognized school of specialists in radioelectronics, computer science, telecommunication, metrology and biotechnical and medical systems. Khture is also known for its time service and for radioastronomical research on meteors.|-id=683|

text: 10683 Carter

text: || 1980 LY || Carter Worth Roberts (b. 1946), president of the Eastbay Astronomical Society, is known for superlative dabbling in photography and puns and his ability to fix things. He collaborated on a safe solar-eclipse-viewing booklet and helped restore "Rachel", the 0.5-m Brashear refractor for the Chabot Space and Science Center.|-id=684|

text: 10684 Babkina

text: ||  || Nadezhda Georgievna Babkina (b. 1950) is a People's artist of Russia and the artistic director of the ensemble "Russian song".|-id=685|

text: 10685 Kharkivuniver

text: || 1980 VO ||

text: V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University

text: (В. Н. Каразіна Харківський Національний Університет) of Ukraine|}

text: The band made their first TV appearance on Thames TV afternoon show White Light in late 1980. Due to their large cult following, The Meteors made a short film in late 1980 with comedian Keith Allen called Meteor Madness. It was released as a double feature with 2 Tone ska film Dance Craze in March 1981. The movie featured four songs, which made it onto the band's first vinyl single first issued on Ace Records and later on Big Beat. To date, the film Meteor Madness] has never been released on video or DVD, although over the last few years poor quality copies have appeared on YouTube. The tracks were also issued as a rare 12" mini-album called The Meteors Meet Screaming Lord Sutch. Soon after that, they issued the double A-side anthems "Radioactive Kid" and "Graveyard Stomp". A session was recorded for the John Peel BBC radio show in June 1981. Again, to date, these tracks have never been officially released. In August 1981, the band were signed to Island Records and recorded their first full-length album, The Case Of The Meteors In Heaven, and 7" single, "The Crazed". The band were interviewed by No Class fanzine at The Marquee on the night of the live-recording of the track In Heaven. The original line-up also recorded an EP although, due to contract restraints, it was issued under the pseudonym of Clapham-South Escalators, which featured two vocal tracks by Lewis: "Get Me To The World On Time" and "Cardboard Cutouts"; plus one by Fenech: "Leave Me Alone". Not long after this, Mark Robertson left the band after an invitation to join Theatre Of Hate (although this never materialised). He was replaced by longtime Meteors fan/roadie Woodie. This line-up also recorded a single in early 1982 under another pseudonym; this time "The Tall Boys" was used. The single featured two vocal tracks from Lewis: "Another Half Hour Till Sunrise" and "Island Of Lost Souls". A rare live television appearance in Paris, France featuring three Lewis tracks has recently surfaced on YouTube. This was to be the last recording featuring Fenech and Lewis together as both Nigel and Woodie left soon after.

text: The band made their first TV appearance on

text: Thames TV

text: afternoon show White Light in late 1980. Due to their large cult following, The Meteors made a short film in late 1980 with comedian

text: Keith Allen

text: called Meteor Madness. It was released as a double feature with

text: 2 Tone

text: ska

text: film Dance Craze in March 1981. The movie featured four songs, which made it onto the band's first vinyl single first issued on

text: Ace Records

text: and later on

text: Big Beat

text: . To date, the film Meteor Madness] has never been released on video or DVD, although over the last few years poor quality copies have appeared on

text: YouTube

text: . The tracks were also issued as a rare 12"

text: mini-album

text: called The Meteors Meet Screaming Lord Sutch. Soon after that, they issued the double A-side anthems "Radioactive Kid" and "Graveyard Stomp". A session was recorded for the

text: John Peel

text: BBC

text: radio show in June 1981. Again, to date, these tracks have never been officially released. In August 1981, the band were signed to

text: Island Records

text: and recorded their first full-length album, The Case Of The Meteors In Heaven, and 7" single, "The Crazed". The band were interviewed by No Class fanzine at The Marquee on the night of the live-recording of the track In Heaven. The original line-up also recorded an EP although, due to contract restraints, it was issued under the pseudonym of Clapham-South Escalators, which featured two vocal tracks by Lewis: "Get Me To The World On Time" and "Cardboard Cutouts"; plus one by Fenech: "Leave Me Alone". Not long after this, Mark Robertson left the band after an invitation to join

text: Theatre Of Hate

text: (although this never materialised). He was replaced by longtime Meteors fan/roadie Woodie. This line-up also recorded a single in early 1982 under another pseudonym; this time "The Tall Boys" was used. The single featured two vocal tracks from Lewis: "Another Half Hour Till Sunrise" and "Island Of Lost Souls". A rare

text: live television

text: appearance in

text: Paris

text: France

text: featuring three Lewis tracks has recently surfaced on

text: YouTube

text: . This was to be the last recording featuring Fenech and Lewis together as both Nigel and Woodie left soon after.

text: Plūtō (; genitive Plūtōnis) is the Latinized form of the Greek Plouton. Pluto's Roman equivalent is Dis Pater, whose name is most often taken to mean "Rich Father" and is perhaps a direct translation of Plouton. Pluto was also identified with the obscure Roman Orcus, like Hades the name of both a god of the underworld and the underworld as a place. The borrowed Greek name Pluto is sometimes used for the ruler of the dead in Latin literature, leading some mythology handbooks to assert misleadingly that Pluto was the Roman counterpart of Hades. Pluto (Pluton in French and German, Plutone in Italian) becomes the most common name for the classical ruler of the underworld in subsequent Western literature and other art forms.

text: Plūtō (;

text: genitive

text: Plūtōnis) is the

text: Latinized

text: form of the Greek Plouton. Pluto's

text: Roman equivalent

text: is

text: Dis Pater

text: , whose name is most often taken to mean "Rich Father" and is perhaps a direct translation of Plouton. Pluto was also identified with the obscure Roman

text: Orcus

text: , like Hades the name of both a god of the underworld and the underworld as a place. The borrowed Greek name Pluto is sometimes used for the ruler of the dead in

text: Latin literature

text: , leading some mythology handbooks to assert misleadingly that Pluto was the Roman counterpart of Hades. Pluto (Pluton in French and German, Plutone in Italian) becomes the most common name for the

text: classical

text: ruler of the underworld in subsequent

text: Western literature and other art forms

text: The mass of all the objects of the asteroid belt, lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, is estimated to be about 2.8–, or about 4% of the mass of the Moon. Of this, Ceres comprises , a third of the total. Adding in the next three most massive objects, Vesta (9%), Pallas (7%), and Hygiea (3%), brings this figure up to 51%; whereas the three after that, 511 Davida (1.2%), 704 Interamnia (1.0%), and 52 Europa (0.9%), only add another 3% to the total mass. The number of asteroids then increases rapidly as their individual masses decrease.

text: The mass of all the objects of the

text: asteroid belt

text: , lying between the orbits of

text: Mars

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: , is estimated to be about 2.8–, or about 4% of the mass of the Moon. Of this,

text: Ceres

text: comprises , a third of the total. Adding in the next three most massive objects,

text: Vesta

text: Pallas

text: (7%), and

text: Hygiea

text: (3%), brings this figure up to 51%; whereas the three after that,

text: 511 Davida

text: 704 Interamnia

text: (1.0%), and

text: 52 Europa

text: (0.9%), only add another 3% to the total mass. The number of asteroids then increases rapidly as their individual masses decrease.

text: In astrology, certain stars are considered significant.  Historically, all of the various heavenly bodies considered by astrologers were considered "stars", whether they were stars, planets, other stellar phenomena like novas and supernovas, or other solar system phenomena like comets and meteors.

text: In

text: astrology

text: , certain stars are considered significant.  Historically, all of the various heavenly bodies considered by astrologers were considered "stars", whether they were

text: star

text: s,

text: planet

text: s, other stellar phenomena like

text: nova

text: s and

text: supernova

text: s, or other solar system phenomena like

text: comet

text: s and

text: meteor

text: s.

text: The two comets scheduled to be visited were Encke and Schwassmann-Wachmann-3, and the third target was d'Arrest. It was hoped that a new comet would have been discovered in the inner Solar System between 2006 and 2008, in which case the spacecraft trajectory would have been changed if possible to rendezvous with the new comet. Scientific objectives included imaging the nuclei at resolutions of up to , performing spectral mapping of the nuclei at resolutions of up to , and obtaining detailed compositional data on gas and dust in the near-nucleus environment, with the goal of improving knowledge of the characteristics of comet nuclei.

text: The two comets scheduled to be visited were

text: Encke

text: and

text: , and the third target was

text: d'Arrest

text: . It was hoped that a new comet would have been discovered in the

text: inner Solar System

text: between 2006 and 2008, in which case the spacecraft trajectory would have been changed if possible to rendezvous with the new comet. Scientific objectives included imaging the nuclei at resolutions of up to , performing spectral mapping of the nuclei at resolutions of up to , and obtaining detailed

text: compositional data

text: on gas and dust in the near-nucleus environment, with the goal of improving knowledge of the characteristics of comet nuclei.

text: Haumea's mass is about one-third that of Pluto, and 1/1400 that of Earth. Although its shape has not been directly observed, calculations from its light curve indicate that it is a triaxial ellipsoid, with its major axis twice as long as its minor. Its gravity is thought to be sufficient for it to have relaxed into hydrostatic equilibrium, making it a dwarf planet.  Haumea's elongated shape together with its rapid rotation, high density, and high albedo (from a surface of crystalline water ice), are thought to be the consequences of a giant collision, which left Haumea the largest member of a collisional family that includes several large trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) and Haumea's two known moons, Hiʻiaka and Namaka.

text: Haumea's mass is about one-third that of

text: Pluto

text: , and 1/1400 that of Earth. Although its shape has not been directly observed, calculations from its

text: light curve

text: indicate that it is a triaxial

text: ellipsoid

text: , with its major

text: axis

text: twice as long as its minor. Its

text: gravity

text: is thought to be sufficient for it to have relaxed into

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: , making it a dwarf planet.  Haumea's elongated shape together with its rapid rotation, high density, and high

text: albedo

text: (from a surface of crystalline water ice), are thought to be the consequences of a

text: giant collision

text: , which left Haumea the largest member of a

text: collisional family

text: that includes several large

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s (TNOs) and Haumea's two known moons,

text: Hiʻiaka

text: and

text: Namaka

text: The asteroid belt is located between Mars and Jupiter. It is made of thousands of rocky planetesimals from  to a few meters across. These are thought to be debris of the formation of the Solar System that could not form a planet due to Jupiter's gravity. When asteroids collide they produce small fragments that occasionally fall on Earth. These rocks are called meteorites and provide information about the primordial solar nebula. Most of these fragments have the size of sand grains. They burn up in the Earth's atmosphere, causing them to glow like meteors.

text: The asteroid belt is located between

text: Mars

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: . It is made of thousands of rocky planetesimals from  to a few meters across. These are thought to be debris of the formation of the Solar System that could not form a planet due to Jupiter's gravity. When asteroids collide they produce small fragments that occasionally fall on Earth. These rocks are called

text: meteorite

text: s and provide information about the primordial solar nebula. Most of these fragments have the size of sand grains. They burn up in the Earth's atmosphere, causing them to glow like

text: meteors

text: In 2006, the term "small Solar System body" was also introduced to cover both most minor planets and comets. Other languages prefer "planetoid" (Greek for "planet-like"), and this term is occasionally used in English especially for larger minor planets such as the dwarf planets as well as an alternative for asteroids since they are not star-like. The word "planetesimal" has a similar meaning, but refers specifically to the small building blocks of the planets that existed when the Solar System was forming. The term "planetule" was coined by the geologist William Daniel Conybeare to describe minor planets, but is not in common use. The three largest objects in the asteroid belt, Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta, grew to the stage of protoplanets. Ceres is a dwarf planet, the only one in the inner Solar System.

text: In 2006, the term "

text: small Solar System body

text: " was also introduced to cover both most minor planets and comets. Other languages prefer "planetoid" (Greek for "planet-like"), and this term is occasionally used in English especially for larger minor planets such as the

text: dwarf planet

text: s as well as an alternative for asteroids since they are not star-like. The word "

text: planetesimal

text: " has a similar meaning, but refers specifically to the small building blocks of the planets that existed when the Solar System was forming. The term "planetule" was coined by the geologist

text: William Daniel Conybeare

text: to describe minor planets, but is not in common use. The three largest objects in the asteroid belt,

text: Ceres

text: Pallas

text: , and

text: Vesta

text: , grew to the stage of

text: protoplanet

text: s. Ceres is a

text: dwarf planet

text: , the only one in the inner Solar System.

text: Because Eris was initially thought to be larger than Pluto, it was described as the "tenth planet" by NASA and in media reports of its discovery. In response to the uncertainty over its status, and because of ongoing debate over whether Pluto should be classified as a planet, the IAU delegated a group of astronomers to develop a sufficiently precise definition of the term planet to decide the issue. This was announced as the IAU's Definition of a Planet in the Solar System, adopted on August 24, 2006. At this time, both Eris and Pluto were classified as dwarf planets, a category distinct from the new definition of planet. Brown has since stated his approval of this classification. The IAU subsequently added Eris to its Minor Planet Catalogue, designating it (136199) Eris.

text: Because Eris was initially thought to be larger than

text: Pluto

text: , it was described as the "

text: tenth planet

text: " by

text: NASA

text: and in media reports of its discovery. In response to the uncertainty over its status, and because of ongoing debate over whether Pluto should be classified as a

text: planet

text: , the IAU delegated a group of astronomers to develop a sufficiently precise definition of the term planet to decide the issue. This was announced as the IAU's

text: Definition of a Planet in the Solar System

text: , adopted on August 24, 2006. At this time, both Eris and Pluto were classified as

text: dwarf planet

text: s, a category distinct from the new definition of planet. Brown has since stated his approval of this classification. The IAU subsequently added Eris to its

text: Minor Planet Catalogue

text: , designating it (136199) Eris.

text: Eleventh planet (of the Solar System) may refer to Vesta, the eleventh object to be named a planet, later to be reclassified as an asteroid; Uranus, the eleventh planet from the Sun upon Vesta's discovery, though this was quickly superseded by new discoveries; or Haumea, which would be the eleventh planet if the classification advocated by Alan Stern et al. were adopted; or Makemake, which would be the eleventh planet in terms of distance from the Sun, as opposed to order of discovery.

text: Eleventh planet (of the

text: Solar System

text: ) may refer to

text: Vesta

text: , the eleventh object to be named a planet, later to be reclassified as an asteroid;

text: Uranus

text: , the eleventh planet from the Sun upon Vesta's discovery, though this was quickly superseded by new discoveries; or

text: Haumea

text: , which would be the eleventh planet if the classification advocated by

text: Alan Stern

text: et al. were adopted; or

text: Makemake

text: , which would be the eleventh planet in terms of distance from the Sun, as opposed to order of discovery.

text: , Eris has an apparent magnitude of 18.7, making it bright enough to be detectable to some amateur telescopes. A  telescope with a CCD can detect Eris under favorable conditions. The reason it had not been noticed until now is its steep orbital inclination; most searches for large outer Solar System objects concentrate on the ecliptic plane, where most bodies are found.

text: , Eris has an

text: apparent magnitude

text: of 18.7, making it bright enough to be detectable to some amateur

text: telescope

text: s. A  telescope with a

text: CCD

text: can detect Eris under favorable conditions. The reason it had not been noticed until now is its steep orbital inclination; most searches for large outer Solar System objects concentrate on the ecliptic plane, where most bodies are found.

text: Certain light (low atomic number) primordial nuclides (some isotopes of lithium, beryllium and boron) are thought to have arisen not only during the Big Bang, and also (and perhaps primarily) to have been made after the Big Bang, but before the condensation of the Solar System, by the process of cosmic ray spallation on interstellar gas and dust. This explains their higher abundance in cosmic rays as compared with their ratios and abundances of certain other nuclides on Earth. This also explains the overabundance of the early transition metals just before iron in the periodic table; the cosmic-ray spallation of iron thus produces Sc–Cr on one hand and He–B on the other. However, the arbitrary defining qualification for cosmogenic nuclides of being formed "in situ in the Solar System" (meaning inside an already-aggregated piece of the Solar System) prevents primordial nuclides formed by cosmic ray spallation before the formation of the Solar System, from being termed "cosmogenic nuclides"— even though the mechanism for their formation is exactly the same. These same nuclides still arrive on Earth in small amounts in cosmic rays, and are formed in meteoroids, in the atmosphere, on Earth, "cosmogenically." However, beryllium (all of it stable beryllium-9) is present primordially in the Solar System in much larger amounts, having existed prior to the condensation of the Solar System, and thus present in the materials from which the Solar System formed.

text: Certain light (low atomic number)

text: primordial nuclides

text: (some isotopes of lithium, beryllium and boron) are thought to have arisen not only during the

text: Big Bang

text: , and also (and perhaps primarily) to have been made after the Big Bang, but before the condensation of the Solar System, by the process of

text: cosmic ray spallation

text: on interstellar gas and dust. This explains their higher abundance in cosmic rays as compared with their ratios and abundances of certain other nuclides on Earth. This also explains the overabundance of the early transition metals just before iron in the periodic table; the cosmic-ray spallation of iron thus produces Sc–Cr on one hand and He–B on the other. However, the arbitrary defining qualification for cosmogenic nuclides of being formed "in situ in the Solar System" (meaning inside an already-aggregated piece of the Solar System) prevents primordial nuclides formed by cosmic ray spallation before the formation of the Solar System, from being termed "cosmogenic nuclides"— even though the mechanism for their formation is exactly the same. These same nuclides still arrive on Earth in small amounts in cosmic rays, and are formed in meteoroids, in the atmosphere, on Earth, "cosmogenically." However, beryllium (all of it stable beryllium-9) is present primordially in the Solar System in much larger amounts, having existed prior to the condensation of the Solar System, and thus present in the materials from which the Solar System formed.

text: By 10 (100 trillion) years from now, star formation will end. This period, known as the Degenerate Era, will last until the degenerate remnants finally decay. The least massive stars take the longest to exhaust their hydrogen fuel (see stellar evolution). Thus, the longest living stars in the universe are low-mass red dwarfs, with a mass of about 0.08 solar masses (), which have a lifetime of order 10 (10 trillion) years. Coincidentally, this is comparable to the length of time over which star formation takes place. Once star formation ends and the least massive red dwarfs exhaust their fuel, nuclear fusion will cease. The low-mass red dwarfs will cool and become black dwarfs. The only objects remaining with more than planetary mass will be brown dwarfs, with mass less than , and degenerate remnants; white dwarfs, produced by stars with initial masses between about 0.08 and 8 solar masses; and neutron stars and black holes, produced by stars with initial masses over . Most of the mass of this collection, approximately 90%, will be in the form of white dwarfs. In the absence of any energy source, all of these formerly luminous bodies will cool and become faint.

text: By 10 (100 trillion) years from now, star formation will end. This period, known as the Degenerate Era, will last until the degenerate remnants finally decay. The least massive stars take the longest to exhaust their hydrogen fuel (see

text: stellar evolution

text: ). Thus, the longest living stars in the universe are low-mass

text: red dwarf

text: s, with a mass of about 0.08

text: solar mass

text: es (), which have a lifetime of order 10 (10 trillion) years. Coincidentally, this is comparable to the length of time over which star formation takes place. Once star formation ends and the least massive red dwarfs exhaust their fuel,

text: nuclear fusion

text: will cease. The low-mass red dwarfs will cool and become

text: black dwarf

text: s. The only objects remaining with more than

text: planetary mass

text: will be

text: brown dwarf

text: s, with mass less than , and

text: degenerate remnants

text: white dwarf

text: s, produced by stars with initial masses between about 0.08 and 8 solar masses; and

text: neutron star

text: s and

text: black holes

text: , produced by stars with initial masses over . Most of the mass of this collection, approximately 90%, will be in the form of white dwarfs. In the absence of any energy source, all of these formerly luminous bodies will cool and become faint.

text: The league expanded again for the 2013/14 season, increasing to 10 teams. Going into the final week of the season Dirty Ducks lead Meteors at the top of the table by 1 point.In the final week The Meteors went on to win the 2013/14 title by the narrowest of margins.The 2014/15 season was also very close but newly promoted Bedford Mighty Eagles clinched the title with Meteors falling runners up by just two points.

text: Even when this planet was taken into account, there still remained significant residuals in the radial velocity measurements, and it was suggested there might be a second planet in orbit. In 1999, astronomers at both San Francisco State University and the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics independently concluded that a three-planet model best fit the data. The two outer planets were designated Upsilon Andromedae c and Upsilon Andromedae d in order of increasing distance from the star. Both of these planets are in more eccentric orbits than any of the planets in the Solar System (including Pluto). Upsilon Andromedae d resides in the system's habitable zone.

text: Even when this planet was taken into account, there still remained significant residuals in the radial velocity measurements, and it was suggested there might be a second planet in orbit. In 1999, astronomers at both

text: San Francisco State University

text: and the

entity_name: Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

text: Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

text: independently concluded that a three-planet model best fit the data. The two outer planets were designated

text: Upsilon Andromedae c

text: and

text: Upsilon Andromedae d

text: in order of increasing distance from the star. Both of these planets are in more

text: eccentric

text: orbits than any of the planets in the Solar System (including

text: Pluto

text: ). Upsilon Andromedae d resides in the system's

text: habitable zone

text: Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes, Xe isotope ratios in meteorites are a powerful tool for studying the formation of the solar system. The I-Xe method of dating gives the time elapsed between nucleosynthesis and the condensation of a solid object from the solar nebula (Xenon being a gas, only that part of it that formed after condensation will be present inside the object). Xenon isotopes are also a powerful tool for understanding terrestrial differentiation. Excess Xe found in carbon dioxide well gases from New Mexico was believed to be from the decay of mantle-derived gases soon after Earth's formation.

text: Because xenon is a

text: tracer

text: for two

text: parent isotope

text: s, Xe

text: isotope ratios

text: in

text: meteorite

text: s are a powerful tool for studying the

text: formation of the solar system

text: . The I-Xe method of

text: dating

text: gives the time elapsed between

text: nucleosynthesis

text: and the condensation of a solid object from the

text: solar nebula

text: (Xenon being a gas, only that part of it that formed after condensation will be present inside the object). Xenon isotopes are also a powerful tool for understanding

text: terrestrial differentiation

text: . Excess Xe found in

text: carbon dioxide

text: well gases from

text: New Mexico

text: was believed to be from the decay of

text: mantle

text: -derived gases soon after Earth's formation.

text: Objects with a diameter less than  are called meteoroids and seldom make it to the ground to become meteorites. An estimated 500 meteorites reach the surface each year, but only 5 or 6 of these typically create a weather radar signature with a strewn field large enough to be recovered and be made known to scientists.

text: Objects with a diameter less than  are called

text: meteoroids

text: and seldom make it to the ground to become meteorites. An estimated 500 meteorites reach the surface each year, but only 5 or 6 of these typically create a

text: weather radar

text: signature with a

text: strewn field

text: large enough to be recovered and be made known to scientists.

text: There are several reported instances of falling meteorites having killed people and livestock, but a few of these appear more credible than others. The most infamous reported fatality from a meteorite impact is that of an Egyptian dog that was killed in 1911, although this report is highly disputed. This meteorite fall was identified in the 1980s as Martian in origin. There is substantial evidence that the meteorite known as Valera (Venezuela 1972, see Meteorite fall) hit and killed a cow upon impact, nearly dividing the animal in two, and similar unsubstantiated reports of a horse being struck and killed by a stone of the New Concord fall also abound. Throughout history, many first and second-hand reports of meteorites falling on and killing both humans and other animals abound. One example is from 1490 AD in China, which purportedly killed thousands of people. John Lewis has compiled some of these reports, and summarizes, "No one in recorded history has ever been killed by a meteorite in the presence of a meteoriticist and a medical doctor" and "reviewers who make sweeping negative conclusions usually do not cite any of the primary publications in which the eyewitnesses describe their experiences, and give no evidence of having read them".

text: There are several reported instances of falling meteorites having killed people and livestock, but a few of these appear more credible than others. The most infamous reported fatality from a meteorite impact is that of an Egyptian dog that was killed in 1911, although this report is highly disputed. This meteorite fall was identified in the 1980s as

text: Martian

text: in origin. There is substantial evidence that the meteorite known as Valera (Venezuela 1972, see

text: Meteorite fall

text: ) hit and killed a cow upon impact, nearly dividing the animal in two, and similar unsubstantiated reports of a horse being struck and killed by a stone of the New Concord fall also abound. Throughout history, many first and second-hand reports of meteorites falling on and killing both humans and other animals abound. One example is from 1490 AD in China, which purportedly killed thousands of people. John Lewis has compiled some of these reports, and summarizes, "No one in recorded history has ever been killed by a meteorite in the presence of a meteoriticist and a medical doctor" and "reviewers who make sweeping negative conclusions usually do not cite any of the primary publications in which the eyewitnesses describe their experiences, and give no evidence of having read them".

text: Because of the many mirrors involved in the optical train, about 95 percent of the light is lost before reaching the instruments at a wavelength of 1 µm, 90 percent at 2 µm and 75 percent at 10 µm. This refers to reflection off 32 surfaces including the Coudé train, the star separator, the main delay line, beam compressor and feeding optics. Additionally, the interferometric technique is such that it is very efficient only for objects that are small enough that all their light is concentrated.For instance, an object with a relatively low surface brightness such as the moon cannot be observed, because its light is too diluted. Only targets which are at temperatures of more than 1,000°C have a surface brightness high enough to be observed in the mid-infrared, and objects must be at several thousands of degrees Celsius for near-infrared observations using the VLTI. This includes most of the stars in the solar neighborhood and many extragalactic objects such as bright active galactic nuclei, but this sensitivity limit rules out interferometric observations of most solar-system objects. Although the use of large telescope diameters and adaptive optics correction can improve the sensitivity, this cannot extend the reach of optical interferometry beyond nearby stars and the brightest active galactic nuclei.

text: Because of the many mirrors involved in the optical train, about 95 percent of the light is lost before reaching the instruments at a wavelength of 1 µm, 90 percent at 2 µm and 75 percent at 10 µm. This refers to reflection off 32 surfaces including the

text: Coudé

text: train, the star separator, the main delay line, beam compressor and feeding optics. Additionally, the interferometric technique is such that it is very efficient only for objects that are small enough that all their light is concentrated.For instance, an object with a relatively low

text: surface brightness

text: such as the moon cannot be observed, because its light is too diluted. Only targets which are at temperatures of more than 1,000°

text: C

text: have a

text: surface brightness

text: high enough to be observed in the mid-infrared, and objects must be at several thousands of degrees Celsius for near-infrared observations using the VLTI. This includes most of the stars in the solar neighborhood and many extragalactic objects such as bright

text: active galactic nuclei

text: , but this sensitivity limit rules out

text: interferometric

text: observations of most solar-system objects. Although the use of large telescope diameters and

text: adaptive optics

text: correction can improve the sensitivity, this cannot extend the reach of optical interferometry beyond nearby stars and the brightest

text: active galactic nuclei

text: Comet is the oldest town in the Emerald region, established at the confluence of the Comet River with the Nogoa River.  Originally called Cometville, the town takes its name from the river, named by explorer Ludwig Leichhardt who made observations of Comet Wilmot (C/1844 Y2) in the area on 29 December 1844.  Comet is home to a "dig tree" established by Leichhardt to indicate to others where he had buried food and journals.

text: Comet is the oldest town in the Emerald region, established at the

text: confluence

text: of the

text: Comet River

text: with the

text: Nogoa River

text: .  Originally called Cometville, the town takes its name from the river, named by explorer

text: Ludwig Leichhardt

text: who made observations of Comet Wilmot (C/1844 Y2) in the area on 29 December 1844.  Comet is home to a "dig tree" established by Leichhardt to indicate to others where he had buried food and journals.

text: Epsilon - A robot caretaker from Australia who is very kind to children. She is solar powered, giving her nearly infinite power. Pluto took advantage of this and fought Epsilon during a thunderstorm, where the sun was blotted by thick clouds. Epsilon ran low on power and was eventually destroyed by Pluto. She appeared in the manga story arc, The World's Greatest Robots. She also appears in the animated adaptations of this story, and is also a boss (albeit with a more effeminate redesign) in the Game Boy Advance game, Astro Boy: Omega Factor.

text: Epsilon - A robot caretaker from Australia who is very kind to children. She is solar powered, giving her nearly infinite power. Pluto took advantage of this and fought Epsilon during a thunderstorm, where the sun was blotted by thick clouds. Epsilon ran low on power and was eventually destroyed by Pluto. She appeared in the manga story arc, The World's Greatest Robots. She also appears in the animated adaptations of this story, and is also a boss (albeit with a more effeminate redesign) in the Game Boy Advance game,

text: Astro Boy: Omega Factor

text: The continued refinement of analytical instrumentation throughout the 1960s, especially that of mass spectrometry, allowed cosmochemists to perform detailed analyses of the isotopic abundances of elements within meteorites. in 1960, John Reynolds determined, through the analysis of short-lived nuclides within meteorites, that the elements of the Solar System were formed before the Solar System itself  which began to establish a timeline of the processes of the early Solar System.

text: The continued refinement of analytical instrumentation throughout the 1960s, especially that of

text: mass spectrometry

text: , allowed cosmochemists to perform detailed analyses of the isotopic abundances of elements within meteorites. in 1960,

text: John Reynolds

text: determined, through the analysis of short-lived nuclides within meteorites, that the elements of the Solar System were formed before the Solar System itself  which began to establish a timeline of the processes of the early Solar System.

text: A Solar system model on a scale of 1:1,000,000,000 stretches through the park to Mågeparken - another park nearby. The planet path reaches from the Sun on the hill of 'Bjerget', to the outermost planet Pluto 5.9 km away. In 2000, when the planet path was constructed as a public elementary school project, Pluto was still considered a planet. Each planet is cast in bronze and placed in the correct distance relative to each other.

text: A

text: Solar system model

text: on a scale of 1:1,000,000,000 stretches through the park to Mågeparken - another park nearby. The

text: planet

text: path reaches from the

text: Sun

text: on the hill of 'Bjerget', to the outermost planet

text: Pluto

text: 5.9 km away. In 2000, when the planet path was constructed as a public

text: elementary school

text: project, Pluto was still considered a planet. Each planet is cast in

text: bronze

text: and placed in the correct distance relative to each other.

text: Comet ISON came to perihelion (closest approach to the Sun) on 28 November 2013 at a distance of  from the center point of the Sun. Accounting for the solar radius of , Comet ISON passed approximately  above the Sun's surface. Its trajectory appeared to be hyperbolic, which suggested that it was a dynamically new comet coming freshly from the Oort cloud. Near perihelion, a generic heliocentric two-body solution to the orbit suggests that the orbital period was around 400,000 years. But for objects at such high eccentricity, the Sun's barycentric coordinates are more stable than heliocentric coordinates. The orbit of a long-period comet is properly obtained when the osculating orbit is computed at an epoch after leaving the planetary region and is calculated with respect to the center of mass of the Solar System. Using JPL Horizons, the barycentric orbital elements for epoch 1 January 2050 generate a hyperbolic solution. On its closest approach, Comet ISON passed about  from Mars on 1 October 2013, and the remnants of Comet ISON passed about  from Earth on 26 December 2013.

text: Comet ISON came to

text: perihelion

text: (closest approach to the Sun) on 28 November 2013 at a distance of  from the center point of the Sun. Accounting for the

text: solar radius

text: of , Comet ISON passed approximately  above the Sun's surface. Its trajectory appeared to be

text: hyperbolic

text: , which suggested that it was a dynamically new comet coming freshly from the

text: Oort cloud

text: . Near perihelion, a generic heliocentric

text: two-body solution

text: to the orbit suggests that the orbital period was around 400,000 years. But for objects at such high eccentricity, the Sun's

text: barycentric coordinates

text: are more stable than heliocentric coordinates. The orbit of a long-period comet is properly obtained when the

text: osculating orbit

text: is computed at an

text: epoch

text: after leaving the planetary region and is calculated with respect to the

text: center of mass of the Solar System

text: . Using

text: JPL Horizons

text: , the barycentric orbital elements for epoch 1 January 2050 generate a hyperbolic solution. On its closest approach, Comet ISON passed about  from Mars on 1 October 2013, and the remnants of Comet ISON passed about  from Earth on 26 December 2013.

text: The term dwarf planet has itself been somewhat controversial, as it implies that these bodies are planets, much as dwarf stars are stars. This is the conception of the Solar System that Stern promoted when he coined the phrase. The older word planetoid ("having the form of a planet") has no such connotation, and is also used by astronomers for bodies that fit the IAU definition. Brown states that planetoid is "a perfectly good word" that has been used for these bodies for years, and that the use of the term dwarf planet for a non-planet is "dumb", but that it was motivated by an attempt by the IAU division III plenary session to reinstate Pluto as a planet in a second resolution. Indeed, the draft of Resolution 5A had called these median bodies planetoids, but the plenary session voted unanimously to change the name to dwarf planet. The second resolution, 5B, defined dwarf planets as a subtype of planet, as Stern had originally intended, distinguished from the other eight that were to be called "classical planets". Under this arrangement, the twelve planets of the rejected proposal were to be preserved in a distinction between eight classical planets and four dwarf planets. However, Resolution 5B was defeated in the same session that 5A was passed. Because of the semantic inconsistency of a dwarf planet not being a planet due to the failure of Resolution 5B, alternative terms such as nanoplanet and subplanet were discussed, but there was no consensus among the CSBN to change it.

text: The term dwarf planet has itself been somewhat controversial, as it implies that these bodies are planets, much as

text: dwarf star

text: Several planets or dwarf planets in the Solar System (such as Neptune and Pluto) have orbital periods that are in resonance with each other or with smaller bodies (this is also common in satellite systems). All except Mercury and Venus have natural satellites, often called "moons". Earth has one, Mars has two, and the giant planets have numerous moons in complex planetary-type systems. Many moons of the giant planets have features similar to those on the terrestrial planets and dwarf planets, and some have been studied as possible abodes of life (especially Europa).

text: Several planets or dwarf planets in the Solar System (such as Neptune and Pluto) have orbital periods that are in

text: resonance

text: with each other or with smaller bodies (this is also common in satellite systems). All except Mercury and Venus have

text: natural satellite

text: s, often called "moons". Earth has one, Mars has two, and the giant planets have numerous moons in complex planetary-type systems. Many moons of the giant planets have features similar to those on the terrestrial planets and dwarf planets, and some have been studied as possible abodes of life (especially

text: Europa

text: 53P/Van Biesbroeck is a periodic comet in the Solar System.

text: 53P/Van Biesbroeck is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: When the theme of interplanetary colonization first entered SF, the Asteroid Belt was quite low on the list of desirable real estate, far behind such planets as Mars and Venus (often conceived as a kind of paradise planet, until probes in the 1960s revealed uninhabitable temperatures with a deadly carbon dioxide and sulfur atmosphere under its clouds). Thus, in many stories and books the Asteroid Belt, if not a positive hazard, is still a rarely visited backwater in a colonized Solar System.

text: When the theme of interplanetary colonization first entered SF, the Asteroid Belt was quite low on the list of desirable real estate, far behind such planets as

text: Mars

text: and

text: Venus

text: (often conceived as a kind of paradise planet, until probes in the 1960s revealed uninhabitable temperatures with a deadly carbon dioxide and sulfur atmosphere under its clouds). Thus, in many stories and books the Asteroid Belt, if not a positive hazard, is still a rarely visited backwater in a colonized Solar System.

text: The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) acquired 113 Meteors between 1946 and 1952, 94 of which were the F.8 variant. The first RAAF Meteor was a F.3 delivered for evaluation in June 1946.

text: The story begins in the year 2028, when a massive meteor impacts California's Mojave Desert. Over the next two decades, an underground research facility is built to examine the extraterrestrial origins and the bizarre effects that the meteor is having on the natural environment and the people who come in contact with it. The game takes place twenty years after the meteor's arrival on earth, 2048, when all communications are lost with the C.O.R.E. facility. The Special Technologies Unit, an elite unit of U.S. marines are sent in to investigate and re-establish contact. The player takes control of the marine Jason Crane. Crane fights his way through several levels when most of his fellow soldiers are killed or mutated, including his captain. In the main laboratories, Crane discovers ARG radiation, which is capable of speeding up chemical reactions or slowing them down to an "almost lack of existence." Once Crane reaches the command center, he encounters and kills Colonel R. Nightley. Nightley then sets off a self-destruct protocol and destroys the facility. Crane is able to escape into the service tunnels and makes his way to a cave system. At the end of the caves, he finds the meteor that crashed twenty years earlier. His weapons are absorbed by the meteor and Crane is teleported inside of it. The meteor turns out to be an alien ship. Several of the occupants come out of stasis and restore power to the ship. Crane however manages to destroy the ship's core and escape. After completion of the game an epilogue is viewed that shows that Crane is watching as the alien ship lifts out of the ground. It then shows that there are thousands of other ships emerging all over the world. The game ends on a note that, "and so the war begins," implying a possible sequel.

text: The story begins in the year 2028, when a massive meteor impacts

text: California

text: 's

text: Mojave Desert

text: . Over the next two decades, an underground research facility is built to examine the

text: extraterrestrial

text: 152P/Helin–Lawrence is a periodic comet in the solar system.

text: 152P/Helin–Lawrence is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: solar system

text: Sagan and Khare note the presence of tholins through multiple locations: "as a constituent of the Earth’s primitive oceans and therefore as relevant to the origin of life; as a component of red aerosols in the atmospheres of the outer planets and Titan; as present in comets, carbonaceous chondrites, and pre-planetary solar nebulae; and as a major constituent of the interstellar medium." The surfaces of comets, centaurs, and many icy moons and Kuiper-belt objects in the outer solar system are rich in deposits of tholins.

text: Sagan and Khare note the presence of tholins through multiple locations: "as a constituent of the Earth’s primitive oceans and therefore as relevant to the origin of life; as a component of red aerosols in the atmospheres of the outer planets and Titan; as present in comets, carbonaceous chondrites, and pre-planetary solar nebulae; and as a major constituent of the interstellar medium." The surfaces of

text: comet

text: s,

text: centaur

text: s, and many icy moons and

text: Kuiper-belt

text: objects in the outer solar system are rich in deposits of tholins.

text: This expression should be used for objects beyond the Solar System. The error is at the level of 100 s for objects in the main asteroid belt, 5 s for Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt objects. At the distance of Proxima Centauri the accuracy is 1 ms.

text: This expression should be used for objects beyond the Solar System. The error is at the level of 100 s for objects in the

text: main asteroid belt

text: , 5 s for

text: Edgeworth-Kuiper Belt

text: objects. At the distance of

text: Proxima Centauri

text: the accuracy is 1 ms.

text: there are 5,253 known comets, a number that is steadily increasing as they are discovered. However, this represents only a tiny fraction of the total potential comet population, as the reservoir of comet-like bodies in the outer Solar System (in the Oort cloud) is estimated to be one trillion. Roughly one comet per year is visible to the naked eye,  though many of those are faint and unspectacular. Particularly bright examples are called "Great Comets". Comets have been visited by unmanned probes such as the European Space Agency's Rosetta, which became the first ever to land a robotic spacecraft on a comet, and NASA's Deep Impact, which blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior.

text: there are 5,253 known comets, a number that is steadily increasing as they are discovered. However, this represents only a tiny fraction of the total potential comet population, as the reservoir of comet-like bodies in the outer Solar System (in the

text: Oort cloud

text: ) is estimated to be one trillion. Roughly one comet per year is visible to the

text: naked eye

text: ,  though many of those are faint and unspectacular. Particularly bright examples are called "

text: Great Comet

text: s". Comets have been visited by unmanned probes such as the European Space Agency's

text: Rosetta

text: , which became the first ever to land a robotic spacecraft on a comet, and NASA's

text: Deep Impact

text: , which blasted a crater on

text: Comet Tempel 1

text: to study its interior.

