text: Wolfiporia curvispora is a species of fungus in the order Polyporales. It is found in Jilin, China, where it grows on the rotting wood of Pinus koraiensis. The fungus was described as new to science in 1998 by mycologist Yu-Cheng Dai. The fruitbodies of the fungus are resupinate, meaning they lie flat on the substrate, and have dimensions of up to  long by  wide by  thick. They are creamy white (buff when dry), soft, and light. The hyphal system is dimitic, comprising generative and skeletal hyphae. The specific epithet curvispora refers to the curved spores.

text: Wolfiporia curvispora is a species of

entity_name: Fungus

text: fungus

text: in the order

entity_name: Polyporales

text: Polyporales

text: . It is found in

entity_name: Jilin

text: Jilin

text: , China, where it grows on the rotting wood of

entity_name: Pinus koraiensis

text: Pinus koraiensis

text: . The fungus was

entity_name: Species description

text: described

text: as new to science in 1998 by mycologist Yu-Cheng Dai. The

entity_name: Basidiocarp

text: fruitbodies

text: of the fungus are

entity_name: Resupination

text: resupinate

text: , meaning they lie flat on the

entity_name: Substrate (biology)

text: substrate

text: , and have dimensions of up to  long by  wide by  thick. They are creamy white (

entity_name: Buff (colour)

text: buff

text: when dry), soft, and light. The

entity_name: Hypha

text: hypha

text: l system is dimitic, comprising generative and skeletal hyphae. The

entity_name: Botanical name

text: specific epithet

text: curvispora refers to the curved

entity_name: Basidiospore

text: spores

text: Muscle tissue varies with function and location in the body. In mammals the three types are: skeletal or striated muscle; smooth or non-striated muscle; and cardiac muscle, which is sometimes known as semi-striated. Smooth and cardiac muscle contracts involuntarily, without conscious intervention. These muscle types may be activated both through interaction of the central nervous system as well as by receiving innervation from peripheral plexus or endocrine (hormonal) activation. Striated or skeletal muscle only contracts voluntarily, upon influence of the central nervous system. Reflexes are a form of non-conscious activation of skeletal muscles, but nonetheless arise through activation of the central nervous system, albeit not engaging cortical structures until after the contraction has occurred.

text: Muscle tissue varies with function and location in the body. In mammals the three types are:

entity_name: Skeletal muscle

text: skeletal or striated muscle

entity_name: Smooth muscle tissue

text: smooth

text: or non-striated muscle; and

entity_name: Cardiac muscle

text: cardiac muscle

text: , which is sometimes known as semi-striated. Smooth and cardiac muscle contracts involuntarily, without conscious intervention. These muscle types may be activated both through interaction of the

entity_name: Central nervous system

text: central nervous system

text: as well as by receiving innervation from peripheral

entity_name: Plexus

text: plexus

text: or

entity_name: Endocrine system

text: endocrine

text: (hormonal) activation. Striated or skeletal muscle only contracts voluntarily, upon influence of the central nervous system. Reflexes are a form of non-conscious activation of skeletal muscles, but nonetheless arise through activation of the

text: central nervous system

text: , albeit not engaging

entity_name: Cerebral cortex

text: cortical

text: structures until after the contraction has occurred.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

method: UNH-qee

text: From "How will this affect me?" to "What problems will this solve?"Anything that prevents something from being better is a problem. Let them know what the problem is and how they will be part of the solution.

text: The Fracture name is used once again, this time for a male character from Transformers: Robots in Disguise (the 2015 animated follow-up to the previous series Transformers: Prime). This version of Fracture is a bounty hunter who has a rivalry with the Autobot bounty hunter, Drift. He transforms into a purple motorcycle and is the only one that doesn't have an animal motif for his robot mode in the first season. He has two Mini-Con partners, Airazor and Divebomb, voiced by Roger Craig Smith and Khary Payton, respectively, who transform into missiles which launch from Fracture's shoulders. Like Drift, Fracture's Mini-Cons seemingly form part of his alternate mode as they are seen transforming with him.

text: The Fracture name is used once again, this time for a male character from

entity_name: Transformers: Robots in Disguise (2015 TV series)

text: Transformers: Robots in Disguise

text: (the 2015 animated follow-up to the previous series

entity_name: Transformers: Prime

text: Transformers: Prime

text: ). This version of Fracture is a

entity_name: Bounty hunter

text: bounty hunter

text: who has a rivalry with the Autobot bounty hunter,

entity_name: Drift (Transformers)

text: Drift

text: . He transforms into a purple motorcycle and is the only one that doesn't have an animal motif for his robot mode in the first season. He has two

entity_name: Mini-Con

text: Mini-Con

text: partners,

entity_name: List of Beast Wars and Beast Machines characters

entity_section: Airazor

text: Airazor

text: and Divebomb, voiced by

entity_name: Roger Craig Smith

text: Roger Craig Smith

text: and

entity_name: Khary Payton

text: Khary Payton

text: , respectively, who transform into missiles which launch from Fracture's shoulders. Like Drift, Fracture's Mini-Cons seemingly form part of his alternate mode as they are seen transforming with him.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: The Pipkin classification is a system of categorizing femoral head hip fractures based on the fracture pattern.

text: The Pipkin classification is a system of categorizing

entity_name: Femoral head

text: femoral head

entity_name: Hip fracture

text: hip fracture

text: s based on the

entity_name: Bone fracture

text: fracture

text: pattern.

text: Powerful strikes to the heavy bag are not recommended for inexperienced, or younger athletes (<18 female, <21 male), as risk of sprain, strain, or bone-plate damage may adversely affect bone structures. It is highly recommended to carefully focus strikes to reduce chance of injury (such as boxer's fracture).

text: Powerful strikes to the heavy bag are not recommended for inexperienced, or younger athletes (<18 female, <21 male), as risk of

entity_name: Sprain

text: sprain

entity_name: Strain (injury)

text: strain

text: , or bone-plate damage may adversely affect bone structures. It is highly recommended to carefully focus strikes to reduce chance of injury (such as

entity_name: Boxer's fracture

text: boxer's fracture

method: UNH-ecn

text: |-! Type !! Composition !! Location|-| LDH || HHHH || Heart and Erythrocyte|-| LDH || HHHM || Heart and Erythrocyte|-| LDH || HHMM || Brain and Kidney|-| LDH || HMMM || Skeletal Muscle and Liver|-| LDH || MMMM || Skeletal Muscle and Liver|}

text: Hippocrates was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that might prove to be wrongly chosen; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis. Generalized treatments he prescribed include fasting and the consumption of apple cider vinegar. Hippocrates once said that "to eat when you are sick, is to feed your sickness." However, potent drugs were used on certain occasions. This passive approach was very successful in treating relatively simple ailments such as broken bones which required traction to stretch the skeletal system and relieve pressure on the injured area. The Hippocratic bench and other devices were used to this end.

text: Hippocrates was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that might prove to be wrongly chosen; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis. Generalized treatments he prescribed include fasting and the consumption of apple cider vinegar. Hippocrates once said that "to eat when you are sick, is to feed your sickness." However, potent drugs were used on certain occasions. This passive approach was very successful in treating relatively simple ailments such as broken bones which required

entity_name: Traction (orthopedics)

text: traction

text: to stretch the skeletal system and relieve pressure on the injured area. The

entity_name: Hippocratic bench

text: Hippocratic bench

text: and other devices were used to this end.

text: Williams then withdrew from the French Open with a sprained left ankle.

text: Williams then withdrew from the

entity_name: 2005 French Open

text: French Open

text: with a sprained left ankle.

text: The Russian physiologist Nicolas Bernstein independently came to the same conclusion that behavior has to be multiordinal—organized hierarchically, in layers. A simple problem led to this conclusion at about the same time both in PCT and in Bernstein's work. The spinal reflexes act to stabilize limbs against disturbances. Why do they not prevent centers higher in the brain from using those limbs to carry out behavior? Since the brain obviously does use the spinal systems in producing behavior, there must be a principle that allows the higher systems to operate by incorporating the reflexes, not just by overcoming them or turning them off. The answer is that the reference value (setpoint) for a spinal reflex is not static; rather, it is varied by higher-level systems as their means of moving the limbs. This principle applies to higher feedback loops, as each loop presents the same problem to subsystems above it.

text: VLDLR is found throughout the body, with particularly high expression in fatty acid tissues due to their high level of triglycerides, VLDLR’s primary ligand. These tissues include those of the heart, skeletal muscle, and adipose layer. In addition, the receptor is found in macrophages, endothelial cells of capillaries, and in the brain, where it has a very different function from that found in the rest of the body. There is a preferred expression for VLDLR type I in the heart, skeletal muscle and brain, as opposed to type II, which is mainly expressed in non-muscular tissues including the cerebrum, cerebellum, kidney, spleen, and aortic endothelial cells. The highest expression of VLDLR is found in the brain. Although VLDLR is found in almost all regions of the brain, its highest expression is restricted to the cortex and cerebellum. Here, the receptor can be found on resting or activated microglia that are associated with senile plaques and cortical neurons, neuroblasts, matrix cells, Cajal-Retzius cells, glioblasts, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and region-specific pyramidal neurons. Despite its major role in cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism, VLDLR is not found in the liver. This phenomenon is mainly attributed to the very high levels of LDLR in these areas. In addition, it has been uncovered that this receptor is found, sub-cellularly, in the non-lipid raft sections of cell membranes.

text: VLDLR is found throughout the body, with particularly high expression in fatty acid tissues due to their high level of

entity_name: Triglyceride

text: triglycerides

text: , VLDLR’s primary ligand. These tissues include those of the heart, skeletal muscle, and

entity_name: Adipose tissue

text: adipose layer

text: . In addition, the receptor is found in macrophages, endothelial cells of capillaries, and in the brain, where it has a very different function from that found in the rest of the body. There is a preferred expression for VLDLR type I in the heart, skeletal muscle and brain, as opposed to type II, which is mainly expressed in non-muscular tissues including the

entity_name: Cerebrum

text: cerebrum

entity_name: Cerebellum

text: cerebellum

text: , kidney, spleen, and aortic endothelial cells. The highest expression of VLDLR is found in the brain. Although VLDLR is found in almost all regions of the brain, its highest expression is restricted to the cortex and cerebellum. Here, the receptor can be found on resting or activated

entity_name: Microglia

text: microglia

text: that are associated with

entity_name: Senile plaques

text: senile plaques

text: and cortical neurons,

entity_name: Neuroblast

text: neuroblast

text: s, matrix cells,

entity_name: Cajal–Retzius cell

text: Cajal-Retzius cell

text: s,

entity_name: Glioblast

text: glioblast

text: s,

entity_name: Astrocyte

text: astrocytes

entity_name: Oligodendrocyte

text: oligodendrocytes

text: , and region-specific

entity_name: Pyramidal cell

text: pyramidal neurons

text: . Despite its major role in cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism, VLDLR is not found in the liver. This phenomenon is mainly attributed to the very high levels of

entity_name: VLDL receptor

text: LDLR

text: in these areas. In addition, it has been uncovered that this receptor is found, sub-cellularly, in the non-

entity_name: Lipid raft

text: lipid raft

text: sections of cell membranes.

text: Ankle sprains and wrist sprains are common in wrestling. Ankle sprains typically occur from twisting the ankle and injuring the ligaments within the ankle. Wrist sprains occur from falling hard on the wrist and damaging the ligaments in the wrist.

entity_name: Sprained ankle

text: Ankle sprains

text: and wrist sprains are common in wrestling. Ankle sprains typically occur from twisting the ankle and injuring the ligaments within the ankle. Wrist sprains occur from falling hard on the wrist and damaging the ligaments in the wrist.