text: Given the orbital eccentricity of this object, its orbital period is not a fixed value, because it is frequently perturbed by the gravity of the planets. Near perihelion, using an August 2011 epoch, Kazuo Kinoshita shows C/2010 X1 to have a heliocentric orbital period of 600,000 years, though more perturbations will occur.  For objects at such high eccentricity, the Sun's barycentric coordinates are more stable than heliocentric coordinates. The orbit of a long-period comet is properly obtained when the osculating orbit is computed at an epoch after leaving the planetary region and is calculated with respect to the center of mass of the Solar System. Using JPL Horizons with an observed orbital arc of 235 days, the barycentric orbital elements for epoch 2020-Jan-01 generate a semi-major axis of 518 AU and a period of approximately 11,800 years.

text: Given the

text: orbital eccentricity

text: of this object, its

text: orbital period

text: is not a fixed value, because it is frequently

text: perturbed

text: by the gravity of the planets. Near perihelion, using an August 2011 epoch, Kazuo Kinoshita shows C/2010 X1 to have a heliocentric orbital period of 600,000 years, though more perturbations will occur.  For objects at such high eccentricity, the Sun's

text: barycentric coordinates

text: osculating orbit

text: is computed at an

text: epoch

text: center of mass of the Solar System

text: . Using

text: JPL Horizons

text: with an observed orbital

text: arc

text: of 235 days, the barycentric orbital elements for epoch 2020-Jan-01 generate a

text: semi-major axis

text: of 518 AU and a period of approximately 11,800 years.

text: In June 2015, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory renamed a -wide asteroid, originally discovered in 1988, in the Solar System's main asteroid belt, 4864 Nimoy, in honor of the actor.

text: In June 2015, the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: renamed a -wide asteroid, originally discovered in 1988, in the Solar System's main

text: asteroid belt

text: , 4864 Nimoy, in honor of the actor.

text: Considered a detached object,  is particularly unusual for two reasons. With an inclination of 47 degrees, it is the largest possible dwarf planet that has an inclination larger than 45 degrees, traveling further "up and down" than "left to right" around the Sun when viewed edge-on along the ecliptic. Second, it has an unusually circular orbit for a scattered-disc object (SDO). Although it is thought that traditional scattered-disc objects have been ejected into their current orbits by gravitational interactions with Neptune, the low eccentricity of its orbit and the distance of its perihelion (SDOs generally have highly eccentric orbits and perihelia less than 38 AU) seems hard to reconcile with such celestial mechanics. This has led to some uncertainty as to the current theoretical understanding of the outer Solar System. The theories include close stellar passages, rogue planets/planetary embryos in the early Kuiper belt, and resonance interaction with an outward-migrating Neptune. The Kozai mechanism is capable of transferring orbital eccentricity to a higher inclination.

text: Considered a

text: detached object

text: ,  is particularly unusual for two reasons. With an

text: inclination

text: of 47 degrees, it is the largest

text: possible dwarf planet

text: that has an inclination larger than 45 degrees, traveling further "up and down" than "left to right" around the

text: Sun

text: when viewed edge-on along the

text: ecliptic

text: . Second, it has an unusually circular orbit for a

text: scattered-disc object

text: (SDO). Although it is thought that traditional scattered-disc objects have been ejected into their current orbits by gravitational interactions with

text: Neptune

text: , the low eccentricity of its orbit and the distance of its perihelion (SDOs generally have highly eccentric orbits and perihelia less than 38 AU) seems hard to reconcile with such celestial mechanics. This has led to some uncertainty as to the current theoretical understanding of the outer

text: Solar System

text: . The theories include close stellar passages,

text: rogue planet

text: s/

text: planetary embryo

text: s in the early

text: Kuiper belt

text: , and

text: resonance

text: interaction with an

text: outward

text: migrating Neptune

text: . The

text: Kozai mechanism

text: is capable of transferring orbital eccentricity to a higher inclination.

text: The demotion of Pluto to a dwarf planet brought the number of planets in our solar system to eight.

text: The demotion of

text: Pluto

text: to a

text: dwarf planet

text: brought the number of planets in our

text: solar system

text: to eight.

text: Deep-sky objects are astronomical objects other than individual stars and Solar System objects (such as Sun, Moon, planets, comets, etc.). The classification is used for the most part by amateur astronomers to denote visually observed faint naked eye and telescopic objects such as star clusters, nebulae and galaxies.

text: Deep-sky objects are

text: astronomical objects

text: other than individual stars and

text: Solar System

text: objects (such as

text: Sun

text: Moon

text: planet

text: s,

text: comet

text: s, etc.). The classification is used for the most part by

text: amateur astronomer

text: s to denote visually observed faint naked eye and

text: telescopic

text: objects such as

text: star cluster

text: s,

text: nebula

text: e and

text: galaxies

text: In 2005, the adaptive optics team at the Keck telescopes in Hawaii carried out observations of the four brightest TNOs (Pluto, , , and Eris), using the newly commissioned laser guide star adaptive optics system. Images taken on September 10 revealed a moon in orbit around Eris. In keeping with the "Xena" nickname already in use for Eris, Brown's team nicknamed the moon "Gabrielle", after the television warrior princess' sidekick. When Eris received its official name from the IAU, the moon received the name Dysnomia, after the Greek goddess of lawlessness who was Eris's daughter. Brown says he picked it for similarity to his wife's name, Diane. The name also retains an oblique reference to Eris's old informal name Xena, portrayed on TV by Lucy Lawless.

text: In 2005, the

text: adaptive optics

text: team at the

text: Keck telescopes

text: in Hawaii carried out observations of the four brightest

text: TNOs

text: (Pluto, , , and Eris), using the newly commissioned

text: laser guide star

text: adaptive optics system. Images taken on September 10 revealed a

text: moon

text: in orbit around Eris. In keeping with the "Xena" nickname already in use for Eris, Brown's team nicknamed the moon "

text: Gabrielle

text: ", after the television warrior princess' sidekick. When Eris received its official name from the IAU, the moon received the name

text: Dysnomia

text: , after the

text: Greek goddess of lawlessness

text: who was Eris's daughter. Brown says he picked it for similarity to his wife's name, Diane. The name also retains an oblique reference to Eris's old informal name Xena, portrayed on TV by

text: Lucy Lawless

text: An innovative financing arrangement pioneered in Berkeley, California, and Palm Springs, lends money to a homeowner for a solar system, to be repaid via an additional tax assessment on the property for 20 years.  This allows installation of the solar system at "relatively little up-front cost to the property owner." Now known as PACE, for Property Assessed Clean Energy, it is available in 28 states. Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae have objected to the repayment of solar loans being senior to mortgage loans, and some states have relegated PACE loans to junior loans. HR 2599 was introduced to prevent interference with the PACE program by other lenders. The principle feature of the program is that the balance of the loan is transferred to the new owners in the event the property is sold, and the loan is paid for entirely through electric bill savings. Unlike a mortgage loan, no funds are transferred when the property is sold - only the repayment obligation is transferred.

text: An

text: innovative financing

text: arrangement pioneered in

text: Berkeley, California

text: , and

text: Palm Springs

text: , lends money to a homeowner for a solar system, to be repaid via an additional tax assessment on the property for 20 years.  This allows installation of the solar system at "relatively little up-front cost to the property owner." Now known as PACE, for Property Assessed Clean Energy, it is available in 28 states. Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae have objected to the repayment of solar loans being senior to mortgage loans, and some states have relegated PACE loans to junior loans. HR 2599 was introduced to prevent interference with the PACE program by other lenders. The principle feature of the program is that the balance of the loan is transferred to the new owners in the event the property is sold, and the loan is paid for entirely through electric bill savings. Unlike a mortgage loan, no funds are transferred when the property is sold - only the repayment obligation is transferred.

text: Because the fireball was recorded by two cameras of the European Fireball Network, it was possible to calculate the trajectory of its flight through the atmosphere, and afterward also the characteristics of both its pre- and post-encounter orbit in the Solar System. The calculations were published by Czech astronomers Pavel Spurný, Zdeněk Ceplecha, and Jiří Borovička of the Ondřejov Observatory, who specialize in meteor observations. They demonstrated that the swing by the earth significantly altered the meteoroid's orbit. Its aphelion (the farthest it travels from the Sun) and orbital period were lowered to almost half of their original values. The object was initially in a highly inclined orbit (71°) and ended in an orbit with a slightly higher inclination (74°).

text: Because the fireball was recorded by two cameras of the European Fireball Network, it was possible to calculate the trajectory of its flight through the atmosphere, and afterward also the characteristics of both its pre- and post-encounter

text: orbit

text: in the Solar System. The calculations were published by Czech astronomers Pavel Spurný, Zdeněk Ceplecha, and Jiří Borovička of the Ondřejov Observatory, who specialize in meteor observations. They demonstrated that the swing by the earth significantly altered the meteoroid's orbit. Its

text: aphelion

text: (the farthest it travels from the

text: Sun

text: ) and

text: orbital period

text: were lowered to almost half of their original values. The object was initially in a highly inclined orbit (71°) and ended in an orbit with a slightly higher inclination (74°).

text: The current belt consists primarily of three categories of asteroids: C-type or carbonaceous asteroids, S-type or silicate asteroids, and M-type or metallic asteroids.

text: Researchers Rebecca Martin and Mario Livio have proposed that asteroid belts may tend to form in the vicinity of the frost line, due to nearby giant planets disrupting planet formation inside their orbit. By analysing the temperature of warm dust found around some 90 stars, they concluded that the dust (and therefore possible asteroid belts) was typically found close to the frost line.

text: Researchers Rebecca Martin and

text: Mario Livio

text: have proposed that asteroid belts may tend to form in the vicinity of the frost line, due to nearby giant planets disrupting planet formation inside their orbit. By analysing the temperature of warm dust found around some 90 stars, they concluded that the dust (and therefore possible asteroid belts) was typically found close to the frost line.

text: Meteorites are always named for the places they were found, usually a nearby town or geographic feature. In cases where many meteorites were found in one place, the name may be followed by a number or letter (e.g., Allan Hills 84001 or Dimmitt (b)). The name designated by the Meteoritical Society is used by scientists, catalogers, and most collectors.

text: Meteorites are always named for the places they were found, usually a nearby town or geographic feature. In cases where many meteorites were found in one place, the name may be followed by a number or letter (e.g., Allan Hills 84001 or Dimmitt (b)). The name designated by the

text: Meteoritical Society

text: is used by scientists, catalogers, and most collectors.

text: The 2012 Desert RATS field tests did not involve either a desert, or a field; rather, they were conducted in JSC’s Building 9, the Space Vehicle Mockup Facility.  The tools and simulators were configured and optimized for a simulated mission to a near-Earth asteroid. A virtual reality lab provided an immersive environment for the extravehicular activity (EVA) crewmembers, integrating real-time graphics with crewmember motions and kinesthetic sensations of large objects – an asteroid in this case. The Active Response Gravity Offload System (ARGOS), a crane-based, reduced-gravity system, allowed crews to conduct EVAs in simulated microgravity.

text: The 2012 Desert RATS field tests did not involve either a desert, or a field; rather, they were conducted in JSC’s Building 9, the Space Vehicle Mockup Facility.  The tools and simulators were configured and optimized for a simulated mission to a near-Earth asteroid. A

text: virtual reality

text: lab provided an immersive environment for the

text: extravehicular activity

text: (EVA) crewmembers, integrating real-time graphics with crewmember motions and

text: kinesthetic

text: sensations of large objects – an

text: asteroid

text: in this case. The Active Response Gravity Offload System (ARGOS), a crane-based, reduced-gravity system, allowed crews to conduct EVAs in simulated

text: microgravity

text: A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to evolve gasses, a process called outgassing. This produces a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind acting upon the nucleus of the comet. Comet nuclei range from a few hundred metres to tens of kilometres across and are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. The coma may be up to 15 times the Earth's diameter, while the tail may stretch one astronomical unit. If sufficiently bright, a comet may be seen from the Earth without the aid of a telescope and may subtend an arc of 30° (60 Moons) across the sky. Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures.

text: A comet is an icy

text: small Solar System body

text: that, when passing close to the

text: Sun

text: , warms and begins to evolve gasses, a process called

text: outgassing

text: . This produces a visible atmosphere or

text: coma

text: , and sometimes also a

text: tail

text: . These phenomena are due to the effects of

text: solar radiation

text: and the

text: solar wind

text: acting upon the nucleus of the comet.

text: Comet nuclei

text: range from a few hundred metres to tens of kilometres across and are composed of loose collections of ice, dust, and small rocky particles. The coma may be up to 15 times the Earth's diameter, while the tail may stretch one

text: astronomical unit

text: . If sufficiently bright, a comet may be seen from the Earth without the aid of a telescope and may subtend an arc of 30° (60 Moons) across the sky. Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures.

text: Ceres, the asteroid belt's only dwarf planet, is about 950 km in diameter, whereas Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea have mean diameters of less than 600 km. The remaining bodies range down to the size of a dust particle. The asteroid material is so thinly distributed that numerous unmanned spacecraft have traversed it without incident. Nonetheless, collisions between large asteroids do occur, and these can form an asteroid family whose members have similar orbital characteristics and compositions. Individual asteroids within the asteroid belt are categorized by their spectra, with most falling into three basic groups: carbonaceous (C-type), silicate (S-type), and metal-rich (M-type).

text: Ceres, the asteroid belt's only

text: dwarf planet

text: , is about 950 km in diameter, whereas Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea have mean diameters of less than 600 km. The remaining bodies range down to the size of a dust particle. The asteroid material is so thinly distributed that numerous unmanned spacecraft have traversed it without incident. Nonetheless, collisions between large asteroids do occur, and these can form an

text: asteroid family

text: whose members have similar orbital characteristics and compositions. Individual asteroids within the asteroid belt are categorized by their

text: spectra

text: , with most falling into three basic groups:

text: carbon

text: aceous (

text: C-type

text: silicate

text: S-type

text: ), and metal-rich (

text: M-type

text: Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the solar system, often substituting ultraviolet light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions. The Murchison meteorite that fell near Murchison, Victoria, Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life. Comets and other icy outer-solar-system bodies are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as tholins) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies. The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed.  This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the panspermia hypothesis.

text: Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the

text: solar system

text: , often substituting

text: ultraviolet

text: light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions. The

text: Murchison meteorite

text: that fell near

text: Murchison, Victoria

text: , Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life.

text: Comet

text: s and other

text: icy outer-solar-system bodies

text: are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as

text: tholin

text: s) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies. The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed.  This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the

text: panspermia

text: hypothesis.

text: Finally, from a purely linguistic point of view, there is the dichotomy that the IAU created between 'planet' and 'dwarf planet'. The term 'dwarf planet' arguably contains two words, a noun (planet) and an adjective (dwarf). Thus, the term could suggest that a dwarf planet is a type of planet, even though the IAU explicitly defines a dwarf planet as not so being. By this formulation therefore, 'dwarf planet' and 'minor planet' are best considered compound nouns. Benjamin Zimmer of Language Log summarised the confusion: "The fact that the IAU would like us to think of dwarf planets as distinct from 'real' planets lumps the lexical item 'dwarf planet' in with such oddities as 'Welsh rabbit' (not really a rabbit) and 'Rocky Mountain oysters' (not really oysters)." As Dava Sobel, the historian and popular science writer who participated in the IAU's initial decision in October 2006, noted in an interview with National Public Radio, "A dwarf planet is not a planet, and in astronomy, there are dwarf stars, which are stars, and dwarf galaxies, which are galaxies, so it's a term no one can love, dwarf planet."  Mike Brown noted in an interview with the Smithsonian that, "Most of the people in the dynamical camp really did not want the word "dwarf planet," but that was forced through by the pro-Pluto camp. So you're left with this ridiculous baggage of dwarf planets not being planets."

text: Finally, from a purely linguistic point of view, there is the dichotomy that the IAU created between 'planet' and 'dwarf planet'. The term 'dwarf planet' arguably contains two words, a noun (planet) and an adjective (dwarf). Thus, the term could suggest that a dwarf planet is a type of planet, even though the IAU explicitly defines a dwarf planet as not so being. By this formulation therefore, 'dwarf planet' and '

text: minor planet

text: ' are best considered

text: compound noun

text: s.

text: Benjamin Zimmer

text: of

text: Language Log

text: summarised the confusion: "The fact that the IAU would like us to think of dwarf planets as distinct from 'real' planets lumps the lexical item 'dwarf planet' in with such oddities as '

text: Welsh rabbit

text: ' (not really a rabbit) and '

text: Rocky Mountain oysters

text: ' (not really oysters)." As

text: Dava Sobel

text: , the historian and popular science writer who participated in the IAU's initial decision in October 2006, noted in an interview with

text: National Public Radio

text: , "A dwarf planet is not a planet, and in astronomy, there are dwarf stars, which are stars, and dwarf galaxies, which are galaxies, so it's a term no one can love, dwarf planet."  Mike Brown noted in an interview with the Smithsonian that, "Most of the people in the dynamical camp really did not want the word "dwarf planet," but that was forced through by the pro-Pluto camp. So you're left with this ridiculous baggage of dwarf planets not being planets."

text: Written and produced by Björk and Mark Bell, the four-on-the-floor "Pluto" has been described as the "most techno-sounding composition from the album" and "Homogenics most savage song." The track has also been described as "industrial-edged" by Billboard, and James Hunter of Spin wrote "only with [...] the industrial "Pluto" does she concentrate on genre." Dominique Leone of Pitchfork Media dubbed the song "experimental house." The track has also been identified as IDM. Björk sings in "primitive-sounding screams," accentuated by a sampled, digitized beat that creates the perception that her voice is "natural" and "is being manipulated by something completely technological." Although her voice and the beats give the song its hard techno sound, their methodical rhythm "also evoke chantlike characteristics." David Browne of Entertainment Weekly wrote she sings along drum and bass rhythms "trying to do with techno what vocalese singers did with bebop nearly 50 years ago." Musicologist Sheila Whiteley wrote that "the jagged electronic samples and frenetic 140bpm of 'Pluto' creates an uneasy feel."

text: Written and produced by Björk and Mark Bell, the

text: four-on-the-floor

text: "Pluto" has been described as the "most

text: techno

text: -sounding composition from the album" and "Homogenics most savage song." The track has also been described as "

text: industrial

text: -edged" by

text: Billboard

text: , and James Hunter of

text: Spin

text: wrote "only with [...] the industrial "Pluto" does she concentrate on genre." Dominique Leone of

text: Pitchfork Media

text: dubbed the song "experimental

text: house

text: ." The track has also been identified as

text: IDM

text: . Björk sings in "primitive-sounding screams," accentuated by a sampled, digitized beat that creates the perception that her voice is "natural" and "is being manipulated by something completely technological." Although her voice and the beats give the song its hard techno sound, their methodical rhythm "also evoke

text: chant

text: like characteristics."

text: David Browne

text: of

text: Entertainment Weekly

text: wrote she sings along

text: drum and bass

text: rhythms "trying to do with techno what vocalese singers did with

text: bebop

text: nearly 50 years ago." Musicologist Sheila Whiteley wrote that "the jagged electronic samples and frenetic 140

text: bpm

text: of 'Pluto' creates an uneasy feel."

text: Pluto, also called Pluto the Pup, is a cartoon character created in 1930 by Walt Disney Productions. He is a yellow-orange color, medium-sized, short-haired dog with black ears. Unlike most Disney characters, Pluto is not anthropomorphic beyond some characteristics such as facial expression, though he did speak for a short portion of his history. He is Mickey Mouse's pet. Officially a mixed-breed dog, he made his debut as a bloodhound in the Mickey Mouse cartoon The Chain Gang. Together with Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, Donald Duck, Daisy Duck, and Goofy, Pluto is one of the "Sensational Six"—the biggest stars in the Disney universe. Though all six are non-human animals, Pluto alone is not dressed as a human.

text: Pluto, also called Pluto the Pup, is a cartoon character created in 1930 by

text: Walt Disney Productions

text: . He is a yellow-orange color, medium-sized, short-haired dog with black ears. Unlike most Disney characters, Pluto is not

text: anthropomorphic

text: beyond some characteristics such as facial expression, though he did speak for a short portion of his history. He is

text: Mickey Mouse

text: 's pet. Officially a

text: mixed-breed dog

text: , he made his debut as a

text: bloodhound

text: in the Mickey Mouse cartoon The Chain Gang. Together with

text: Mickey Mouse

text: Minnie Mouse

text: Donald Duck

text: Daisy Duck

text: , and

text: Goofy

text: , Pluto is one of the "Sensational Six"—the biggest stars in the

text: Disney

text: universe. Though all six are non-human animals, Pluto alone is not dressed as a human.

text: Comets can loosely be divided into two categories: short-period and long-period—the latter being thought to originate in the Oort cloud. The two major categories of short-period comets are Jupiter-family comets (JFCs) and Halley-type comets. Halley-type comets, which are named after their prototype, Halley's Comet, are thought to have originated in the Oort cloud but to have been drawn into the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets, whereas the JFCs are thought to have originated in the scattered disc. The centaurs are thought to be a dynamically intermediate stage between the scattered disc and the Jupiter family.

text: Comets can loosely be divided into two categories: short-period and long-period—the latter being thought to originate in the

text: Oort cloud

text: . The two major categories of short-period comets are

text: Jupiter-family comet

text: s (JFCs) and Halley-type comets. Halley-type comets, which are named after their prototype,

text: Halley's Comet

text: , are thought to have originated in the Oort cloud but to have been drawn into the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets, whereas the JFCs are thought to have originated in the scattered disc. The

text: centaurs

text: are thought to be a dynamically intermediate stage between the scattered disc and the Jupiter family.

text: A large meteorite shower in the Katol region damaged several houses on 2012 May 22 between 14:00 and 14:30 local time. The phenomenon of balls of fire shooting from the sky accompanied by huge blast-like sounds was witnessed by many in the evening around 17:00.  The shower was traveling in the eastern direction and is the first such meteorite shower recorded in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. The meteor shower was accompanied by earth tremors measuring 2.1 on the Richter Scale. The biggest among the meteorites weighed 673.5 grams. The surface was completely burnt showing dark brown roasted colour with sub-rounded edges. GSI said the sample is a stony meteorite dominated by silicates (olivine and others) with a little iron. These are the oldest rocks in the solar system.

text: A large meteorite shower in the Katol region damaged several houses on 2012 May 22 between 14:00 and 14:30 local time. The phenomenon of balls of fire shooting from the sky accompanied by huge blast-like sounds was witnessed by many in the evening around 17:00.  The shower was traveling in the eastern direction and is the first such meteorite shower recorded in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. The meteor shower was accompanied by earth tremors measuring 2.1 on the Richter Scale. The biggest among the meteorites weighed 673.5 grams. The surface was completely burnt showing dark brown roasted colour with sub-rounded edges.

text: GSI

text: said the sample is a stony meteorite dominated by silicates (olivine and others) with a little iron. These are the oldest rocks in the solar system.

text: The confusion  does not end with brown dwarfs. Maria Rosa Zapatario-Osorio et al. have discovered many objects in young star clusters of masses below that required to sustain fusion of any sort (currently calculated to be roughly 13 Jupiter masses). These have been described as "free floating planets" because current theories of Solar System formation suggest that planets may be ejected from their star systems altogether if their orbits become unstable. However, it is also possible that these "free floating planets" could have formed in the same manner as stars.

text: The confusion  does not end with brown dwarfs. Maria Rosa Zapatario-Osorio et al. have discovered many objects in young

text: star cluster

text: s of masses below that required to sustain fusion of any sort (currently calculated to be roughly 13 Jupiter masses). These have been described as "

text: free floating planets

text: " because current theories of Solar System formation suggest that planets may be ejected from their

text: star system

text: s altogether if their orbits become unstable. However, it is also possible that these "free floating planets" could have formed in the same manner as stars.

text: The effect was discovered by the Polish civilic engineer Ivan Osipovich Yarkovsky (1844–1902), who worked on scientific problems in his spare time. Writing in a pamphlet around the year 1900, Yarkovsky noted that the diurnal heating of a rotating object in space would cause it to experience a force that, while tiny, could lead to large long-term effects in the orbits of small bodies, especially meteoroids and small asteroids. Yarkovsky's insight would have been forgotten had it not been for the Estonian astronomer Ernst J. Öpik (1893–1985), who read Yarkovsky's pamphlet sometime around 1909. Decades later, Öpik, recalling the pamphlet from memory, discussed the possible importance of the Yarkovsky effect on movement of meteoroids about the Solar System.

text: The effect was discovered by the

text: Polish

text: civilic engineer

text: Ivan Osipovich Yarkovsky

text: (1844–1902), who worked on scientific problems in his spare time. Writing in a pamphlet around the year 1900, Yarkovsky noted that the diurnal heating of a rotating object in space would cause it to experience a force that, while tiny, could lead to large long-term effects in the orbits of small bodies, especially

text: meteoroid

text: s and small

text: asteroid

text: s. Yarkovsky's insight would have been forgotten had it not been for the

text: Estonia

text: n astronomer

text: Ernst J. Öpik

text: (1893–1985), who read Yarkovsky's pamphlet sometime around 1909. Decades later, Öpik, recalling the pamphlet from memory, discussed the possible importance of the Yarkovsky effect on movement of meteoroids about the

text: Solar System

text: is a possible dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt. 2015 RR is one of the few dwarf planets to survive after the formation of the solar system, along with Pluto and Eris. It was discovered in February 2016 by the Outer Solar System Origins Survey (OSSOS).

text: is a

text: possible

text: dwarf planet

text: in the

text: Kuiper belt

text: . 2015 RR is one of the few dwarf planets to survive after the

text: formation of the solar system

text: , along with

text: Pluto

text: and

text: Eris

text: . It was discovered in February 2016 by the Outer Solar System Origins Survey (OSSOS).

text: Observations from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope suggest that Epsilon Eridani actually has two asteroid belts and a cloud of exozodiacal dust. The latter is an analog of the zodiacal dust that occupies the plane of the Solar System. One belt sits at approximately the same position as the one in the Solar System, orbiting at a distance of  from Epsilon Eridani, and consists of silicate grains with a diameter of 3 μm and a combined mass of about 10 kg. If the planet Epsilon Eridani b exists then this belt is unlikely to have had a source outside the orbit of the planet, so the dust may have been created by fragmentation and cratering of larger bodies such as asteroids. The second, denser belt, most likely also populated by asteroids, lies between the first belt and the outer comet disk. The structure of the belts and the dust disk suggests that more than two planets in the Epsilon Eridani system are needed to maintain this configuration.

text: Observations from NASA's

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: suggest that Epsilon Eridani actually has two asteroid belts and a cloud of

text: exozodiacal dust

text: . The latter is an analog of the

text: zodiacal dust

text: that occupies the plane of the

text: Solar System

text: . One belt sits at approximately the same position as the one in the Solar System, orbiting at a distance of  from Epsilon Eridani, and consists of

text: silicate

text: grains with a diameter of 3

text: μm

text: and a combined mass of about 10 kg. If the planet Epsilon Eridani b exists then this belt is unlikely to have had a source outside the orbit of the planet, so the dust may have been created by fragmentation and cratering of larger bodies such as

text: asteroid

text: s. The second, denser belt, most likely also populated by asteroids, lies between the first belt and the outer comet disk. The structure of the belts and the dust disk suggests that more than two planets in the Epsilon Eridani system are needed to maintain this configuration.

text: The mission's science objectives are grouped in three distinct priorities. The "primary objectives" are required; the "secondary objectives" are expected to be met but are not demanded. The "tertiary objectives" are desired. These objectives may be attempted, though they may be skipped in favor of the above objectives. An objective to measure any magnetic field of Pluto was dropped. A magnetometer instrument could not be implemented within a reasonable mass budget and schedule, and SWAP and PEPSSI could do an indirect job detecting some magnetic field around Pluto.

text: The mission's science objectives are grouped in three distinct priorities. The "primary objectives" are required; the "secondary objectives" are expected to be met but are not demanded. The "tertiary objectives" are desired. These objectives may be attempted, though they may be skipped in favor of the above objectives. An objective to measure any magnetic field of Pluto was dropped. A

text: magnetometer

text: instrument could not be implemented within a reasonable mass budget and schedule, and

text: SWAP and PEPSSI

text: could do an indirect job detecting some magnetic field around Pluto.

text: W. Landgraf's work mainly concerns the verification and determination of astronomical constants of the reference system, the masses of the planets, non-gravitational forces and the verification of the gravitational law within the solar system. He developed and improved methods for identifying and calculating the orbits of different objects in the solar system. He busied himself in this work with numerous minor planets with emphasis on the near-Earth asteroids, comets, their long term dynamics, and with the observation of small planets and comets.

text: W. Landgraf's work mainly concerns the verification and determination of

text: astronomical constant

text: s of the

entity_name: International Celestial Reference System

text: reference system

text: , the

text: masses of the planets

text: , non-gravitational forces and the verification of the

text: gravitational law

text: within the solar system. He developed and improved methods for identifying and calculating the orbits of different objects in the solar system. He busied himself in this work with numerous

text: minor planet

text: s with emphasis on the

text: near-Earth asteroid

text: s,

text: comet

text: s, their long term dynamics, and with the

text: observation

text: of small planets and comets.

text: On 15 June 2012 The Makemakes released their debut single "The Lovercall". The song peaked at number 6 on the Austrian Singles Chart. On 15 April 2014 they released the single "Million Euro Smile". The song peaked at number 2 on the Austrian Singles Chart.

text: On 15 June 2012 The Makemakes released their debut single "

text: The Lovercall

text: ". The song peaked at number 6 on the

text: Austrian Singles Chart

text: . On 15 April 2014 they released the single "

text: Million Euro Smile

text: ". The song peaked at number 2 on the

text: Austrian Singles Chart

text: The dwarf planet  is the largest member of the family, and the core of the differentiated progenitor; other identified members are the moons of Haumea and the Kuiper belt objects , , ,  , , , , ,  and , all with an ejection velocity from Haumea of less than 150 m/s. The brightest Haumeids have absolute magnitudes (H) bright enough to suggest a size between 400 and 700 km in diameter, and so possible dwarf planets, if they had the albedos of typical TNOs; however, they are likely to be much smaller as it is thought they are water-icy bodies with high albedos. The dispersion of the proper orbital elements of the members is a few percent or less (5% for semi-major axis, 1.4°  for the inclination and 0.08 for the eccentricity). The diagram illustrates the orbital elements of the members of the family in relation to other TNOs.

text: The

text: dwarf planet

text: is the largest member of the family, and the core of the differentiated progenitor; other identified members are the

text: moons of Haumea

text: and the

text: Kuiper belt object

text: s , , ,  , , , , ,  and , all with an ejection velocity from Haumea of less than 150 m/s. The brightest Haumeids have

text: absolute magnitudes (H)

text: bright enough to suggest a size between 400 and 700 km in diameter, and so

text: possible dwarf planets

text: , if they had the

text: albedos

text: of typical TNOs; however, they are likely to be much smaller as it is thought they are water-icy bodies with high albedos. The dispersion of the

text: proper orbital elements

text: of the members is a few percent or less (5% for

text: semi-major axis

text: , 1.4°  for the

text: inclination

text: and 0.08 for the

text: eccentricity

text: ). The diagram illustrates the orbital elements of the members of the family in relation to other

text: TNO

text: s.

text: Pluto Glacier () is a glacier on the east coast of Alexander Island, Antarctica, 10 nautical miles (18 km) long and 4 nautical miles (7 km) wide, which flows east into George VI Sound to the north of Succession Cliffs. Although Pluto Glacier is not located within nearby Planet Heights, the glacier was named in association with the mountain range along with many other nearby glaciers that are named after planets of the Solar System. The glacier was first photographed from the air on November 23, 1935, by Lincoln Ellsworth and mapped from these photos by W.L.G. Joerg. Roughly surveyed in 1936 by the British Graham Land Expedition (BGLE). Named by the United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee (UK-APC) for the planet Pluto, the ninth (and last) planet of the Solar System, following Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS) surveys in 1948 and 1949.

text: Pluto Glacier () is a

text: glacier

text: on the east coast of

text: Alexander Island

text: Antarctica

text: , 10 nautical miles (18 km) long and 4 nautical miles (7 km) wide, which flows east into

text: George VI Sound

text: to the north of

text: Succession Cliffs

text: . Although Pluto Glacier is not located within nearby

text: Planet Heights

text: , the glacier was named in association with the mountain range along with many other nearby glaciers that are named after planets of the

text: Solar System

text: . The glacier was first photographed from the air on November 23, 1935, by

text: Lincoln Ellsworth

text: and mapped from these photos by

text: W.L.G. Joerg

text: . Roughly surveyed in 1936 by the

text: British Graham Land Expedition

text: (BGLE). Named by the

text: United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee

text: (UK-APC) for the planet

text: Pluto

text: , the ninth (and last) planet of the Solar System, following

text: Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey

text: (FIDS) surveys in 1948 and 1949.

text: Meteoroids that experience disruption in the atmosphere may fall as meteorite showers, which can range from only a few up to thousands of separate individuals. The area over which a meteorite shower falls is known as its strewn field. Strewn fields are commonly elliptical in shape, with the major axis parallel to the direction of flight. In most cases, the largest meteorites in a shower are found farthest down-range in the strewn field.

text: Meteoroids that experience disruption in the atmosphere may fall as meteorite showers, which can range from only a few up to thousands of separate individuals. The area over which a meteorite shower falls is known as its

text: strewn field

text: . Strewn fields are commonly

text: elliptical

text: in shape, with the major axis parallel to the direction of flight. In most cases, the largest meteorites in a shower are found farthest down-range in the strewn field.

text: Across the 0.2-second duration of the detectable signal, the relative tangential (orbiting) velocity of the black holes increased from 30% to 60% of the speed of light. The orbital frequency of 75 Hz (half the gravitational wave frequency) means that the objects were orbiting each other at a distance of only 350 km by the time they merged. The phase changes to the signal's polarization allowed calculation of the objects' orbital frequency, and taken together with the amplitude and pattern of the signal, allowed calculation of their masses and therefore their extreme final velocities and orbital separation (distance apart) when they merged. That information showed that the objects had to be black holes, as any other kind of known objects with these masses would have been physically larger and therefore merged before that point, or would not have reached such velocities in such a small orbit. The highest observed neutron star mass is two solar masses, with a conservative upper limit for the mass of a stable neutron star of three solar masses, so that a pair of neutron stars would not have had sufficient mass to account for the merger (unless exotic alternatives exist, for example, boson stars), while a black hole-neutron star pair would have merged sooner, resulting in a final orbital frequency that was not so high.

text: Across the 0.2-second duration of the detectable signal, the relative tangential (orbiting) velocity of the black holes increased from 30% to 60% of the

text: speed of light

text: . The orbital frequency of 75 Hz (half the gravitational wave frequency) means that the objects were orbiting each other at a distance of only 350 km by the time they merged. The

text: phase

text: changes to the signal's

text: polarization

text: allowed calculation of the objects' orbital frequency, and taken together with the

text: amplitude

text: and pattern of the signal, allowed calculation of their masses and therefore their extreme final velocities and orbital separation (distance apart) when they merged. That information showed that the objects had to be black holes, as any other kind of known objects with these masses would have been physically larger and therefore merged before that point, or would not have reached such velocities in such a small orbit. The highest observed neutron star mass is two solar masses, with a conservative

text: upper limit

text: for the mass of a stable neutron star of three solar masses, so that a pair of neutron stars would not have had sufficient mass to account for the merger (unless exotic alternatives exist, for example,

text: boson stars

text: ), while a black hole-

text: neutron star

text: pair would have merged sooner, resulting in a final orbital frequency that was not so high.

text: Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (formally designated D/1993 F2) was a comet that broke apart in July 1992 and collided with Jupiter in July 1994, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects. This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media, and the comet was closely observed by astronomers worldwide. The collision provided new information about Jupiter and highlighted its role in reducing space debris in the inner Solar System.

text: Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (

text: formally designated

text: D/1993 F2) was a

text: comet

text: that broke apart in July 1992 and collided with

text: Jupiter

text: in July 1994, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of

text: Solar System

text: objects. This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media, and the comet was closely observed by

text: astronomers

text: worldwide. The collision provided new information about Jupiter and highlighted its role in reducing

text: space debris

text: in the

text: inner Solar System

text: 2340 Hathor is an asteroid that was discovered on October 22, 1976 by C.T. Kowal at Palomar. Like the other objects of Aten type, Hathor is named for an Egyptian deity. Known as a sky-goddess and the daughter of Ra, Hathor was also identified with Aphrodite. The name was proposed by E. Helin, who made an independent discovery of the object, and also made crucial recovery observations in 1981. Hathor was the 3rd Aten asteroid to be numbered.

text: 2340 Hathor is an

text: asteroid

text: that was discovered on October 22, 1976 by

text: C.T. Kowal

text: at Palomar. Like the other objects of

text: Aten type

text: , Hathor is named for an Egyptian deity. Known as a sky-goddess and the daughter of

text: Ra

text: Hathor

text: was also identified with

text: Aphrodite

text: . The name was proposed by E. Helin, who made an independent discovery of the object, and also made crucial recovery observations in 1981. Hathor was the 3rd

text: Aten asteroid

text: to be

text: numbered

text: Kevin Luhman is a professor of astronomy and astrophysics from Pennsylvania State University who is notable for having discovered both the third closest stellar system Luhman 16 and the fourth closest stellar system WISE 0855−0714 to the Sun. Both systems are actually made up of substellar objects (objects less massive than stars), falling into the category of brown dwarfs (Luhman 16) or even less massive objects (WISE 0855−0714) which are officially termed sub-brown dwarfs but also referred to as "free floating planets" or "planetary mass objects". WISE 0855−0714 (discovery published in 2014) is also the coldest massive object outside the solar system that has been directly imaged.

text: Kevin Luhman is a professor of astronomy and astrophysics from

text: Pennsylvania State University

text: who is notable for having discovered both the third closest stellar system

text: Luhman 16

text: and the fourth closest stellar system

text: WISE 0855−0714

text: to the Sun. Both systems are actually made up of substellar objects (objects less massive than stars), falling into the category of

text: brown dwarfs

text: (Luhman 16) or even less massive objects (WISE 0855−0714) which are officially termed

text: sub-brown dwarfs

text: but also referred to as "free floating planets" or "planetary mass objects". WISE 0855−0714 (discovery published in 2014) is also the coldest massive object outside the solar system that has been directly imaged.

text: GD 40 is a white dwarf in the constellation Cetus. The star's spectrum has been found to show traces of external of metal contamination due to disruption of an extrasolar dwarf planet or an asteroid. The disrupted object should have had roughly the same mass of the Solar System asteroid 3 Juno.

text: GD 40 is a

text: white dwarf

text: in the

text: constellation

text: Cetus

text: . The star's spectrum has been found to show traces of external of metal contamination due to disruption of an extrasolar

text: dwarf planet

text: or an

text: asteroid

text: . The disrupted object should have had roughly the same mass of the

text: Solar System

text: asteroid

text: 3 Juno

text: For several objects in the Solar System, the value of μ is known to greater accuracy than either G or M. The SI units of the standard gravitational parameter are .

text: For several objects in the

text: Solar System

text: , the value of μ is known to greater accuracy than either G or M. The

text: SI

text: units of the standard gravitational parameter are .

text: In the Solar System both Jupiter and Saturn were probably crucial in perturbing comets into the inner Solar System. Here, the comets provided the inner planets with their own source of water and various other ices. In the Alpha Centauri system, Proxima Centauri may have influenced the planetary disk as the Alpha Centauri system was forming, enriching the area around Alpha Centauri A and B with volatile materials. This would be discounted if, for example, Alpha Centauri B happened to have gas giants orbiting Alpha Centauri A (or conversely, Alpha Centauri A for Alpha Centauri B), or if the stars B and A themselves were able to perturb comets into each other's inner system as Jupiter and Saturn presumably have done in the Solar System. Such icy bodies probably also reside in Oort clouds of other planetary systems, when they are influenced gravitationally by either the gas giants or disruptions by passing nearby stars many of these icy bodies then travel starwards. There is no direct evidence yet of the existence of such an Oort cloud around Alpha Centauri AB, and theoretically this may have been totally destroyed during the system's formation.

text: In the Solar System both Jupiter and Saturn were probably crucial in perturbing

text: comet

text: s into the inner Solar System. Here, the comets provided the inner planets with their own source of water and various other ices. In the Alpha Centauri system, Proxima Centauri may have influenced the planetary disk as the Alpha Centauri system was forming, enriching the area around Alpha Centauri A and B with volatile materials. This would be discounted if, for example, Alpha Centauri B happened to have gas giants orbiting Alpha Centauri A (or conversely, Alpha Centauri A for Alpha Centauri B), or if the stars B and A themselves were able to perturb comets into each other's inner system as Jupiter and Saturn presumably have done in the Solar System. Such icy bodies probably also reside in

text: Oort cloud

text: s of other planetary systems, when they are influenced gravitationally by either the gas giants or disruptions by passing nearby stars many of these icy bodies then travel starwards. There is no direct evidence yet of the existence of such an Oort cloud around Alpha Centauri AB, and theoretically this may have been totally destroyed during the system's formation.

text: Three iron meteorite groups are described as being part of the nonmagmatic meteorites. They share a number of similarities, the most easily recognizable is that they contain many silicate inclusions composed of olivine, pyroxene and feldspar. Other iron meteorites can also contain silicate inclusions but with different mineralogy (IVA for example has tridymite and pyroxene). Two of those groups, the IAB and the IIICD meteorites are now classified as primitive achondrites. The IIE meteorites are now classified as regular achondrites.

text: Three

text: iron meteorite

text: groups are described as being part of the nonmagmatic meteorites. They share a number of similarities, the most easily recognizable is that they contain many

text: silicate

text: inclusions composed of

text: olivine

text: pyroxene

text: and

text: feldspar

text: . Other iron meteorites can also contain silicate inclusions but with different mineralogy (IVA for example has

text: tridymite

text: and

text: pyroxene

text: ). Two of those groups, the

text: IAB

text: and the

text: IIICD meteorites

text: are now classified as primitive achondrites. The IIE meteorites are now classified as regular

text: achondrite

text: s.

text: Magalotti knew as well as anyone that a scientifically valid explanation of the comet of 1664 could have made an important contribution to an explanation of the whole solar system. But instead of attempting one, he amused himself with the obviously ridiculous thesis that the tail of the comet was an optical illusion. As soon as he saw Cassini's much more penetrating and much better-informed explanation, he admitted that he cared no more for comets than for rainbows. As early as 1664 he had been appointed to the commission charged with supervising the decoration of Palazzo Pitti and from then on, until his death he made a point of getting to know all the practicing artists of the city. In 1667 Magalotti had made a pilgrimage to the blessed bones of the divine poet at Ravenna. Magalotti had met Sir John Finch and Henry Neville (writer), he had improved his English and with his boyhood friend Paolo Falconieri, an architect, he made plans to visit Northern Europe.

text: Magalotti knew as well as anyone that a scientifically valid explanation of the

text: comet

text: of 1664 could have made an important contribution to an explanation of the whole

text: solar system

text: . But instead of attempting one, he amused himself with the obviously ridiculous thesis that the tail of the comet was an

text: optical illusion

text: . As soon as he saw

text: Cassini

text: 's much more penetrating and much better-informed explanation, he admitted that he cared no more for comets than for rainbows. As early as 1664 he had been appointed to the commission charged with supervising the decoration of

text: Palazzo Pitti

text: and from then on, until his death he made a point of getting to know all the practicing artists of the city. In 1667 Magalotti had made a pilgrimage to the

text: blessed bones of the divine poet

text: at

text: Ravenna

text: . Magalotti had met Sir

text: John Finch

text: and

text: Henry Neville (writer)

text: , he had improved his English and with his boyhood friend

text: Paolo Falconieri

text: , an architect, he made plans to visit Northern Europe.

text: The vulcanoids, should they be found, may provide scientists with material from the first period of planet formation, as well as insights into the conditions prevalent in the early Solar System. Although every other gravitationally stable region in the Solar System has been found to contain objects, non-gravitational forces (such as the Yarkovsky effect) or the influence of a migrating planet in the early stages of the Solar System's development may have depleted this area of any asteroids that may have been there.

text: The vulcanoids, should they be found, may provide scientists with material from the first period of

text: planet formation

text: , as well as insights into the conditions prevalent in the early

text: Solar System

text: . Although every other gravitationally stable region in the Solar System has been found to contain objects, non-gravitational forces (such as the

text: Yarkovsky effect

text: ) or the influence of a

text: migrating planet

text: in the early stages of the Solar System's development may have depleted this area of any asteroids that may have been there.

text: Tyche () is a hypothetical gas giant located in the Solar System's Oort cloud, first proposed in 1999 by astrophysicists John Matese, Patrick Whitman and Daniel Whitmire of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette.  They argued that evidence of Tyche's existence could be seen in a supposed bias in the points of origin for long-period comets. More recently, Matese and Whitmire re-evaluated the comet data and noted that Tyche, if it existed, would be detectable in the archive of data that was collected by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) telescope. In 2014, NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out any object with Tyche's characteristics, indicating that Tyche as hypothesized by Matese, Whitman, and Whitmire does not exist.

text: Tyche () is a hypothetical

text: gas giant

text: located in the

text: Solar System

text: 's

text: Oort cloud

text: , first proposed in 1999 by astrophysicists John Matese, Patrick Whitman and Daniel Whitmire of the

text: University of Louisiana at Lafayette

text: .  They argued that evidence of Tyche's existence could be seen in a supposed bias in the points of origin for

text: long-period comet

text: s. More recently, Matese and Whitmire re-evaluated the comet data and noted that Tyche, if it existed, would be detectable in the archive of data that was collected by

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: The main objective of Pin-Bot is to advance through the planets of the solar system, starting at Pluto and reaching the sun.  The player advances from planet to planet by hitting specially marked targets, earning special bonuses throughout the game.

text: The main objective of Pin-Bot is to advance through the planets of the

text: solar system

text: , starting at Pluto and reaching the sun.  The player advances from planet to planet by hitting specially marked targets, earning special bonuses throughout the game.

text: When discovered, asteroids were seen as a class of objects distinct from comets, and there was no unified term for the two until "small Solar System body" was coined by the IAU in 2006. The main difference between an asteroid and a comet is that a comet shows a coma due to sublimation of near-surface ices by solar radiation. A few objects have ended up being dual-listed because they were first classified as minor planets but later showed evidence of cometary activity. Conversely, some (perhaps all) comets are eventually depleted of their surface volatile ices and develop the appearance of asteroids. A further distinction is that comets typically have more eccentric orbits than most asteroids; most "asteroids" with notably eccentric orbits are probably dormant or extinct comets. Also, they are theorized to be common objects amongst the celestial bodies orbiting close to the Sun.

text: When discovered, asteroids were seen as a class of objects distinct from comets, and there was no unified term for the two until "

text: small Solar System body

text: " was coined by the

text: IAU

text: in 2006. The main difference between an asteroid and a comet is that a comet shows a coma due to

text: sublimation

text: of near-surface ices by solar radiation. A few objects have ended up being dual-listed because they were first classified as minor planets but later showed evidence of cometary activity. Conversely, some (perhaps all) comets are eventually depleted of their surface

text: volatile ices

text: and develop the appearance of asteroids. A further distinction is that comets typically have more eccentric orbits than most asteroids; most "asteroids" with notably eccentric orbits are probably dormant or extinct comets. Also, they are theorized to be common objects amongst the celestial bodies orbiting close to the Sun.

text: Dysnomia was found 4.43 magnitudes fainter than Eris, and its diameter is estimated to be between 350 and 490 km, though Mike Brown claims that it is 500 times fainter and between 100 and 250 km in diameter. It is 60 times fainter than Eris in the K band and 480 times fainter in the V band, which means a very different, and quite redder, spectrum, indicating a significantly darker surface. Assuming its albedo is five times lower than Eris's, its diameter would be , meaning that Dysnomia is itself likely a rather large Trans-Neptunian object. Of the Solar System's dwarf planet and minor planet moons, only Charon is definitely larger than Dysnomia.

text: Dysnomia was found 4.43 magnitudes fainter than Eris, and its diameter is estimated to be between 350 and 490 km, though Mike Brown claims that it is 500 times fainter and between 100 and 250 km in diameter. It is 60 times fainter than Eris in the

text: K band

text: and 480 times fainter in the

text: V band

text: , which means a very different, and quite redder, spectrum, indicating a significantly darker surface. Assuming its albedo is five times lower than Eris's, its diameter would be , meaning that Dysnomia is itself likely a rather large Trans-Neptunian object. Of the Solar System's dwarf planet and minor planet moons, only Charon is definitely larger than Dysnomia.

text: Solid nitrogen has several properties relevant to its formation of rocks in the outer Solar System. Even at the low temperatures of solid nitrogen it is fairly volatile and can sublime to form an atmosphere, or condense back into nitrogen frost. At 58 K the ultimate compressive strength is 0.24 MPa. Strength increases as temperature lowers becoming 0.54 MPa at 40.6 K. Elastic modulus varies from 161 to 225 MPa over the same range. Compared to other materials, solid nitrogen loses cohesion at low pressures and flows in the form of glaciers when amassed. Yet its density is higher than that of water ice, so the forces of buoyancy will naturally transport blocks of water ice towards the surface. This effect has been most clearly observed on Pluto (by the New Horizons space probe in 2015), where water ice makes up a major part of the surface layers as icebergs on top of nitrogen ice.

text: Solid nitrogen has several properties relevant to its formation of rocks in the outer Solar System. Even at the low temperatures of solid nitrogen it is fairly volatile and can

text: sublime

text: to form an atmosphere, or condense back into nitrogen frost. At 58 K the

text: ultimate compressive strength

text: is 0.24

text: MPa

text: . Strength increases as temperature lowers becoming 0.54 MPa at 40.6 K. Elastic modulus varies from 161 to 225 MPa over the same range. Compared to other materials, solid nitrogen loses

text: cohesion

text: at low pressures and flows in the form of

text: glacier

text: s when amassed. Yet its density is higher than that of water ice, so the forces of

text: buoyancy

text: will naturally transport blocks of water ice towards the surface. This effect has been most clearly observed on Pluto (by the

text: New Horizons

text: space probe in 2015), where water ice makes up a major part of the surface layers as icebergs on top of nitrogen ice.

text: In August 1990 the first major disagreement took place in the IRC world. The "A-net" (Anarchy net) included a server named eris.berkeley.edu. It was all open, required no passwords and had no limit on the number of connects. As Greg "wumpus" Lindahl explains: "it had a wildcard server line, so people were hooking up servers and nick-colliding everyone". The "Eris Free Network", EFnet, made the eris machine the first to be Q-lined (Q for quarantine) from IRC. In wumpus' words again: "Eris refused to remove that line, so I formed EFnet. It wasn't much of a fight; I got all the hubs to join, and almost everyone else got carried along." A-net was formed with the eris servers, EFnet was formed with the non-eris servers. History showed most servers and users went with EFnet. Once ANet disbanded, the name EFnet became meaningless, and once again it was the one and only IRC network.

text: In August 1990 the first major disagreement took place in the IRC world. The "A-net" (Anarchy net) included a server named eris.berkeley.edu. It was all open, required no passwords and had no limit on the number of connects. As Greg "wumpus" Lindahl explains: "it had a wildcard server line, so people were hooking up servers and nick-colliding everyone". The "Eris Free Network",

text: EFnet

text: , made the eris machine the first to be Q-lined (Q for quarantine) from IRC. In wumpus' words again: "Eris refused to remove that line, so I formed EFnet. It wasn't much of a fight; I got all the hubs to join, and almost everyone else got carried along." A-net was formed with the eris servers, EFnet was formed with the non-eris servers. History showed most servers and users went with EFnet. Once ANet disbanded, the name EFnet became meaningless, and once again it was the one and only IRC network.

text: 9934 Caccioppoli is a C-type main belt asteroid of the solar system.  It orbits the Sun once every 4.14 years.

text: 9934 Caccioppoli is a

text: C-type

text: main belt asteroid

text: of the

text: solar system

text: .  It orbits the

text: Sun

text: once every 4.14 years.

text: C.W. Leadbeater discussed the abilities of beings at this level.  He stated that Sanat Kumara's "consciousness is of so extended  nature that it comprehends at once all the life on our globe.  In his hands are the powers of cyclic destruction, for he wields Fohat [i.e. beams composed of "bubbles in space" used by Theosophical deities to materialize or dematerialize material objects] in its higher forms and can deal directly with cosmic forces outside our chain [i.e., outside our solar system]." Thus according to Leadbeater powers of beings at this level include omniscience regarding the events occurring on a single inhabited planet, materialization of large objects, and the ability to affect at a distance to some degree happenings in other nearby planetary systems.

text: C.W. Leadbeater discussed the abilities of beings at this level.  He stated that Sanat Kumara's "consciousness is of so extended  nature that it comprehends at once all the life on our globe.  In his hands are the powers of cyclic destruction, for he wields Fohat [i.e. beams composed of "

text: bubbles in space

text: " used by Theosophical deities to materialize or dematerialize material objects] in its higher forms and can deal directly with cosmic forces outside our chain [i.e., outside our solar system]." Thus according to Leadbeater powers of beings at this level include

text: omniscience

text: regarding the events occurring on a single inhabited planet,

text: materialization

text: of large objects, and the ability to affect at a distance to some degree happenings in other nearby

text: planetary system

text: s.

text: In 1985 it was reported that Rubin said about the bombing of the home of historian and Holocaust denier Dr. George Ashley, "It's too bad that Mr. Ashley wasn't blown up" and "I applaud those who took such actions. I think these people have a righteous place in the world." Moderate Jews also criticized him. Rob Eshman, the Editor-in-Chief of the Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles noted "In the solar system of Jewish life, Irv Rubin is Pluto" and asserted "Here in Los Angeles, for years now Rubin has been escorted out of far more Jewish events than he’s ever been invited in to."

text: In 1985 it was reported that Rubin said about the bombing of the home of historian and

text: Holocaust denier

text: Dr.

text: George Ashley

text: , "It's too bad that Mr. Ashley wasn't blown up" and "I applaud those who took such actions. I think these people have a righteous place in the world." Moderate Jews also criticized him. Rob Eshman, the Editor-in-Chief of the Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles noted "In the solar system of Jewish life, Irv Rubin is Pluto" and asserted "Here in Los Angeles, for years now Rubin has been escorted out of far more Jewish events than he’s ever been invited in to."

text: Of the five largest TNOs, four (Eris, Pluto, Makemake and Haumea) are known to have satellites, and two have more than one. A higher percentage of the larger KBOs have satellites than the smaller objects in the Kuiper belt, suggesting that a different formation mechanism was responsible. There are also a high number of binaries (two objects close enough in mass to be orbiting "each other") in the Kuiper belt. The most notable example is the Pluto–Charon binary, but it is estimated that around 11% of KBOs exist in binaries.

text: Morbidelli specializes in solar system dynamics, especially planetary formation and migration and the structure of the asteroid and Kuiper belts.

text: Morbidelli specializes in

text: solar system

text: dynamics

text: , especially

text: planetary formation

text: and

text: migration

text: and the structure of the

text: asteroid

text: and

text: Kuiper belt

text: s.

text: This is a relatively peaceful event, nothing akin to a supernova, which the Sun is too small to undergo as part of its evolution. Any observer present to witness this occurrence would see a massive increase in the speed of the solar wind, but not enough to destroy a planet completely. However, the star's loss of mass could send the orbits of the surviving planets into chaos, causing some to collide, others to be ejected from the Solar System, and still others to be torn apart by tidal interactions. Afterwards, all that will remain of the Sun is a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, 54% its original mass but only the size of the Earth. Initially, this white dwarf may be 100 times as luminous as the Sun is now. It will consist entirely of degenerate carbon and oxygen, but will never reach temperatures hot enough to fuse these elements. Thus the white dwarf Sun will gradually cool, growing dimmer and dimmer.

text: This is a relatively peaceful event, nothing akin to a

text: supernova

text: , which the Sun is too small to undergo as part of its evolution. Any observer present to witness this occurrence would see a massive increase in the speed of the solar wind, but not enough to destroy a planet completely. However, the star's loss of mass could send the orbits of the surviving planets into chaos, causing some to collide, others to be ejected from the Solar System, and still others to be torn apart by tidal interactions. Afterwards, all that will remain of the Sun is a

text: white dwarf

text: , an extraordinarily dense object, 54% its original mass but only the size of the Earth. Initially, this white dwarf may be 100 times as luminous as the Sun is now. It will consist entirely of

text: degenerate

text: carbon

text: and

text: oxygen

text: , but will never reach temperatures hot enough to fuse these elements. Thus the white dwarf Sun will gradually cool, growing dimmer and dimmer.

text: There are only a few known mean-motion resonances in the Solar System involving planets, dwarf planets or larger satellites (a much greater number involve asteroids, planetary rings, moonlets and smaller Kuiper belt objects, including many possible dwarf planets).

text: There are only a few known mean-motion resonances in the

text: Solar System

text: involving planets,

text: dwarf planet

text: s or larger

text: satellite

text: s (a much greater number involve

text: asteroid

text: s,

text: planetary ring

text: s,

text: moonlet

text: s and smaller

text: Kuiper belt

text: objects, including many

text: possible dwarf planets

text: From 1930 to 2006, the ninth planet was Pluto, with both Eris and Haumea later laying claim to being a tenth planet. Today, if counting the "dwarf planets" as planets, the eleventh planet from the Sun would be Haumea. However in 2006 the term "planet" was redefined to exclude the new category of dwarf planets (just as some planets had earlier been recategorised as asteroids). In 2006 Pluto, Eris, Haumea, Makemake, and (in the inner Solar System) the asteroid Ceres were reclassified as dwarf planets.

text: From 1930 to 2006, the ninth planet was Pluto, with both Eris and

text: Haumea

text: later laying claim to being a

text: tenth planet

text: . Today, if counting the "

text: dwarf planet

text: s" as planets, the eleventh planet from the Sun would be Haumea. However in 2006 the term "planet" was redefined to exclude the new category of dwarf planets (just as some planets had earlier been recategorised as asteroids). In 2006 Pluto, Eris, Haumea,

text: Makemake

text: , and (in the inner Solar System) the asteroid Ceres were reclassified as dwarf planets.

text: The Utah Supreme Court terminated ERI's tax exempt status in 1979 because the Court found that ERI was not devoted to a charitable purpose. In 1979 about 96% of the ERI's work was for the government including many top-secret projects and the remaining 4% was for private organizations. ERI was given to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints on July 31, 1979. Then, ERI was purchased back from the LDS Church beginning on August 1, 1979, creating it as a for-profit entity.

text: The Utah Supreme Court terminated ERI's tax exempt status in 1979 because the Court found that ERI was not devoted to a charitable purpose. In 1979 about 96% of the ERI's work was for the government including many top-secret projects and the remaining 4% was for private organizations. ERI was given to

entity_name: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

text: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

text: on July 31, 1979. Then, ERI was purchased back from the LDS Church beginning on August 1, 1979, creating it as a for-profit entity.

text: The Kuiper belt  or , sometimes called the Edgeworth–Kuiper belt, is a circumstellar disc in the Solar System beyond the planets, extending from the orbit of Neptune (at 30 AU) to approximately 50 AU from the Sun. It is similar to the asteroid belt, but it is far larger—20 times as wide and 20 to 200 times as massive. Like the asteroid belt, it consists mainly of small bodies, or remnants from the Solar System's formation. Although many asteroids are composed primarily of rock and metal, most Kuiper belt objects are composed largely of frozen volatiles (termed "ices"), such as methane, ammonia and water. The Kuiper belt is home to three officially recognized dwarf planets:  Pluto, Haumea, and Makemake. Some of the Solar System's moons, such as Neptune's Triton and Saturn's Phoebe, are also thought to have originated in the region.

text: The Kuiper belt  or , sometimes called the Edgeworth–Kuiper belt, is a

text: circumstellar disc

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: beyond the

text: planet

text: s, extending from the

text: orbit

text: of

text: Neptune

text: (at 30

text: AU

text: ) to approximately 50 AU from the

text: Sun

text: . It is similar to the

text: asteroid belt

text: , but it is far larger—20 times as wide and 20 to 200 times as massive. Like the asteroid belt, it consists mainly of

text: small bodies

text: , or remnants from the Solar System's formation. Although many asteroids are composed primarily of

text: rock

text: and metal, most Kuiper belt objects are composed largely of frozen

text: volatiles

text: (termed "ices"), such as

text: methane

text: ammonia

text: and

text: water

text: . The Kuiper belt is home to three officially recognized

text: dwarf planet

text: s:

text: Pluto

text: Haumea

text: , and

text: Makemake

text: . Some of the Solar System's

text: moons

text: , such as Neptune's

text: Triton

text: and

text: Saturn

text: 's

text: Phoebe

text: , are also thought to have originated in the region.

text: Archeological and paleontological material and meteorites are exempt from declaration as such objects may not be bought, sold or owned.

text: Archeological

text: and

text: paleontological

text: material and

text: meteorites

text: are exempt from declaration as such objects may not be bought, sold or owned.

text: For an Earthbound observer, objects in the sky complete one revolution around the Earth in 1 day. Proxima Centauri, which is the nearest star outside the solar system, is about 4 light-years away. On a geostationary view, Proxima Centauri has a speed many times greater than c as the rim speed of an object moving in a circle is a product of the radius and angular speed. It is also possible on a geostatic view for objects such as comets to vary their speed from subluminal to superluminal and vice versa simply because the distance from the Earth varies. Comets may have orbits which take them out to more than 1000 AU. The circumference of a circle with a radius of 1000 AU is greater than one light day. In other words, a comet at such a distance is superluminal in a geostatic, and therefore non-inertial, frame.

text: For an Earthbound observer, objects in the sky complete one revolution around the Earth in 1 day.

text: Proxima Centauri

text: , which is the nearest star outside the

text: solar system

text: , is about 4

text: light-year

text: s away. On a

text: geostationary

text: view, Proxima Centauri has a speed many times greater than c as the rim speed of an object moving in a circle is a product of the radius and angular speed. It is also possible on a geostatic view for objects such as comets to vary their speed from subluminal to superluminal and vice versa simply because the distance from the Earth varies. Comets may have orbits which take them out to more than 1000

text: AU

text: . The circumference of a circle with a radius of 1000 AU is greater than one light day. In other words, a comet at such a distance is superluminal in a geostatic, and therefore non-inertial, frame.

text: Pluto is generally a cheerful and adventurous dog, although he can be given to sheer panic when confronted with something unknown. Common themes in Pluto's stories involve him becoming jealous of Mickey getting another pet (Mickey's Elephant, Lend a Paw, Mickey and the Seal), Pluto accidentally and unwittingly swallowing something and panicking when he realizes it (Playful Pluto, Donald and Pluto), Pluto getting entangled with something inanimate, or Pluto being pestered by a smaller animal (Private Pluto, Squatter's Rights). In many of his appearances with Mickey, Pluto will get himself into trouble and cause Mickey to get angry at him. Mickey, however, often cheers up quickly; often telling Pluto "I can't be mad at ya."

text: Pluto is generally a cheerful and adventurous dog, although he can be given to sheer panic when confronted with something unknown. Common themes in Pluto's stories involve him becoming jealous of Mickey getting another pet (Mickey's Elephant,

text: Lend a Paw

text: Mickey and the Seal

text: ), Pluto accidentally and unwittingly swallowing something and panicking when he realizes it (

text: Playful Pluto

text: , Donald and Pluto), Pluto getting entangled with something inanimate, or Pluto being pestered by a smaller animal (Private Pluto,

text: Squatter's Rights

text: ). In many of his appearances with Mickey, Pluto will get himself into trouble and cause Mickey to get angry at him. Mickey, however, often cheers up quickly; often telling Pluto "I can't be mad at ya."

text: In the current Solar System, these small bodies are usually also classified by dynamics and composition, and may have subsequently evolvedto become comets, Kuiper belt objects or trojan asteroids, for example. In other words, some planetesimals became other types of body once planetary formation had finished, and may be referred to by either or both names.

text: In the current

text: Solar System

text: , these small bodies are usually also classified by dynamics and composition, and may have subsequently evolvedto become comets,

text: Kuiper belt objects

text: or

text: trojan asteroid

text: s, for example. In other words, some planetesimals became other types of body once planetary formation had finished, and may be referred to by either or both names.

text: Solar trees are intended to bring visibility to solar technology and to enhance the landscape and architecture they complement, usually in a commercial or public context.  An objective of many solar tree installations is to promote awareness, understanding, and adoption of renewable energy. They are not typically used as a primary source of energy for a property—that role is accomplished by rooftop solar systems. Solar trees are complementary to rooftop solar systems, or other green building measures, symbolizing these larger investments and their environmental benefit.

text: Although meteors have been known since ancient times, they were not known to be an astronomical phenomenon until early in the 19th century. Prior to that, they were seen in the West as an atmospheric phenomenon, like lightning, and were not connected with strange stories of rocks falling from the sky. In 1807, Yale University chemistry professor Benjamin Silliman investigated a meteorite that fell in Weston, Connecticut. Silliman believed the meteor had a cosmic origin, but meteors did not attract much attention from astronomers until the spectacular meteor storm of November 1833. People all across the eastern United States saw thousands of meteors, radiating from a single point in the sky. Astute observers noticed that the radiant, as the point is now called, moved with the stars, staying in the constellation Leo.

text: Although meteors have been known since ancient times, they were not known to be an astronomical phenomenon until early in the 19th century. Prior to that, they were seen in the West as an atmospheric phenomenon, like lightning, and were not connected with strange stories of rocks falling from the sky. In 1807,

text: Yale University

text: chemistry professor

text: Benjamin Silliman

text: investigated a meteorite that fell in

text: Weston, Connecticut

text: . Silliman believed the meteor had a cosmic origin, but meteors did not attract much attention from astronomers until the spectacular meteor storm of November 1833. People all across the eastern United States saw thousands of meteors, radiating from a single point in the sky. Astute observers noticed that

text: the radiant

text: , as the point is now called, moved with the stars, staying in the constellation Leo.

text: A Helion meteoroid is a meteoroid that arrives from the approximate direction of the Sun.  They are thought to originate as debris from sun-grazing comets.

text: A Helion

text: meteoroid

text: is a meteoroid that arrives from the approximate direction of the Sun.  They are thought to originate as debris from

text: sun-grazing comet

text: s.

text: Representations of the Asteroid Belt in film tend to make it unrealistically cluttered with dangerous rocks. In reality, even in the asteroid belt, asteroids are spaced extremely far apart (even so, they can still be a risk to ships travelling at high speeds).

text: Each time a comet swings by the Sun in its orbit, some of its ice vaporizes and a certain amount of meteoroids will be shed. The meteoroids spread out along the entire orbit of the comet to form a meteoroid stream, also known as a "dust trail" (as opposed to a comet's "dust tail" caused by the very small particles that are quickly blown away by solar radiation pressure).

text: Each time a comet swings by the Sun in its

text: orbit

text: , some of its ice vaporizes and a certain amount of meteoroids will be shed. The meteoroids spread out along the entire orbit of the comet to form a meteoroid stream, also known as a "dust trail" (as opposed to a comet's "dust tail" caused by the very small particles that are quickly blown away by solar radiation pressure).

text: Valérian and his friends arrive on an asteroid where they meet the Limboz, deplorable creatures from the Great Void who have lost their planet, and possess a mysterious object, the Time Opener, which is activated by the mental power of pure souls. While the Wolochs are rapidly approaching, Valérian and his friends form a circle around the Limboz and the Time Opener, and thereby unleash its great power. Valérian's allies are defeating their enemies, the imprisoned Earth is released from its bonds, takes its place again in the solar system, and the Wolochs disappear into the Void.

text: The dwarf planet Pluto has five moons down to a detection limit of about 1 km in diameter. In order of distance from Pluto, they are Charon, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. Charon, the largest of the five moons, is mutually tidally locked with Pluto, and is massive enough that Pluto–Charon is sometimes considered a double dwarf planet.

text: The

text: dwarf planet

text: Pluto

text: has five

text: moons

text: down to a detection limit of about 1 km in diameter. In order of distance from Pluto, they are

text: Charon

text: Styx

text: Nix

text: Kerberos

text: , and

text: Hydra

text: . Charon, the largest of the five moons, is mutually

text: tidally locked

text: with Pluto, and is massive enough that Pluto–Charon is sometimes considered a

text: double dwarf planet

text: The main-belt asteroids 224 Oceana, 182 Elsa, and 899 Jokaste were observed near opposition, but did not show any evidence of OH emission. The last two were observed when the Hubble Space Telescope was having guidance problems, and had to present special orientation to the Sun due to the loss of one solar panel. The reports of previous coma may have been due to impacts.

text: The main-belt asteroids 224 Oceana, 182 Elsa, and 899 Jokaste were observed near

text: opposition

text: , but did not show any evidence of OH emission. The last two were observed when the Hubble Space Telescope was having guidance problems, and had to present special orientation to the Sun due to the loss of one solar panel. The reports of previous coma may have been due to impacts.

text: In an article in the January 2007 issue of Scientific American, Soter cited the definition's incorporation of current theories of the formation and evolution of the Solar System; that as the earliest protoplanets emerged from the swirling dust of the protoplanetary disc, some bodies "won" the initial competition for limited material and, as they grew, their increased gravity meant that they accumulated more material, and thus grew larger, eventually outstripping the other bodies in the Solar System by a very wide margin. The asteroid belt, disturbed by the gravitational tug of nearby Jupiter, and the Kuiper belt, too widely spaced for its constituent objects to collect together before the end of the initial formation period, both failed to win the accretion competition.

text: In an article in the January 2007 issue of

text: Scientific American

text: , Soter cited the definition's incorporation of current theories of the

text: formation and evolution of the Solar System

text: ; that as the earliest

text: protoplanet

text: s emerged from the swirling dust of the

text: protoplanetary disc

text: , some bodies "won" the initial competition for limited material and, as they grew, their increased gravity meant that they accumulated more material, and thus grew larger, eventually outstripping the other bodies in the Solar System by a very wide margin. The asteroid belt, disturbed by the gravitational tug of nearby Jupiter, and the Kuiper belt, too widely spaced for its constituent objects to collect together before the end of the initial formation period, both failed to win the accretion competition.

text: Dmitry Medvedev, the Prime Minister of Russia, confirmed a meteor had struck Russia and said it proves the "entire planet" is vulnerable to meteors and a spaceguard system is needed to protect the planet from similar objects in the future. Dmitry Rogozin, the deputy prime minister, proposed that there should be an international program that would alert countries to "objects of an extraterrestrial origin", also called potentially hazardous objects.

text: Dmitry Medvedev

text: , the

text: Prime Minister of Russia

text: , confirmed a meteor had struck Russia and said it proves the "entire planet" is vulnerable to meteors and a

text: spaceguard

text: system is needed to protect the planet from similar objects in the future.

text: Dmitry Rogozin

text: , the deputy prime minister, proposed that there should be an international program that would alert countries to "objects of an extraterrestrial origin", also called

text: potentially hazardous object

text: s.

text: An observer of objects in the Solar System, Schiaparelli worked with binary stars, discovered the large main-belt asteroid 69 Hesperia on 29 April 1861, and demonstrated that the meteor showers were associated with comets. He proved, for example, that the orbit of the Leonid meteor shower coincided with that of the comet Tempel-Tuttle. These observations led the astronomer to formulate the hypothesis, subsequently proved to be correct, that the meteor showers could be the trails of comets. He was also a keen observer of the inner planets Mercury and Venus, of which he made several drawings and determined their rotation periods. Only in 1965, it was shown that his and most other subsequent measurements of Mercury's period were incorrect.

text: An observer of objects in the

text: Solar System

text: , Schiaparelli worked with

text: binary stars

text: , discovered the large main-belt asteroid

text: 69 Hesperia

text: on 29 April 1861, and demonstrated that the

text: meteor shower

text: s were associated with

text: comet

text: s. He proved, for example, that the orbit of the

text: Leonid meteor shower

text: coincided with that of the comet

text: Tempel-Tuttle

text: . These observations led the astronomer to formulate the hypothesis, subsequently proved to be correct, that the meteor showers could be the trails of comets. He was also a keen observer of the inner planets

text: Mercury

text: and Venus, of which he made several drawings and determined their

text: rotation period

text: s. Only in 1965, it was shown that his and most other subsequent measurements of Mercury's period were incorrect.

text: The denser the object in hydrostatic equilibrium, the more spherical it must be for a given rotational period, placing constraints on Haumea's possible dimensions. Fitting its accurately known mass, its rotation, and its inferred density to an equilibrium ellipsoid predicts that Haumea is approximately the diameter of Pluto along its longest axis and about half that at its poles. Because no observations of occultations of stars by Haumea or occultations of the dwarf planet with its moons have yet been made, direct, precise measurements of its dimensions, like those that were made for Pluto, do not yet exist.

text: The denser the object in hydrostatic equilibrium, the more spherical it must be for a given rotational period, placing constraints on Haumea's possible dimensions. Fitting its accurately known mass, its rotation, and its inferred density to an equilibrium ellipsoid predicts that Haumea is approximately the diameter of Pluto along its longest axis and about half that at its poles. Because no observations of

text: occultations

text: of stars by Haumea or occultations of the dwarf planet with its moons have yet been made, direct, precise measurements of its dimensions, like those that were made for Pluto, do not yet exist.

text: Barycentric osculating orbital elements for some objects in the Solar System:

text: The Pere Marquette Railway merged into the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway on June 6, 1947. The Nickel Plate leased the Wheeling and Lake Erie Railway on December 1, 1949, and on October 16, 1964 the Nickel Plate was merged into the Norfolk and Western Railway. The Erie merged into the Erie-Lackawanna Railroad on October 17, 1960. This left three pieces of the old system - part of the N&W, part of the EL, and the C&O. On August 31, 1965 the N&W and C&O announced a planned merger, with a holding company named Dereco to own the EL and several other lines. Dereco was incorporated March 1, 1968, acquiring the EL April 1. But the planned merger never happened. The C&O has since become part of CSX Transportation, the N&W part of the Norfolk Southern Railway, and the EL part of Conrail, split between CSX and NS in 1998 (at which time most of the former Erie went to NS).

text: The

text: Pere Marquette Railway

text: merged into the

text: Chesapeake and Ohio Railway

text: on June 6, 1947. The Nickel Plate leased the

entity_name: Wheeling and Lake Erie Railway (1916–88)

text: Wheeling and Lake Erie Railway

text: on December 1, 1949, and on October 16, 1964 the Nickel Plate was merged into the

text: Norfolk and Western Railway

text: . The Erie merged into the

text: Erie-Lackawanna Railroad

text: on October 17, 1960. This left three pieces of the old system - part of the N&W, part of the EL, and the C&O. On August 31, 1965 the N&W and C&O announced a planned merger, with a

text: holding company

text: named

text: Dereco

text: to own the EL and several other lines. Dereco was incorporated March 1, 1968, acquiring the EL April 1. But the planned merger never happened. The C&O has since become part of

text: CSX Transportation

text: , the N&W part of the

text: Norfolk Southern Railway

text: , and the EL part of

text: Conrail

text: , split between CSX and NS in 1998 (at which time most of the former Erie went to NS).

text: Millisecond pulsars, which can be timed with high precision, are better clocks than the best atomic clocks of 1997. This also makes them very sensitive probes of their environments. For example, anything placed in orbit around them causes periodic Doppler shifts in their pulses' arrival times on Earth, which can then be analyzed to reveal the presence of the companion and, with enough data, provide precise measurements of the orbit and the object's mass. The technique is so sensitive that even objects as small as asteroids can be detected if they happen to orbit a millisecond pulsar. The first confirmed exoplanets, discovered several years before the first detections of exoplanets around "normal" solar-like stars, were found in orbit around a millisecond pulsar, PSR B1257+12. These planets remained for many years the only Earth-mass objects known outside the Solar System. One of them, PSR B1257+12 D, has an even smaller mass, comparable to that of our Moon, and is still today the smallest-mass object known beyond the Solar System.

text: Millisecond pulsars, which can be timed with high precision, are

text: better clocks

text: than the best atomic clocks of 1997. This also makes them very sensitive probes of their environments. For example, anything placed in orbit around them causes periodic

text: Doppler shifts

text: in their pulses' arrival times on Earth, which can then be analyzed to reveal the presence of the companion and, with enough data, provide precise measurements of the orbit and the object's mass. The technique is so sensitive that even objects as small as asteroids can be detected if they happen to orbit a millisecond pulsar. The first confirmed

text: exoplanets

text: , discovered several years before the first detections of exoplanets around "normal" solar-like stars, were found in orbit around a millisecond pulsar,

text: PSR B1257+12

text: . These planets remained for many years the only Earth-mass objects known outside the

text: Solar System

text: . One of them,

text: PSR B1257+12 D

text: , has an even smaller mass, comparable to that of our Moon, and is still today the smallest-mass object known beyond the Solar System.

text: The panspermia hypothesis alternatively suggests that microscopic life was distributed to the early Earth by meteoroids, asteroids and other small Solar System bodies and that life may exist throughout the Universe. It is speculated that the biochemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during a habitable epoch when the age of the universe was only 10 to 17 million years.<ref name="IJA-2014October_ARXIV-20131202">

text: The

text: panspermia

text: hypothesis alternatively suggests that

text: microscopic life

text: was distributed to the early Earth by

text: meteoroid

text: s,

text: asteroid

text: s and other

text: small Solar System bodies

text: and that life may exist throughout the

text: Universe

text: . It is speculated that the

text: biochemistry

text: of life may have begun shortly after the

text: Big Bang

text: , 13.8 billion years ago, during a

text: habitable

text: epoch

text: when the

text: age of the universe

text: was only 10 to 17 million years.<ref name="IJA-2014October_ARXIV-20131202">

text: Skirting the inner edge of the belt (ranging between 1.78 and 2.0 AU, with a mean semi-major axis of 1.9 AU) is the Hungaria family of minor planets. They are named after the main member, 434 Hungaria; the group contains at least 52 named asteroids. The Hungaria group is separated from the main body by the 4:1 Kirkwood gap and their orbits have a high inclination. Some members belong to the Mars-crossing category of asteroids, and gravitational perturbations by Mars are likely a factor in reducing the total population of this group.

text: Skirting the inner edge of the belt (ranging between 1.78 and 2.0 AU, with a mean semi-major axis of 1.9 AU) is the

text: Hungaria family

text: of minor planets. They are named after the main member,

text: 434 Hungaria

text: ; the group contains at least 52 named asteroids. The Hungaria group is separated from the main body by the 4:1 Kirkwood gap and their orbits have a high inclination. Some members belong to the Mars-crossing category of asteroids, and gravitational perturbations by Mars are likely a factor in reducing the total population of this group.

text: Sungrazer comets were some of the earliest observed comets because they can appear very bright. Some are even considered Great Comets. The close passage of a comet to the sun will brighten the comet not only because the reflection off the comet nucleus when it is closer to the sun, but the sun also vaporizes a large amount of gas from the comet and the gas reflects more light. This extreme brightening will allow for possible naked eye observations from Earth depending on how volatile the gases are and if the comet is large enough to survive perihelion. These comets provide a useful tool for understanding the composition of comets as we observe the outgassing activity and they also offer a way to probe the effects solar radiation has on other solar system bodies.

text: Sungrazer comets were some of the earliest observed comets because they can appear very bright. Some are even considered

text: Great Comet

text: s. The close passage of a comet to the sun will brighten the comet not only because the reflection off the comet nucleus when it is closer to the sun, but the sun also vaporizes a large amount of gas from the comet and the gas reflects more light. This extreme brightening will allow for possible naked eye observations from Earth depending on how

text: volatile

text: the gases are and if the comet is large enough to survive perihelion. These comets provide a useful tool for understanding the composition of comets as we observe the outgassing activity and they also offer a way to probe the effects solar radiation has on other solar system bodies.