text: The joint-family system is one of the basic features of Hindu social organization. Therefore, since Hinduism is the primary practiced religion in India, the joint-family system constitutes the majority of family structures in India. The joint-family system is described as follows:“In structure, it comprises a married man, his father, his grandfather and his collaterals within three generations. The different kinsmen along with their spouses and children occupy the same dwelling, eat and worship together, and enjoy property in common. They cooperate in economic activity and, even if the members are differentiated occupationally, pool their earnings. The joint-family provides nursing care for the sick and afflicted, social security for the unemployed, and support for the aged”“They share the various routines, problems, and joys of social living, have strong feelings of mutual obligation during crises, and regard self-interest as being identical with family welfare. Their respect for the wisdom and justice of the eldest male permits him and his spouse to render decisions which affect each and every member of the unit”

text: These ridges could be formed by large impacts that produced fractures, faults, or dikes made up of melted rock and/or crushed rock (breccia).  If the impact-caused dike is made of purely melted rock from the heat of the impact, it is called a pseudotachylite .  Also, hydrothermalism may have been involved due to the heat generated during impacts.  Strong evidence for hydrothermalism was reported by a team of researchers studying Auki Crater.  This crater contains ridges that may have been produced after fractures formed with an impact.  Using instruments on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter they found the minerals smectite, silica, zeolite, serpentine, carbonate, and chorite that are common in impact-induced hydrothermal systems on Earth.      Other evidence of post-impact hydrothermal systems on Mars from other scientists who studied other Martian craters.

text: These ridges could be formed by large impacts that produced fractures, faults, or dikes made up of melted rock and/or crushed rock (

entity_name: Breccia

text: breccia

text: ).  If the impact-caused dike is made of purely melted rock from the heat of the impact, it is called a

entity_name: Pseudotachylite

text: pseudotachylite

text: .  Also, hydrothermalism may have been involved due to the heat generated during impacts.  Strong evidence for hydrothermalism was reported by a team of researchers studying

entity_name: Auki Crater

text: Auki Crater

text: .  This crater contains ridges that may have been produced after fractures formed with an impact.  Using instruments on the

entity_name: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: they found the minerals

entity_name: Clay minerals

text: smectite

entity_name: Silicon dioxide

text: silica

entity_name: Zeolite

text: zeolite

entity_name: Serpentine subgroup

text: serpentine

entity_name: Carbonate

text: carbonate

text: , and chorite that are common in impact-induced hydrothermal systems on Earth.      Other evidence of post-impact hydrothermal systems on Mars from other scientists who studied other Martian craters.

text: Their skeletal features included a massive scapulocoracoid, humeri with large flared ends, stout forearm bones and broad, robust hands that had large claws. Certain features of their hands indicate that they were paddle-like in shape and structure, being used to swim in a manner much similar to that of modern turtles.

text: Their

entity_name: Skeleton

text: skeletal

text: features included a massive

entity_name: Scapulocoracoid

text: scapulocoracoid

text: , humeri with large flared ends, stout forearm bones and broad, robust hands that had large claws. Certain features of their hands indicate that they were paddle-like in shape and structure, being used to swim in a manner much similar to that of modern turtles.

text: Radio carbon dates place the excavated pits in the southern site to the “first half of the first millennium AD.”  At the southern site, Meister and Eggert found what is believed to be the oldest graves containing iron in Central Africa. In feature AKO 05/6 no skeletal material was found, but the “content as well as the content’s arrangement suggested that they are graves. This interpretation is supported by the discovery of bone residue during the preparation and conservation of the iron bracelets.” Feature AKO 05/2, yielded “three almost complete ceramic vessels, several iron bracelets and two socketed iron hoes, both of which [were] decorated.” No skeletal remains were found at this feature either, however, decomposed bone material was again found. Meister and Eggert also believe that this was a grave. The third and final grave was discovered in feature AKO 05/6. This grave was marked by “intentionally deposited, party worked stones” and inside three pots and iron offerings, including an iron spoon, double- diamond shaped iron objects, were found. Also found were iron bracelets, and an iron axe and hoe.

entity_name: Radiocarbon dating

text: Radio carbon

text: dates place the excavated pits in the southern site to the “first half of the first millennium AD.”  At the southern site, Meister and Eggert found what is believed to be the oldest graves containing iron in Central Africa. In feature AKO 05/6 no skeletal material was found, but the “content as well as the content’s arrangement suggested that they are graves. This interpretation is supported by the discovery of bone residue during the preparation and conservation of the iron bracelets.” Feature AKO 05/2, yielded “three almost complete ceramic vessels, several iron bracelets and two socketed iron hoes, both of which [were] decorated.” No skeletal remains were found at this feature either, however, decomposed bone material was again found. Meister and Eggert also believe that this was a grave. The third and final grave was discovered in feature AKO 05/6. This grave was marked by “intentionally deposited, party worked stones” and inside three pots and iron offerings, including an iron spoon, double- diamond shaped iron objects, were found. Also found were iron bracelets, and an iron axe and hoe.

text: CDGP is a global delay in development that affects every organ system. Delays in growth and sexual development are quantified by skeletal age, which is determined from bone age radiographic studies of the left hand and wrist. Growth and development are appropriate for an individual's biologic age (skeletal age) rather than for their chronologic age. Timing and tempo of growth and development are delayed in accordance with the biologic state of maturity.

text: Latin for "the Prison".  The figure is the outline of an enclosure, a link in a chain, or prison cell. It is usually bad in situations and denotes delays, setbacks, or bindings.  Astrologically it is associated with Capricorn and Saturn retrograde; its inner and outer element is earth.  It refers to immobility, and also thereby strength.  Depending on the question it could indicate a restriction or a source of willpower.  It is generally unfavourable, but can be favourable in questions involving stability or security.  Its planetary intelligence is Agiel and its spirit is Zazel; it is associated with the deities Saeturnus and Vesta, and the angels Cassiel and Hanael.  It is associated with the knees and skeletal system of the body.