text: Stages in circumstellar discs refer to the structure and the main composition of the disc at different times during its evolution. Stages include the phases when the disc is composed mainly of submicron-sized particles, the evolution of these particles into grains and larger objects, the agglomeration of larger objects into planetesimals, and the growth and orbital evolution of planetesimals into the planetary systems, like our Solar System or many other stars.

text: Stages in circumstellar discs refer to the structure and the main composition of the disc at different times during its evolution. Stages include the phases when the disc is composed mainly of submicron-sized particles, the evolution of these particles into grains and larger objects, the agglomeration of larger objects into

text: planetesimal

text: s, and the growth and orbital evolution of planetesimals into the planetary systems, like our

text: Solar System

text: or many other stars.

text: Apparent visual magnitudes of the brightest star can also be compared to non-stellar objects in our Solar System. Here the  maximum visible magnitudes above the brightest star, Sirius (−1.46), are as follows. Excluding the Sun, the brightest objects are the Moon (−12.7), Venus (−4.89), Jupiter (−2.94), Mars (−2.91), Mercury (−2.45), and Saturn (−0.49).

text: Apparent visual magnitudes of the brightest star can also be compared to non-stellar objects in our

text: Solar System

text: . Here the  maximum visible magnitudes above the brightest star, Sirius (−1.46), are as follows. Excluding the Sun, the brightest objects are the

text: Moon

text: Venus

text: Jupiter

text: Mars

text: Mercury

text: (−2.45), and

text: Saturn

text: His list of possible dwarf planets, along with that of Michael E. Brown, is commonly considered, along with the five dwarf planets recognized by the IAU – Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris – to be the dwarf planets of the Solar System. The Themistian asteroid 5088 Tancredi has been named after him.

text: His

text: list of possible dwarf planets

text: , along with that of

text: Michael E. Brown

text: , is commonly considered, along with the five dwarf planets recognized by the IAU –

text: Ceres

text: Pluto

text: Haumea

text: Makemake

text: , and

text: Eris

text: – to be the

text: dwarf planet

text: s of the

text: Solar System

text: . The Themistian asteroid

text: 5088 Tancredi

text: has been named after him.

text: In the Solar System, a planet is said to be inferior with respect to another planet if its orbit lies inside the other planet's orbit around the Sun. In this situation, the latter planet is said to be superior to the former. In the reference frame of the Earth, in which the terms were originally used, the inferior planets are Mercury and Venus, while the superior planets are Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Dwarf planets like Ceres or Pluto and most asteroids are 'superior' in the sense that they almost all orbit outside the orbit of Earth.

text: In the

text: Solar System

text: , a

text: planet

text: is said to be inferior with respect to another planet if its

text: orbit

text: lies inside the other planet's orbit around the

text: Sun

text: . In this situation, the latter planet is said to be superior to the former. In the reference frame of the

text: Earth

text: , in which the terms were originally used, the inferior planets are

text: Mercury

text: and

text: Venus

text: , while the superior planets are

text: Mars

text: Jupiter

text: Saturn

text: Uranus

text: and

text: Neptune

text: Dwarf planet

text: s like

text: Ceres

text: or

text: Pluto

text: and most

text: asteroids

text: are 'superior' in the sense that they almost all orbit outside the orbit of Earth.

text: The traditional way of subdividing meteorites (see Meteorites classification) is into irons, stony-irons, and two major groups of stony meteorites, chondrites and achondrites. For some of the less-studied stony meteorite falls, it is not known whether the object is chondritic; thus the number of meteorites that can be so grouped is 4% lower than shown above.  These numbers are shown in the next table.  One could make a slight correction for the undercounting of stony meteorites (e.g., the percentage of irons would decrease by a 0.2%), but this was not done.

text: The traditional way of subdividing meteorites (see

text: Meteorites classification

text: ) is into irons, stony-irons, and two major groups of stony meteorites,

text: chondrite

text: s and

text: achondrite

text: s. For some of the less-studied stony meteorite falls, it is not known whether the object is chondritic; thus the number of meteorites that can be so grouped is 4% lower than shown above.  These numbers are shown in the next table.  One could make a slight correction for the undercounting of stony meteorites (e.g., the percentage of irons would decrease by a 0.2%), but this was not done.

text: Classes of small Solar System bodies in other regions are the near-Earth objects, the centaurs, the Kuiper belt objects, the scattered disc objects, the sednoids, and the Oort cloud objects.

text: Classes of

text: small Solar System bodies

text: in other regions are the

text: near-Earth objects

text: , the

text: centaurs

text: , the

text: Kuiper belt

text: objects, the

text: scattered disc

text: objects, the

text: sednoid

text: s, and the

text: Oort cloud

text: objects.

text: For the most part, the stars with inhabitable planets in the CoDominium are obscure and unnamed on current star charts. For instance, the world of New Washington and its sister planet Franklin orbit a red dwarf at some distance from the Solar System. Such stars are very common in the galaxy but even the closest ones are too dim to observe without equipment, Proxima Centauri being the obvious example. Other habitable systems in the CoDominium have stars in the stellar classes F, G and K, which are common but dim compared to the named stars in the night sky. One of the few stars explicitly named in the CoDominium stories is 82 Eridani, containing the Meiji colony. Viewed from Earth, 82 Eridani is a star of the fourth magnitude at 20 light-years distance. Beyond 50 light-years such stars are below sixth magnitude and therefore invisible to the naked eye, so they are unnamed and largely unrecorded, except in astronomical sky surveys. These are the stars likely to host colonies of the CoDominium. There is no mention in the canon of closer candidate systems such as Tau Ceti and Epsilon Indi.

text: For the most part, the stars with inhabitable planets in the CoDominium are obscure and unnamed on current star charts. For instance, the world of New Washington and its sister planet Franklin orbit a red dwarf at some distance from the Solar System. Such stars are very common in the galaxy but even the closest ones are too dim to observe without equipment,

text: Proxima Centauri

text: being the obvious example. Other habitable systems in the CoDominium have stars in the

text: stellar classes

text: F, G and K, which are common but dim compared to the named stars in the night sky. One of the few stars explicitly named in the CoDominium stories is

text: 82 Eridani

text: , containing the Meiji colony. Viewed from Earth, 82 Eridani is a star of the fourth

text: magnitude

text: at 20

text: light-year

text: s distance. Beyond 50 light-years such stars are below sixth magnitude and therefore invisible to the naked eye, so they are unnamed and largely unrecorded, except in astronomical sky surveys. These are the stars likely to host colonies of the CoDominium. There is no mention in the canon of closer candidate systems such as

text: Tau Ceti

text: and

text: Epsilon Indi

text: Almost all meteoroids contain extraterrestrial nickel and iron. They have three main classifications: iron, stone, and stony-iron. Some stone meteoroids contain grain-like inclusions known as chondrules and are called chondrites. Stoney meteoroids without these features are called "achondrites", which are typically formed from extraterrestrial igneous activity; they contain little or no extraterrestrial iron. The composition of meteoroids can be inferred as they pass through Earth's atmosphere from their trajectories and the light spectra of the resulting meteor. Their effects on radio signals also give information, especially useful for daytime meteors, which are otherwise very difficult to observe. From these trajectory measurements, meteoroids have been found to have many different orbits, some clustering in streams (see meteor showers) often associated with a parent comet, others apparently sporadic. Debris from meteoroid streams may eventually be scattered into other orbits. The light spectra, combined with trajectory and light curve measurements, have yielded various compositions and densities, ranging from fragile snowball-like objects with density about a quarter that of ice, to nickel-iron rich dense rocks. The study of meteorites also gives insights into the composition of non-ephemeral meteoroids.

text: Almost all meteoroids contain extraterrestrial nickel and iron. They have three main classifications: iron, stone, and stony-iron. Some stone meteoroids contain grain-like inclusions known as

text: chondrule

text: s and are called

text: chondrite

text: s. Stoney meteoroids without these features are called "

text: achondrite

text: s", which are typically formed from extraterrestrial igneous activity; they contain little or no extraterrestrial iron. The composition of meteoroids can be inferred as they pass through Earth's atmosphere from their trajectories and the light spectra of the resulting meteor. Their effects on radio signals also give information, especially useful for daytime meteors, which are otherwise very difficult to observe. From these trajectory measurements, meteoroids have been found to have many different orbits, some clustering in streams (see

text: meteor showers

text: ) often associated with a parent

text: comet

text: , others apparently sporadic. Debris from meteoroid streams may eventually be scattered into other orbits. The light spectra, combined with trajectory and light curve measurements, have yielded various compositions and densities, ranging from fragile snowball-like objects with density about a quarter that of ice, to nickel-iron rich dense rocks. The study of

text: meteorites

text: also gives insights into the composition of non-ephemeral meteoroids.

text: In their future, Earth had colonized several planets in its solar system, including Pluto. Martinex was born on Cerberus Center, Pluto, although it was later revealed his ancestors were from the continent of Africa on Earth.

text: In their future,

text: Earth

text: had colonized several planets in its

text: solar system

text: , including

text: Pluto

text: . Martinex was born on Cerberus Center, Pluto, although it was later revealed his ancestors were from the continent of

text: Africa

text: on Earth.

text: Also known as Nova Muscae 1983, GQ Muscae is a binary system consisting of a white dwarf and small star that is about 10% as massive as the Sun. The two orbit each other every 1.4 hours. The white dwarf accumulates material from its companion star via its accretion disc. After a certain amount has accumulated the star erupts, as it did in 1983, reaching a magnitude of 7.2. Discovered with a magnitude of 7.1 on 18 January 1983, it was the first nova from which X-rays were detected. The soft X-ray transient GRS 1124-683 (also known as Nova Muscae 1991) is a binary object consisting of an orange main-sequence star (GU Muscae) of spectral type K3V–K4V and a black hole of around 6 solar masses. During the 1991 outburst which led to its discovery, radiation was produced through a process of positron annihilation. GR Muscae is an X-ray source composed of a neutron star of between 1.2 and 1.8 times the mass of our Sun and a low-mass star likely to be around the mass of the Sun in close orbit. Finally, SY Muscae is a symbiotic star system composed of a red giant and white dwarf, where although the larger star is transferring mass to the smaller, there is no periodic eruption nor accretion disc formed. The star system varies in magnitude from 10.2 to 12.7 over a period of 624.5 days.

text: Also known as Nova Muscae 1983,

text: GQ Muscae

text: is a binary system consisting of a white dwarf and small star that is about 10% as massive as the Sun. The two orbit each other every 1.4 hours. The white dwarf accumulates material from its companion star via its

text: accretion disc

text: . After a certain amount has accumulated the star erupts, as it did in 1983, reaching a magnitude of 7.2. Discovered with a magnitude of 7.1 on 18 January 1983, it was the first nova from which X-rays were detected. The

text: soft X-ray transient

text: GRS 1124-683

text: (also known as Nova Muscae 1991) is a binary object consisting of an orange main-sequence star (GU Muscae) of spectral type K3V–K4V and a

text: black hole

text: of around 6 solar masses. During the 1991 outburst which led to its discovery,

text: radiation

text: was produced through a process of

text: positron

text: annihilation

text: GR Muscae

text: is an X-ray source composed of a

text: neutron star

text: of between 1.2 and 1.8 times the mass of our Sun and a low-mass star likely to be around the mass of the Sun in close orbit. Finally,

text: SY Muscae

text: is a

text: symbiotic

text: star system composed of a red giant and white dwarf, where although the larger star is transferring mass to the smaller, there is no periodic eruption nor accretion disc formed. The star system varies in magnitude from 10.2 to 12.7 over a period of 624.5 days.

text: In order for a solar map to be made, two main types of data must be collected. Those two types of data include Meteorological Data and Topographical Data. The Meteorological data is used in calculations pertaining to Solar Energy. Such measurements of this type of data include the measurements of the position of the sun, overall atmospheric conditions, latitude, and shading. Topographical data on the other hand, is used in illustrating the amount of area exposed to a certain degree of radiation from the sun or in calculations that present how much area of a physical object is experiencing direct contact with the sun's rays. In some cases, Financial Data may also be collected to be presented on a solar map. When this happens, that means that the solar map would appear online for a certain city. The reasons why financial data is collected and presented on these solar maps is to encourage a certain productive behavior among citizens.

text: 143P/Kowal–Mrkos is a periodic comet in the solar system.

text: 143P/Kowal–Mrkos is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: solar system

text: New Horizons crossed the orbit of Saturn on June 8, 2008, and Uranus on March 18, 2011. After astronomers announced the discovery of two new moons in the Pluto system, Kerberos and Styx, mission planners started contemplating the possibility of the probe running into unseen debris and dust left over from ancient collisions between the moons. A study based on 18 months of computer simulations, Earth-based telescope observations and occultations of the Pluto system revealed that the possibility of a catastrophic collision with debris or dust was less than 0.3% on the probe's scheduled course. If the hazard increased, New Horizons could have used one of two possible contingency plans, the so-called SHBOTs (Safe Haven by Other Trajectories): the probe could have continued on its present trajectory with the antenna facing the incoming particles so the more vital systems would be protected, or, it could have positioned its antenna to make a course correction that would take it just 3000 km from the surface of Pluto where it was expected that the atmospheric drag would clean the surrounding space of possible debris.

text: New Horizons crossed the orbit of

text: Saturn

text: on June 8, 2008, and Uranus on March 18, 2011. After astronomers announced the discovery of two new moons in the Pluto system,

text: Kerberos

text: and

text: Styx

text: , mission planners started contemplating the possibility of the probe running into unseen debris and dust left over from ancient collisions between the moons. A study based on 18 months of computer simulations, Earth-based telescope observations and occultations of the Pluto system revealed that the possibility of a catastrophic collision with debris or dust was less than 0.3% on the probe's scheduled course. If the hazard increased, New Horizons could have used one of two possible contingency plans, the so-called SHBOTs (Safe Haven by Other Trajectories): the probe could have continued on its present trajectory with the antenna facing the incoming particles so the more vital systems would be protected, or, it could have positioned its antenna to make a course correction that would take it just 3000 km from the surface of Pluto where it was expected that the

text: atmospheric drag

text: would clean the surrounding space of possible debris.

text: Although many comets have been studied from Earth sometimes with centuries-worth of observations, only a few comets have been closely visited. In 1985, the International Cometary Explorer conducted the first comet fly-by (21P/Giacobini-Zinner) before joining the Halley Armada studying the famous comet. The Deep Impact probe smashed into 9P/Tempel to learn more about its structure and composition and the Stardust mission returned samples of another comet's tail. The Philae lander successfully landed on Comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko in 2014 as part of the broader Rosetta mission.

text: Although many comets have been studied from Earth sometimes with centuries-worth of observations, only a few comets have been closely visited. In 1985, the

text: International Cometary Explorer

text: conducted the first comet fly-by (

text: ) before joining the

text: Halley Armada

text: studying the famous comet. The

text: Deep Impact probe

text: smashed into

text: to learn more about its structure and composition and the

text: Stardust mission

text: returned samples of another comet's tail. The

text: Philae lander

text: successfully landed on

text: Comet Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: in 2014 as part of the broader

text: Rosetta mission

text: Observations over the decades have shown that its colour slightly changes and it exhibits variation in light that indicate the star is actually an ellipsoidal binary with a period of seven days. The system is more luminous than expected, given the spectrum and distance of the primary star, indicating that the companion star must be contributing a good proportion of its light. Stellar evolution modelling has concluded that the system likely begun as a binary system, with one star about double the Sun's mass and the other roughly equivalent to that of the sun. The larger star eventually aged and expanded as it used up its core hydrogen, and begun having its mass siphoned off by the smaller star; the system is likely to have been an Algol-type eclipsing binary at this stage. This star appears now to be an aged star composed mostly of helium with very little hydrogen and with a mass of 0.2 solar masses and around 37 times the luminosity of the Sun and surface temperature of 7000 K, while the once-smaller star is the Delta Scuti variable that is now around two solar masses. Around 0.8 solar masses has been lost from the system over time.

text: Observations over the decades have shown that its colour slightly changes and it exhibits variation in light that indicate the star is actually an ellipsoidal binary with a period of seven days. The system is more luminous than expected, given the spectrum and distance of the primary star, indicating that the companion star must be contributing a good proportion of its light. Stellar evolution modelling has concluded that the system likely begun as a

text: binary system

text: , with one star about double the

text: Sun's mass

text: and the other roughly equivalent to that of the sun. The larger star eventually aged and expanded as it used up its core hydrogen, and begun having its mass siphoned off by the smaller star; the system is likely to have been an

text: Algol-type eclipsing binary

text: at this stage. This star appears now to be an aged star composed mostly of helium with very little hydrogen and with a mass of 0.2

text: solar mass

text: es and around 37 times the luminosity of the

text: Sun

text: and surface temperature of 7000 K, while the once-smaller star is the Delta Scuti variable that is now around two solar masses. Around 0.8 solar masses has been lost from the system over time.

text: Discovered in 1961, the weak Eta Carinids meteor shower has a radiant very close to Eta Carinae. Occurring from 14 to 28 January, the shower peaks around 21 January. Meteor showers are not associated with bodies outside the Solar System, making the proximity to Eta Carinae merely a coincidence.

text: Discovered in 1961, the weak

text: Eta Carinids

text: meteor shower

text: has a

text: radiant

text: very close to Eta Carinae. Occurring from 14 to 28 January, the shower peaks around 21 January. Meteor showers are not associated with bodies outside the Solar System, making the proximity to Eta Carinae merely a coincidence.

text: is a trans-Neptunian object (TNO) orbiting the Sun in the scattered disc, approximately 1500 kilometers in diameter. It is the third-largest known body in the Solar System beyond Neptune, and the largest known body in the Solar System without a name. According to current estimates as of May 2016, it is slightly larger than  or , and is hence almost certainly a dwarf planet. It has one known moon.

text: is a

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: (TNO) orbiting the

text: Sun

text: in the

text: scattered disc

text: , approximately 1500 kilometers in diameter. It is the third-largest known body in the Solar System beyond Neptune, and the largest known body in the

text: Solar System

text: without a name. According to current estimates as of May 2016, it is slightly larger than  or , and is hence almost certainly a

text: dwarf planet

text: . It has one known moon.

text: 48P/Johnson is a periodic comet in the Solar System.

text: 48P/Johnson is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: 172P/Yeung is a periodic comet in the solar system.

text: 172P/Yeung is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: solar system

text: Most of the rocky impactors of the Late Heavy Bombardment originate from an inner extension of the asteroid belt yielding a smaller but longer lasting bombardment. The innermost region of the asteroid belt is currently sparsely populated due to the presence of the ν6 secular resonance. In the early Solar System, however, this resonance was located elsewhere and the asteroid belt extended farther inward, ending at Mars-crossing orbits. During the giant planet migration the ν6 secular resonance first rapidly traversed the asteroid belt removing roughly half of its mass, much less than in the original Nice model. When the planets reached their current positions the ν6 secular resonance destabilized the orbits of the innermost asteroids. Some of these quickly entered planet crossing orbit initiating the Late Heavy Bombardment. Others entered quasi-stable higher inclination orbits, later producing an extended tail of impacts, with a small remnant surviving as the Hungarias. The innermost (or E-belt) asteroids are estimated to have produced nine basin-forming impacts on the Moon between 4.1 and 3.7 billion years ago with three more originating from the core of the asteroid belt. The pre-Nectarian basins, part of the LHB in the original Nice model, are thought to be due to the impacts of leftover planetesimals from the inner Solar System. The increase in the orbital eccentricities and inclinations of the destabilized objects raised impact velocities, resulting in a change the size distribution of lunar craters, and in the production of impact melt in the asteroid belt.

text: Most of the rocky impactors of the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: originate from an inner extension of the

text: asteroid belt

text: yielding a smaller but longer lasting bombardment. The innermost region of the asteroid belt is currently sparsely populated due to the presence of the ν6

text: secular resonance

text: . In the early Solar System, however, this resonance was located elsewhere and the asteroid belt extended farther inward, ending at Mars-crossing orbits. During the giant planet migration the ν6 secular resonance first rapidly traversed the asteroid belt removing roughly half of its mass, much less than in the original Nice model. When the planets reached their current positions the ν6 secular resonance destabilized the orbits of the innermost asteroids. Some of these quickly entered planet crossing orbit initiating the Late Heavy Bombardment. Others entered quasi-stable higher inclination orbits, later producing an extended tail of impacts, with a small remnant surviving as the

text: Hungarias

text: . The innermost (or

text: E-belt

text: ) asteroids are estimated to have produced nine basin-forming impacts on the

text: Moon

text: between 4.1 and 3.7 billion years ago with three more originating from the core of the asteroid belt. The pre-Nectarian basins, part of the LHB in the original

text: Nice model

text: , are thought to be due to the impacts of leftover planetesimals from the inner Solar System. The increase in the orbital eccentricities and inclinations of the destabilized objects raised impact velocities, resulting in a change the size distribution of lunar craters, and in the production of impact melt in the asteroid belt.

text: It is not presently clear whether a lower size bound will be established as part of the definition of small Solar System bodies in the future, or if it will encompass all material down to the level of meteoroids, the smallest macroscopic bodies in orbit around the Sun. (On a microscopic level there are even smaller objects such as interplanetary dust, particles of solar wind and free particles of hydrogen.)

text: It is not presently clear whether a lower size bound will be established as part of the definition of small Solar System bodies in the future, or if it will encompass all material down to the level of

text: meteoroid

text: s, the smallest macroscopic bodies in orbit around the Sun. (On a microscopic level there are even smaller objects such as

text: interplanetary dust

text: , particles of

text: solar wind

text: and free particles of

text: hydrogen

text: The main objective of the Asteroid Redirect Mission is to develop deep space exploration capabilities needed in preparation for a human mission to Mars and other Solar System destinations per NASA's Journey to Mars flexible pathways.

text: The main objective of the Asteroid Redirect Mission is to develop deep space exploration capabilities needed in preparation for a human mission to Mars and other Solar System destinations per NASA's

text: Journey to Mars

text: flexible pathways.

text: is a small Solar System body discovered in March 2003. Peter Jenniskens (2003–2004) proposed that it is the parent body of the Quadrantid meteor shower.  is likely an extinct comet and may even be related to the comet C/1490 Y1.  came to perihelion on .

text: is a

text: small Solar System body

text: discovered in March 2003.

text: Peter Jenniskens

text: (2003–2004) proposed that it is the parent body of the

text: Quadrantid

text: meteor shower

text: .  is likely an

text: extinct comet

text: and may even be related to the comet

text: C/1490 Y1

text: .  came to

text: perihelion

text: on .

text: Eris is named after the Greek goddess Eris (Greek Ἔρις), a personification of strife and discord. The name was assigned on September 13, 2006, following an unusually long period in which the object was known by the provisional designation , which was granted automatically by the IAU under their naming protocols for minor planets. The regular adjectival form of Eris is Eridian.

text: Eris is named after the

text: Greek

text: goddess

text: Eris

text: (Greek Ἔρις), a personification of strife and discord. The name was assigned on September 13, 2006, following an unusually long period in which the object was known by the

text: provisional designation

text: , which was granted automatically by the IAU under their naming protocols for

text: minor planet

text: s. The regular adjectival form of Eris is Eridian.

text: This section is a sampling of Solar System bodies, selected for size and quality of imagery, and sorted by volume. Some omitted objects are larger than the ones included here, notably Eris, because these have not been imaged in high quality.

text: This section is a sampling of Solar System bodies, selected for size and quality of imagery, and sorted by volume. Some omitted objects are larger than the ones included here, notably

text: Eris

text: , because these have not been imaged in high quality.

text: In most languages equivalent terms have been created by translating dwarf planet more-or-less literally: French planète naine, Spanish planeta enano, German Zwergplanet, Russian karlikovaya planeta (карликовая планета), Arabic kaukab qazm (كوكب قزم), Chinese ǎixíngxīng (矮行星), Korean waesohangseong (왜소행성;矮小行星), but Japanese and Latin are exceptions: In Japanese they are called junwakusei (準惑星) meaning "subplanets" or "almost-planets", and the modern Latin name, planetula (or planetion following the Greek), is a diminutive derivation of planeta, hence also meaning something less than a planet.

text: In most languages equivalent terms have been created by translating dwarf planet more-or-less literally: French planète

text: naine

text: , Spanish planeta enano, German

text: Zwergplanet

text: , Russian karlikovaya planeta (

text: карликовая

text: планета), Arabic kaukab qazm (كوكب

text: قزم

text: ), Chinese ǎixíngxīng (

text: 矮

text: 行星), Korean waesohangseong (왜소행성;矮小行星), but Japanese and Latin are exceptions: In Japanese they are called junwakusei (準惑星) meaning "subplanets" or "almost-planets", and the modern Latin name, planetula (or planetion following the Greek), is a

text: diminutive

text: derivation of planeta, hence also meaning something less than a planet.

text: According to the Minor Planet Center, which officially catalogues all trans-Neptunian objects, a KBO, strictly speaking, is any object that orbits exclusively within the defined Kuiper belt region regardless of origin or composition. Objects found outside the belt are classed as scattered objects. However, in some scientific circles the term "Kuiper belt object" has become synonymous with any icy minor planet native to the outer Solar System assumed to have been part of that initial class, even if its orbit during the bulk of Solar System history has been beyond the Kuiper belt (e.g. in the scattered-disc region). They often describe scattered disc objects as "scattered Kuiper belt objects". Eris, which is known to be more massive than Pluto, is often referred to as a KBO, but is technically an SDO. A consensus among astronomers as to the precise definition of the Kuiper belt has yet to be reached, and this issue remains unresolved.

text: According to the

text: Minor Planet Center

text: , which officially catalogues all trans-Neptunian objects, a KBO, strictly speaking, is any object that orbits exclusively within the defined Kuiper belt region regardless of origin or composition. Objects found outside the belt are classed as scattered objects. However, in some scientific circles the term "Kuiper belt object" has become synonymous with any icy minor planet native to the outer Solar System assumed to have been part of that initial class, even if its orbit during the bulk of Solar System history has been beyond the Kuiper belt (e.g. in the scattered-disc region). They often describe scattered disc objects as "scattered Kuiper belt objects".

text: Eris

text: , which is known to be more massive than Pluto, is often referred to as a KBO, but is technically an SDO. A consensus among astronomers as to the precise definition of the Kuiper belt has yet to be reached, and this issue remains unresolved.

text: There are at least 55 regular satellites of the eight planets: one at Earth, eight at Jupiter, 22 named regular moons at Saturn (not counting hundreds or thousands of moonlets), 18 known at Uranus, and 6 small regular moons at Neptune. (Large Triton appears to have been captured.) It is thought that Pluto's five moons and Haumea's two were formed in orbit about those dwarf planets out of debris created in giant collisions.

text: There are at least

text: 55 regular satellites of the eight planets

text: one at Earth

text: eight at Jupiter

text: 22 named regular moons at Saturn

text: (not counting hundreds or thousands of

text: moonlet

text: s),

text: 18 known at Uranus

text: , and

text: 6 small regular moons at Neptune

text: . (Large Triton appears to have been captured.) It is thought that

text: Pluto's five moons

text: and

text: Haumea's two

text: were formed in orbit about those

text: dwarf planet

text: s out of

text: debris created in giant collisions

text: Chondrites were formed by the accretion of particles of dust and grit present in the primitive Solar System which gave rise to asteroids over 4.55 billion years ago. These asteroid parent bodies of chondrites are (or were) small to medium-sized asteroids that were never part of any body large enough to undergo melting and planetary differentiation. Dating using Pb/Pb gives an estimated age of 4,566.6 ± 1.0 Ma, matching ages for other chronometers. Another indication of their age is the fact that the abundance of non-volatile elements in chondrites is similar to that found in the atmosphere of the Sun and other stars in our galaxy.Although chondritic asteroids never became hot enough to melt based upon internal temperatures, many of them reached high enough temperatures that they experienced significant thermal metamorphism in their interiors. The source of the heat was most likely energy coming from the decay of short-lived radioisotopes (half-lives less than a few million years) that were present in the newly formed solar system, especially Al and Fe, although heating may have been caused by impacts onto the asteroids as well. Many chondritic asteroids also contained significant amounts of water, possibly due to the accretion of ice along with rocky material. As a result, many chondrites contain hydrous minerals, such as clays, that formed when the water interacted with the rock on the asteroid in a process known as aqueous alteration. In addition, all chondritic asteroids were affected by impact and shock processes due to collisions with other asteroids. These events caused a variety of effects, ranging from simple compaction to brecciation, veining, localized melting, and formation of high-pressure minerals. The net result of these secondary thermal, aqueous, and shock processes is that only a few known chondrites preserve in pristine form the original dust, chondrules, and inclusions from which they formed.

text: Chondrites were formed by the

text: accretion

text: of particles of dust and grit present in the primitive

text: Solar System

text: which gave rise to asteroids over 4.55 billion years ago. These asteroid parent bodies of chondrites are (or were) small to medium-sized

text: asteroid

text: s that were never part of any body large enough to undergo melting and

text: planetary differentiation

text: . Dating using

text: Pb/Pb

text: gives an estimated age of 4,566.6 ± 1.0

text: Ma

text: , matching ages for other chronometers. Another indication of their age is the fact that the abundance of non-

text: volatile

text: elements in chondrites is similar to that found in the

text: atmosphere

text: of the

text: Sun

text: and other

text: star

text: s in our

text: galaxy

text: .Although chondritic asteroids never became hot enough to melt based upon internal temperatures, many of them reached high enough temperatures that they experienced significant thermal

text: metamorphism

text: in their interiors. The source of the heat was most likely energy coming from the decay of short-lived radioisotopes (half-lives less than a few million years) that were present in the newly formed solar system, especially

text: Al

text: and

text: Fe

text: , although heating may have been caused by impacts onto the asteroids as well. Many chondritic asteroids also contained significant amounts of water, possibly due to the accretion of ice along with rocky material. As a result, many chondrites contain hydrous minerals, such as clays, that formed when the water interacted with the rock on the asteroid in a process known as aqueous alteration. In addition, all chondritic asteroids were affected by impact and shock processes due to collisions with other asteroids. These events caused a variety of effects, ranging from simple compaction to

text: breccia

text: tion, veining, localized melting, and formation of high-pressure minerals. The net result of these secondary thermal, aqueous, and shock processes is that only a few known chondrites preserve in pristine form the original dust, chondrules, and inclusions from which they formed.

text: The Geminids are a meteor shower caused by the object 3200 Phaethon, which is thought to be a Palladian asteroid with a "rock comet" orbit. This would make the Geminids, together with the Quadrantids, the only major meteor showers not originating from a comet. The meteors from this shower are slow moving, can be seen in December and usually peak around December 13–14, with the date of highest intensity being the morning of December 14. The shower is thought to be intensifying every year and recent showers have seen 120–160 meteors per hour under optimal conditions, generally around 02:00 to 03:00 local time. Geminids were first observed in 1862, much more recently than other showers such as the Perseids (36 AD) and Leonids (902 AD).

text: The Geminids are a

text: meteor shower

text: caused by the object

text: 3200 Phaethon

text: , which is thought to be a

text: Palladian asteroid

text: with a "

text: rock comet

text: " orbit. This would make the Geminids, together with the

text: Quadrantids

text: , the only major meteor showers not originating from a

text: comet

text: . The

text: meteor

text: s from this shower are slow moving, can be seen in December and usually peak around December 13–14, with the date of highest intensity being the morning of December 14. The shower is thought to be intensifying every year and recent showers have seen 120–160 meteors per hour under optimal conditions, generally around 02:00 to 03:00 local time. Geminids were first observed in 1862, much more recently than other showers such as the

text: Perseids

text: (36 AD) and

text: Leonids

text: (902 AD).

text: According to the panspermia hypothesis, microscopic life—distributed by meteoroids, asteroids and other small Solar System bodies—may exist throughout the universe.

text: According to the

text: panspermia

text: hypothesis,

text: microscopic life

text: —distributed by

text: meteoroids

text: asteroid

text: s and other

text: small Solar System bodies

text: —may exist throughout the universe.

text: The IAU, the internationally recognized authority for assigning designations to celestial bodies, defines dwarf planets as bodies that are large enough to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium, but have not cleared their neighbourhoods of similar objects. Since 2008, there have been five dwarf planets recognized by the IAU. Ceres orbits in the asteroid belt, between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The others orbit beyond Neptune and are subclassified as plutoids.

text: The IAU, the internationally recognized authority for assigning designations to celestial bodies, defines

text: dwarf planet

text: s as bodies that are large enough to have achieved

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: , but have not cleared their neighbourhoods of similar objects. Since 2008, there have been five dwarf planets recognized by the IAU.

text: Ceres

text: orbits in the

text: asteroid belt

text: , between the orbits of

text: Mars

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: . The others orbit beyond Neptune and are subclassified as

text: plutoid

text: s.

text: The term planet is ancient, with ties to history, astrology, science, mythology, and religion. Several planets in the Solar System can be seen with the naked eye. These were regarded by many early cultures as divine, or as emissaries of deities. As scientific knowledge advanced, human perception of the planets changed, incorporating a number of disparate objects. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially adopted a resolution defining planets within the Solar System. This definition is controversial because it excludes many objects of planetary mass based on where or what they orbit. Although eight of the planetary bodies discovered before 1950 remain "planets" under the modern definition, some celestial bodies, such as Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta (each an object in the solar asteroid belt), and Pluto (the first trans-Neptunian object discovered), that were once considered planets by the scientific community, are no longer viewed as such.

text: The term planet is ancient, with ties to history,

text: astrology

text: , science,

text: mythology

text: , and religion. Several planets in the

text: Solar System

text: can be seen with the naked eye. These were regarded by many early cultures as divine, or as emissaries of

text: deities

text: . As scientific knowledge advanced, human perception of the planets changed, incorporating a number of disparate objects. In 2006, the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) officially adopted a resolution

text: defining planets

text: within the Solar System. This definition is controversial because it excludes many objects of

text: planetary mass

text: based on where or what they orbit. Although eight of the planetary bodies discovered before 1950 remain "planets" under the modern definition, some celestial bodies, such as

text: Ceres

text: Pallas

text: Juno

text: and

text: Vesta

text: (each an object in the solar asteroid belt), and

text: Pluto

text: (the first trans-Neptunian object discovered), that were once considered planets by the scientific community, are no longer viewed as such.

text: In the inner Solar System the formation of streaming instabilities requires a larger enhancement of the solid to gas ratio than beyond the ice line. The growth of silicate particles is limited by the bouncing barrier to ~1 mm, roughly the size of the chondrules found in meteorites. In the inner Solar System particles this small have Stokes numbers of ~0.001. At these Stokes numbers a vertically integrated solid to gas ratio greater than 0.04, roughly four times that of the overall gas disk, is required to form streaming instabilities. The required concentration may be reduced by half if the particles are able to grow to roughly cm-size. This growth, possibly aided by dusty rims that absorb impacts, may occur over a period of 10^5 years if a fraction of collisions result in sticking due to a broad distribution of collision velocities. Or, if turbulence and the collision velocities are reduced inside initial weak clumps, a runaway process may occur in which clumping aids the growth of solids and their growth strengthens clumping. A radial pile-up of solids may also lead to conditions that support streaming instabilities in a narrow annulus at roughly 1 AU. This would requires a shallow initial disk profile and that the growth of solids be limited by fragmentation instead of bouncing allowing cm-sized solids to form, however.

text: In the case of the Solar System, it is thought that the collisions of planetesimals created a few hundred planetary embryos. Such embryos were similar to Ceres and Pluto with masses of about 10 to 10 kg and were a few thousand kilometers in diameter. Over the course of hundreds of millions of years, they collided with one another. The exact sequence whereby planetary embryos collided to assemble the planets is not known, but it is thought that initial collisions would have replaced the first "generation" of embryos with a second generation consisting of fewer but larger embryos. These in their turn would have collided to create a third generation of fewer but even larger embryos. Eventually, only a handful of embryos were left, which collided to complete the assembly of the planets proper.

text: In the case of the

text: Solar System

text: , it is thought that the collisions of planetesimals created a few hundred planetary embryos. Such embryos were similar to

text: Ceres

text: and

text: Pluto

text: with masses of about 10 to 10 kg and were a few thousand kilometers in diameter. Over the course of hundreds of millions of years, they collided with one another. The exact sequence whereby planetary embryos collided to assemble the planets is not known, but it is thought that initial collisions would have replaced the first "generation" of embryos with a second generation consisting of fewer but larger embryos. These in their turn would have collided to create a third generation of fewer but even larger embryos. Eventually, only a handful of embryos were left, which collided to complete the assembly of the

text: planet

text: s proper.

text: Meteoroids in a retrograde orbit around the Sun hit the Earth with a faster relative speed than prograde meteoroids and tend to burn-up in the atmosphere and are more likely to hit the side of the Earth facing away from the Sun (i.e. at night-time) whereas the prograde meteoroids have slower closing speeds and more often land as meteorites and tend to hit the sun-facing side of the Earth. Most meteoroids are prograde.

text: Meteoroids

text: in a retrograde orbit around the Sun hit the Earth with a faster relative speed than prograde meteoroids and tend to burn-up in the atmosphere and are more likely to hit the side of the Earth facing away from the Sun (i.e. at night-time) whereas the prograde meteoroids have slower closing speeds and more often land as

text: meteorites

text: and tend to hit the sun-facing side of the Earth. Most meteoroids are prograde.

text: The Yarkovsky effect was discovered by the Russian civil engineer Ivan Osipovich Yarkovsky (1844–1902), who worked on scientific problems in his spare time. Writing in a pamphlet around the year 1900, Yarkovsky noted that the diurnal heating of a rotating object in space would cause it to experience a force that, while tiny, could lead to large long-term effects in the orbits of small bodies, especially meteoroids and small asteroids. Yarkovsky's work might have been forgotten had it not been for Öpik, who read Yarkovsky's pamphlet sometime around 1909. Decades later, Öpik discussed the possible importance of the Yarkovsky effect for moving meteoroids about the solar system.

text: The

text: Yarkovsky effect

text: was discovered by the Russian civil engineer

text: Ivan Osipovich Yarkovsky

text: (1844–1902), who worked on scientific problems in his spare time. Writing in a pamphlet around the year 1900, Yarkovsky noted that the diurnal heating of a rotating object in space would cause it to experience a force that, while tiny, could lead to large long-term effects in the orbits of small bodies, especially meteoroids and small asteroids. Yarkovsky's work might have been forgotten had it not been for Öpik, who read Yarkovsky's pamphlet sometime around 1909. Decades later, Öpik discussed the possible importance of the Yarkovsky effect for moving meteoroids about the solar system.

text: The Kuiper belt is a relatively thick torus (or "doughnut") of space, extending from about 30 to 50 AU comprising two main populations of Kuiper belt objects (KBOs): the classical Kuiper-belt objects (or "cubewanos"), which lie in orbits untouched by Neptune, and the resonant Kuiper-belt objects; those which Neptune has locked into a precise orbital ratio such as 3:2 (the object goes around twice for every three Neptune orbits) and 2:1 (the object goes around once for every two Neptune orbits). These ratios, called orbital resonances, allow KBOs to persist in regions which Neptune's gravitational influence would otherwise have cleared out over the age of the Solar System, since the objects are never close enough to Neptune to be scattered by its gravity. Those in 3:2 resonances are known as "plutinos", because Pluto is the largest member of their group, whereas those in 2:1 resonances are known as "twotinos".

text: The Kuiper belt is a relatively thick

text: torus

text: (or "doughnut") of space, extending from about 30 to 50 AU comprising two main populations of

text: Kuiper belt object

text: s (KBOs): the

text: classical Kuiper-belt object

text: s (or "cubewanos"), which lie in orbits untouched by Neptune, and the

text: resonant Kuiper-belt object

text: s; those which Neptune has locked into a precise orbital ratio such as 3:2 (the object goes around twice for every three Neptune orbits) and 2:1 (the object goes around once for every two Neptune orbits). These ratios, called

text: orbital resonance

text: s, allow KBOs to persist in regions which Neptune's gravitational influence would otherwise have cleared out over the age of the Solar System, since the objects are never close enough to Neptune to be scattered by its gravity. Those in 3:2 resonances are known as "

text: plutino

text: s", because

text: Pluto

text: is the largest member of their group, whereas those in 2:1 resonances are known as "

entity_section: 1:2 resonance ("twotinos", period ~330 years)

text: twotinos

text: A comet tail—and coma—are features visible in comets when they are illuminated by the Sun and may become visible from Earth when a comet passes through the inner Solar System. As a comet approaches the inner Solar System, solar radiation causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them. Separate tails are formed of dust and gases, becoming visible through different phenomena; the dust reflects sunlight directly and the gases glow from ionisation. Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a telescope, but a few each decade become bright enough to be visible to the naked eye.

text: A comet tail—and

text: coma

text: —are features visible in comets when they are illuminated by the Sun and may become visible from

text: Earth

text: when a

text: comet

text: passes through the inner

text: Solar System

text: . As a comet approaches the inner Solar System,

text: solar radiation

text: causes the volatile materials within the comet to vaporize and stream out of the nucleus, carrying dust away with them. Separate tails are formed of dust and gases, becoming visible through different phenomena; the dust reflects sunlight directly and the gases glow from

text: ion

text: isation. Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a

text: telescope

text: , but a few each decade become bright enough to be visible to the

text: naked eye

text: The asteroid belt may also be divided into the inner and outer belts, with the inner belt formed by asteroids orbiting nearer to Mars than the 3:1 Kirkwood gap (2.5 AU), and the outer belt formed by those asteroids closer to Jupiter's orbit. (Some authors subdivide the inner and outer belts at the 2:1 resonance gap (3.3 AU), whereas others suggest inner, middle, and outer belts; also see diagram).

text: Although there are many icy objects in the Solar System, there are no known ice planets (though Pluto was considered an ice planet until its reclassification in 2006). If a 9th planet suggested in 2016 is found, it will be an ice planet of many times the earth's mass with a surface temperature potentially under 70K.There are several extrasolar ice planet candidates, including OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb, OGLE-2013-BLG-0341L b and MOA-2007-BLG-192Lb.

text: Although there are many icy objects in the

text: Solar System

text: , there are no known ice planets (though

text: Pluto

text: was considered an ice planet until its

text: reclassification in 2006

text: ). If a 9th planet suggested in 2016 is found, it will be an ice planet of many times the earth's mass with a surface temperature potentially under 70K.There are several extrasolar ice planet candidates, including

text: , OGLE-2013-BLG-0341L b and

text: Nevertheless, these three categories sit at the top of the most widely used meteorite classification system. Stony meteorites are then traditionally divided into two other categories: chondrites (groups of meteorites that have undergone little change since their parent bodies originally formed and are characterized by the presence of chondrules), and achondrites (groups of meteorites that have a complex origin involving asteroidal or planetary differentiation).  The iron meteorites were traditionally divided into objects with similar internal structures (octahedrites, hexahedrites, and ataxites), but these terms are now used for purely descriptive purposes and have given way to modern chemical groups.  Stony–iron meteorites have always been divided into pallasites (which are now known to comprise several distinct groups) and mesosiderites (a textural term that is also synonymous with the name of a modern group).

text: Nevertheless, these three categories sit at the top of the most widely used meteorite classification system. Stony meteorites are then traditionally divided into two other categories: chondrites (groups of meteorites that have undergone little change since their parent bodies originally formed and are characterized by the presence of

text: chondrule

text: s), and

text: achondrite

text: s (groups of meteorites that have a complex origin involving asteroidal or

text: planetary differentiation

text: ).  The iron meteorites were traditionally divided into objects with similar internal structures (

text: octahedrite

text: s,

text: hexahedrite

text: s, and

text: ataxite

text: s), but these terms are now used for purely descriptive purposes and have given way to modern chemical groups.  Stony–iron meteorites have always been divided into

text: pallasite

text: s (which are now known to comprise several distinct groups) and

text: mesosiderite

text: s (a textural term that is also synonymous with the name of a modern group).

text: The origin of the Martian moons is still controversial. Phobos and Deimos both have much in common with carbonaceous C-type asteroids, with spectra, albedo, and density very similar to those of C- or D-type asteroids. Based on their similarity, one hypothesis is that both moons may be captured main-belt asteroids. Both moons have very circular orbits which lie almost exactly in Mars's equatorial plane, and hence a capture origin requires a mechanism for circularizing the initially highly eccentric orbit, and adjusting its inclination into the equatorial plane, most probably by a combination of atmospheric drag and tidal forces, although it is not clear that sufficient time is available for this to occur for Deimos. Capture also requires dissipation of energy. The current atmosphere of Mars is too thin to capture a Phobos-sized object by atmospheric braking. Geoffrey Landis has pointed out that the capture could have occurred if the original body was a binary asteroid that separated under tidal forces.

text: The origin of the Martian moons is still controversial. Phobos and Deimos both have much in common with carbonaceous

text: C-type asteroid

text: s, with

text: spectra

text: albedo

text: , and

text: density

text: very similar to those of C- or D-type asteroids. Based on their similarity, one hypothesis is that both moons may be captured

text: main-belt asteroids

text: . Both moons have very circular orbits which lie almost exactly in Mars's

text: equatorial plane

text: , and hence a capture origin requires a mechanism for

text: circularizing

text: the initially highly eccentric orbit, and adjusting its inclination into the equatorial plane, most probably by a combination of atmospheric drag and

text: tidal force

text: s, although it is not clear that sufficient time is available for this to occur for Deimos. Capture also requires dissipation of energy. The current

text: atmosphere of Mars

text: is too thin to capture a Phobos-sized object by atmospheric braking.

text: Geoffrey Landis

text: has pointed out that the capture could have occurred if the original body was a

text: binary asteroid

text: that separated under tidal forces.

text: ALPO studies solar system objects such as the Sun, the Earth's Moon, planets, asteroids, meteors, and comets. ALPO stimulates, coordinates, and generally promotes the study of these bodies using methods and instruments available within the communities of both amateur and professional astronomers. The organization holds a conference each summer, usually in conjunction with other astronomical groups.

text: ALPO studies solar system objects such as the

text: Sun

text: , the Earth's

text: Moon

text: planets

text: asteroids

text: meteors

text: , and

text: comets

text: . ALPO stimulates, coordinates, and generally promotes the study of these bodies using methods and instruments available within the communities of both amateur and professional astronomers. The organization holds a conference each summer, usually in conjunction with other astronomical groups.

text: Meteor Crater is a popular tourist attraction privately owned by the Barringer family through the Barringer Crater Company, with an admission fee charged to see the crater. The Meteor Crater Visitor Center on the north rim features interactive exhibits and displays about meteorites and asteroids, space, the solar system and comets. It features the American Astronaut Wall of Fame and such artifacts on display as an Apollo boilerplate command module (BP-29), a 1,406 pound meteorite found in the area, and meteorite specimens from Meteor Crater that can be touched. Formerly known as the Museum of Astrogeology, the Visitor Center includes a movie theater, a gift shop, and observation areas with views inside the rim of the crater. Guided tours of the rim are offered daily.

text: Meteor Crater is a popular

text: tourist attraction

text: privately owned by the Barringer family through the Barringer Crater Company, with an admission fee charged to see the crater. The Meteor Crater Visitor Center on the north rim features interactive exhibits and displays about

text: meteorites

text: and

text: asteroids

text: space

text: , the

text: solar system

text: and

text: comets

text: . It features the American Astronaut Wall of Fame and such artifacts on display as an

text: Apollo boilerplate command module

text: (BP-29), a 1,406 pound meteorite found in the area, and meteorite specimens from Meteor Crater that can be touched. Formerly known as the Museum of Astrogeology, the Visitor Center includes a movie theater, a gift shop, and observation areas with views inside the rim of the crater. Guided tours of the rim are offered daily.

text: There may also be gas giant planets in this system, already formed (in the first 1-5 Myrs) before the current era of rocky planet formation. While none have been detected to date, by analogy with the solar system, their presence is likely, since evidence for analogues of the solar system's asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, and terrestrial planets have been found.

text: There may also be

text: gas giant

text: planets in this system, already formed (in the first 1-5 Myrs) before the current era of rocky planet formation. While none have been detected to date, by analogy with the solar system, their presence is likely, since evidence for analogues of the solar system's asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, and terrestrial planets have been found.

text: Professionally and personally embittered by the success of Dunsmoore, Prudence begins a life of semi-legal interplanetary exploration (referenced by the book but never fully explained) and makes a living selling cosmic oddities to the highest black market bidder. This dangerous and profitable lifestyle acquaints her with legal authorities as well as the Belters—a group of Zen Buddhists (known as The Order of the Cuckoo) who have populated and mined both Earth's Moon and the asteroid belt that lies between the terrestrial planets and the Jovian worlds of the outer solar system. Her smuggling career culminates with the discovery of a trove of buried, wheeled, and presumably alien artefacts on Callisto. She takes these 'wheelers' to earth intending to sell them, but a government investigation headed by Dunsmoore concludes them to be inauthentic.

text: Professionally and personally embittered by the success of Dunsmoore, Prudence begins a life of semi-legal interplanetary exploration (referenced by the book but never fully explained) and makes a living selling cosmic oddities to the highest

text: black market

text: bidder. This dangerous and profitable lifestyle acquaints her with legal authorities as well as the Belters—a group of

text: Zen Buddhists

text: (known as The Order of the

text: Cuckoo

text: ) who have populated and

text: mined

text: both Earth's Moon and the

text: asteroid belt

text: that lies between the

text: terrestrial planets

text: and the

text: Jovian

text: worlds of the

text: outer solar system

text: . Her smuggling career culminates with the discovery of a trove of buried, wheeled, and presumably alien artefacts on

text: Callisto

text: . She takes these 'wheelers' to earth intending to sell them, but a government investigation headed by Dunsmoore concludes them to be inauthentic.

text: From 1954 until 1973, the Comets participated in the Eastern Hockey League, dominating for ten of their nineteen seasons. Most notably, under head coach Pat Kelly, the Comets posted a 315–208–64 (wins-losses-ties) record over eight seasons. During that period, in the 1967–68 season, the Comets produced an awe-inspiring 57–5–10 record. The Comets won the EHL playoffs in 1958–59, 1963–64, 1967–68, 1968–69 and 1969–70.

text: From 1954 until 1973, the Comets participated in the

text: Eastern Hockey League

text: , dominating for ten of their nineteen seasons. Most notably, under head coach

text: Pat Kelly

text: , the Comets posted a 315–208–64 (wins-losses-ties) record over eight seasons. During that period, in the 1967–68 season, the Comets produced an awe-inspiring 57–5–10 record. The Comets won the EHL playoffs in 1958–59, 1963–64, 1967–68, 1968–69 and 1969–70.

text: With the discovery of Pluto in 1930, most astronomers considered the Solar System to have nine planets, along with thousands of significantly smaller bodies (asteroids and comets). For almost 50 years Pluto was thought to be larger than Mercury, but with the discovery in 1978 of Pluto's moon Charon, it became possible to measure Pluto's mass accurately and to determine that it was much smaller than initial estimates. It was roughly one-twentieth the mass of Mercury, which made Pluto by far the smallest planet. Although it was still more than ten times as massive as the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, it had one-fifth the mass of Earth's Moon. Furthermore, having some unusual characteristics, such as large orbital eccentricity and a high orbital inclination, it became evident that it was a different kind of body from any of the other planets.

text: With the discovery of Pluto in 1930, most astronomers considered the Solar System to have nine planets, along with thousands of significantly smaller bodies (

text: asteroid

text: s and

text: comet

text: s). For almost 50 years Pluto was thought to be larger than

text: Mercury

text: , but with the discovery in 1978 of Pluto's moon

text: Charon

text: , it became possible to measure Pluto's mass accurately and to determine that it was much smaller than initial estimates. It was roughly one-twentieth the mass of Mercury, which made Pluto by far the smallest planet. Although it was still more than ten times as massive as the largest object in the

text: asteroid belt

text: , Ceres, it had one-fifth the mass of Earth's

text: Moon

text: . Furthermore, having some unusual characteristics, such as large

text: orbital eccentricity

text: and a high

text: orbital inclination

text: , it became evident that it was a different kind of body from any of the other planets.

text: The Barycentric celestial reference system (BCRS) is a coordinate system used in astrometry to specify the location and motions of astronomical objects. It was created in 2000 by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to be the global standard reference system for objects located outside the gravitational vicinity of Earth: planets, moons, and other Solar System bodies, stars and other objects in the Milky Way galaxy, and extra-galactic objects.

text: The Barycentric celestial reference system (BCRS) is a coordinate system used in

text: astrometry

text: to specify the location and motions of astronomical objects. It was created in 2000 by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) to be the global standard reference system for objects located outside the gravitational vicinity of

text: Earth

text: : planets, moons, and other Solar System bodies, stars and other objects in the

text: Milky Way

text: galaxy, and extra-galactic objects.

text: However, more detailed studies of the visible and near infrared spectrum of Haumea show it is a homogeneous surface covered by an intimate 1:1 mixture of amorphous and crystalline ice, together with no more than 8% organics. This high amount of amorphous ice on the surface confirms that the collisional event must have happened more than 100 million years ago. This result agrees with the dynamical studies and discards the assumption that the surfaces of these objects are young.

text: 2005 Makemake

text: Makemake

text: The Meteoritical Society is a non-profit scholarly organization founded in 1933 to promote research and education in planetary science with emphasis on studies of meteorites and other extraterrestrial materials that further our understanding of the origin and history of the solar system.

text: The Meteoritical Society is a non-profit scholarly organization founded in 1933 to promote research and education in

text: planetary science

text: with emphasis on studies of

text: meteorites

text: solar system

text: Prior to the 2004 arrival of the Cassini–Huygens spacecraft, the rings of Saturn were widely thought to be much younger than the Solar System and were not expected to survive beyond another 300 million years. Gravitational interactions with Saturn's moons were expected to gradually sweep the rings' outer edge toward the planet, with abrasion by meteorites and Saturn's gravity eventually taking the rest, leaving Saturn unadorned. However, data from the Cassini mission led scientists to revise that early view. Observations revealed 10 km-wide icy clumps of material that repeatedly break apart and reform, keeping the rings fresh. Saturn's rings are far more massive than the rings of the other giant planets. This large mass is thought to have preserved Saturn's rings since it first formed 4.5 billion years ago, and is likely to preserve them for billions of years to come.

text: Prior to the 2004 arrival of the

text: Cassini–Huygens

text: spacecraft, the

text: rings of Saturn

text: were widely thought to be much younger than the Solar System and were not expected to survive beyond another 300 million years. Gravitational interactions with Saturn's moons were expected to gradually sweep the rings' outer edge toward the planet, with abrasion by meteorites and Saturn's gravity eventually taking the rest, leaving Saturn unadorned. However, data from the Cassini mission led scientists to revise that early view. Observations revealed 10 km-wide icy clumps of material that repeatedly break apart and reform, keeping the rings fresh. Saturn's rings are far more massive than the rings of the other giant planets. This large mass is thought to have preserved Saturn's rings since it first formed 4.5 billion years ago, and is likely to preserve them for billions of years to come.

text: This is a list of the lists of small Solar System bodies and dwarf planets.

text: This is a list of the lists of

text: small Solar System bodies

text: and

text: dwarf planet

text: s.

text: Because the method relies on detecting the amount of gravitational deflection induced during an interaction, the procedure works best for objects which will produce a large deflection in their interactions with other objects.  This means that the procedure works best for large objects, but it can also be effectively applied to objects which have repeated close interactions with each other such as when the two objects are in orbital resonance with one another.  Regardless of the mass of the interacting objects, the amount of deflection will be greater if the objects approach nearer to each other and it will also be greater if the objects pass slowly, allowing more time for gravity to perturb the orbits of the two objects.  For large enough asteroids this distance can be as large as ~0.1 AU, for less massive asteroids the conditions of the interaction would need to be correspondingly better.

text: Because the method relies on detecting the amount of gravitational deflection induced during an interaction, the procedure works best for objects which will produce a large deflection in their interactions with other objects.  This means that the procedure works best for large objects, but it can also be effectively applied to objects which have repeated close interactions with each other such as when the two objects are in

text: orbital resonance

text: with one another.  Regardless of the mass of the interacting objects, the amount of deflection will be greater if the objects approach nearer to each other and it will also be greater if the objects pass slowly, allowing more time for gravity to perturb the orbits of the two objects.  For large enough asteroids this distance can be as large as ~0.1 AU, for less massive asteroids the conditions of the interaction would need to be correspondingly better.

text: Section G: DWARF PLANETS AND SMALL SOLAR SYSTEM BODIES includes positional and physical data on selected dwarf planets, positional information on bright minor planets and periodic comets.

text: The interplanetary medium is the material which fills the Solar System, and through which all the larger Solar System bodies, such as planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, and comets, move.

text: The interplanetary medium is the material which fills the

text: Solar System

text: , and through which all the larger Solar System bodies, such as

text: planet

text: s,

text: dwarf planet

text: s,

text: asteroid

text: s, and

text: comet

text: s, move.

text: The isotopic homogeneity of our planet and the Solar System provides a blank slate on which to detect the effect of nuclear processes on Earth, in the Solar System, and in objects coming to us from outside the Solar System.  Awaiting more here, see natural abundance.

text: The isotopic homogeneity of our

text: planet

text: and the Solar System provides a blank slate on which to detect the effect of nuclear processes on Earth, in the Solar System, and in objects coming to us from outside the Solar System.  Awaiting more here, see

text: natural abundance

text: Haumea is as bright as snow, with an albedo in the range of 0.6–0.8, consistent with crystalline ice. Other large TNOs such as  appear to have albedos as high or higher. Best-fit modeling of the surface spectra suggested that 66% to 80% of the Haumean surface appears to be pure crystalline water ice, with one contributor to the high albedo possibly hydrogen cyanide or phyllosilicate clays. Inorganic cyanide salts such as copper potassium cyanide may also be present.

text: Haumea is as bright as snow, with an albedo in the range of 0.6–0.8, consistent with crystalline ice. Other large TNOs such as  appear to have albedos as high or higher. Best-fit modeling of the surface spectra suggested that 66% to 80% of the Haumean surface appears to be pure crystalline water ice, with one contributor to the high albedo possibly

text: hydrogen cyanide

text: or

text: phyllosilicate clays

text: . Inorganic cyanide salts such as copper potassium cyanide may also be present.

text: Approximately one-third of the asteroids in the asteroid belt are members of an asteroid family. These share similar orbital elements, such as semi-major axis, eccentricity, and orbital inclination as well as similar spectral features, all of which indicate a common origin in the breakup of a larger body. Graphical displays of these elements, for members of the asteroid belt, show concentrations indicating the presence of an asteroid family. There are about 20–30 associations that are almost certainly asteroid families. Additional       groupings have been found that are less certain. Asteroid families can be confirmed when the members display common spectral features. Smaller associations of asteroids are called groups or clusters.

text: Observations of the asteroid belt, located between Mars and Jupiter, suggest that the water snow line during formation of Solar System was located within this region. The outer asteroids are icy C-class objects (e.g. Abe et al. 2000; Morbidelli et al. 2000) whereas the inner asteroid belt is largely devoid of water. This implies that when planetesimal formation occurred the snow line was located at around 2.7 AU from the Sun.

text: Observations of the

text: asteroid belt

text: , located between Mars and Jupiter, suggest that the water snow line during formation of Solar System was located within this region. The outer asteroids are icy C-class objects (e.g. Abe et al. 2000; Morbidelli et al. 2000) whereas the inner asteroid belt is largely devoid of water. This implies that when planetesimal formation occurred the snow line was located at around 2.7 AU from the Sun.

text: Historically, objects made from iron or steel were created for religious, artistic, technical, military and domestic uses. The act of conservation and restoration strives to prevent and slow the deterioration of the object as well as protecting the object for future use. The prevention and removal of surface dirt and corrosion products are the primary concerns of conservator-restorers when dealing with iron or steel objects, including nickel-iron meteorites.

text: Historically, objects made from iron or steel were created for religious, artistic, technical, military and domestic uses. The act of

entity_name: Conservation-restoration of cultural heritage

text: conservation and restoration

text: strives to prevent and slow the deterioration of the object as well as protecting the object for future use. The prevention and removal of surface dirt and corrosion products are the primary concerns of conservator-restorers when dealing with iron or steel objects, including nickel-iron meteorites.

text: The SMA is a multi-purpose instrument which can be used to observe diverse celestial phenomena. The SMA excels at observations of dust and gas with temperatures only a few tens of kelvins above absolute zero. Objects with such temperatures typically emit the bulk of their radiation at wavelengths between a few hundred micrometers and a few millimeters, which is the wavelength range in which the SMA can observe. Commonly observed classes of objects include star-forming molecular clouds in our own and other galaxies, highly redshifted galaxies, evolved stars, and the Galactic Center. Occasionally, bodies in the Solar System, such as planets, asteroids, comets, and moons, are observed.

text: The SMA is a multi-purpose instrument which can be used to observe diverse celestial phenomena. The SMA excels at observations of dust and gas with temperatures only a few tens of

text: kelvin

text: s above

text: absolute zero

text: . Objects with such temperatures typically emit the bulk of their radiation at wavelengths between a few hundred micrometers and a few millimeters, which is the wavelength range in which the SMA can observe. Commonly observed classes of objects include star-forming

text: molecular clouds

text: in our own and other galaxies, highly

text: redshift

text: ed galaxies, evolved stars, and the

text: Galactic Center

text: . Occasionally, bodies in the Solar System, such as

text: planet

text: s,

text: asteroid

text: s,

text: comet

text: s, and

text: moons

text: , are observed.

text: The Nice ()  model is a scenario for the dynamical evolution of the Solar System. It is named for the location of the Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur, where it was initially developed, in Nice, France. It proposes the migration of the giant planets from an initial compact configuration into their present positions, long after the dissipation of the initial protoplanetary gas disk. In this way, it differs from earlier models of the Solar System's formation. This planetary migration is used in dynamical simulations of the Solar System to explain historical events including the Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner Solar System, the formation of the Oort cloud, and the existence of populations of small Solar System bodies including the Kuiper belt, the Neptune and Jupiter trojans, and the numerous resonant trans-Neptunian objects dominated by Neptune. Its success at reproducing many of the observed features of the Solar System means that it is widely accepted as the current most realistic model of the Solar System's early evolution, although it is not universally favoured among planetary scientists. One of its limitations that it does not reproduce the outer-system satellites and the Kuiper belt (see below).

text: The Nice ()  model is a scenario for the

text: dynamical evolution

text: of the

text: Solar System

text: . It is named for the location of the

text: Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur

text: , where it was initially developed, in

text: Nice

text: , France. It proposes the

text: migration

text: of the

text: giant planet

text: s from an initial compact configuration into their present positions, long after the dissipation of the initial

text: protoplanetary gas disk

text: . In this way, it differs from

text: earlier models

text: of the Solar System's formation. This planetary migration is used in

text: dynamical simulation

text: s of the Solar System to explain historical events including the

text: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: of the

text: inner Solar System

text: , the formation of the

text: Oort cloud

text: , and the existence of populations of

text: small Solar System bodies

text: including the

text: Kuiper belt

text: , the

text: Neptune

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: trojan

text: s, and the numerous

text: resonant trans-Neptunian object

text: s dominated by Neptune. Its success at reproducing many of the observed features of the Solar System means that it is widely accepted as the current most realistic model of the Solar System's early evolution, although it is not universally favoured among

text: planetary scientists

text: . One of its limitations that it does not reproduce the outer-system satellites and the Kuiper belt (see below).

text: The larger in size an asteroid or other near-Earth object (NEO), the less frequently it impacts the planet's atmosphere — large meteors seen in the skies are extremely rare, while medium-sized ones are less so, and much smaller ones are more commonplace. Although stony asteroids often explode high in the atmosphere, some objects, especially iron-nickel meteors and other types descending at a steep angle, can explode close to ground level or even directly impact onto land or sea. In the U.S. State of Arizona, the -wide Meteor Crater (officially named Barringer Crater) formed in a fraction of a second as nearly 160 million tonnes of limestone and bedrock were uplifted, creating its crater rim on formerly flat terrain. The asteroid that produced the Barringer Crater was only about 46 meters (150 ft.) in size; however it impacted the ground at a velocity of 12.8 kilometers per second (28,600 mph) and struck with an impact energy equivalent to a 10 megaton (TNT equivalent) nuclear bomb — about 625 times greater than the bomb that destroyed the city of Hiroshima during the Second World War. Tsunamis can also occur after a medium-sized or larger asteroid impacts an ocean surface or other large body of water.

text: The larger in size an asteroid or other

text: near-Earth object

text: (NEO), the less frequently it impacts the planet's atmosphere — large meteors seen in the skies are extremely rare, while medium-sized ones are less so, and much smaller ones are more commonplace. Although stony asteroids often explode high in the atmosphere, some objects, especially

text: iron-nickel meteors

text: and other types descending at a steep angle, can explode close to ground level or even directly impact onto land or sea. In the U.S.

text: State of Arizona

text: , the -wide

text: Meteor Crater

text: (officially named Barringer Crater) formed in a fraction of a second as nearly 160 million tonnes of limestone and bedrock were uplifted, creating its crater rim on formerly flat terrain. The asteroid that produced the Barringer Crater was only about 46 meters (150 ft.) in size; however it impacted the ground at a velocity of 12.8 kilometers per second (28,600 mph) and struck with an impact energy equivalent to a 10 megaton (

text: TNT equivalent

text: ) nuclear bomb — about 625 times greater than the

text: bomb that destroyed the city of Hiroshima

text: during the Second World War.

text: Tsunami

text: s can also occur after a medium-sized or larger asteroid impacts an ocean surface or other large body of water.

text: Most of the major bodies of the Solar System orbit the Sun in nearly the same plane. This is likely due to the way in which the Solar System formed from a protoplanetary disk. Probably the closest current representation of the disk is known as the invariable plane of the Solar System. Earth's orbit, and hence, the ecliptic, is inclined a little more than 1° to the invariable plane, and the other major planets are also within about 6° of it. Because of this, most Solar System bodies appear very close to the ecliptic in the sky. The ecliptic is well defined by the motion of the Sun. The invariable plane is defined by the angular momentum of the entire Solar System, essentially the summation of all of the orbital motions and rotations of all the bodies of the system, a somewhat uncertain value that requires precise knowledge of every object in the system. For these reasons, the ecliptic is used as the reference plane of the Solar System out of convenience.

text: Most of the major bodies of the

text: Solar System

text: orbit the

text: Sun

text: in nearly the same plane. This is likely due to the way in which the Solar System formed from a

text: protoplanetary disk

text: . Probably the closest current representation of the disk is known as the

text: invariable plane

text: of the Solar System. Earth's orbit, and hence, the ecliptic, is inclined a little more than 1° to the invariable plane, and the other major planets are also within about 6° of it. Because of this, most Solar System bodies appear very close to the ecliptic in the sky. The ecliptic is well defined by the motion of the

text: Sun

text: . The invariable plane is defined by the

text: angular momentum

text: of the entire Solar System, essentially the

text: summation

text: of all of the

text: orbit

text: al motions and

text: rotations

text: of all the bodies of the system, a somewhat uncertain value that requires precise knowledge of every object in the system. For these reasons, the ecliptic is used as the reference plane of the Solar System out of convenience.

text: is an Aten asteroid, near-Earth object, and potentially hazardous object in the inner Solar System that makes frequent close approaches to Earth and Venus. On the Earth approach in 2015, it was observed by the Goldstone Solar System Radar and found to be a contact binary with the largest axis approximately 2 kilometers wide, and each lobe about 200–300 meters large. Although  in its current orbit never passes closer than 0.047 AU to Earth, it is listed as a potentially hazardous object because it is large and might pose a threat in the future.

text: is an

text: Aten asteroid

text: near-Earth object

text: , and

text: potentially hazardous object

text: in the inner Solar System that makes frequent close approaches to Earth and Venus. On the Earth approach in 2015, it was observed by the

text: Goldstone Solar System Radar

text: and found to be a contact binary with the largest axis approximately 2 kilometers wide, and each lobe about 200–300 meters large. Although  in its current orbit never passes closer than 0.047 AU to Earth, it is listed as a potentially hazardous object because it is large and might pose a threat in the future.

text: Planetary mass is a measure of the mass of a planet-like object. Within the Solar System, planets are usually measured in the astronomical system of units, where the unit of mass is the solar mass (), the mass of the Sun. In the study of extrasolar planets, the unit of measure is typically the mass of Jupiter () for large gas giant planets, and the mass of Earth () for smaller rocky terrestrial planets.

text: Planetary mass is a measure of the

text: mass

text: of a

text: planet

text: -like object. Within the

text: Solar System

text: , planets are usually measured in the

text: astronomical system of units

text: , where the unit of mass is the

text: solar mass

text: (), the mass of the

text: Sun

text: . In the study of

text: extrasolar planet

text: s, the unit of measure is typically the mass of

text: Jupiter

text: () for large

text: gas giant

text: planets, and the mass of

text: Earth

text: () for smaller rocky

text: terrestrial planet

text: s.

text: Some astronomers counter this opinion by saying that, far from not having cleared their orbits, the major planets completely control the orbits of the other bodies within their orbital zone. Although Jupiter does coexist with a large number of small bodies in its orbit (the Trojan asteroids), these bodies only exist in Jupiter's orbit because they are in the sway of the planet's huge gravity. Earth accretes or ejects near-Earth asteroids on million-year time scales, thereby clearing its orbit.  Similarly, Pluto may cross the orbit of Neptune, but Neptune long ago locked Pluto and its attendant Kuiper belt objects, called plutinos, into a 3:2 resonance (i.e., they orbit the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits). Since the orbits of these objects are entirely dictated by Neptune's gravity, Neptune is therefore gravitationally dominant.

text: Some astronomers counter this opinion by saying that, far from not having cleared their orbits, the major planets completely control the orbits of the other bodies within their orbital zone. Although Jupiter does coexist with a large number of small bodies in its orbit (the

text: Trojan asteroid

text: s), these bodies only exist in Jupiter's orbit because they are in the sway of the planet's huge gravity. Earth accretes or ejects near-Earth asteroids on million-year time scales, thereby clearing its orbit.  Similarly, Pluto may cross the orbit of Neptune, but Neptune long ago locked Pluto and its attendant Kuiper belt objects, called

text: plutino

text: s, into a 3:2 resonance (i.e., they orbit the Sun twice for every three Neptune orbits). Since the orbits of these objects are entirely dictated by Neptune's gravity, Neptune is therefore gravitationally dominant.

text: The IAU is a member of the International Council for Science (ICSU). Its main objective is to promote and safeguard the science of astronomy in all its aspects through international cooperation. The IAU maintains friendly relations with organizations that include amateur astronomers in their membership. The IAU has its head office on the second floor of the Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris in the 14th arrondissement of Paris. Working groups include the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN), which maintains the astronomical naming conventions and planetary nomenclature for planetary bodies, and the Working Group on Star Names (WGSN), which catalogs and standardizes proper names for stars. The IAU is also responsible for the system of astronomical telegrams which are produced and distributed on its behalf by the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams. The Minor Planet Center also operates under the IAU, and is a "clearinghouse" for all non-planetary or non-moon bodies in the Solar System. The Working Group for Meteor Shower Nomenclature and the Meteor Data Center coordinate the nomenclature of meteor showers.

text: The IAU is a member of the

text: International Council for Science

text: (ICSU). Its main objective is to promote and safeguard the science of astronomy in all its aspects through international cooperation. The IAU maintains friendly relations with organizations that include

text: amateur astronomers

text: in their membership. The IAU has its head office on the second floor of the Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris in the

text: 14th arrondissement of Paris

text: . Working groups include the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN), which maintains the

text: astronomical naming conventions

text: and

text: planetary nomenclature

text: for planetary bodies, and the

text: Working Group on Star Names

text: (WGSN), which catalogs and standardizes proper names for stars. The IAU is also responsible for the system of astronomical telegrams which are produced and distributed on its behalf by the

entity_name: Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams

text: Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams

text: . The

text: Minor Planet Center

text: also operates under the IAU, and is a "clearinghouse" for all non-planetary or non-moon bodies in the Solar System. The Working Group for Meteor Shower Nomenclature and the Meteor Data Center coordinate the nomenclature of meteor showers.

text: has the largest perihelion distance of any known object in the Solar System. Its last perihelion was around 1979, at a distance of 80 AU; it is currently 83 AU from the Sun. Only eight other Solar System objects are known to have perihelia larger than 47 AU: Sedna (76 AU), 2014 FZ (56 AU), 2015 FJ (52 AU), 2014 FC (52 AU),  (51 AU),  (48 AU), 2014 SR (48 AU) and  (47 AU). The paucity of bodies with perihelia at 50–75 AU appears not to be an observational artifact.

text: has the largest

text: perihelion

text: distance of any known object in the

text: Solar System

text: . Its last

text: perihelion

text: was around 1979, at a distance of 80

text: AU

text: ; it is currently 83 AU from the Sun. Only eight other Solar System objects are known to have perihelia larger than 47 AU:

text: Sedna

text: (76 AU), 2014 FZ (56 AU), 2015 FJ (52 AU), 2014 FC (52 AU),  (51 AU),  (48 AU), 2014 SR (48 AU) and  (47 AU). The paucity of bodies with perihelia at 50–75 AU appears not to be an observational artifact.

text: The primary scientific objective of NEAR was to return data on the bulk properties, composition, mineralogy, morphology, internal mass distribution and magnetic field of Eros. Secondary objectives include studies of regolith properties, interactions with the solar wind, possible current activity as indicated by dust or gas, and the asteroid spin state. This data will be used to help understand the characteristics of asteroids in general, their relationship to meteoroids and comets, and the conditions in the early Solar System. To accomplish these goals, the spacecraft was equipped with an X-ray/gamma-ray spectrometer, a near-infrared imaging spectrograph, a multi-spectral camera fitted with a CCD imaging detector, a laser rangefinder, and a magnetometer. A radio science experiment was also performed using the NEAR tracking system to estimate the gravity field of the asteroid. The total mass of the instruments was 56 kg, and they required 80 W power.

text: The primary scientific objective of NEAR was to return data on the bulk properties, composition,

text: mineral

text: ogy, morphology, internal

text: mass

text: distribution and

text: magnetic field

text: of Eros. Secondary objectives include studies of

text: regolith

text: properties, interactions with the

text: solar wind

text: , possible current activity as indicated by dust or gas, and the asteroid spin state. This data will be used to help understand the characteristics of

text: asteroid

text: s in general, their relationship to

text: meteoroid

text: s and

text: comet

text: s, and the conditions in the early Solar System. To accomplish these goals, the spacecraft was equipped with an

text: X-ray

text: gamma-ray spectrometer

text: , a near-infrared imaging spectrograph, a multi-spectral camera fitted with a

text: CCD imaging

text: detector, a

text: laser rangefinder

text: , and a

text: magnetometer

text: . A radio science experiment was also performed using the NEAR tracking system to estimate the

text: gravity

text: field of the asteroid. The total mass of the instruments was 56 kg, and they required 80 W power.

text: In 2004, Quaoar was estimated to have a diameter of , subsequently revised downward, which at the time of discovery in 2002 made it the largest object found in the Solar System since the discovery of Pluto. Quaoar was later supplanted by , , , and , though Sedna was later found to be somewhat smaller than Quaoar. Quaoar is about as massive as (if somewhat smaller than) Pluto's moon Charon, which is approximately  times as massive as . Quaoar is roughly one twelfth the diameter of Earth, one third the diameter of the Moon, and half the size of Pluto.

text: In 2004, Quaoar was estimated to have a diameter of , subsequently revised downward, which at the time of discovery in 2002 made it the largest object found in the

text: Solar System

text: since the discovery of

text: Pluto

text: . Quaoar was later supplanted by , , , and , though Sedna was later found to be somewhat smaller than Quaoar. Quaoar is about as massive as (if somewhat smaller than) Pluto's moon

text: Charon

text: , which is approximately  times as massive as . Quaoar is roughly one twelfth the diameter of

text: Earth

text: , one third the diameter of the

text: Moon

text: , and half the size of Pluto.

text: Solar System –  gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it, either directly or indirectly. Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest eight are the planets (including Earth), with the remainder being significantly smaller objects, such as dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies. Of the objects that orbit the Sun indirectly, the moons, two are larger than the smallest planet, Mercury.

text: Solar System

text: –  gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it, either directly or indirectly. Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest eight are the planets (including Earth), with the remainder being significantly smaller objects, such as dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies. Of the objects that orbit the Sun indirectly, the moons, two are larger than the smallest planet, Mercury.

text: The current asteroid belt is believed to contain only a small fraction of the mass of the primordial belt. Computer simulations suggest that the original asteroid belt may have contained mass equivalent to the Earth.  Primarily because of gravitational perturbations, most of the material was ejected from the belt within about a million years of formation, leaving behind less than 0.1% of the original mass. Since their formation, the size distribution of the asteroid belt has remained relatively stable: there has been no significant increase or decrease in the typical dimensions of the main-belt asteroids.

text: Trujillo works with computer software and has examined the orbits of the numerous trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs), which is the outer area of the Solar System that he specialized in. In late August 2005, it was announced that Trujillo, along with Michael E. Brown and David L. Rabinowitz, had discovered Eris in 2003. As a result of the discovery of the satellite Dysnomia, Eris was the first TNO known to be more massive than Pluto.

text: Trujillo works with computer software and has examined the orbits of the numerous

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s (TNOs), which is the outer area of the Solar System that he specialized in. In late August 2005, it was announced that Trujillo, along with

text: Michael E. Brown

text: and

text: David L. Rabinowitz

text: , had discovered

text: Eris

text: in 2003. As a result of the discovery of the satellite

text: Dysnomia

text: , Eris was the first TNO known to be more massive than

text: Pluto

text: In the 1990s, astronomers began finding other objects at least as far away as Pluto, now known as Kuiper Belt objects, or KBOs. Many of these shared some of Pluto's key orbital characteristics and are now called plutinos. Pluto came to be seen as the largest member of a new class of objects, and some astronomers stopped referring to Pluto as a planet. Pluto's eccentric and inclined orbit, while very unusual for a planet in the Solar System, fits in well with the other KBOs. New York City's newly renovated Hayden Planetarium did not include Pluto in its exhibit of the planets when it reopened as the Rose Center for Earth and Space in 2000.

text: In the 1990s, astronomers began finding other objects at least as far away as Pluto, now known as

text: Kuiper Belt object

text: s, or KBOs. Many of these shared some of Pluto's key orbital characteristics and are now called

text: plutinos

text: . Pluto came to be seen as the largest member of a new class of objects, and some astronomers stopped referring to Pluto as a planet. Pluto's eccentric and inclined orbit, while very unusual for a planet in the Solar System, fits in well with the other KBOs. New York City's newly renovated

text: Hayden Planetarium

text: did not include Pluto in its exhibit of the planets when it reopened as the

text: Rose Center for Earth and Space

text: in 2000.

text: As of 2008, only five objects in the Solar System (Ceres, Eris, and the KBOs Pluto, Makemake and Haumea) are listed as dwarf planets by the IAU. However, 90482 Orcus, 28978 Ixion and many other Kuiper-belt objects are large enough to be in hydrostatic equilibrium; most of them will probably qualify when more is known about them.

text: As of 2008, only five objects in the Solar System (Ceres, Eris, and the KBOs Pluto, Makemake and Haumea) are listed as dwarf planets by the IAU. However,

text: 90482 Orcus

text: , 28978 Ixion and

text: many other Kuiper-belt objects

text: are large enough to be in hydrostatic equilibrium; most of them will probably qualify when more is known about them.