text: Latin for "the Prison".  The figure is the outline of an enclosure, a link in a chain, or prison cell. It is usually bad in situations and denotes delays, setbacks, or bindings.  Astrologically it is associated with

entity_name: Capricorn (astrology)

text: Capricorn

text: and Saturn retrograde; its inner and outer element is earth.  It refers to immobility, and also thereby strength.  Depending on the question it could indicate a restriction or a source of willpower.  It is generally unfavourable, but can be favourable in questions involving stability or security.  Its planetary intelligence is Agiel and its spirit is Zazel; it is associated with the deities Saeturnus and Vesta, and the angels Cassiel and Hanael.  It is associated with the knees and skeletal system of the body.

text: The Herbert classification is a system of categorizing scaphoid fractures.

text: The Herbert classification is a system of categorizing

entity_name: Scaphoid fracture

text: scaphoid fracture

text: s.

text: Casa Batlló () is a renowned building located in the centre of Barcelona and is one of Antoni Gaudí’s masterpieces. A remodel of a previously built house, it was redesigned in 1904 by Gaudí and has been refurbished several times after that. Gaudí's assistants Domènec Sugrañes i Gras, Josep Canaleta and Joan Rubió also contributed to the renovation project. The local name for the building is Casa dels ossos (House of Bones), as it has a visceral, skeletal organic quality.

text: Casa Batlló () is a renowned building located in the centre of

text: Barcelona

text: and is one of

text: Antoni Gaudí

text: ’s masterpieces. A remodel of a previously built house, it was redesigned in 1904 by Gaudí and has been refurbished several times after that. Gaudí's assistants

text: Domènec Sugrañes i Gras

text: , Josep Canaleta and

text: Joan Rubió

text: also contributed to the renovation project. The local name for the building is Casa dels ossos (House of Bones), as it has a

text: viscera

text: l,

text: skeletal

text: organic quality.

text: As of 2014, the National Board of Chiropractic Examiners states "The specific focus of chiropractic practice is known as the chiropractic subluxation or joint dysfunction. A subluxation is a health concern that manifests in the skeletal joints, and, through complex anatomical and physiological relationships, affects the nervous system and may lead to reduced function, disability or illness."

text: As of 2014, the

entity_name: National Board of Chiropractic Examiners

text: National Board of Chiropractic Examiners

text: states "The specific focus of chiropractic practice is known as the chiropractic subluxation or joint dysfunction. A subluxation is a health concern that manifests in the skeletal joints, and, through complex anatomical and physiological relationships, affects the nervous system and may lead to reduced function, disability or illness."

text: In many instances, Chac Chel is depicted as a goddess of destruction as well as creation, which fits with the ancient Maya emphasis on duality. In the Tulum Structure 16 murals, she wears a serpent headdress and holds another serpent in her hands, which could symbolize her role as the bringer of world-ending deluges. On page 30b of the Madrid Codex, she is seen standing with streams of blue water pouring from her loins and breasts while God B sits at her feet, indicating that she not only brings devastating floods, but also is of extreme importance, as males are rarely situated lower than females in Maya iconography.  In other scenes, she is shown having an amorous affair with God B and in another; both deities are depicted among a flood that has destroyed the world.In bas-relief iconography from a column in the Lower Temple of the Jaguars in Chichen Itza, a skeletalized Chac Chel is shown with God N supporting an Atlantean figure wearing a cross-bone skirt.

text: The exhibit is set up so that one starts at the skeletal system, and more layers (muscular, nervous, circulatory, digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems; as well as fetal development and the treated body) are added in successive rooms. Containing about twenty bodies in total, each exhibition uses real human bodies that have been preserved permanently by a process called "polymer preservation" so that they will not decay. This exhibition is organized by the publicly traded corporation, Premier Exhibitions Incorporated, which also staged Bodies Revealed first in Seoul, South Korea and more recently in the US. The company received the cadavers for research from the Chinese government, who donated them because all the bodies at the time of death had no close next of kin or immediate families to claim the bodies. The dissections took place at the Dalian University in Liaoning, China and the resulting specimens were leased to Premier Exhibitions for the five-year duration of the show.

text: The exhibit is set up so that one starts at the

text: skeletal system

text: , and more layers (

text: muscular

text: nervous

text: circulatory

text: digestive

text: respiratory

text: urinary

text: , and

text: reproductive

text: systems; as well as

text: fetal development

text: and the treated body) are added in successive rooms. Containing about twenty bodies in total, each exhibition uses real human bodies that have been preserved permanently by a process called "

text: polymer preservation

text: " so that they will not decay. This exhibition is organized by the publicly traded corporation,

text: Premier Exhibitions Incorporated

text: , which also staged

text: Bodies Revealed

text: first in Seoul, South Korea and more recently in the US. The company received the

text: cadavers

text: for research from the

text: Chinese

text: government, who donated them because all the bodies at the time of death had no close

text: next of kin

text: or immediate families to claim the bodies. The dissections took place at the

text: Dalian University

text: in

text: Liaoning

text: , China and the resulting specimens were leased to Premier Exhibitions for the five-year duration of the show.

text: Yunis–Varon syndrome (YVS), also called cleidocranial dysplasia with micrognathia, absent thumbs and distal aphalangia, is an extremely rare autosomal recessive multisystem congenital disorder which affects the skeletal system, ectodermal tissue, heart and respiratory system.

text: Yunis–Varon syndrome (YVS), also called cleidocranial dysplasia with micrognathia, absent thumbs and distal aphalangia, is an extremely rare

text: autosomal

text: recessive

text: multisystem

text: congenital disorder

text: which affects the

text: skeletal system

text: ectoderm

text: al tissue,

text: heart

text: and

text: respiratory system

text: All vertebrates have a pharynx, used in both feeding and respiration. The pharynx arises during development in all vertebrates through a series of six or more outpocketings on the lateral sides of the head. These outpocketings are pharyngeal arches, and they give rise to a number of different structures in the skeletal, muscular and circulatory systems. The structure of the pharynx varies across the vertebrates. It differs in dogs, horses and ruminants. In dogs a single duct connects the nasopharynx to the nasal cavity. The tonsils are a compact mass which point away from the lumen of the pharynx.In the horse the auditory tube opens into the guttural pouch and the tonsils are diffuse and raised slightly. Horses are unable to breathe through the mouth as the free apex of the rostral epiglottis lies dorsal to the soft palate in a normal horse. In ruminants the tonsils are a compact mass which point towards the lumen of the pharynx.