text: Marsden won enmity with a segment of the public as a leader of the campaign to reclassify Pluto thus more inclusively with the newly discovered and rapidly growing class of objects, the "Trans-Neptunians", the discovery of which was made possible by CCD-array detectors and dedicated surveys or incidental discoveries of these objects with relatively large telescopes.  Some felt emotionally that the recognition of the suggested "dual-citizenship" would be to downgrade Pluto. Partly at his urging, the International Astronomical Union voted at a meeting in Prague in 2006 to designate Pluto and three asteroids “dwarf planets.”, which are objects that have not dynamically cleared their orbits of other debris (except, e.g., for collections of objects stably librating dynamically at the "Lagrange-points", the libration points L4 and L5 of large, classical planets, as in the case of the Jovian "Trojan" asteroids).

text: Because it would have taken at least a billion years for the group to have diffused as far as it has, the collision that created the Haumea family is thought to have occurred very early in the Solar System's history. This conflicts with the findings of Rabinowitz and colleagues who found in their studies of the group that their surfaces were remarkably bright; their colour suggests that they have recently (i.e. within the last 100 million years) been resurfaced by fresh ice. Over a timescale as long as a billion years, energy from the Sun would have reddened and darkened their surfaces, and no plausible explanation has been found to account for their apparent youth.

text: The carbonaceous body belongs to an exclusive group of 33 known asteroids with a spectral P-type in the Tholen classification scheme. It is a member of the Hilda family, a large group of asteroids that orbit in resonance with the gas giant Jupiter. Hildian asteroids are thought to have originated from the Kuiper belt in the outer Solar System.

text: The carbonaceous body belongs to an exclusive group of 33 known asteroids with a spectral

text: P-type

text: in the

text: Tholen

text: classification scheme. It is a member of the

text: Hilda family

text: , a large group of asteroids that orbit in

text: resonance

text: with the gas giant Jupiter. Hildian asteroids are thought to have originated from the

text: Kuiper belt

text: in the outer Solar System.

text: Makemake was discovered on March 31, 2005, by a team led by Michael E. Brown, and announced on July 29, 2005. Initially, it was known as  and later given the minor-planet number 136472. Makemake was recognized as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in July 2008. Its name derives from Makemake in the mythology of the Rapa Nui people of Easter Island.

text: Makemake was discovered on March 31, 2005, by a team led by

text: Michael E. Brown

text: , and announced on July 29, 2005. Initially, it was known as  and later given the minor-planet number 136472. Makemake was recognized as a dwarf planet by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) in July 2008. Its name derives from

text: Makemake

text: in the mythology of the

text: Rapa Nui people

text: of

text: Easter Island

text: As a member of the Haumea family,  is suspected of being an icy mantle collisional fragment from dwarf planet Haumea.  With an absolute magnitude (H) of 4.7, and a Haumea-family albedo of 0.7, this object would have a diameter of 158 km.

text: As a member of the Haumea family,  is suspected of being an icy mantle collisional fragment from

text: dwarf planet

text: Haumea

text: .  With an

text: absolute magnitude

text: (H) of 4.7, and a Haumea-family

text: albedo

text: of 0.7, this object would have a diameter of 158 km.

text: The 2012 UK meteoroid was an object that entered the atmosphere above the United Kingdom on Friday, 21 September 2012, around 11pm. Many news agencies across the UK reported this fact.

text: The 2012 UK meteoroid was an object that

text: entered the atmosphere

text: above the

text: United Kingdom

text: on Friday, 21 September 2012, around 11pm. Many news agencies across the UK reported this fact.

text: Meteorites are often divided into three overall categories based on whether they are dominantly composed of rocky material (stony meteorites), metallic material (iron meteorites), or mixtures (stony–iron meteorites).  These categories have been in use since at least the early 19th century but do not have much genetic significance; they are simply a traditional and convenient way of grouping specimens.  In fact, the term "stony iron" is a misnomer as currently used. One group of chondrites (CB) has over 50% metal by volume and contains meteorites that were called stony irons until their affinities with chondrites were recognized.  Some iron meteorites also contain many silicate inclusions but are rarely described as stony irons.

text: Meteorites are often divided into three overall categories based on whether they are dominantly composed of rocky material (

text: stony meteorite

text: s), metallic material (

text: iron meteorite

text: s), or mixtures (

text: stony–iron meteorite

text: s).  These categories have been in use since at least the early 19th century but do not have much genetic significance; they are simply a traditional and convenient way of grouping specimens.  In fact, the term "stony iron" is a misnomer as currently used. One group of chondrites (CB) has over 50% metal by volume and contains meteorites that were called stony irons until their affinities with chondrites were recognized.  Some iron meteorites also contain many

text: silicate

text: inclusions

text: but are rarely described as stony irons.

text: While there are space ships and domed cities throughout the Solar System, the series handles technology in a realistic way. Traditional projectile weaponry and missiles are the weapons of choice for armed spaceships. Artificial gravity is produced either through rotation or linear acceleration. Ship speed is limited to acceleration curves no higher than what the human body can handle. Standard practice is to keep ships at roughly 1g, but in emergencies crews may run at higher acceleration curves for short bursts. Crew and passengers use crash couches whose padding and injections of stimulants and other drugs keep occupants from being crushed and losing consciousness under high thrust. Water and oxygen are major concerns for people living out in the asteroid belt and beyond, and giant ships harvest ice from the rings of Saturn to supply it. Communications can only travel at the speed of light, limiting both the dissemination of information and the ability of far off powers to react to rapidly changing situations, a theme throughout the series.

text: While there are space ships and domed cities throughout the Solar System, the series handles technology in a realistic way. Traditional projectile weaponry and missiles are the weapons of choice for armed spaceships.

text: Artificial gravity

text: is produced either through rotation or linear acceleration. Ship speed is limited to acceleration curves no higher than what the human body can handle. Standard practice is to keep ships at roughly 1g, but in emergencies crews may run at higher acceleration curves for short bursts. Crew and passengers use crash couches whose padding and injections of stimulants and other drugs keep occupants from being crushed and losing consciousness under high thrust. Water and oxygen are major concerns for people living out in the asteroid belt and beyond, and giant ships harvest ice from the

text: rings of Saturn

text: to supply it. Communications can only travel at the speed of light, limiting both the dissemination of information and the ability of far off powers to react to rapidly changing situations, a theme throughout the series.

text: Wolf 424A is a cool main sequence red dwarf star of approximately 0.14 solar masses (147 Jupiters) and a radius of 0.17 solar radii. Its companion, Wolf 424B, is a cool main sequence red dwarf star of approximately 0.13 solar masses (136 Jupiters) and a radius of 0.14 solar radii. They are two of the dimmest known objects within 15 light years of the Sun. In 1967, it was discovered that both are flare stars that undergo random increases in luminosity. The system has been designated FL Virginis, and may experience sunspot activity. The stars may undergo variation in the level of flare activity over periods lasting several years.

text: Wolf 424A is a cool

text: main sequence

text: red dwarf

text: star

text: of approximately 0.14

text: solar mass

text: es (147

text: Jupiters

text: ) and a radius of 0.17 solar radii. Its companion, Wolf 424B, is a cool

text: main sequence

text: red dwarf

text: star

text: of approximately 0.13

text: solar mass

text: es (136

text: Jupiters

text: ) and a radius of 0.14 solar radii. They are two of the dimmest known objects within 15 light years of the Sun. In 1967, it was discovered that both are

text: flare star

text: s that undergo random increases in luminosity. The system has been

text: designated

text: FL Virginis, and may experience sunspot activity. The stars may undergo variation in the level of flare activity over periods lasting several years.

text: In the early 20th century, the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common, and this remains today. A comet is named after its first independent discoverers, up to a maximum of three names, separated by hyphens. The IAU prefers to credit at most two discoverers, and it credits more than three discoverers only when "in rare cases where named lost comets are identified with a rediscovery that has already received a new name." In recent years, many comets have been discovered by instruments operated by large teams of astronomers, and in this case, comets may be named for the instrument (for example, Comet IRAS–Araki–Alcock (C/1983 H1) was discovered independently by the IRAS satellite and amateur astronomers Genichi Araki and George Alcock). Comet 105P/Singer Brewster, discovered by Stephen Singer-Brewster, should by rights have been named "105P/Singer-Brewster", but this could be misinterpreted as a joint discovery by two astronomers named Singer and Brewster, respectively, so the hyphen was replaced by a space. The spaces, apostrophes and other characters in discoverer names are preserved in comet names, like 32P/Comas Solà, 6P/d'Arrest, 53P/Van Biesbroeck, Comet van den Bergh (1974g), 66P/du Toit, or 57P/du Toit–Neujmin–Delporte.

text: In the early 20th century, the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common, and this remains today. A comet is named after its first independent discoverers, up to a maximum of three names, separated by hyphens. The IAU prefers to credit at most two discoverers, and it credits more than three discoverers only when "in rare cases where named lost comets are identified with a rediscovery that has already received a new name." In recent years, many comets have been discovered by instruments operated by large teams of astronomers, and in this case, comets may be named for the instrument (for example,

text: Comet IRAS–Araki–Alcock

text: (C/1983 H1) was discovered independently by the

text: IRAS

text: satellite and amateur astronomers

text: Genichi Araki

text: and

text: George Alcock

text: ). Comet

text: 105P/Singer Brewster

text: , discovered by

text: Stephen Singer-Brewster

text: , should by rights have been named "105P/Singer-Brewster", but this could be misinterpreted as a joint discovery by two astronomers named Singer and Brewster, respectively, so the hyphen was replaced by a space. The spaces, apostrophes and other characters in discoverer names are preserved in comet names, like

text: 32P/Comas Solà

text: 53P/Van Biesbroeck

text: Comet van den Bergh (1974g)

text: 66P/du Toit

text: , or

text: 57P/du Toit–Neujmin–Delporte

text: The objective of the game is to guide special shaped meteors though a series of rotating disks and save the planet Roo and ultimately the Roogoo race. Shapes include triangles, squares, circles, stars, and so forth. Each level, the player is given a set level of meteors to try to allow safely to pass to the bottom.

text: The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt, but consisting mainly of objects composed primarily of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. Though it is estimated to contain anything from dozens to thousands of dwarf planets, it is composed mainly of small Solar System bodies. Many of the larger Kuiper belt objects, such as Quaoar, Varuna, and Orcus, may prove to be dwarf planets with further data. There are estimated to be over 100,000 Kuiper belt objects with a diameter greater than 50 km, but the total mass of the Kuiper belt is thought to be only a tenth or even a hundredth the mass of Earth. Many Kuiper belt objects have multiple satellites, and most have orbits that take them outside the plane of the ecliptic.

text: The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt, but consisting mainly of objects composed primarily of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. Though it is estimated to contain anything from dozens to thousands of dwarf planets, it is composed mainly of small Solar System bodies. Many of the larger Kuiper belt objects, such as

text: Quaoar

text: Varuna

text: , and

text: Orcus

text: , may prove to be dwarf planets with further data. There are estimated to be over 100,000 Kuiper belt objects with a diameter greater than 50 km, but the total mass of the Kuiper belt is thought to be only a tenth or even a hundredth the mass of Earth. Many Kuiper belt objects have multiple satellites, and most have orbits that take them outside the plane of the ecliptic.

text: Solar 2 also includes a variety of achievements and object-oriented missions that can be played at any time. Missions can be found following the directional arrows in the interface, and the AI keeps track of which missions the player has finished. The game also keeps record of several accomplishments the player has reached, such as the distance travelled, the amount of objects and enemies destroyed by the player or the spaceships belonging to the player. Solar 2 allows the player to save progress at any point. A "save system" feature is also present; it allows the player to save specific configurations of stars and planets that the player has created. The player can respawn from them at any time.

text: Many Solar System objects are known to possess satellite systems, though their origin is still unclear.  Notable examples include the largest satellite system, the Jovian system, with 67 known moons (including the large Galilean moons)  and the Saturnian System with 62 known moons (and the most visible ring system in the Solar System).  Both satellite systems are large and diverse.  In fact all of the giant planets of the Solar System possess large satellite systems as well as planetary rings, and it is inferred that this is a general pattern.  Several objects farther from the Sun also have satellite systems consisting of multiple moons, including the complex Plutonian system where multiple objects orbit a common center of mass, as well as many asteroids and plutinos.  Apart from the Earth-Moon system and Mars' system of two tiny natural satellites, the other terrestrial planets are generally not considered satellite systems, although some have been orbited by artificial satellites originating from Earth.

text: Many Solar System objects are known to possess satellite systems, though their origin is still unclear.  Notable examples include the largest satellite system, the Jovian system, with

text: 67 known moons

text: (including the large

text: Galilean moons

text: )  and the Saturnian System with

text: 62 known moons

text: (and the most visible ring system in the Solar System).  Both satellite systems are large and diverse.  In fact all of the giant planets of the Solar System possess large satellite systems as well as planetary rings, and it is inferred that this is a general pattern.  Several objects farther from the Sun also have satellite systems consisting of multiple moons, including the complex Plutonian system where multiple objects orbit a common

text: center of mass

text: , as well as many asteroids and plutinos.  Apart from the Earth-Moon system and Mars' system of two tiny natural satellites, the other terrestrial planets are generally not considered satellite systems, although some have been orbited by artificial satellites originating from Earth.

text: Eris's orbit is highly eccentric, and brings Eris to within 37.9 AU of the Sun, a typical perihelion for scattered objects. This is within the orbit of Pluto, but still safe from direct interaction with Neptune (29.8–30.4 AU). Pluto, on the other hand, like other plutinos, follows a less inclined and less eccentric orbit and, protected by orbital resonance, can cross Neptune's orbit. It is possible that Eris is in a 17:5 resonance with Neptune, though further observations will be required to check that hypothesis. Unlike the eight planets, whose orbits all lie roughly in the same plane as the Earth's, Eris's orbit is highly inclined: It is tilted at an angle of about 44 degrees to the ecliptic. In about 800 years, Eris will be closer to the Sun than Pluto for some time (see the graph at the right).

text: Eris's orbit is highly

text: eccentric

text: , and brings Eris to within 37.9 AU of the Sun, a typical perihelion for

text: scattered objects

text: . This is within the orbit of Pluto, but still safe from direct interaction with Neptune (29.8–30.4 AU). Pluto, on the other hand, like other

text: plutino

text: s, follows a less inclined and less eccentric orbit and, protected by

text: orbital resonance

text: , can cross Neptune's orbit. It is possible that Eris is in a 17:5 resonance with Neptune, though further observations will be required to check that hypothesis. Unlike the eight planets, whose orbits all lie roughly in the same plane as the Earth's, Eris's orbit is highly

text: inclined

text: : It is tilted at an angle of about 44

text: degrees

text: to the

text: ecliptic

text: . In about 800 years, Eris will be closer to the Sun than Pluto for some time (see the graph at the right).

text: Under this definition, the Solar System is considered to have eight planets. Bodies that fulfill the first two conditions but not the third (such as Ceres, Pluto, and Eris) are classified as dwarf planets, provided they are not also natural satellites of other planets. Originally an IAU committee had proposed a definition that would have included a much larger number of planets as it did not include (c) as a criterion. After much discussion, it was decided via a vote that those bodies should instead be classified as dwarf planets.

text: Under this definition, the Solar System is considered to have eight planets. Bodies that fulfill the first two conditions but not the third (such as Ceres, Pluto, and Eris) are classified as

text: dwarf planet

text: s, provided they are not also

text: natural satellite

text: s of other planets. Originally an IAU committee had proposed a definition that would have included a much larger number of planets as it did not include (c) as a criterion. After much discussion, it was decided via a vote that those bodies should instead be classified as dwarf planets.

text: The game revolves around a long-dead astronaut who is discovered by an advanced alien race. In order to learn what he was, the aliens use advanced technology to reconstruct his memories. They view the memories of his life, relationships, and career, which culminate in errant meteoroids impacting his spaceship, with his final memory being drifting through the Solar System. After viewing all his memories, they finally realize the true nature of humanity, and leave him to drift in space yet again.

text: The game revolves around a long-dead

text: astronaut

text: who is discovered by an advanced

text: alien

text: race. In order to learn what he was, the aliens use advanced technology to reconstruct his memories. They view the memories of his life, relationships, and

text: career

text: , which culminate in errant

text: meteoroid

text: s impacting his

text: spaceship

text: , with his final memory being drifting through the

text: Solar System

text: . After viewing all his memories, they finally realize the true nature of humanity, and leave him to drift in space yet again.

text: Three waves of fighters attack, alternating with three waves of cruisers. Enemy ships enter the screen one at a time. A ship flying off the left edge of the screen wraps around to the right side and attacks again. A new fighter can appear with others still on the screen, whereas a new cruiser will not come until the previous one is destroyed. The fighters pose only the threat of collision, while the cruisers fire on the player's ship. The fighter types are named Swoopers, LTFs (Light Triangular Fighters), and Saucers. The cruisers are called Urbites, Dramites, and Bynites. Each level ends with an asteroid belt, in which an array of asteroids advance on the ship and must be avoided or shot. At the end of each asteroid belt, any remaining asteroids are cleared away and the color of the ground is changed, then a new wave of Swoopers begins. Starting with level 4, the Swoopers are preceded by a random number of Killer Satellites, which come without the usual computer warning.

text: Three waves of fighters attack, alternating with three waves of cruisers. Enemy ships enter the screen one at a time. A ship flying off the left edge of the screen

text: wraps around

text: to the right side and attacks again. A new fighter can appear with others still on the screen, whereas a new cruiser will not come until the previous one is destroyed. The fighters pose only the threat of collision, while the cruisers fire on the player's ship. The fighter types are named Swoopers, LTFs (Light Triangular Fighters), and Saucers. The cruisers are called Urbites, Dramites, and Bynites. Each level ends with an asteroid belt, in which an array of

text: asteroid

text: s advance on the ship and must be avoided or shot. At the end of each asteroid belt, any remaining asteroids are cleared away and the color of the ground is changed, then a new wave of Swoopers begins. Starting with level 4, the Swoopers are preceded by a random number of Killer Satellites, which come without the usual computer warning.

text: Gravitational interactions of galaxies with each other and clusters cause a significant scatter in the normal plot of the Hubble diagram. The peculiar velocities associated with galaxies superimpose a rough trace of the mass of virialized objects in the Universe. This effect leads to such phenomena as nearby galaxies (such as the Andromeda Galaxy) exhibiting blueshifts as we fall towards a common barycenter, and redshift maps of clusters showing a Fingers of God effect due to the scatter of peculiar velocities in a roughly spherical distribution. This added component gives cosmologists a chance to measure the masses of objects independent of the mass to light ratio (the ratio of a galaxy's mass in solar masses to its brightness in solar luminosities), an important tool for measuring dark matter.

text: Gravitational interactions

text: of galaxies with each other and clusters cause a significant

text: scatter

text: in the normal plot of the Hubble diagram. The

text: peculiar velocities

text: associated with galaxies superimpose a rough trace of the

text: mass

text: of

text: virialized objects

text: in the Universe. This effect leads to such phenomena as nearby galaxies (such as the

text: Andromeda Galaxy

text: ) exhibiting blueshifts as we fall towards a common

text: barycenter

text: , and redshift maps of clusters showing a

text: Fingers of God

text: effect due to the scatter of peculiar velocities in a roughly spherical distribution. This added component gives cosmologists a chance to measure the masses of objects independent of the

text: mass to light ratio

text: (the ratio of a galaxy's mass in solar masses to its brightness in solar luminosities), an important tool for measuring

text: dark matter

text: The visible phenomenon due to the passage of an asteroid or meteoroid through the atmosphere is called a meteor.  If the object reaches the ground, then it is called a meteorite.  During the Chelyabinsk meteoroid's traversal, there was a bright object trailing smoke, then an air burst (explosion) that caused a powerful blast wave, the cause of the damage to thousands of buildings in Chelyabinsk and its neighbouring towns. The fragments entered dark flight (without the emission of light) and created a strewn field of numerous meteorites on the snow-covered ground (officially named Chelyabinsk meteorites).

text: The visible phenomenon due to the passage of an

text: asteroid

text: or

text: meteoroid

text: through the atmosphere is called a

text: meteor

text: .  If the object reaches the ground, then it is called a

text: meteorite

text: .  During the Chelyabinsk meteoroid's traversal, there was a bright object trailing smoke, then an

text: air burst

text: (explosion) that caused a powerful

text: blast wave

text: , the cause of the damage to thousands of buildings in Chelyabinsk and its neighbouring towns. The fragments entered

text: dark flight

text: (without the emission of light) and created a

text: strewn field

text: of numerous meteorites on the snow-covered ground (officially named Chelyabinsk meteorites).

text: The rotation rates of the Eos family asteroids are randomly distributed. This randomization resulted from subsequent collisions with other bodies, implying that the asteroids retain some "memory" of the rotation rate of the parent body. Thus the original object had a rotation rate of about 1–3 days. Evolutionary models of this spread in the rotation rate of the Eos family implies that this group may be comparable to the age of the Solar System. Numerical simulations of the collision that created the Eos family suggest that the smaller body was about a tenth the mass of the parent and struck from a direction out of the ecliptic plane. The parent object had an estimated diameter of 240 km. The best fit model implies a family age of 1.1 billion years.

text: The rotation rates of the Eos family asteroids are randomly distributed. This randomization resulted from subsequent collisions with other bodies, implying that the asteroids retain some "memory" of the rotation rate of the parent body. Thus the original object had a rotation rate of about 1–3 days. Evolutionary models of this spread in the rotation rate of the Eos family implies that this group may be comparable to the age of the

text: Solar System

text: . Numerical simulations of the collision that created the Eos family suggest that the smaller body was about a tenth the mass of the parent and struck from a direction out of the ecliptic plane. The parent object had an estimated diameter of 240 km. The best fit model implies a family age of 1.1 billion years.

text: </includeonly>||-| 1986!scope=row| | | Computational astronomy||-| 1987!scope=row| | | Variable stars||-| 1988!scope=row| | | Astrophotography||-| 1989!scope=row| | | Double stars||-| 1990!scope=row| | | Meteorites||-| 1991!scope=row| | | Asteroid orbits||-| 1992!scope=row|  & Helen Lines| | Photoelectric photometry of variable stars||-| 1993!scope=row| | /| Comets||-| 1994!scope=row| | | ALPO founder| |-| 1995!scope=row| | | Planetary imaging| |-| 1996!scope=row| | | Variable stars||-| 1997!scope=row| | | Variable stars/occultations||-| 1998!scope=row| | | Variable stars/comets||-| 1999!scope=row| | | Trans-Neptunian objects||-| 2000!scope=row| | | Deep-sky imaging/Hyakutake| |-| 2001!scope=row| | | Computing comet orbits| |-| 2002!scope=row|| colspan = 3| No award|-| 2003!scope=row| | | Near-Earth asteroids| |-| 2004!scope=row| | | Imaging and image processing| |-| 2005!scope=row| | | Light pollution| |-| 2006!scope=row| | | Visual and CCD observations of variable stars/comets| |-| 2007!scope=row| | | R Coronae Borealis stars/variable star monitoring| |-| 2008!scope=row| | | CCD imaging| |-| 2009!scope=row| | | Developing CCD instrumentation and a worldwide sky survey program| |-| 2010!scope=row| | | Adapted Canadian Meteorological Centre forecast products for the purpose of planning observing sessions with highly accurate high resolution point forecasts of cloud cover, transparency, seeing, darkness, wind, temperature and humidity over North and Central America| |-| 2011!scope=row| | | Advancing the fields of extra-solar planet research and stellar astrophysics| |-| 2012!scope=row| | | Photoelectric photometry and high-resolution spectroscopy| |-| 2013!scope=row|| colspan = 3| No award|-| 2014!scope=row| | | Instrumental in helping redefine the Z Cam sub-type of dwarf novae, and discovered the recurrent nova V745 Sco in outburst in the morning sky, triggering an AAVSO Alert Notice and significant attention from the astronomical community| |-| 2015!scope=row||colspan=3| No award|-|}

text: </includeonly>||-| 1986!scope=row| | | Computational astronomy||-| 1987!scope=row| | | Variable stars||-| 1988!scope=row| | |

text: Astrophotography

text: ||-| 1989!scope=row| | |

text: Double star

text: s||-| 1990!scope=row| | |

text: Meteorite

text: s||-| 1991!scope=row| | | Asteroid

text: orbit

text: s||-| 1992!scope=row|  &

text: Helen Lines

text: | | Photoelectric photometry of variable stars||-| 1993!scope=row| | /| Comets||-| 1994!scope=row| | |

entity_name: Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers

text: ALPO

text: founder| |-| 1995!scope=row| | | Planetary imaging| |-| 1996!scope=row| | | Variable stars||-| 1997!scope=row| | | Variable stars/occultations||-| 1998!scope=row| | | Variable stars/comets||-| 1999!scope=row| | |

text: Trans-Neptunian object

text: s||-| 2000!scope=row| | |

text: Deep-sky

text: imaging/

text: Hyakutake

text: | |-| 2001!scope=row| | | Computing comet orbits| |-| 2002!scope=row|| colspan = 3| No award|-| 2003!scope=row| | |

text: Near-Earth asteroid

text: s| |-| 2004!scope=row| | | Imaging and

text: image processing

text: | |-| 2005!scope=row| | |

text: Light pollution

text: | |-| 2006!scope=row| | | Visual and

text: CCD

text: observations of variable stars/comets| |-| 2007!scope=row| | |

text: R Coronae Borealis

text: stars/variable star monitoring| |-| 2008!scope=row| | | CCD imaging| |-| 2009!scope=row| | | Developing CCD instrumentation and a worldwide

text: sky survey program

text: | |-| 2010!scope=row| | | Adapted

text: Canadian Meteorological Centre

text: forecast products for the purpose of planning observing sessions with highly accurate high resolution point forecasts of cloud cover, transparency, seeing, darkness, wind, temperature and humidity over North and Central America| |-| 2011!scope=row| | | Advancing the fields of extra-solar planet research and stellar astrophysics| |-| 2012!scope=row| | | Photoelectric

text: photometry

text: and high-resolution

text: spectroscopy

text: | |-| 2013!scope=row|| colspan = 3| No award|-| 2014!scope=row| | | Instrumental in helping redefine the Z Cam sub-type of dwarf novae, and discovered the recurrent nova V745 Sco in outburst in the morning sky, triggering an AAVSO Alert Notice and significant attention from the astronomical community| |-| 2015!scope=row||colspan=3| No award|-|}

text: The nucleus of some comets may be fragile, a conclusion supported by the observation of comets splitting apart. A significant cometary disruption was that of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9, which was discovered in 1993. A close encounter in July 1992 had broken it into pieces, and over a period of six days in July 1994, these pieces fell into Jupiter's atmosphere—the first time astronomers had observed a collision between two objects in the Solar System. Other splitting comets include 3D/Biela in 1846 and 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann from 1995 to 2006. Greek historian Ephorus reported that a comet split apart as far back as the winter of 372–373 BC. Comets are suspected of splitting due to thermal stress, internal gas pressure, or impact.

text: The nucleus of some comets may be fragile, a conclusion supported by the observation of comets splitting apart. A significant cometary disruption was that of

text: Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9

text: , which was discovered in 1993. A close encounter in July 1992 had broken it into pieces, and over a period of six days in July 1994, these pieces fell into Jupiter's atmosphere—the first time astronomers had observed a collision between two objects in the Solar System. Other splitting comets include

text: in 1846 and

text: from 1995 to 2006. Greek historian

text: Ephorus

text: reported that a comet split apart as far back as the winter of 372–373 BC. Comets are suspected of splitting due to thermal stress, internal gas pressure, or impact.

text: In the late-1920s, Monnig developed an interest in meteorites and their contribution to astronomers' studies on the origins of the Solar System. He was a founding member of the Society for Research on Meteorites (later renamed Meteoritical Society).

text: In the late-1920s, Monnig developed an interest in

text: meteorite

text: s and their contribution to astronomers' studies on the origins of the

text: Solar System

text: . He was a founding member of the Society for Research on Meteorites (later renamed

text: Meteoritical Society

text: 50000 Quaoar and 90377 Sedna are two Solar System objects discovered in this way by Michael E. Brown and others at Caltech using the Palomar Observatory's Samuel Oschin telescope of  and the Palomar-Quest large-area CCD camera. The ability of astronomers to track the positions and movements of such celestial bodies is crucial to the understanding of the Solar System and its interrelated past, present, and future with others in the Universe.

text: 50000 Quaoar

text: and

text: 90377 Sedna

text: are two Solar System objects discovered in this way by

text: Michael E. Brown

text: and others at Caltech using the

text: Palomar Observatory

text: 's

text: Samuel Oschin telescope

text: of  and the Palomar-Quest large-area CCD camera. The ability of astronomers to track the positions and movements of such celestial bodies is crucial to the understanding of the Solar System and its interrelated past, present, and future with others in the Universe.

text: The goal of the mission is to understand the formation of the Pluto system, the Kuiper belt, and the transformation of the early Solar System.  The spacecraft collected data on the atmospheres, surfaces, interiors and environments of Pluto and its moons. It will also study other objects in the Kuiper belt. "By way of comparison, New Horizons gathered 5,000 times as much data at Pluto as Mariner did at the Red Planet."

text: The goal of the mission is to understand the formation of the Pluto system, the Kuiper belt, and the transformation of the early Solar System.  The spacecraft collected data on the atmospheres, surfaces, interiors and environments of Pluto and its moons. It will also study other objects in the Kuiper belt. "By way of comparison, New Horizons gathered 5,000 times as much data at Pluto as

text: Mariner

text: did at the

text: Red Planet

text: R Doradus (HD 29712 or P Doradus) is the name of a red giant Mira variable star in the far-southern constellation Dorado, although visually it appears more closely associated with the constellation Reticulum. Its distance from Earth is . Having a uniform disk diameter of  arcsec, it is currently believed to be the star with the largest apparent size as viewed from Earth (not counting the Sun). The estimated diameter of R Doradus is 515 ± 70 million km (3.46 AU) or  times the diameter of the Sun. If placed at the centre of the Solar System, the orbit of Mars and most of the main asteroid belt would be contained within the star.

text: R Doradus (HD 29712 or P Doradus) is the name of a

text: red giant

text: Mira variable

text: star

text: in the far-southern

text: constellation

text: Dorado

text: , although visually it appears more closely associated with the constellation

text: Reticulum

text: . Its distance from Earth is . Having a

text: uniform disk diameter

text: of

text: arcsec

text: , it is currently believed to be the star with the largest apparent size as viewed from Earth (not counting the

text: Sun

text: ). The estimated diameter of R Doradus is 515 ± 70 million km (3.46 AU) or  times the diameter of the

text: Sun

text: . If placed at the centre of the

text: Solar System

text: , the orbit of

text: Mars

text: and most of the main asteroid belt would be contained within the star.

text: The music video includes the same boy (David Beaudoin) from Sinclar's "Love Generation" and "Rock This Party (Everybody Dance Now)" music clips. In the video, the boy wakes up and notices on the news, that the earth is going to be destroyed by a meteor. He decides to build a space ship of his own and takes his dog with him in the space ship. During the construction of the spaceship, toys came out from under the boy's bed, and start dancing, while Bob Sinclar appears in the video as a tiny person playing "World, Hold On (Children of the Sky)" using cookies as records. The boy takes no notice of either the toys or Bob Sinclar. The boy then launches the space ship and shoots through the Solar System. The Solar System looks exactly like the poster in the boy's room. All the planets are labeled with information including diameter and other facts. In outer space, he sees the meteor approaching the earth. He fires hundreds of basketballs at the meteor, destroys it, and saves the earth. He then lands the spaceship in his room. Back on earth, he gets a reward and media coverage, presenting him as a hero. While he is getting praise, his mother comes and kisses him on the cheek. This wakes him up and causes him to realize that it was all a dream.

text: The

text: music video

text: includes the same boy (David Beaudoin) from Sinclar's "

text: Love Generation

text: " and "

text: Rock This Party (Everybody Dance Now)

text: " music clips. In the video, the boy wakes up and notices on the news, that the earth is going to be destroyed by a meteor. He decides to build a

text: space ship

text: of his own and takes his

text: dog

text: with him in the space ship. During the construction of the spaceship, toys came out from under the boy's bed, and start dancing, while Bob Sinclar appears in the video as a tiny person playing "World, Hold On (Children of the Sky)" using cookies as records. The boy takes no notice of either the toys or Bob Sinclar. The boy then launches the space ship and shoots through the Solar System. The Solar System looks exactly like the poster in the boy's room. All the planets are labeled with information including diameter and other facts. In

text: outer space

text: , he sees the

text: meteor

text: approaching the earth. He fires hundreds of basketballs at the meteor, destroys it, and saves the earth. He then lands the spaceship in his room. Back on earth, he gets a reward and media coverage, presenting him as a

text: hero

text: . While he is getting praise, his mother comes and kisses him on the cheek. This wakes him up and causes him to realize that it was all a dream.

text: The actual mass and radius of this body remain known, but it has a minimum mass of nearly 10 times that of Jupiter and a radius of probably no more than 1.2 times Jupiter's. Most likely this is a brown dwarf rather than a planet. The reason why the object's true mass is unknown is due to the undetermined inclination of its orbital plane. Follow up observations via direct imaging may determine its radius and orbital inclination, thereby giving its density and surface gravity, which will allow a determination as to whether this object is a brown dwarf or a supermassive planet.

text: The actual mass and radius of this body remain known, but it has a

text: minimum mass

text: of nearly 10 times that of Jupiter and a radius of probably no more than 1.2 times Jupiter's. Most likely this is a

text: brown dwarf

text: rather than a planet. The reason why the object's

text: true mass

text: is unknown is due to the undetermined

text: inclination

text: of its orbital plane. Follow up observations via direct imaging may determine its radius and orbital inclination, thereby giving its density and surface gravity, which will allow a determination as to whether this object is a brown dwarf or a supermassive planet.

text: Pluto and Hades differ in character, but they are not distinct figures and share their two major myths. In Greek cosmogony, the god received the rule of the underworld in a three-way division of sovereignty over the world, with his brothers Zeus ruling the Sky and Poseidon the Sea. His central narrative is the abduction of Persephone to be his wife and the queen of his realm. Plouton as the name of the ruler of the underworld first appears in Greek literature of the Classical period, in the works of the Athenian playwrights and of the philosopher Plato, who is the major Greek source on its significance. Under the name Pluto, the god appears in other myths in a secondary role, mostly as the possessor of a quest-object, and especially in the descent of Orpheus or other heroes to the underworld.

text: Pluto and Hades differ in character, but they are not distinct figures and share their two major myths. In Greek

text: cosmogony

text: , the god received the rule of the underworld in a three-way division of sovereignty over the world, with his brothers

text: Zeus

text: ruling the Sky and

text: Poseidon

text: the Sea. His central narrative is the

text: abduction

text: of Persephone to be his wife and the queen of his realm. Plouton as the name of the ruler of the underworld first appears in

text: Greek literature

text: of the

text: Classical period

text: , in the works of the

text: Athenian playwrights

text: and of the philosopher

text: Plato

text: , who is the major Greek source on its significance. Under the name Pluto, the god appears in other myths in a secondary role, mostly as the possessor of a

text: quest

text: -object, and especially in the descent of

text: Orpheus

text: or other

text: heroes

text: to the underworld.

text: Many asteroids have been placed in groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. Apart from the broadest divisions, it is customary to name a group of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered. Groups are relatively loose dynamical associations, whereas families are tighter and result from the catastrophic break-up of a large parent asteroid sometime in the past. Families have only been recognized within the asteroid belt. They were first recognized by Kiyotsugu Hirayama in 1918 and are often called Hirayama families in his honor.

text: Many asteroids have been placed in groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. Apart from the broadest divisions, it is customary to name a group of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered. Groups are relatively loose dynamical associations, whereas families are tighter and result from the catastrophic break-up of a large parent asteroid sometime in the past. Families have only been recognized within the

text: asteroid belt

text: . They were first recognized by

text: Kiyotsugu Hirayama

text: in 1918 and are often called

text: Hirayama families

text: in his honor.

text: The fourth episode begins at the Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA, where Cox draws comparisons of the canyon to Mars and the massive Valles Marineris. A trip to Kīlauea on Hawaii shows the constant geological activity of Earth, and again a comparison to Mars and the massive Olympus Mons is seen. Both comparisons are insightful in the sense that Earth's systems are still dynamic and active whereas Mars' have gradually slowed into inactivity. Cox then switches view closer to the sun and the scorched greenhouse planet Venus, a planet often referred to as "Earth's twin", and compares it to the vulcan geology of the Deccan Plateau. An example of Earth's interconnectivity with the solar system reveals that Jupiter's gravitational effect could potentially send an asteroid through the Asteroid Belt on a collision course with Earth, as evidenced by Meteor Crater. The same gravitational force is also shown to give the Jovian moon Io geological life (given the absence of meteor impact evidence there) as paralleled by the volcanism of Erta Ale in Ethiopia. All in all, with the universal laws of physics at play throughout the solar system, its interconnectedness can also be seen.

text: The fourth episode begins at the

text: Grand Canyon

text: , Arizona, USA, where Cox draws comparisons of the canyon to Mars and the massive

text: Valles Marineris

text: . A trip to

text: Kīlauea

text: on

text: Hawaii

text: shows the constant geological activity of Earth, and again a comparison to Mars and the massive

text: Olympus Mons

text: is seen. Both comparisons are insightful in the sense that Earth's systems are still dynamic and active whereas Mars' have gradually slowed into inactivity. Cox then switches view closer to the sun and the scorched greenhouse planet

text: Venus

text: , a planet often referred to as "Earth's twin", and compares it to the vulcan geology of the

text: Deccan Plateau

text: . An example of Earth's interconnectivity with the solar system reveals that Jupiter's gravitational effect could potentially send an asteroid through the

text: Asteroid Belt

text: on a collision course with Earth, as evidenced by

text: Meteor Crater

text: . The same gravitational force is also shown to give the Jovian moon

text: Io

text: geological life (given the absence of meteor impact evidence there) as paralleled by the volcanism of

text: Erta Ale

text: in Ethiopia. All in all, with the universal laws of physics at play throughout the solar system, its interconnectedness can also be seen.

text: Models for a continuous formation throughout the age of the Solar System illustrate that at weak resonances within the Kuiper belt (such as 5:7 or 8:1), or at the boundaries of stronger resonances, objects can develop weak orbital instabilities over millions of years. The 4:7 resonance in particular has large instability. KBOs can also be shifted into unstable orbits by close passage of massive objects, or through collisions. Over time, the scattered disc would gradually form from these isolated events.

text: Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes, xenon isotope ratios in meteorites are a powerful tool for studying the formation of the solar system. The iodine-xenon method of dating gives the time elapsed between nucleosynthesis and the condensation of a solid object from the solar nebula. In 1960, physicist John H. Reynolds discovered that certain meteorites contained an isotopic anomaly in the form of an overabundance of xenon-129. He inferred that this was a decay product of radioactive iodine-129. This isotope is produced slowly by cosmic ray spallation and nuclear fission, but is produced in quantity only in supernova explosions. Because the half-life of I is comparatively short on a cosmological time scale (16 million years), this demonstrated that only a short time had passed between the supernova and the time the meteorites had solidified and trapped the I. These two events (supernova and solidification of gas cloud) were inferred to have happened during the early history of the Solar System, because the I isotope was likely generated shortly before the Solar System was formed, seeding the solar gas cloud with isotopes from a second source. This supernova source may also have caused collapse of the solar gas cloud.

text: Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes, xenon isotope ratios in

text: meteorite

text: s are a powerful tool for studying the

text: formation of the solar system

text: . The

text: iodine-xenon method

text: of

text: dating

text: gives the time elapsed between

text: nucleosynthesis

text: solar nebula

text: . In 1960, physicist

text: John H. Reynolds

text: discovered that certain

text: meteorite

text: s contained an isotopic anomaly in the form of an overabundance of xenon-129. He inferred that this was a

text: decay product

text: of radioactive

text: . This isotope is produced slowly by

text: cosmic ray spallation

text: and

text: nuclear fission

text: , but is produced in quantity only in supernova explosions. Because the half-life of I is comparatively short on a cosmological time scale (16 million years), this demonstrated that only a short time had passed between the supernova and the time the meteorites had solidified and trapped the I. These two events (supernova and solidification of gas cloud) were inferred to have happened during the early history of the

text: Solar System

text: , because the I isotope was likely generated shortly before the Solar System was formed, seeding the solar gas cloud with isotopes from a second source. This supernova source may also have caused collapse of the solar gas cloud.

text: The region of the Solar System beyond Neptune contains sparse populations of relatively small rocky and icy objects. These include the Kuiper belt, a group which includes the dwarf planet Pluto and other plutoids including Haumea and Makemake. Further out is the scattered disk, a group which includes Eris, a dwarf planet slightly smaller than Pluto, and even more distant detached objects such as Sedna.

text: The region of the

text: Solar System

text: beyond Neptune contains sparse populations of relatively small rocky and icy objects. These include the

text: Kuiper belt

text: , a group which includes the

text: dwarf planet

text: Pluto

text: and other

text: plutoid

text: s including

text: Haumea

text: and

text: Makemake

text: . Further out is the

text: scattered disk

text: , a group which includes

text: Eris

text: , a

text: dwarf planet

text: slightly smaller than Pluto, and even more distant

text: detached object

text: s such as

text: Sedna

text: The Meteors also articulated psychobilly's apolitical stance, a reaction to the right- and left-wing political attitudes which divided other British youth cultures. Fans of The Meteors, known as "the Crazies", are often attributed with inventing the style of slam dancing known as "wrecking", which became synonymous with the psychobilly movement. The short-lived Sharks, formed in Bristol in 1980, followed closely behind The Meteors with their influential album Phantom Rockers. Demented Are Go are a Welsh psychobilly band that was formed around 1982 in Cardiff. They were one of the earliest in the initial wave of bands to mix punk rock with rockabilly, and as a result, are considered to be highly influential to the psychobilly scene. Another significant British band were the Guana Batz, formed in Feltham, Middlesex in 1983. Their first album, 1985's Held Down to Vinyl at Last, has been described by Tiger Army frontman Nick 13 as "the most important release since the Meteors' first two albums."

text: The Meteors also articulated psychobilly's

text: apolitical

text: stance, a reaction to the right- and left-wing political attitudes which divided other British youth cultures. Fans of The Meteors, known as "the Crazies", are often attributed with inventing the style of

text: slam dancing

text: known as "wrecking", which became synonymous with the psychobilly movement. The short-lived Sharks, formed in

text: Bristol

text: in 1980, followed closely behind The Meteors with their influential album Phantom Rockers. Demented Are Go are a Welsh psychobilly band that was formed around 1982 in Cardiff. They were one of the earliest in the initial wave of bands to mix punk rock with rockabilly, and as a result, are considered to be highly influential to the psychobilly scene. Another significant British band were the

text: Guana Batz

text: , formed in

text: Feltham

text: Middlesex

text: in 1983. Their first album, 1985's Held Down to Vinyl at Last, has been described by

text: Tiger Army

text: frontman

text: Nick 13

text: as "the most important release since the Meteors' first two albums."

text: WD 1145+017 b (also known by its EPIC designation EPIC 201563164.01), is a confirmed exoplanetary object, likely rocky, orbiting the white dwarf star WD 1145+017. It was discovered by NASA's Kepler spacecraft on its "Second Light" mission. It is located about 570 light-years (174 parsecs, or nearly  km) away from Earth in the constellation of Virgo. The object was found by using the transit method, in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured. The minor planet is notable because it is the first observed planetary object to transit a white dwarf, providing clues of its possible interactions when its parent star reached the end of its lifetime as a red giant.

text: WD 1145+017 b (also known by its EPIC designation EPIC 201563164.01), is a confirmed exoplanetary object, likely rocky, orbiting the

text: white dwarf

text: star

text: WD 1145+017

text: . It was discovered by

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Kepler

text: spacecraft on its "Second Light" mission. It is located about 570

text: light-year

text: s (174

text: parsec

text: s, or nearly

text: km

text: ) away from Earth in the constellation of

text: Virgo

text: . The object was found by using the

text: transit method

text: , in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured. The minor planet is notable because it is the first observed planetary object to transit a

text: white dwarf

text: , providing clues of its possible interactions when its parent star reached the end of its lifetime as a

text: red giant

text: In the late 20th century, the tribe attempted to repatriate Tomanowos under NAGPRA, the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990. The museum argued in federal district court in 2000 that the law applied to ceremonial objects made by the tribes, not to objects such as the meteorite, which occurred naturally and may be revered by peoples. It sued to be named as official owner of the meteorite.

text: In the late 20th century, the tribe attempted to repatriate Tomanowos under NAGPRA, the

entity_name: Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act

text: Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act

text: of 1990. The museum argued in federal district court in 2000 that the law applied to ceremonial objects made by the tribes, not to objects such as the meteorite, which occurred naturally and may be revered by peoples. It sued to be named as official owner of the meteorite.

text: Jewitt is a member of several national academies. He was awarded the Shaw Prize in 2012 (along with Jane Luu of MIT Lincoln Laboratory) for the "discovery and characterization of trans-Neptunian bodies, an archeological treasure dating back to the formation of the solar system and the long-sought source of short period comets". He was also awarded the Kavli Prize (shared with Luu and Michael Brown) in the same year.

text: Jewitt is a member of several national academies. He was awarded the

text: Shaw Prize

text: in 2012 (along with Jane Luu of MIT Lincoln Laboratory) for the "discovery and characterization of trans-Neptunian bodies, an archeological treasure dating back to the formation of the solar system and the long-sought source of short period comets". He was also awarded the

text: Kavli Prize

text: (shared with Luu and Michael Brown) in the same year.

text: When meteoroids intersect with Earth's atmosphere at night, they are likely to become visible as meteors. If meteoroids survive the entry through the atmosphere and reach Earth's surface, they are called meteorites. Meteorites are transformed in structure and chemistry by the heat of entry and force of impact. A noted 4-meter asteroid, , was observed in space on a collision course with Earth on 6 October 2008 and entered Earth's atmosphere the next day, striking a remote area of northern Sudan. It was the first time that a meteoroid had been observed in space and tracked prior to impacting Earth. NASA has produced a map showing the most notable asteroid collisions with Earth and its atmosphere from 1994 to 2013 from data gathered by U.S. government sensors (see below).

text: When meteoroids intersect with Earth's atmosphere at night, they are likely to become visible as

text: meteors

text: . If meteoroids survive the entry through the atmosphere and reach Earth's surface, they are called

text: meteorites

text: . Meteorites are transformed in structure and chemistry by the heat of entry and force of impact. A noted 4-meter

text: asteroid

text: , , was observed in space on a collision course with Earth on 6 October 2008 and entered Earth's atmosphere the next day, striking a remote area of northern Sudan. It was the first time that a meteoroid had been observed in space and tracked prior to impacting Earth.

text: NASA

text: has produced a map showing the most notable asteroid collisions with Earth and its atmosphere from 1994 to 2013 from data gathered by U.S. government sensors (see below).

text: Like defining a planet by having cleared its neighbourhood, this definition creates ambiguity by making location, rather than formation or composition, the determining characteristic for planethood. A free-floating object with a mass below 13 Jupiter masses is a "sub-brown dwarf," whereas such an object in orbit around a fusing star is a planet, even if, in all other respects, the two objects may be identical. Further, in 2010, a paper published by Burrows, David S. Spiegel and John A. Milsom called into question the 13-Jupiter-mass criterion, showing that a brown dwarf of three times solar metallicity could fuse deuterium at as low as 11 Jupiter masses.

text: Like defining a planet by having

text: cleared its neighbourhood

text: , this definition creates ambiguity by making location, rather than formation or composition, the determining characteristic for planethood. A free-floating object with a mass below 13 Jupiter masses is a "sub-brown dwarf," whereas such an object in orbit around a fusing star is a planet, even if, in all other respects, the two objects may be identical. Further, in 2010, a paper published by Burrows, David S. Spiegel and John A. Milsom called into question the 13-Jupiter-mass criterion, showing that a brown dwarf of three times solar

text: metallicity

text: could fuse deuterium at as low as 11 Jupiter masses.

text: The hypothesis of comets made of anti-matter can be traced back to the 1940s, when physicist Vladimir Rojansky proposed, in his paper The Hypothesis of the Existence of Contraterrene Matter the possibility that some comets and meteoroids could be made from "contraterrene" matter (i.e. antimatter). Such objects, Rojanski stated, would (if they existed at all) have their origins outside the Solar System. He hypothesized that if there were an antimatter object in orbit in the Solar System, it would exhibit the behavior of comets observed in the 1940s: As its atoms annihilated with "terrene" matter from other bodies and solar wind, it would generate volatile compounds and undergo a change of composition to elements with lower atomic masses. From this basis he propounded the hypothesis that some objects that had been identified as comets may, in fact, be antimatter objects, suggesting, based upon calculations using the Stefan-Boltzmann law, that it would be possible to determine the existence of such objects within the Solar System by observing their temperatures. An antimatter body subjected to normal levels of meteoric bombardment (per 1940s figures), and absorbing half of the energy created by the annihilation of normal matter and antimatter, would have a temperature of  for bombardment figures calculated by Wylie or  for  calculations by Nininger. In the 1970s, when comet Kohoutek was observed, Rojanski again suggested hypothesis of anti-matter comets in a letter in Physical Review Letters, and suggested that gamma-ray observations be made of the comet to test this hypothesis.

text: The hypothesis of comets made of anti-matter can be traced back to the 1940s, when physicist

text: Vladimir Rojansky

text: proposed, in his paper The Hypothesis of the Existence of Contraterrene Matter the possibility that some comets and meteoroids could be made from "contraterrene" matter (i.e. antimatter). Such objects, Rojanski stated, would (if they existed at all) have their origins outside the Solar System. He hypothesized that if there were an antimatter object in orbit in the Solar System, it would exhibit the behavior of comets observed in the 1940s: As its atoms annihilated with "terrene" matter from other bodies and

text: solar wind

text: , it would generate volatile compounds and undergo a change of composition to elements with lower

text: atomic mass

text: es. From this basis he propounded the hypothesis that some objects that had been identified as comets may, in fact, be antimatter objects, suggesting, based upon calculations using the

text: Stefan-Boltzmann law

text: , that it would be possible to determine the existence of such objects within the Solar System by observing their temperatures. An antimatter body subjected to normal levels of meteoric bombardment (per 1940s figures), and absorbing half of the energy created by the annihilation of normal matter and antimatter, would have a temperature of  for bombardment figures calculated by Wylie or  for  calculations by Nininger. In the 1970s, when

text: comet Kohoutek

text: was observed, Rojanski again suggested hypothesis of anti-matter comets in a letter in

text: Physical Review Letters

text: , and suggested that

text: gamma-ray

text: observations be made of the comet to test this hypothesis.

text: The crater record on the Moon and on the terrestrial planets is part of the main evidence for the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB): an intensification in the number of impactors, at about 600 million years after the Solar System's formation. In the initial Nice model icy planetesimals are scattered onto planet-crossing orbits when the outer disc is disrupted by Uranus and Neptune causing a sharp spike of impacts by icy objects. The migration of outer planets also causes mean-motion and secular resonances to sweep through the inner Solar System. In the asteroid belt these excite the eccentricities of the asteroids driving them onto orbits that intersect those of the terrestrial planets causing a more extended period of impacts by stony objects and removing roughly 90% of its mass.

text: The crater record on the

text: Moon

text: and on the terrestrial planets is part of the main evidence for the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB): an intensification in the number of impactors, at about 600 million years after the Solar System's formation. In the initial Nice model icy planetesimals are scattered onto planet-crossing orbits when the outer disc is disrupted by Uranus and Neptune causing a sharp spike of impacts by icy objects. The migration of outer planets also causes mean-motion and secular resonances to sweep through the inner Solar System. In the asteroid belt these excite the eccentricities of the asteroids driving them onto orbits that intersect those of the terrestrial planets causing a more extended period of impacts by stony objects and removing roughly 90% of its mass.

text: Some small Solar System bodies are suspected to be fragments of Vesta caused by impacts. The Vestian asteroids and HED meteorites are examples. The V-type asteroid 1929 Kollaa has been determined to have a composition akin to cumulate eucrite meteorites, indicating its origin deep within Vesta's crust.

text: Some

text: small Solar System bodies

text: are suspected to be fragments of Vesta caused by impacts. The

text: Vestian

text: asteroids and

text: HED meteorite

text: s are examples. The

text: V-type asteroid

text: 1929 Kollaa

text: has been determined to have a composition akin to cumulate

text: eucrite

text: meteorites, indicating its origin deep within Vesta's crust.

text: Apart from drastically adding to the number of known Solar System objects, Pan-STARRS will remove or mitigate the observational bias inherent in many current surveys. For instance, among currently known objects there is a bias favoring low orbital inclination, and thus an object such as  escaped detection until recently despite its bright apparent magnitude of 17, which is not much fainter than Pluto. Also, among currently known comets, there is a bias favoring those with short perihelion distances. Reducing the effects of this observational bias will enable a more complete picture of Solar System dynamics. For instance, it is expected that the number of Jupiter trojans larger than 1 km may in fact roughly match the number of asteroid-belt objects, although the currently known population of the latter is several orders of magnitude larger. Pan-STARRS data will elegantly complement the WISE (infrared) survey. WISE infrared images will permit an estimate of size for asteroids and trojan objects tracked over longer periods of time by Pan-STARRS.

text: Apart from drastically adding to the number of known Solar System objects, Pan-STARRS will remove or mitigate the observational bias inherent in many current surveys. For instance, among currently known objects there is a bias favoring low orbital

text: inclination

text: , and thus an object such as  escaped detection until recently despite its bright apparent magnitude of 17, which is not much fainter than

text: Pluto

text: . Also, among currently known comets, there is a bias favoring those with short

text: perihelion

text: distances. Reducing the effects of this observational bias will enable a more complete picture of Solar System dynamics. For instance, it is expected that the number of Jupiter trojans larger than 1 km may in fact roughly match the number of asteroid-belt objects, although the currently known population of the latter is several orders of magnitude larger. Pan-STARRS data will elegantly complement the WISE (infrared) survey. WISE infrared images will permit an estimate of size for asteroids and trojan objects tracked over longer periods of time by Pan-STARRS.

text: Through those photographs and other research by the Subaru team, a few details about the "Super-Jupiter" object have been revealed. The object's mass has been calculated as approximately 12.8 times Jupiter's mass, the host star's mass as 2.4 to 2.5 solar masses. The temperature of the object is estimated to be around 1700 kelvin, and, if seen up close, would appear reddish in color. The object's distance from its parent star is about 1.8 times Neptune's distance from the Sun.

text: Through those photographs and other research by the Subaru team, a few details about the "Super-Jupiter" object have been revealed. The object's mass has been calculated as approximately 12.8 times

text: Jupiter

text: 's mass, the host star's mass as 2.4 to 2.5

text: solar

text: masses. The temperature of the object is estimated to be around 1700

text: kelvin

text: , and, if seen up close, would appear reddish in color. The object's distance from its parent star is about 1.8 times

text: Neptune

text: 's distance from the Sun.

text: The Oort cloud is a hypothetical spherical cloud of up to a trillion icy objects that is thought to be the source for all long-period comets and to surround the Solar System at roughly 50,000 AU (around 1 light-year (ly)), and possibly to as far as 100,000 AU (1.87 ly). It is thought to be composed of comets that were ejected from the inner Solar System by gravitational interactions with the outer planets. Oort cloud objects move very slowly, and can be perturbed by infrequent events, such as collisions, the gravitational effects of a passing star, or the galactic tide, the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way.

text: The Oort cloud is a hypothetical spherical cloud of up to a trillion icy objects that is thought to be the source for all long-period comets and to surround the Solar System at roughly 50,000 AU (around 1

text: light-year

text: (ly)), and possibly to as far as 100,000 AU (1.87 ly). It is thought to be composed of comets that were ejected from the inner Solar System by gravitational interactions with the outer planets. Oort cloud objects move very slowly, and can be perturbed by infrequent events, such as collisions, the gravitational effects of a passing star, or the

text: galactic tide

text: , the

text: tidal force

text: exerted by the

text: Milky Way

text: The solar system presented in Orbiter consists of the Sun, the eight planets and their major moons. Many dwarf planets, asteroids, and comets not included in the simulator are available as add-ons. Although Orbiter contains a database of over 100,000 stars, these are for display purposes only and interstellar travel is currently not possible in the simulator. The simulator also includes a planetarium mode that allows ecliptic and celestial grids to be overlaid onto the star map, along with labels of the constellations and other celestial markers. The planetarium mode can also display labels indicating the location and identity of objects in the solar system, such as planets, moons, or vessels, that appear within a certain proximity based on their type. This mode can also display labels on the celestial bodies in the solar system at certain coordinates on their surface for indicating cities, historical markers, geological formations, and other interesting sites.

text: The solar system presented in Orbiter consists of the

text: Sun

text: , the eight

text: planet

text: s and their major

text: moons

text: . Many

text: dwarf planet

text: s,

text: asteroid

text: s, and

text: comet

text: s not included in the simulator are available as add-ons. Although Orbiter contains a database of over 100,000 stars, these are for display purposes only and

text: interstellar travel

text: is currently not possible in the simulator. The simulator also includes a planetarium mode that allows

text: ecliptic

text: and

text: celestial

text: grids to be overlaid onto the star map, along with labels of the

text: constellation

text: s and other celestial markers. The planetarium mode can also display labels indicating the location and identity of objects in the solar system, such as planets, moons, or vessels, that appear within a certain proximity based on their type. This mode can also display labels on the celestial bodies in the solar system at certain coordinates on their surface for indicating cities, historical markers, geological formations, and other interesting sites.

text: In the Solar System there are 178 known natural satellites which orbit within 6 planetary satellite systems. In addition, several other objects are known to have satellites, including four IAU-listed dwarf planets: Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris. , over 200 minor-planet moons have been discovered. There are 76 known objects in the asteroid belt with satellites (five with two each), four Jupiter trojans, 39 near-Earth objects (two with two satellites each), and 14 Mars-crossers. There are also 84 known natural satellites of trans-Neptunian objects. Some 150 additional small bodies have been observed within the rings of Saturn, but only a few were tracked long enough to establish orbits. Planets around other stars are likely to have satellites as well, and although numerous candidates have been detected to date, none have yet been confirmed.

text: In the

text: Solar System

text: there are 178 known natural satellites which orbit within 6 planetary

text: satellite system

text: s. In addition, several other objects are known to have satellites, including four

text: IAU

text: -listed dwarf planets:

text: Pluto

text: Haumea

text: Makemake

text: , and

text: Eris

text: . , over 200

text: minor-planet moon

text: s have been discovered. There are 76 known objects in the

text: asteroid belt

text: with satellites (five with two each), four

text: Jupiter trojan

text: s, 39

text: near-Earth object

text: s (two with two satellites each), and 14

text: Mars-crossers

text: . There are also 84 known natural satellites of

text: trans-Neptunian objects

text: . Some 150 additional small bodies have been observed within the

text: rings of Saturn

text: , but only a few were tracked long enough to establish orbits. Planets around other stars are likely to have satellites as well, and although numerous candidates have been detected to date, none have yet been confirmed.

text: |-id=602| 13602 Pierreboulez ||  || Pierre Boulez, French composer. |-id=605| 13605 Nakamuraminoru || 1994 RV || Minoru Nakamura (b. 1931) has been an active volunteer in the spread of astronomical knowledge and activities for children and youth since his retirement as principal of an elementary school in Kuroishi, Aomori prefecture. He has been president of the Kuroishi Subaru Association since 1992.|-id=606| 13606 Bean ||  || During the Apollo 12 mission to Oceanus Procellarum, Alan LaVern Bean (b. 1932) became the fourth person to set foot on the lunar surface. Since leaving the space program, he has devoted himself to documenting his and his fellow astronauts' experiences through his spectacular artwork. |-id=607| 13607 Vicars ||  || Andrea Vicars (b. 1974), an engineer with a wide range of skills. |-id=608| 13608 Andosatoru ||  || Satoru Ando (b. 1954) has for many years been a passionate disseminator of astronomy as chairman of the Tateyama Astronomy Club in Chiba prefecture. He is also known as a beachcomber.|-id=609| 13609 Lewicki ||  || Christopher A. Lewicki (b. 1974), an engineer working at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. |-id=610| 13610 Lilienthal ||  || Otto Lilienthal, German aviation pioneer and glider pilot. |-id=615| 13615 Manulis ||  || Ilan Manulis (b. 1949) has enthusiastically promoted the study of near-earth objects from Israel and built awareness among the public by lectures and media programs. During the 1980s, he was chairman of the Israeli Astronomical Association. He now serves as IAA's head of small solar-system objects. |-id=620| 13620 Moynahan ||  || Dan Moynahan (b. 1971), a computer programmer working at the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. |-id=622| 13622 McArthur ||  || Guy McArthur (b. 1971), a talented programmer working at the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. |-id=624| 13624 Abeosamu ||  || Osamu Abe (b. 1950), Japanese amateur astronomer and a researcher on snow and ice. |-id=627| 13627 Yukitamayo ||  || Tamayo Yuki (b. 1956) joined the Fukuoka Astronomical Society and actively participates in their regular meetings. After her marriage, she built a private observatory in her back yard. She enjoys observing and photographing nebulae and star clusters through her 0.3-m Schmidt Cassegrain telescope.|-id=633| 13633 Ivens ||  || John Ivens (b. 1964), a computer programmer working at the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. |-id=638| 13638 Fiorenza ||  || Fiorenza Tombelli (b. 1950), a sister of the first discoverer. |-id=640| 13640 Ohtateruaki ||  || Teruaki Ohta (b. 1962) is a Japanese amateur astronomer and director of the Astronomical Society of Oita. His current main interests are comets, meteors, planetary occultations, lunar eclipses and solar eclipses. He also enjoys touring domestic and overseas astronomical observatories.|-id=641| 13641 de Lesseps ||  || Jean-Baptiste de Lesseps (1766-1834), a French diplomat and writer, was a member of the scientific expedition of La Pérouse. Reaching the port of Avatcha (Kamchatka) on 1787 Sept. 30, he was transported over land by horses and sledges to get the reports of the voyage so far to Paris. This took him more than one year.|-id=642| 13642 Ricci || 1996 HX || Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro (1853-1925), a professor of mathematics at the University of Padua. |-id=643| 13643 Takushi ||  || Takushi Yokota, Japanese leader of the Kobe University astronomy club (see 13176 Kobedaitenken, above) and observing partner of the discoverer |-id=644| 13644 Lynnanderson ||  || Lynn Anderson (1947-2015), a multi-award-winning American country music singer, had a world-wide hit in 1970 with I Never Promised You a Rose Garden.|-id=647| 13647 Rey ||  || Marc-Michel Rey, Dutch publisher of the Enlightenment |-id=650| 13650 Perimedes ||  || Perimedes was the father of Schedios, the commander of the Phocians on the battlefield of Troy.|-id=652| 13652 Elowitz ||  || Mark Elowitz (b. 1961) is a space scientist with a wide range of experience. He contributed to the Voyager survey of the outer solar system, the Magellan mission to Venus, Project LINEAR and the Galileo survey of the Jupiter system.|-id=653| 13653 Priscus ||  || Tarquinius Priscus, fifth king of Rome, reigned from 616 to 579 B.C. He constructed the Circus Maximus and enlarged the Roman Forum.|-id=654| 13654 Masuda ||  || Masuda is an area in Tanegashima, Kagoshima prefecture, where one can enjoy a great ocean view. The Masuda Tracking and Communication Station of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency is located on the cliff to conduct command operations and receive telemetry from satellites that observe the earth or the moon.|-id=657| 13657 Badinter ||  || Elisabeth Badinter (Bleustein-Blanchet, b. 1944) is a French author, feminist and philosopher. Specializing in the eighteenth-century Enlightenment literature, she became famous for L´amour en plus (1980), where she defends the rights of women and proclaims the resemblances between men and women.|-id=658| 13658 Sylvester || 1997 FB || James Joseph Sylvester (1814-1897) studied at Cambridge and was the founder, together with Cayley, of the theory of algebraic invariants. He taught at University College, London; at Johns Hopkins University (1877-1883), where he helped establish a graduate program in mathematics; and finally at Oxford.|-id=667| 13667 Samthurman ||  || Sam Thurman (b. 1961) led a team that helped develop the landing system for Mars Pathfinder that was key in proving that the landing approach would perform reliably on Mars. This used a Monte Carlo computer simulation that accurately modeled the spacecraft and its interaction with the Martian environment.|-id=668| 13668 Tanner ||  || Roger Tanner (b. 1950) has spent the last eight years at the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory designing and building imaging systems for use on the various Mars missions, such as Mars Pathfinder, Beagle II and HiRISE. He is also an avid amateur astronomer who aspires to work at a professional level.|-id=669| 13669 Swammerdam ||  || Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680), one of the first entomologists to use the microscope to study insects. |-id=672| 13672 Tarski || 1997 KH || Alfred Tarski (1901-1983), Polish logician, mathematician and philosopher, best known for his work on model theory, metamathematics, and algebraic logic |-id=673| 13673 Urysohn || 1997 LC || Pavel Samuilovich Urysohn (1898-1924), Russian mathematician mainly active in topology |-id=674| 13674 Bourge ||  || Pierre Bourge (b. 1921) founded what was later to become the Association Française d´Astronomie in 1945, and its magazine Ciel et Espace in 1972. An avid solar eclipse observer and telescope maker, he has been an inspiration to a generation of astronomers, amateur and professional.|-id=677| 13677 Alvin ||  || Alvin is a deep-sea submersible with a depth range of 4000 meters. Built in 1964, it was used for some of the greatest undersea adventures of all, including the recovery of a lost nuclear device, the mapping of the Mid-Ocean Ridge and the discovery of "black smoker chimneys" and associated tube worms.|-id=678| 13678 Shimada ||  ||  Osamu Shimada (b. 1914) is a professor emeritus in science at Yamagata University. He is now a researcher and instructor of science teaching.|-id=679| 13679 Shinanogawa ||  || Shinanogawa is the river that flows from Nagano prefecture to Niigata prefecture and into the Sea of Japan. The longest river in Japan, it has a total length of 367 kilometers.|-id=681| 13681 Monty Python ||  || Monty Python, British comedy group †|-id=682| 13682 Pressberger ||  || Rudolf Pressberger, Austrian engineer and amateur telescope maker, inventor of the "Austrian mount" † ‡|-id=684| 13684 Borbona ||  ||  Borbona is a picturesque town in the Italian region Lazio, famous for works of art that include a twelfth-century cross in gold and silver.|-id=686| 13686 Kongozan ||  || Kongozan mountain (height 583 meters) is located in the east of Shirataka town, Yamagata prefecture. The mountain is in the discoverer's hometown.|-id=688| 13688 Oklahoma ||  || Oklahoma*|-id=689| 13689 Succi ||  || Carlo Succi, Italian physicist †|-id=690| 13690 Lesleymartin ||  || Lesley and Martin Goldsmith took care of the discoverer after he had an accident in Savernake Forest, Wiltshire, England.|-id=691| 13691 Akie ||  || Akie Asami (b. 1957) is the wife of the discoverer.|-id=693| 13693 Bondar ||  || Roberta Lynn Bondar, Canadian astronaut †|-id=699| 13699 Nickthomas ||  || Throughout his career, Nicholas Thomas (b. 1960), of Max-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie, Katlenburg-Lindau, has been associated with obtaining close-up images of solar system bodies, from his role on the Giotto multicolor camera, through the imager on Mars Pathfinder, to Rosetta's OSIRIS imager.|-id=700| 13700 Connors ||  || Martin Gerard Connors, Canadian space scientist †|}

text: 13602 Pierreboulez

text: Pierre Boulez

text: , French composer. |-id=605|

text: 13605 Nakamuraminoru

text: || 1994 RV || Minoru Nakamura (b. 1931) has been an active volunteer in the spread of astronomical knowledge and activities for children and youth since his retirement as principal of an elementary school in Kuroishi, Aomori prefecture. He has been president of the Kuroishi Subaru Association since 1992.|-id=606|

text: 13606 Bean

text: ||  || During the Apollo 12 mission to

text: Oceanus Procellarum

text: Alan LaVern Bean

text: (b. 1932) became the fourth person to set foot on the lunar surface. Since leaving the space program, he has devoted himself to documenting his and his fellow astronauts' experiences through his spectacular artwork. |-id=607|

text: 13607 Vicars

text: ||  || Andrea Vicars (b. 1974), an engineer with a wide range of skills. |-id=608|

text: 13608 Andosatoru

text: ||  || Satoru Ando (b. 1954) has for many years been a passionate disseminator of astronomy as chairman of the Tateyama Astronomy Club in Chiba prefecture. He is also known as a beachcomber.|-id=609|

text: 13609 Lewicki

text: ||  || Christopher A. Lewicki (b. 1974), an engineer working at the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: . |-id=610|

text: 13610 Lilienthal

text: Otto Lilienthal

text: , German aviation pioneer and glider pilot. |-id=615|

text: 13615 Manulis

text: ||  || Ilan Manulis (b. 1949) has enthusiastically promoted the study of near-earth objects from Israel and built awareness among the public by lectures and media programs. During the 1980s, he was chairman of the Israeli Astronomical Association. He now serves as IAA's head of small solar-system objects. |-id=620|

text: 13620 Moynahan

text: ||  || Dan Moynahan (b. 1971), a computer programmer working at the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. |-id=622|

text: 13622 McArthur

text: ||  || Guy McArthur (b. 1971), a talented programmer working at the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. |-id=624|

text: 13624 Abeosamu

text: ||  || Osamu Abe (b. 1950), Japanese amateur astronomer and a researcher on snow and ice. |-id=627|

text: 13627 Yukitamayo

text: ||  || Tamayo Yuki (b. 1956) joined the Fukuoka Astronomical Society and actively participates in their regular meetings. After her marriage, she built a private observatory in her back yard. She enjoys observing and photographing nebulae and star clusters through her 0.3-m Schmidt Cassegrain telescope.|-id=633|

text: 13633 Ivens

text: ||  || John Ivens (b. 1964), a computer programmer working at the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. |-id=638|

text: 13638 Fiorenza

text: ||  || Fiorenza Tombelli (b. 1950), a sister of the first discoverer. |-id=640|

text: 13640 Ohtateruaki

text: ||  || Teruaki Ohta (b. 1962) is a Japanese amateur astronomer and director of the Astronomical Society of Oita. His current main interests are comets, meteors, planetary occultations, lunar eclipses and solar eclipses. He also enjoys touring domestic and overseas astronomical observatories.|-id=641|

text: 13641 de Lesseps

text: ||  || Jean-Baptiste de Lesseps (1766-1834), a French diplomat and writer, was a member of the scientific expedition of La Pérouse. Reaching the port of Avatcha (Kamchatka) on 1787 Sept. 30, he was transported over land by horses and sledges to get the reports of the voyage so far to Paris. This took him more than one year.|-id=642|

text: 13642 Ricci

text: || 1996 HX ||

text: Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro

text: (1853-1925), a professor of mathematics at the University of Padua. |-id=643|

text: 13643 Takushi

text: ||  || Takushi Yokota, Japanese leader of the Kobe University astronomy club (see

text: 13176 Kobedaitenken

text: , above) and observing partner of the discoverer |-id=644|

text: 13644 Lynnanderson

text: Lynn Anderson

text: (1947-2015), a multi-award-winning American country music singer, had a world-wide hit in 1970 with

text: I Never Promised You a Rose Garden

text: 13647 Rey

text: Marc-Michel Rey

text: , Dutch publisher of the Enlightenment |-id=650|

text: 13650 Perimedes

text: ||  || Perimedes was the father of Schedios, the commander of the Phocians on the battlefield of Troy.|-id=652|

text: 13652 Elowitz

text: ||  || Mark Elowitz (b. 1961) is a space scientist with a wide range of experience. He contributed to the Voyager survey of the outer solar system, the Magellan mission to Venus, Project LINEAR and the Galileo survey of the Jupiter system.|-id=653|

text: 13653 Priscus

text: ||  || Tarquinius Priscus, fifth king of Rome, reigned from 616 to 579 B.C. He constructed the Circus Maximus and enlarged the Roman Forum.|-id=654|

text: 13654 Masuda

text: ||  || Masuda is an area in Tanegashima, Kagoshima prefecture, where one can enjoy a great ocean view. The Masuda Tracking and Communication Station of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency is located on the cliff to conduct command operations and receive telemetry from satellites that observe the earth or the moon.|-id=657|

text: 13657 Badinter

text: ||  || Elisabeth Badinter (Bleustein-Blanchet, b. 1944) is a French author, feminist and philosopher. Specializing in the eighteenth-century Enlightenment literature, she became famous for L´amour en plus (1980), where she defends the rights of women and proclaims the resemblances between men and women.|-id=658|

text: 13658 Sylvester

text: || 1997 FB || James Joseph Sylvester (1814-1897) studied at Cambridge and was the founder, together with Cayley, of the theory of algebraic invariants. He taught at University College, London; at Johns Hopkins University (1877-1883), where he helped establish a graduate program in mathematics; and finally at Oxford.|-id=667|

text: 13667 Samthurman

text: ||  || Sam Thurman (b. 1961) led a team that helped develop the landing system for Mars Pathfinder that was key in proving that the landing approach would perform reliably on Mars. This used a Monte Carlo computer simulation that accurately modeled the spacecraft and its interaction with the Martian environment.|-id=668|

text: 13668 Tanner

text: ||  || Roger Tanner (b. 1950) has spent the last eight years at the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory designing and building imaging systems for use on the various Mars missions, such as Mars Pathfinder, Beagle II and HiRISE. He is also an avid amateur astronomer who aspires to work at a professional level.|-id=669|

text: 13669 Swammerdam

text: Jan Swammerdam

text: (1637–1680), one of the first entomologists to use the microscope to study insects. |-id=672|

text: 13672 Tarski

text: || 1997 KH ||

text: Alfred Tarski

text: (1901-1983), Polish logician, mathematician and philosopher, best known for his work on model theory, metamathematics, and algebraic logic |-id=673|

text: 13673 Urysohn

text: || 1997 LC ||

text: Pavel Samuilovich Urysohn

text: (1898-1924), Russian mathematician mainly active in topology |-id=674|

text: 13674 Bourge

text: ||  || Pierre Bourge (b. 1921) founded what was later to become the Association Française d´Astronomie in 1945, and its magazine Ciel et Espace in 1972. An avid solar eclipse observer and telescope maker, he has been an inspiration to a generation of astronomers, amateur and professional.|-id=677|

text: 13677 Alvin

text: ||  || Alvin is a deep-sea submersible with a depth range of 4000 meters. Built in 1964, it was used for some of the greatest undersea adventures of all, including the recovery of a lost nuclear device, the mapping of the Mid-Ocean Ridge and the discovery of "black smoker chimneys" and associated tube worms.|-id=678|

text: 13678 Shimada

text: ||  ||  Osamu Shimada (b. 1914) is a professor emeritus in science at Yamagata University. He is now a researcher and instructor of science teaching.|-id=679|

text: 13679 Shinanogawa

text: ||  || Shinanogawa is the river that flows from Nagano prefecture to Niigata prefecture and into the Sea of Japan. The longest river in Japan, it has a total length of 367 kilometers.|-id=681|

text: 13681 Monty Python

text: Monty Python

text: , British comedy group †|-id=682|

text: 13682 Pressberger

text: Rudolf Pressberger

text: , Austrian engineer and amateur telescope maker, inventor of the "Austrian mount" † ‡|-id=684|

text: 13684 Borbona

text: ||  ||  Borbona is a picturesque town in the Italian region Lazio, famous for works of art that include a twelfth-century cross in gold and silver.|-id=686|

text: 13686 Kongozan

text: ||  || Kongozan mountain (height 583 meters) is located in the east of Shirataka town, Yamagata prefecture. The mountain is in the discoverer's hometown.|-id=688|

text: 13688 Oklahoma

text: Oklahoma

text: 13689 Succi

text: Carlo Succi

text: , Italian physicist †|-id=690|

text: 13690 Lesleymartin

text: ||  || Lesley and Martin Goldsmith took care of the discoverer after he had an accident in Savernake Forest, Wiltshire, England.|-id=691|

text: 13691 Akie

text: ||  || Akie Asami (b. 1957) is the wife of the discoverer.|-id=693|

text: 13693 Bondar

text: Roberta Lynn Bondar

text: , Canadian astronaut †|-id=699|

text: 13699 Nickthomas

text: ||  || Throughout his career, Nicholas Thomas (b. 1960), of Max-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie, Katlenburg-Lindau, has been associated with obtaining close-up images of solar system bodies, from his role on the Giotto multicolor camera, through the imager on Mars Pathfinder, to Rosetta's OSIRIS imager.|-id=700|

text: 13700 Connors

text: Martin Gerard Connors

text: , Canadian space scientist †|}

text: Comet Holmes (official designation: 17P/Holmes) is a periodic comet in the Solar System, discovered by the British amateur astronomer Edwin Holmes on November 6, 1892. Although normally a very faint object, Holmes became notable during its October 2007 return when it temporarily brightened by a factor of about half a million, in what was the largest known outburst by a comet, and became visible to the naked eye. It also briefly became the largest object in the Solar System, as its coma (the thin dissipating dust ball around the comet) expanded to a diameter greater than that of the Sun (although its mass remained minuscule).

text: Comet Holmes (official designation: 17P/Holmes) is a

text: periodic comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: , discovered by the British amateur astronomer

text: Edwin Holmes

text: on November 6, 1892. Although normally a very faint object, Holmes became notable during its October 2007 return when it temporarily brightened by a factor of about half a million, in what was the largest known outburst by a comet, and became visible to the naked eye. It also briefly became the

text: largest object in the Solar System

text: , as its

text: coma

text: (the thin dissipating dust ball around the comet) expanded to a diameter greater than that of the

text: Sun

text: (although its

text: mass

text: remained minuscule).

text: 77P/Longmore is a periodic comet in the Solar System.

text: 77P/Longmore is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: Solar System

text: in arcseconds for binary star systems, extrasolar planets, solar system objects and other astronomical objects, we use orbital distance (semi-major axis),

text: in

text: arcseconds

text: for

text: binary star system

text: s,

text: extrasolar planet

text: s,

text: solar system objects

text: and other

text: astronomical object

text: s, we use

text: orbital distance

text: semi-major axis

text: 158P/Kowal–LINEAR is a periodic comet in the solar system.

text: 158P/Kowal–LINEAR is a

text: periodic

text: comet

text: in the

text: solar system

text: is a mysterious woman who appears first as Sailor Pluto, Soldier of Spacetime and Change. She has the duty of guarding the Space-Time Door from unauthorized travelers. Only later does she appear on Earth, living as a college student. She has a distant personality and can be very stern, but can also be quite friendly and helps the Sailor Soldiers when she can. After so long guarding the Space-Time Door she carries a deep sense of loneliness, although she is close friends with Chibiusa. Sailor Pluto's talisman is her Garnet Rod, which aids her with her power to freeze time and attacks.

text: is a mysterious woman who appears first as Sailor Pluto, Soldier of

text: Spacetime

text: and

text: Change

text: . She has the duty of guarding the Space-Time Door from unauthorized travelers. Only later does she appear on Earth, living as a college student. She has a distant personality and can be very stern, but can also be quite friendly and helps the Sailor Soldiers when she can. After so long guarding the Space-Time Door she carries a deep sense of

text: loneliness

text: , although she is close friends with Chibiusa. Sailor Pluto's talisman is her Garnet Rod, which aids her with her power to freeze time and attacks.