text: All vertebrates have a pharynx, used in both feeding and respiration. The pharynx arises during development in all vertebrates through a series of six or more outpocketings on the lateral sides of the head. These outpocketings are

text: pharyngeal arches

text: , and they give rise to a number of different structures in the skeletal, muscular and circulatory systems. The structure of the pharynx varies across the vertebrates. It differs in dogs, horses and ruminants. In dogs a single duct connects the nasopharynx to the nasal cavity. The tonsils are a compact mass which point away from the lumen of the pharynx.In the horse the auditory tube opens into the guttural pouch and the tonsils are diffuse and raised slightly. Horses are unable to breathe through the mouth as the free apex of the rostral epiglottis lies dorsal to the soft palate in a normal horse. In

text: ruminant

text: s the tonsils are a compact mass which point towards the lumen of the pharynx.

text: Molecular biomarkers are often used in early drug development studies. For instance, they are used in phase I study for establishing doses and dosing regimen for future phase II studies. PD biomarkers are commonly observed to respond (either decrease or increase) proportionally with dose. This data, in conjunction with safety data, help determine doses for phase II studies. In addition, Safety molecular biomarkers  have been used for decades both in preclinical and clinical research. Since these tests have become mainstream tests, they have been fully automated for both animal and human testing. Among the most common safety tests are those of liver function (e.g., transaminases, bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase) and kidney function (e.g., serum creatinine, creatinine clearance, cystatin C). Others include markers of skeletal muscle(e.g., myoglobin) or cardiac muscle injury (e.g., CK-MB, troponin I or T), as well as bone biomarkers (e.g., bone-specific alkaline phosphatase).

text: Molecular biomarkers are often used in early drug development studies. For instance, they are used in phase I study for establishing doses and dosing regimen for future phase II studies. PD biomarkers are commonly observed to respond (either decrease or increase) proportionally with dose. This data, in conjunction with safety data, help determine doses for phase II studies. In addition, Safety molecular biomarkers  have been used for decades both in preclinical and

text: clinical research

text: . Since these tests have become mainstream tests, they have been fully automated for both animal and human testing. Among the most common safety tests are those of liver function (e.g., transaminases, bilirubin,

text: alkaline phosphatase

text: ) and

text: kidney function

text: (e.g.,

text: serum creatinine

text: , creatinine clearance, cystatin C). Others include markers of

text: skeletal muscle

text: (e.g., myoglobin) or

text: cardiac muscle

text: injury (e.g., CK-MB, troponin I or T), as well as bone biomarkers (e.g., bone-specific alkaline phosphatase).

text: Growth differentiation factor 5 (GDF5) is a protein belonging to the transforming growth factor beta superfamily that is expressed in the developing central nervous system, and has a role in skeletal and joint development.  It also increases the survival of neurones that respond to the neurotransmitter dopamine, and is a potential therapeutic molecule associated with Parkinson's disease.

text: Growth differentiation factor 5 (GDF5) is a protein belonging to the

entity_name: Transforming growth factor beta superfamily

text: transforming growth factor beta superfamily

text: that is expressed in the developing central nervous system, and has a role in skeletal and joint development.  It also increases the survival of

text: neurone

text: s that respond to the

text: neurotransmitter

text: dopamine

text: , and is a potential therapeutic molecule associated with Parkinson's disease.

text: As games have grown in size and complexity, middleware is becoming increasingly popular within the industry. Middleware provides greater and higher level functionality and larger feature sets than the standard lower level APIs such as DirectX and OpenGL, such as skeletal animation. In addition to providing more complex technologies, some middleware also makes reasonable attempts to be platform independent, making common conversions from, for example, Microsoft Windows to PS4 much easier. Essentially, middleware is aimed at cutting out as much of the redundancy in the development cycle as possible (for example, writing new animation systems for each game a studio produces), allowing programmers to focus on new content.

text: As games have grown in size and complexity,

text: middleware

text: is becoming increasingly popular within the industry. Middleware provides greater and higher level functionality and larger feature sets than the standard lower level

text: API

text: s such as

text: DirectX

text: and

text: OpenGL

text: , such as

text: skeletal animation

text: . In addition to providing more complex technologies, some middleware also makes reasonable attempts to be

text: platform independent

text: , making common conversions from, for example, Microsoft Windows to

text: much easier. Essentially, middleware is aimed at cutting out as much of the redundancy in the development cycle as possible (for example, writing new animation systems for each game a studio produces), allowing programmers to focus on new content.

text: Bird anatomy, or the physiological structure of birds' bodies, shows many unique adaptations, mostly aiding flight.  Birds have a light skeletal system and light but powerful musculature which, along with circulatory and respiratory systems capable of very high metabolic rates and oxygen supply, permit the bird to fly. The development of a beak has led to evolution of a specially adapted digestive system. These anatomical specializations have earned birds their own class in the vertebrate phylum.

text: Bird anatomy, or the

text: physiological structure

text: of

text: bird

text: s' bodies, shows many unique adaptations, mostly aiding

text: flight

text: .  Birds have a light

text: skeletal system

text: and light but powerful

text: musculature

text: which, along with

text: circulatory

text: and

text: respiratory systems

text: capable of very high

text: metabolic

text: rates and

text: oxygen

text: supply, permit the bird to fly. The development of a

text: beak

text: has led to

text: evolution

text: of a specially adapted

text: digestive system

text: . These

text: anatomical

text: specializations have earned birds their own

text: class

text: in the

text: vertebrate

text: phylum

text: The somatosensory system (also somatosensory nervous system) is a complex system of nerve cells that responds to changes to the surface or internal state of the body. Nerve cells called "sensory receptors" (including thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors and nociceptors) send signals along a chain of nerve cells to the spinal cord where they may be processed by other nerve cells and then relayed to the brain for further processing. Sensory receptors are found in many parts of the body including the skin, epithelial tissues, skeletal muscles, bones and joints, internal organs, and the cardiovascular system.

text: The somatosensory system (also somatosensory nervous system) is a complex system of

text: nerve cells

text: that responds to changes to the surface or internal state of the body. Nerve cells called "

text: sensory receptors

text: " (including

text: thermoreceptor

text: s,

text: mechanoreceptor

text: s,

text: chemoreceptor

text: s and

text: nociceptor

text: s) send signals along a chain of nerve cells to the spinal cord where they may be processed by other nerve cells and then relayed to the brain for further processing. Sensory receptors are found in many parts of the body including the

text: skin

text: epithelial tissues

text: skeletal muscle

text: s,

text: bone

text: s and

text: joint

text: s, internal

text: organs

text: , and the

text: cardiovascular system

text: In most 3D computer animation systems, an animator creates a simplified representation of a character's anatomy, which is analogous to a skeleton or stick figure. The position of each segment of the skeletal model is defined by animation variables, or Avars for short. In human and animal characters, many parts of the skeletal model correspond to the actual bones, but skeletal animation is also used to animate other things, with facial features (though other methods for facial animation exist). The character "Woody" in Toy Story, for example, uses 700 Avars (100 in the face alone). The computer doesn't usually render the skeletal model directly (it is invisible), but it does use the skeletal model to compute the exact position and orientation of that certain character, which is eventually rendered into an image. Thus by changing the values of Avars over time, the animator creates motion by making the character move from frame to frame.

text: In most 3D computer animation systems, an animator creates a simplified representation of a character's anatomy, which is analogous to a

text: skeleton

text: or

text: stick figure

text: . The position of each segment of the skeletal model is defined by animation variables, or

text: Avars

text: for short. In human and animal characters, many parts of the skeletal model correspond to the actual bones, but

text: skeletal animation

text: is also used to animate other things, with facial features (though other methods for

text: facial animation

text: exist). The character "Woody" in

text: Toy Story

text: , for example, uses 700 Avars (100 in the face alone). The computer doesn't usually render the skeletal model directly (it is invisible), but it does use the skeletal model to compute the exact position and orientation of that certain character, which is eventually rendered into an image. Thus by changing the values of Avars over time, the animator creates motion by making the character move from frame to frame.

text: A sprained ankle, also known as an ankle sprain, twisted ankle, rolled ankle, floppy ankle, or just ankle injury, is a common injury where sprain occur on one or more ligaments of the ankle.

text: A sprained ankle, also known as an ankle sprain, twisted ankle, rolled ankle, floppy ankle, or just ankle injury, is a common injury where

text: sprain

text: occur on one or more

text: ligament

text: s of the

text: ankle

text: There are also physeal fractures (fractures involving the physis, the growth plate, which is not present in adults). The Salter-Harris classification is the most used to describe these fractures.

text: There are also

text: physeal fractures

text: (fractures involving the

text: physis

text: , the growth plate, which is not present in adults). The

text: Salter-Harris classification

text: is the most used to describe these fractures.

text: Osteoporosis becomes more common with age. About 15% of white people in their 50s and 70% of those over 80 are affected. It is more common in women than men. In the developed world, depending on the method of diagnosis, 2% to 8% of males and 9% to 38% of females are affected. Rates of disease in the developing world are unclear. About 22 million women and 5.5 million men in the European Union had osteoporosis in 2010. In the United States in 2010 about eight million women and one to two million men  had osteoporosis. White and Asian people are at greater risk. The word osteoporosis is from the Greek terms for "porous bones".

text: Osteoporosis becomes more common with age. About 15% of

text: white people

text: in their 50s and 70% of those over 80 are affected. It is more common in women than men. In the

text: developed world

text: , depending on the method of diagnosis, 2% to 8% of males and 9% to 38% of females are affected. Rates of disease in the

text: developing world

text: are unclear. About 22 million women and 5.5 million men in the

text: European Union

text: had osteoporosis in 2010. In the United States in 2010 about eight million women and one to two million men  had osteoporosis. White and

text: Asian people

text: are at greater risk. The word osteoporosis is from the Greek terms for "porous bones".

text: Quantitative ultrasound has many advantages in assessing osteoporosis. The modality is small, no ionizing radiation is involved, measurements can be made quickly and easily, and the cost of the device is low compared with DXA and QCT devices. The calcaneus is the most common skeletal site for quantitative ultrasound assessment because it has a high percentage of trabecular bone that is replaced more often than cortical bone, providing early evidence of metabolic change. Also, the calcaneus is fairly flat and parallel, reducing repositioning errors. The method can be applied to children, neonates, and preterm infants, just as well as to adults. Some ultrasound devices can be used on the tibia.

text: Quantitative

text: ultrasound

text: has many advantages in assessing osteoporosis. The modality is small, no ionizing radiation is involved, measurements can be made quickly and easily, and the cost of the device is low compared with DXA and QCT devices. The

text: calcaneus

text: is the most common skeletal site for quantitative ultrasound assessment because it has a high percentage of trabecular bone that is replaced more often than cortical bone, providing early evidence of metabolic change. Also, the calcaneus is fairly flat and parallel, reducing repositioning errors. The method can be applied to children, neonates, and preterm infants, just as well as to adults. Some ultrasound devices can be used on the

text: tibia

text: Symptoms of tetrasomy X are highly variable, ranging from relatively mild to severe. Symptoms are often similar to those of trisomy X. Physically, tetrasomy X patients tend to have distinctive facial features such as epicanthal folds, flat nasal bridges, upslanting palpebral fissures, midface hypoplasia, small mouths, cleft or high arched palates, delayed or absent teeth, or enamel defects. The majority have also been reported as being longer and taller. Many also show joint and muscle tone abnormalities, including hypotonia and joint looseness in the hips. Skeletal problems may also be present, including abnormal curvatures of the spine. An informal study conducted by Tetrasomy & Pentasomy X Syndrome Information and Support found that 10% of girls had joint laxity in the hips and 20% had joint limitations in a sample size of 20 tetrasomy and pentasomy patients.