text: The defining dynamic characteristic of a planet is that it has cleared its neighborhood. A planet that has cleared its neighborhood has accumulated enough mass to gather up or sweep away all the planetesimals in its orbit. In effect, it orbits its star in isolation, as opposed to sharing its orbit with a multitude of similar-sized objects. This characteristic was mandated as part of the IAU's official definition of a planet in August, 2006. This criterion excludes such planetary bodies as Pluto, Eris and Ceres from full-fledged planethood, making them instead dwarf planets. Although to date this criterion only applies to the Solar System, a number of young extrasolar systems have been found in which evidence suggests orbital clearing is taking place within their circumstellar discs.

text: The defining dynamic characteristic of a planet is that it has cleared its neighborhood. A planet that has cleared its neighborhood has accumulated enough mass to gather up or sweep away all the

text: planetesimal

text: s in its orbit. In effect, it orbits its star in isolation, as opposed to sharing its orbit with a multitude of similar-sized objects. This characteristic was mandated as part of the

text: IAU

text: 's official

text: definition of a planet

text: in August, 2006. This criterion excludes such planetary bodies as

text: Pluto

text: Eris

text: and

text: Ceres

text: from full-fledged planethood, making them instead

text: dwarf planet

text: s. Although to date this criterion only applies to the Solar System, a number of young extrasolar systems have been found in which evidence suggests orbital clearing is taking place within their

text: circumstellar disc

text: s.

text: Wasserburg's research led to a better understanding of the origins and history of the solar system and its component bodies and the precursor stellar sources contributing to the solar system; this research established a time scale for the development of the early solar system, including the processes of nucleosynthesis and the formation and evolution of the planets, the Moon and the meteorites. More recently he is investigating models of the chemical evolution of the Galaxy.

text: Wasserburg's research led to a better understanding of the origins and history of the solar system and its component bodies and the precursor stellar sources contributing to the solar system; this research established a time scale for the development of the early solar system, including the processes of

text: nucleosynthesis

text: and the formation and evolution of the planets, the Moon and the meteorites. More recently he is investigating models of the chemical evolution of the Galaxy.

text: A planetary body or planetary object is any secondary body in the Solar System that is geologically differentiated or in hydrostatic equilibrium and thus has a planet-like geology: a planet, dwarf planet, or the larger moons and asteroids.

text: A planetary body or planetary object is any

text: secondary body

text: in the Solar System that is geologically differentiated or in

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: and thus has a planet-like geology: a

text: planet

text: dwarf planet

text: , or the larger moons and asteroids.

text: Other non-existent Solar System objects used in fiction have been proposed or hypothesized by persons with no scientific standing, while yet others are purely fictional and were never intended as serious hypotheses about the structure of the Solar System.

text: If Dürer's images do represent actual celestial objects, then there are three possible candidates. The first is the Comet of 1491. Dr Sten Odenwald said that it "allegedly came to within 0.0094 AU on 1491 Feb. 20.0 TT, but the orbit of this comet is very uncertain"; NASA's website agrees with Odenwald's comment on the orbit.  The second is the Ensisheim meteorite. This was suggested by Ursula B Marvin ('The meteorite of Ensisheim – 1492 to 1992',(1992)), in relation to Melencolia I. This object fell in Alsace on 7 November 1492. The third is the comet of 1493, mentioned in the chronological section of Sir David Brewster's The Edinburgh Encyclopædia, which said it was: "seen before and after passing its meridian."

text: If Dürer's images do represent actual celestial objects, then there are three possible candidates. The first is the Comet of 1491. Dr Sten Odenwald said that it "allegedly came to within 0.0094 AU on 1491 Feb. 20.0 TT, but the orbit of this comet is very uncertain"; NASA's website agrees with Odenwald's comment on the orbit.  The second is the

text: Ensisheim meteorite

text: . This was suggested by Ursula B Marvin ('The meteorite of Ensisheim – 1492 to 1992',(1992)), in relation to Melencolia I. This object fell in

text: Alsace

text: on 7 November 1492. The third is the comet of 1493, mentioned in the chronological section of Sir David Brewster's The Edinburgh Encyclopædia, which said it was: "seen before and after passing its

text: meridian

text: Among the identified dwarf planets, Ceres has no known natural satellites. Pluto has the relatively large natural satellite Charon and four smaller natural satellites; Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. Haumea has two natural satellites, and Eris and Makemake have one. The Pluto–Charon system is unusual in that the center of mass lies in open space between the two, a characteristic sometimes associated with a double-planet system.

text: Among the identified dwarf planets,

text: Ceres

text: has no known natural satellites. Pluto has the relatively large natural satellite Charon and four smaller natural satellites;

text: Styx

text: Nix

text: Kerberos

text: , and

text: Hydra

text: Haumea

text: has two natural satellites, and Eris and

text: Makemake

text: have one. The Pluto–Charon system is unusual in that the

text: center of mass

text: lies in open space between the two, a characteristic sometimes associated with a

text: double-planet

text: system.

text: Before the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider started operation, critics postulated that the extremely high energy could produce catastrophic scenarios,such as creating a black hole, a transition into a different quantum mechanical vacuum (see false vacuum), or the creation of strange matter that is more stable than ordinary matter. These hypotheses are complex, but many predict that the Earth would be destroyed in a time frame from seconds to millennia, depending on the theory considered. However, the fact that objects of the Solar System (e.g., the Moon) have been bombarded with cosmic particles of significantly higher energies than that of RHIC and other man made colliders for billions of years, without any harm to the Solar System, were among the most striking arguments that these hypotheses were unfounded.

text: Before the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider started operation, critics postulated that the extremely high energy could produce catastrophic scenarios,such as creating a

text: black hole

text: , a transition into a different

text: quantum mechanical

text: vacuum

text: (see

text: false vacuum

text: ), or the creation of

text: strange matter

text: that is more stable than ordinary

text: matter

text: . These hypotheses are complex, but many predict that the

text: Earth

text: would be destroyed in a time frame from seconds to millennia, depending on the theory considered. However, the fact that objects of the Solar System (e.g., the

text: Moon

text: ) have been bombarded with

text: cosmic particles

text: of significantly higher energies than that of RHIC and other man made colliders for billions of years, without any harm to the Solar System, were among the most striking arguments that these hypotheses were unfounded.

text: An ongoing problem for creationists is the presence of impact craters on nearly all Solar System objects, which is consistent with scientific explanations of solar system origins but creates insuperable problems for young Earth claims. Creationists Harold Slusher and Richard Mandock, along with Glenn Morton (who later repudiated this claim) asserted that impact craters on the Moon are subject to rock flow, and so cannot be more than a few thousand years old. While some creationist astronomers assert that different phases of meteoritic bombardment of the Solar System occurred during creation week and during the subsequent Great Flood, others regard this as unsupported by the evidence and call for further research.

text: An ongoing problem for creationists is the presence of

text: impact crater

text: s on nearly all Solar System objects, which is consistent with scientific explanations of solar system origins but creates insuperable problems for young Earth claims. Creationists Harold Slusher and Richard Mandock, along with Glenn Morton (who later repudiated this claim) asserted that impact craters on the Moon are subject to rock flow, and so cannot be more than a few thousand years old. While some creationist astronomers assert that different phases of meteoritic bombardment of the Solar System occurred during creation week and during the subsequent Great Flood, others regard this as unsupported by the evidence and call for further research.

text: Near-Earth objects are classified as meteoroids, asteroids, or comets depending on size and composition. Asteroids can also be members of an asteroid family, and comets create meteoroid streams that can generate meteor showers.

text: Near-Earth objects are classified as

text: meteoroid

text: s,

text: asteroid

text: s, or

text: comet

text: s depending on size and composition. Asteroids can also be members of an

text: asteroid family

text: , and comets create meteoroid streams that can generate

text: meteor shower

text: s.

text: Meteorite falls, also called observed falls, are meteorites collected after their fall from space was observed by people or automated devices. All other meteorites are called "finds". There are more than 1,100 documented falls listed in widely used databases, most of which have specimens in modern collections. As of July 2016, the Meteoritical Bulletin Database has 1,147 confirmed falls (excluding rocks found nearby on the ground which turn out to not be associated with the fall and those with doubtful status).

text: Meteorite falls, also called observed falls, are

text: meteorite

text: s collected after their fall from space was observed by people or automated devices. All other meteorites are called "

text: finds

text: ". There are more than 1,100 documented falls listed in widely used databases, most of which have specimens in modern collections. As of July 2016, the Meteoritical Bulletin Database has 1,147 confirmed falls (excluding rocks found nearby on the ground which turn out to not be associated with the fall and those with doubtful status).

text: The star is classified as a red supergiant of spectral type M1-2 and is one of the largest and most luminous stars visible to the naked eye. If Betelgeuse were at the center of the Solar System, its surface would extend past the asteroid belt, wholly engulfing the orbits of Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Calculations of its mass range from slightly under ten to a little over twenty times that of the Sun. It is calculated to be 640 light-years away, yielding an absolute magnitude of about −6. Less than 10 million years old, Betelgeuse has evolved rapidly because of its high mass. Having been ejected from its birthplace in the Orion OB1 Association—which includes the stars in Orion's Belt—this crimson runaway has been observed moving through the interstellar medium at a supersonic speed of 30 km/s, creating a bow shock over 4 light-years wide. Currently in a late stage of stellar evolution, the supergiant is expected to explode as a supernova within the next million years.

text: The star is classified as a

text: red supergiant

text: of

text: spectral type

text: M1-2 and is one of the

text: largest

text: and most

text: luminous

text: stars visible to the naked eye. If Betelgeuse were at the center of the

text: Solar System

text: , its surface would extend past the

text: asteroid belt

text: , wholly engulfing the orbits of

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Earth

text: and

text: Mars

text: . Calculations of its mass range from slightly under ten to a little over twenty times that of the

text: Sun

text: . It is calculated to be 640

text: light-year

text: s away, yielding an

text: absolute magnitude

text: of about −6. Less than 10 million years old, Betelgeuse has evolved rapidly because of its high mass. Having been ejected from its birthplace in the

text: Orion OB1 Association

text: —which includes the stars in

text: Orion's Belt

text: —this crimson

text: runaway

text: has been observed moving through the

text: interstellar medium

text: at a

text: supersonic speed

text: of 30 km/s, creating a

text: bow shock

text: over 4 light-years wide. Currently in a late stage of

text: stellar evolution

text: , the supergiant is expected to explode as a

text: supernova

text: within the next million years.

text: Several stars in Serpens have been found to have planets. The brightest, Omega Serpentis, located between Epsilon and Mu, is an orange giant with a planet of approximately 1.7 Jupiter-masses. NN Serpentis, an eclipsing post-common-envelope binary consisting of a white dwarf and a red dwarf, is very likely to have two planets causing variations in the period of the eclipses. Although it does not have a planet, the solar analog HD 137510 has been found to have a brown dwarf companion within the brown-dwarf desert.

text: Several stars in Serpens have been found to have

text: planets

text: . The brightest,

text: Omega Serpentis

text: , located between Epsilon and Mu, is an

text: orange giant

text: with a planet of approximately 1.7

text: Jupiter

text: -masses.

text: NN Serpentis

text: , an eclipsing

text: post-common-envelope binary

text: consisting of a

text: white dwarf

text: and a

text: red dwarf

text: , is very likely to have two planets causing variations in the period of the eclipses. Although it does not have a planet, the solar analog

text: HD 137510

text: has been found to have a

text: brown dwarf

text: companion within the

text: brown-dwarf desert

text: A meteor shower is the result of an interaction between a planet, such as Earth, and streams of debris from a comet or other source. The passage of Earth through cosmic debris from comets and other sources is a recurring event in many cases. Comets can produce debris by water vapor drag, as demonstrated by Fred Whipple in 1951, and by breakup. Each time a comet swings by the Sun in its orbit, some of its ice vaporizes and a certain amount of meteoroids will be shed. The meteoroids spread out along the entire orbit of the comet to form a meteoroid stream, also known as a "dust trail" (as opposed to a comet's "dust tail" caused by the very small particles that are quickly blown away by solar radiation pressure).

text: A

text: meteor shower

text: is the result of an interaction between a planet, such as Earth, and streams of debris from a

text: comet

text: or other source. The passage of Earth through cosmic debris from comets and other sources is a

text: recurring event

text: in many cases. Comets can produce debris by water vapor drag, as demonstrated by

text: Fred Whipple

text: in 1951, and by breakup. Each time a comet swings by the Sun in its

text: orbit

text: The first known collisional family in the classical Kuiper belt—a group of objects thought to be remnants from the breakup of a single body—is the Haumea family. It includes Haumea, its moons,  and seven smaller bodies. The objects not only follow similar orbits but also share similar physical characteristics. Unlike many other KBO their surface contains large amounts of ice (HO) and no or very little tholins. The surface composition is inferred from their neutral (as opposed to red) colour and deep absorption at 1.5 and 2. μm in infrared spectrum.

text: The first known

text: collisional family

text: in the classical Kuiper belt—a group of objects thought to be remnants from the breakup of a single body—is the

text: Haumea family

text: . It includes Haumea, its moons,  and seven smaller bodies. The objects not only follow similar orbits but also share similar physical characteristics. Unlike many other KBO their surface contains large amounts of ice (HO) and no or very little

text: tholin

text: s. The surface composition is inferred from their neutral (as opposed to red) colour and deep absorption at 1.5 and 2.

text: μm

text: in

text: infrared

text: spectrum

text: For almost two centuries, from the discovery of Ceres in 1801 until the discovery of the first centaur, Chiron, in 1977, all known asteroids spent most of their time at or within the orbit of Jupiter, though a few such as Hidalgo ventured far beyond Jupiter for part of their orbit. When astronomers started finding more small bodies that permanently resided further out than Jupiter, now called centaurs, they numbered them among the traditional asteroids, though there was debate over whether they should be considered asteroids or as a new type of object. Then, when the first trans-Neptunian object (other than Pluto), , was discovered in 1992, and especially when large numbers of similar objects started turning up, new terms were invented to sidestep the issue: Kuiper-belt object, trans-Neptunian object, scattered-disc object, and so on. These inhabit the cold outer reaches of the Solar System where ices remain solid and comet-like bodies are not expected to exhibit much cometary activity; if centaurs or trans-Neptunian objects were to venture close to the Sun, their volatile ices would sublimate, and traditional approaches would classify them as comets and not asteroids.

text: For almost two centuries, from the discovery of

text: Ceres

text: in 1801 until the discovery of the first

text: centaur

text: Chiron

text: , in 1977, all known asteroids spent most of their time at or within the orbit of Jupiter, though a few such as

text: Hidalgo

text: ventured far beyond Jupiter for part of their orbit. When astronomers started finding more small bodies that permanently resided further out than Jupiter, now called

text: centaurs

text: , they numbered them among the traditional asteroids, though there was debate over whether they should be considered asteroids or as a new type of object. Then, when the first

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: (other than

text: Pluto

text: ), , was discovered in 1992, and especially when large numbers of similar objects started turning up, new terms were invented to sidestep the issue:

text: Kuiper-belt object

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: scattered-disc object

text: , and so on. These inhabit the cold outer reaches of the Solar System where ices remain solid and comet-like bodies are not expected to exhibit much cometary activity; if centaurs or trans-Neptunian objects were to venture close to the Sun, their volatile ices would sublimate, and traditional approaches would classify them as comets and not asteroids.

text: About.com calls The Meteors "the first true psychobilly band" and notes their blend of the "themes of horror, punk and rockabilly". They were the first band to use the term 'Psychobilly' as a description of their music. Formed in South London in 1980, they are considered the first verifiable psychobilly band. Their albums In Heaven (1981) and Wreckin' Crew (1983) are recognized as landmarks of the early years of the genre. "Starting in the neo-rockabilly scene, the Meteors were quickly shunned for being too different. Excuses for exclusion from rockabilly concerts varied from the band having too extreme of a sound to their drummer having green hair." The Meteors blended elements of punk rock, rockabilly, and horror film themes in their music. Another commentator argues that The Misfits' "American Nightmare" may have been the first psychobilly song.

text: About.com calls

text: The Meteors

text: "the first true psychobilly band" and notes their blend of the "themes of horror, punk and rockabilly". They were the first band to use the term 'Psychobilly' as a description of their music. Formed in

text: South London

text: in 1980, they are considered the first verifiable psychobilly band. Their albums In Heaven (1981) and Wreckin' Crew (1983) are recognized as landmarks of the early years of the genre. "Starting in the neo-rockabilly scene, the Meteors were quickly shunned for being too different. Excuses for exclusion from rockabilly concerts varied from the band having too extreme of a sound to their drummer having green hair." The Meteors blended elements of punk rock, rockabilly, and

text: horror film

text: themes in their music. Another commentator argues that

text: The Misfits

text: ' "American Nightmare" may have been the first psychobilly song.

text: The issue was brought to a head by the discovery of Eris, an object in the scattered disc far beyond the Kuiper belt, that is now known to be 27% more massive than Pluto. (Eris was originally thought to be larger than Pluto by volume, but the New Horizons mission found this not to be the case.) In response, the International Astronomical Union (IAU), was forced to define what a planet is for the first time, and in so doing included in their definition that a planet must have "cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit". As Pluto shared its orbit with so many KBOs, it was deemed not to have cleared its orbit, and was thus reclassified from a planet to a member of the Kuiper belt.

text: The issue was brought to a head by the discovery of

text: Eris

text: , an object in the

text: scattered disc

text: far beyond the Kuiper belt, that is now known to be 27% more massive than Pluto. (Eris was originally thought to be larger than Pluto by volume, but the

text: New Horizons

text: mission found this not to be the case.) In response, the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU), was forced to

text: define what a planet is

text: for the first time, and in so doing included in their definition that a planet must have "

text: cleared the neighbourhood

text: around its orbit". As Pluto shared its orbit with so many KBOs, it was deemed not to have cleared its orbit, and was thus reclassified from a planet to a member of the Kuiper belt.

text: Triton is the largest natural satellite of the planet Neptune. It was discovered on October 10, 1846, by English astronomer William Lassell. It is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit, an orbit in the opposite direction to its planet's rotation. At  in diameter, it is the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System. Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to Pluto's, Triton is thought to have been a dwarf planet captured from the Kuiper belt. Triton has a surface of mostly frozen nitrogen, a mostly water-ice crust, an icy mantle and a substantial core of rock and metal. The core makes up two-thirds of its total mass. Triton has a mean density of 2.061 g/cm and is composed of approximately 15–35% water ice.

text: Triton is the largest

text: natural satellite

text: of the

text: planet

text: Neptune

text: . It was discovered on October 10, 1846, by English astronomer

text: William Lassell

text: . It is the only large moon in the

text: Solar System

text: with a

text: retrograde orbit

text: , an orbit in the opposite direction to its planet's rotation. At  in diameter, it is the

text: seventh-largest moon

text: in the Solar System. Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to

text: Pluto

text: 's, Triton is thought to have been a

text: dwarf planet

text: captured from the

text: Kuiper belt

text: . Triton has a surface of mostly

text: frozen nitrogen

text: , a mostly

text: water-ice

text: crust, an icy

text: mantle

text: and a substantial

text: core

text: of rock and metal. The core makes up two-thirds of its total mass. Triton has a mean density of 2.061 g/cm and is composed of approximately 15–35% water ice.

text: According to contemporary models, the scattered disc formed when Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) were "scattered" into eccentric and inclined orbits by gravitational interaction with Neptune and the other outer planets. The amount of time for this process to occur remains uncertain. One hypothesis estimates a period equal to the entire age of the Solar System; a second posits that the scattering took place relatively quickly, during Neptune's early migration epoch.

text: According to contemporary models, the scattered disc formed when

text: Kuiper belt

text: objects (KBOs) were "scattered" into

text: eccentric

text: and

text: inclined

text: orbits by gravitational interaction with

text: Neptune

text: and the other

text: outer planets

text: . The amount of time for this process to occur remains uncertain. One hypothesis estimates a period equal to the entire age of the Solar System; a second posits that the scattering took place relatively quickly, during Neptune's early

text: migration

text: epoch.

text: Certain regions further out in the Solar System exhibit cryovolcanism, a process not seen anywhere on earth. Cryovolcanism is studied through laboratory experiments, conceptual and numerical modeling, and by cross-comparison to other examples in the field. Examples of bodies with cryovolcanic features include comets, some asteroids and Centaurs, Mars, Europa, Enceladus, Triton, and possibly Titan, Ceres, Pluto, and Eris.

text: Certain regions further out in the Solar System exhibit

text: cryovolcanism

text: , a process not seen anywhere on earth. Cryovolcanism is studied through laboratory experiments, conceptual and numerical modeling, and by cross-comparison to other examples in the field. Examples of bodies with cryovolcanic features include

text: comet

text: s, some

text: asteroid

text: s and

text: Centaurs

text: Mars

text: Europa

text: Enceladus

text: Triton

text: , and possibly

text: Titan

text: Ceres

text: Pluto

text: , and

text: Eris

text: The small digits of the species are slender and clawed. The small beak structure is formed by the projections of the rostral and mental shields. Preanal pores are present on R, ornata.This gecko regulates its temperature by moving to warmer or cooler positions.The female of the species is often larger and matures at an early age, less than 1 year, which allows greater development of its eggs for increased viability of its offspring. They produce two leathery eggs.

text: When Mr. Lillie left the firm in 1839, the name changed to William Fairbairn & Sons and the company's attention turned to railway  locomotives.

text: When Mr. Lillie left the firm in 1839, the name changed to William Fairbairn & Sons and the company's attention turned to

text: railway

text: locomotives

text: On July 1994, Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 was a comet that broke apart and collided with Jupiter, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects. The event served as a "wake-up call", and astronomers responded by starting programs such as Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR), Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT), Lowell Observatory Near-Earth Object Search (LONEOS) and several others which have drastically increased the rate of asteroid discovery.

text: On July 1994,

text: Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9

text: was a

text: comet

text: that broke apart and collided with

text: Jupiter

text: , providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of

text: Solar System

text: objects. The event served as a "wake-up call", and astronomers responded by starting programs such as

text: Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research

text: (LINEAR),

text: Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking

text: (NEAT),

entity_name: Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search

text: Lowell Observatory Near-Earth Object Search

text: (LONEOS) and several others which have drastically increased the rate of asteroid discovery.

text: The Cedar Hill Longhorns compete in the following sports:

text: Simulations by Lykawka in 2007 show that  is librating in the 11:6 resonance with Neptune.  This is the same resonance that dwarf planet Makemake is either near or in.  Both objects have a semi-major axis of 45 AU and an orbital period of about 302 years.

text: Simulations by Lykawka in 2007 show that  is librating in the 11:6

text: resonance

text: with Neptune.  This is the same resonance that

text: dwarf planet

text: Makemake

text: is either near or in.  Both objects have a

text: semi-major axis

text: of 45 AU and an

text: orbital period

text: of about 302 years.

text: David W. Hughes (born 7 Nov 1941) was a professor of astronomy at the University of Sheffield, where he worked since 1965. Hughes has published over 200 research papers on asteroids, comets, meteorites and meteoroids. He has also written on the history of astronomy, the origin of the solar system and the impact threat to planet Earth.

text: David W. Hughes (born 7 Nov 1941) was a professor of

text: astronomy

text: at the

text: University of Sheffield

text: , where he worked since 1965. Hughes has published over 200 research papers on

text: asteroid

text: s,

text: comet

text: s,

text: meteorite

text: s and

text: meteoroid

text: s. He has also written on the history of astronomy, the origin of the solar system and the impact threat to planet Earth.

text: de:Kedrowyru:Кедровый

text: de:Kedrowy

text: ru:Кедровый

text: Meteoroids also hit other bodies in the solar system. On such stony bodies as the Moon or Mars that have little or no atmosphere, they leave enduring craters.

text: Meteoroids also hit other bodies in the solar system. On such stony bodies as the

text: Moon

text: or

text: Mars

text: that have little or no atmosphere, they leave enduring craters.

text: The name PLUTO is inherited from the flight controller's original role, which was to maintain and coordinate changes to the U.S. segment of the electrical Plug-in Plan (PiP). The PiP is the tracking of portable electronic equipment, making sure equipment connected is compatible and does not violate constraints, and will not overdraw the power source. Along with this, PLUTO is responsible for maintaining the OPSLAN (Operations Local Area Network) and the JSL (Joint Station LAN). PLUTO has remote desktop administration and monitoring capability to the network from the ground. The PLUTO is also responsible for certain Station Developmental Test Objectives, or SDTOs during the mission. This includes programming the Wireless Instrumentation System (WIS) and also remote desktop commanding for ROBONAUT activities.

text: On September 13, 2016, both "Missin U" and "Rivals" impacted US urban adult contemporary radio as the album's third and fourth singles.

text: Pluto was initially a minor character until 1934 when Disney animator Norm Ferguson gave the dog a key role in the cartoon Playful Pluto. Pluto becomes entangled with a sticky piece of flypaper, and Ferguson expanded the sequence significantly. The segment became a classic, demonstrating how Disney artists can take a simple circumstance and build humor through a character.

text: Pluto was initially a minor character until 1934 when Disney animator

text: Norm Ferguson

text: gave the dog a key role in the cartoon

text: Playful Pluto

text: . Pluto becomes entangled with a sticky piece of flypaper, and Ferguson expanded the sequence significantly. The segment became a classic, demonstrating how Disney artists can take a simple circumstance and build humor through a character.

text: An asteroid family is a population of asteroids that share similar proper orbital elements, such as semimajor axis, eccentricity, and orbital inclination. The members of the families are thought to be fragments of past asteroid collisions.  An asteroid family is a more specific term than asteroid group whose members, while sharing some broad orbital characteristics, may be otherwise unrelated to each other.

text: An asteroid family is a population of

text: asteroid

text: s that share similar

text: proper orbital elements

text: , such as

text: semimajor axis

text: eccentricity

text: , and orbital

text: inclination

text: . The members of the families are thought to be

text: fragments of past asteroid collisions

text: .  An asteroid family is a more specific term than

text: asteroid group

text: whose members, while sharing some broad orbital characteristics, may be otherwise unrelated to each other.

text: Mahón has some characteristics specific to it, despite aging.  In general the cheese is buttery sharp, slightly salty and lightly aromatic (sweet and nutty aromas) in taste.

text: Usually, there is a partial rubber closure on the top of the disposal unit to prevent food waste from flying back up out of the grinding chamber. It may also be used to attenuate noise from the grinding chamber for quieter operation.

text: The microsite and rankings closed in March 2002 with the demise of Dreamarena.

text: Before 2006, the IAU had officially used the term minor planet. During its 2006 meeting, the IAU reclassified minor planets and comets into dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies (SSSB). Objects are called dwarf planets if their self-gravity is sufficient to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium and form an ellipsoidal shape. All other minor planets and comets are called small Solar System bodies. The IAU stated that the term minor planet may still be used, but the term small Solar System body will be preferred. However, for purposes of numbering and naming, the traditional distinction between minor planet and comet is still used.

text: Before 2006, the IAU had officially used the term minor planet. During its 2006 meeting, the IAU

text: reclassified

text: minor planets and comets into

text: dwarf planet

text: s and

text: small Solar System bodies

text: (SSSB). Objects are called dwarf planets if their self-gravity is sufficient to achieve

text: hydrostatic equilibrium

text: and form an

text: ellipsoid

text: al shape. All other minor planets and comets are called small Solar System bodies. The IAU stated that the term minor planet may still be used, but the term small Solar System body will be preferred. However, for purposes of numbering and naming, the traditional distinction between minor planet and comet is still used.

text: Hutt attended the London School of Economics (LSE) where he earned a Bachelor of Commerce degree under the "leading influence" of Edwin Cannan. After his 1924 graduation from LSE, Hutt worked for a publisher until 1927. It was during this period that Hutt wrote his first published essay, entitled "The Factory System of the Early Nineteenth Century" (1926).

text: Hutt attended the

text: London School of Economics

text: (LSE) where he earned a Bachelor of Commerce degree under the "leading influence" of

text: Edwin Cannan

text: . After his 1924 graduation from LSE, Hutt worked for a publisher until 1927. It was during this period that Hutt wrote his first published essay, entitled "The Factory System of the Early Nineteenth Century" (1926).

text: In August 1942 the division was sent to Montenegro. A year later the division took part in the fifth Axis anti-Partisan offensive, but did not complete its objectives there either. After the signing of the armistice between Italy and the Allied armed forces on 3 September 1943 and after the German invasion of Italy on 8 September, the division dislocated around the Bay of Kotor surrendered to German forces and was subsequently dissolved. However, some of its units (mainly the Ivrea battalion and Aosta artillery group) refused to surrender and with other Italian units stationed in the Balkans formed the Italian Partisan Division Garibaldi—fighting now under command of the II Yugoslav partisan Corps against the German Forces.

text: In August 1942 the division was sent to

text: Montenegro

text: . A year later the division took part in the

text: fifth Axis anti-Partisan offensive

text: , but did not complete its objectives there either. After the signing of the

text: armistice between Italy and the Allied armed forces

text: on 3 September 1943 and after the German invasion of Italy on 8 September, the division dislocated around the

text: Bay of Kotor

text: surrendered to German forces and was subsequently dissolved. However, some of its units (mainly the Ivrea battalion and Aosta artillery group) refused to surrender and with other Italian units stationed in the Balkans formed the Italian Partisan Division

text: Garibaldi

text: —fighting now under command of the II

text: Yugoslav partisan

text: Corps against the

text: German Forces

text: The first system was designed and developed around the main feature - a test generator. The idea behind this system was to turn the focus away from creating content in the LMS systems to developing tools able to automate the knowledge evaluation process.

text: Meteors become visible between about  above Earth. They usually disintegrate at altitudes of . Meteors have roughly a fifty percent chance of a daylight (or near daylight) collision with Earth. Most meteors are, however, observed at night, when darkness allows fainter objects to be recognized. For bodies with a size scale larger than 10 cm to several meters meteor visibility is due to the atmospheric ram pressure (not friction) that heats the meteoroid so that it glows and creates a shining trail of gases and melted meteoroid particles. The gases include vaporised meteoroid material and atmospheric gases that heat up when the meteoroid passes through the atmosphere. Most meteors glow for about a second.

text: Meteors become visible between about  above Earth. They usually disintegrate at altitudes of . Meteors have roughly a fifty percent chance of a daylight (or near daylight) collision with Earth. Most meteors are, however, observed at night, when darkness allows fainter objects to be recognized. For bodies with a size scale larger than 10 cm to several meters meteor visibility is due to the atmospheric

text: ram pressure

text: (not friction) that heats the meteoroid so that it glows and creates a shining trail of gases and melted meteoroid particles. The gases include vaporised meteoroid material and atmospheric gases that heat up when the meteoroid passes through the atmosphere. Most meteors glow for about a second.

text: The Principles of Mathematics is a book written by Bertrand Russell in 1903. In it he presented his famous paradox and argued his thesis that mathematics and logic are identical.

text: The Principles of Mathematics is a book written by

text: Bertrand Russell

text: in 1903. In it he presented his famous

text: paradox

text: and argued his thesis that mathematics and

text: logic

text: are identical.

text: In his final years, he suffered from Parkinson's disease and died at age 89.

text: In his final years, he suffered from

text: Parkinson's disease

text: and died at age 89.

text: Shkodrov discovered a number of asteroids, including the Apollo asteroid 4486 Mithra, which he and Eric Elst discovered on 22 September 1987. 4486 Mithra is notable as the most highly bifurcated object in the Solar System. The asteroid 4364 Shkodrov, discovered on 7 November 1978 by Eleanor Helin and Schelte Bus, is named after Shkodrov.

text: Shkodrov discovered a number of

text: asteroid

text: s, including the

text: Apollo asteroid

text: 4486 Mithra

text: , which he and

text: Eric Elst

text: discovered on 22 September 1987. 4486 Mithra is notable as the most highly bifurcated object in the

text: Solar System

text: . The asteroid

text: 4364 Shkodrov

text: , discovered on 7 November 1978 by

text: Eleanor Helin

text: and

text: Schelte Bus

text: , is named after Shkodrov.

text: The age of the meteorite is estimate to be about 4.55 billion years thus being a remainder of the period when the solar system was formed.

text: The age of the meteorite is estimate to be about 4.55 billion years thus being a remainder of the period when the

text: solar system was formed

text: The experimental facts collected on heavy fermion   (HF) metals and two dimensional He demonstrate that the quasiparticle effective mass  M* is very large, or even diverges. Fermion condensation quantum phase transition (FCQPT) preserves quasiparticles and is directly related to the unlimited growth of the effective mass M*.  Near FCQPT, M* starts to depend on temperature T, density x, magnetic field B and other external parameters such as pressure  P etc. In contrast to the Landau paradigm based on the assumption that the effective mass is constant, in the FCQPT theory the effective mass of new quasiparticles strongly depends on T, x, B etc. Therefore, to agree/explain with the numerous experimental facts, extended quasiparticles paradigm based on FCQPT has to be introduced. The main point here is that the well-defined quasiparticles determine the thermodynamic, relaxation, scaling  and transport properties of strongly correlated Fermi-systems and M* becomes a function of T, x, B, P etc.The data collected for very different strongly correlated Fermi systems demonstrate  universal scaling behavior; in other words distinct materials with strongly correlated fermions unexpectedly turn out to be uniform.

text: The experimental facts collected on heavy fermion   (HF) metals and two dimensional He demonstrate that the

text: quasiparticle

text: effective mass

text: M* is very large, or even diverges. Fermion condensation quantum phase transition (FCQPT) preserves quasiparticles and is directly related to the unlimited growth of the effective mass M*.  Near FCQPT, M* starts to depend on temperature T, density x, magnetic field B and other external parameters such as pressure  P etc. In contrast to the

text: Landau

text: paradigm based on the assumption that the effective mass is constant, in the FCQPT theory the effective mass of new quasiparticles strongly depends on T, x, B etc. Therefore, to agree/explain with the numerous experimental facts, extended quasiparticles paradigm based on FCQPT has to be introduced. The main point here is that the well-defined quasiparticles determine the

text: thermodynamic

text: relaxation

text: scaling

text: and

text: transport

text: properties of strongly correlated Fermi-systems and M* becomes a function of T, x, B, P etc.The data collected for very different strongly correlated Fermi systems demonstrate  universal scaling behavior; in other words distinct materials with strongly correlated fermions unexpectedly turn out to be uniform.

text: Moreover, Vesta appears to be the source of many smaller objects in the Solar System. Most (but not all) V-type near-Earth asteroids, and some outer main-belt asteroids, have spectra similar to Vesta, and are thus known as vestoids. Five percent of the meteoritic samples found on Earth, the howardite–eucrite–diogenite (HED) meteorites, are thought to be the result of a collision or collisions with Vesta.

text: Moreover, Vesta appears to be the source of many smaller objects in the Solar System. Most (but not all)

text: V-type

text: near-Earth asteroid

text: s, and some outer main-belt asteroids, have

text: spectra

text: similar to Vesta, and are thus known as vestoids. Five percent of the meteoritic samples found on Earth, the

text: howardite–eucrite–diogenite

text: (HED) meteorites, are thought to be the result of a collision or collisions with Vesta.

text: Clyde Tombaugh's discovery of Pluto in 1930 appeared to validate Lowell's hypothesis, and Pluto was officially named the ninth planet. In 1978, Pluto was conclusively determined to be too small for its gravity to affect the giant planets, resulting in a brief search for a tenth planet. The search was largely abandoned in the early 1990s, when a study of measurements made by the Voyager 2 spacecraft found that the irregularities observed in Uranus's orbit were due to a slight overestimation of Neptune's mass. After 1992, the discovery of numerous small icy objects with similar or even wider orbits than Pluto led to a debate over whether Pluto should remain a planet, or whether it and its neighbours should, like the asteroids, be given their own separate classification. Although a number of the larger members of this group were initially described as planets, in 2006 the International Astronomical Union reclassified Pluto and its largest neighbours as dwarf planets, leaving Neptune the farthest known planet in the Solar System.

text: Clyde Tombaugh

text: 's discovery of

text: Pluto

text: in 1930 appeared to validate Lowell's hypothesis, and Pluto was officially named the ninth planet. In 1978, Pluto was conclusively determined to be too small for its gravity to affect the giant planets, resulting in a brief search for a tenth planet. The search was largely abandoned in the early 1990s, when a study of measurements made by the

text: Voyager 2

text: spacecraft found that the irregularities observed in Uranus's orbit were due to a slight overestimation of Neptune's mass. After 1992, the discovery of numerous small icy objects with similar or even wider orbits than Pluto led to a debate over whether Pluto should remain a planet, or whether it and its neighbours should, like the

text: asteroid

text: s, be given their own separate classification. Although a number of the larger members of this group were initially described as planets, in 2006 the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: reclassified Pluto and its largest neighbours as

text: dwarf planet

text: s, leaving Neptune the farthest known planet in the Solar System.

text: Comets have, through the centuries, appeared in numerous works of fiction. In earliest times they were seen as portents, either of disaster or of some great historical change. As knowledge of comets increased, comets came to be imagined not just as symbols, but as powerful forces in their own right, capable of causing disaster. More recently, comets have been described as destinations for space travelers.

text: Comet

text: s have, through the centuries, appeared in numerous works of fiction. In earliest times they were seen as portents, either of disaster or of some great historical change. As knowledge of comets increased, comets came to be imagined not just as symbols, but as powerful forces in their own right, capable of causing disaster. More recently, comets have been described as destinations for space travelers.

text: There are millions of asteroids, many thought to be the shattered remnants of planetesimals, bodies within the young Sun's solar nebula that never grew large enough to become planets. The large majority of known asteroids orbit in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, or are co-orbital with Jupiter (the Jupiter trojans). However, other orbital families exist with significant populations, including the near-Earth objects. Individual asteroids are classified by their characteristic spectra, with the majority falling into three main groups: C-type, M-type, and S-type. These were named after and are generally identified with carbon-rich,  metallic, and silicate (stony) compositions, respectively. The size of asteroids varies greatly, some reaching as much as  across.

text: There are millions of asteroids, many thought to be the shattered remnants of

text: planetesimal

text: s, bodies within the young Sun's

text: solar nebula

text: that never grew large enough to become

text: planet

text: s. The large majority of known asteroids orbit in the asteroid belt between the orbits of

text: Mars

text: and Jupiter, or are co-orbital with Jupiter (the

text: Jupiter trojan

text: s). However, other orbital families exist with significant populations, including the

text: near-Earth object

text: s. Individual asteroids are classified by their characteristic

text: spectra

text: , with the majority falling into three main groups:

text: C-type

text: M-type

text: , and

text: S-type

text: . These were named after and are generally identified with

text: carbon-rich

text: metal

text: lic, and

text: silicate

text: (stony) compositions, respectively. The size of asteroids varies greatly, some reaching as much as  across.

text: 395 Delia is a large Main belt asteroid.

text: 395 Delia is a large

text: Main belt

text: asteroid

text: Haumea, minor-planet designation 136108 Haumea, is a dwarf planet located beyond Neptune's orbit. It was discovered in 2004 by a team headed by Mike Brown of Caltech at the Palomar Observatory in the United States and independently in 2005, by a team headed by José Luis Ortiz Moreno at the Sierra Nevada Observatory in Spain, though the latter claim has been contested. On September 17, 2008, it was recognized as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) and named after Haumea, the Hawaiian goddess of childbirth.

text: Haumea,

text: minor-planet designation

text: 136108 Haumea, is a

text: dwarf planet

text: located beyond

text: Neptune

text: 's orbit. It was discovered in 2004 by a team headed by

text: Mike Brown

text: of

text: Caltech

text: at the

text: Palomar Observatory

text: in the United States and independently in 2005, by a team headed by

text: José Luis Ortiz Moreno

text: at the

text: Sierra Nevada Observatory

text: in Spain, though the latter claim has been contested. On September 17, 2008, it was recognized as a dwarf planet by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: (IAU) and named after

text: Haumea

text: , the Hawaiian goddess of childbirth.