text: Symptoms of tetrasomy X are highly variable, ranging from relatively mild to severe. Symptoms are often similar to those of

text: trisomy X

text: . Physically, tetrasomy X patients tend to have distinctive facial features such as

text: epicanthal fold

text: s, flat nasal bridges, upslanting

text: palpebral fissure

text: s, midface

text: hypoplasia

text: , small mouths,

text: cleft or high arched palates

text: , delayed or absent teeth, or enamel defects. The majority have also been reported as being longer and taller. Many also show joint and muscle tone abnormalities, including

text: hypotonia

text: and joint looseness in the hips. Skeletal problems may also be present, including abnormal curvatures of the spine. An informal study conducted by Tetrasomy & Pentasomy X Syndrome Information and Support found that 10% of girls had joint laxity in the hips and 20% had joint limitations in a sample size of 20 tetrasomy and pentasomy patients.

text: ZBrush also has a feature that is similar to skeletal animation in other 3D programs. The transpose feature allows a user to isolate a part of the model and pose it without the need of skeletal rigging.

text: ZBrush also has a feature that is similar to

text: skeletal animation

text: in other 3D programs. The transpose feature allows a user to isolate a part of the model and pose it without the need of skeletal rigging.

text: Seldin and his colleagues have written: "Myonectin is expressed and secreted predominantly by skeletal muscle.... (Our) results suggest that myonectin is a nutrient-responsive metabolic regulator secreted by skeletal muscle in response to changes in cellular energy state resulting from glucose or fatty acid fluxes. Many metabolically relevant secreted proteins (e.g. adiponectin, leptin, resistin, and RBP) and the signaling pathways they regulate in tissues are known to be dysregulated in the condition of obesity. The reduction in expression and circulating levels of myonectin in the obese state may represent yet another component of the complex metabolic circuitry dysregulated by excess caloric intake. Although exercise has long been known to have profound positive impacts on systemic insulin sensitivity and energy balance, the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood. That voluntary exercise dramatically increases the expression and circulating levels of myonectin to promote fatty acid uptake into cells may underlie one of the beneficial effects of physical exercise."

text: In orthopedic medicine, traction refers to the set of mechanisms for straightening broken bones or relieving pressure on the spine and skeletal system. There are two types of traction: skin traction and skeletal traction.

text: In

text: orthopedic medicine

text: , traction refers to the set of mechanisms for straightening

text: broken bone

text: s or relieving pressure on the

text: spine

text: and

text: skeletal system

text: . There are two types of traction: skin traction and skeletal traction.

text: Anthropologists have studied skeletal remains that showed loss of bone density and associated structural changes that were linked to a chronic malnutrition in the agricultural area in which these individuals lived. "It follows that the skeletal deformation may be attributed totheir heavy labor in agriculture as well as to their chronic malnutrition", causing the osteoporosis seen when radiographs of the remains were made.

text: Anthropologists

text: have studied skeletal remains that showed loss of bone density and associated structural changes that were linked to a chronic malnutrition in the agricultural area in which these individuals lived. "It follows that the skeletal deformation may be attributed totheir heavy labor in agriculture as well as to their chronic malnutrition", causing the osteoporosis seen when radiographs of the remains were made.

text: Virtual palpation of skeletal landmarks located on a 3D bone models (illustrated here on a patient's knee model obtained from medical imaging, see right image). Colored spheres on bones indicate palpated skeletal landmarks. This method combined with quantified manual palpation allows subject-specific visualization of joint behavior during particular motion tasks (e.g., walking, stair climbing, etc.).

text: Muscle contraction stimulates muscle cells to translocate GLUT4 receptors to their surfaces. This is especially true in cardiac muscle, where continuous contraction can be relied upon; but is observed to a lesser extent in skeletal muscle. In skeletal muscle, muscle contraction increase GLUT4 translocation several fold  and this is likely regulated by RAC1  and AMP-activated protein kinase.

text: Muscle contraction stimulates muscle cells to translocate GLUT4 receptors to their surfaces. This is especially true in cardiac muscle, where continuous contraction can be relied upon; but is observed to a lesser extent in skeletal muscle. In skeletal muscle, muscle contraction increase GLUT4 translocation several fold  and this is likely regulated by

text: and

text: AMP-activated protein kinase

text: During development, myoblasts (muscle progenitor cells) either remain in the somite to form muscles associated with the vertebral column or migrate out into the body to form all other muscles. Myoblast migration is preceded by the formation of connective tissue frameworks, usually formed from the somatic lateral plate mesoderm. Myoblasts follow chemical signals to the appropriate locations, where they fuse into elongate skeletal muscle cells.

text: During development,

text: myoblast

text: s (muscle progenitor cells) either remain in the somite to form muscles associated with the vertebral column or migrate out into the body to form all other muscles. Myoblast migration is preceded by the formation of

text: connective tissue

text: frameworks, usually formed from the somatic

text: lateral plate mesoderm

text: . Myoblasts follow chemical signals to the appropriate locations, where they fuse into elongate skeletal muscle cells.

text: He sprained his ankle in the game against the Philadelphia Eagles on November 2, 2008.

text: Both types of growth lines may be deposited in synchrony with endogenous biorhythms. For example, captive crocodilians exposed to constant temperature, diet, and photoperiod, still exhibit the periodic and cyclical skeletal growth banding of their wild counterparts. Consequently, it is assumed by many paleontologists that the growth lines of dinosaurs reflect annual rhythms, and that they may be used to determine individual ages. However, in the large and long bones of many dinosaurian taxa, resorption of internal and external bone proceeds even as new cortical bone continues to be deposited, so that growth lines deposited early in development may need to be inferred.

text: Both types of growth lines may be deposited in synchrony with endogenous biorhythms. For example, captive

text: crocodilia

text: ns exposed to constant temperature, diet, and photoperiod, still exhibit the periodic and cyclical skeletal growth banding of their wild counterparts. Consequently, it is assumed by many

text: paleontologists

text: that the growth lines of dinosaurs reflect annual rhythms, and that they may be used to determine individual ages. However, in the large and long bones of many dinosaurian taxa, resorption of internal and external bone proceeds even as new cortical bone continues to be deposited, so that growth lines deposited early in development may need to be inferred.

text: Another histological difference between cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle is that the T-tubules in the cardiac muscle are bigger and wider and track laterally to the Z-discs.  There are fewer T-tubules in comparison with skeletal muscle. The diad is a structure in the cardiac myocyte located at the sarcomere Z-line.  It is composed of a single T-tubule paired with a terminal cisterna of the sarcoplasmic reticulum.  The diad plays an important role in excitation-contraction coupling by juxtaposing an inlet for the action potential near a source of Ca ions.  This way, the wave of depolarization can be coupled to calcium-mediated cardiac muscle contraction via the sliding filament mechanism. Cardiac muscle forms these instead of the triads formed between the sarcoplasmic reticulum in skeletal muscle and T-tubules. T-tubules play critical role in excitation-contraction coupling (ECC). Recently, the action potentials of T-tubules were recorded optically by Guixue Bu et al.

text: Another histological difference between cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle is that the

text: T-tubules

text: in the cardiac muscle are bigger and wider and track laterally to the Z-discs.  There are fewer T-tubules in comparison with skeletal muscle. The diad is a structure in the cardiac

text: myocyte

text: located at the

text: sarcomere

text: Z-line.  It is composed of a single

text: T-tubule

text: paired with a terminal

text: cisterna

text: of the

text: sarcoplasmic reticulum

text: .  The diad plays an important role in

text: excitation-contraction coupling

text: by juxtaposing an inlet for the action potential near a source of Ca ions.  This way, the wave of

text: depolarization

text: can be coupled to calcium-mediated cardiac muscle

text: contraction

text: via the sliding filament mechanism. Cardiac muscle forms these instead of the triads formed between the

text: sarcoplasmic reticulum

text: in skeletal muscle and T-tubules. T-tubules play critical role in

text: excitation-contraction coupling

text: (ECC). Recently, the action potentials of T-tubules were recorded optically by Guixue Bu et al.

text: The Tile classification is a system of categorizing pelvic fractures based on fracture pattern, allowing judgment on the stability of the pelvic ring.

text: The Tile classification is a system of categorizing

text: pelvic fracture

text: s based on fracture pattern, allowing judgment on the stability of the

text: pelvic ring

text: NM-IIB has many properties that are similar to those of smooth muscle myosins, such as the permissive nature of phosphorylation of the 20 kDa regulatory light chain for contraction. In skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle myosins, contraction is activated through thin filament proteins troponin and tropomyosin, whereas in NM-IIB and smooth muscle myosin, contraction initiates via regulatory light chain (MLC20) phosphorylation.

text: NM-IIB has many properties that are similar to those of

text: smooth muscle

text: myosin

text: s, such as the permissive nature of

text: phosphorylation

text: of the 20 kDa regulatory light chain for

text: contraction

text: . In

text: skeletal muscle

text: and

text: cardiac muscle

text: myosins, contraction is activated through

text: thin filament

text: proteins

text: troponin

text: and

text: tropomyosin

text: , whereas in NM-IIB and

text: smooth muscle

text: myosin

text: , contraction initiates via regulatory light chain (

text: phosphorylation

text: M-protein exhibits a different pattern of expression in cardiac and skeletal muscle, as well as fast- versus slow-skeletal muscle during development, suggesting different regulatory mechanisms for expression quantity and temporal appearance. In cardiac muscle, expression of M-protein continues to increase from neonatal to adult; however, in skeletal muscle, M-protein mRNA expression is biophasic. M-protein is initially present in both slow- and fast-skeletal muscle embryonic fibers, then M-protein is suppressed in slow fibers. Interestingly, the embryonic splice variant of myomesin, termed EH-myomesin, is expressed in a complementary pattern with M-protein during development in higher vertebrates. It was also shown that the mRNA expression of M-protein is exquisitely sensitive to thyroid hormone (T3); M-protein expression, but not MYOM1 or its variant,EH-myomesin, was rapidly reduced by T3 in vivo and in vitro. The M-protein promoter is responsive to T3, and was suggested to contain thyroid hormone response elements near the transcriptional start point.

text: M-protein exhibits a different pattern of expression in

text: cardiac

text: and

text: skeletal muscle

text: , as well as fast- versus slow-

text: skeletal muscle

text: during development, suggesting different regulatory mechanisms for expression quantity and temporal appearance. In

text: cardiac muscle

text: , expression of M-protein continues to increase from neonatal to adult; however, in

text: skeletal muscle

text: , M-protein

text: mRNA

text: expression is biophasic. M-protein is initially present in both slow- and fast-

text: skeletal muscle

text: embryonic fibers, then M-protein is suppressed in slow fibers. Interestingly, the embryonic splice variant of

text: myomesin

text: , termed EH-myomesin, is expressed in a complementary pattern with M-protein during development in higher

text: vertebrate

text: s. It was also shown that the

text: mRNA

text: expression of M-protein is exquisitely sensitive to

text: thyroid hormone

text: (T3); M-protein expression, but not

text: or its variant,EH-myomesin, was rapidly reduced by T3 in vivo and in vitro. The M-protein promoter is responsive to T3, and was suggested to contain thyroid

text: hormone response element

text: s near the transcriptional start point.

text: Mechanical motion capture systems directly track body joint angles and are often referred to as exoskeleton motion capture systems, due to the way the sensors are attached to the body. A performer attaches the skeletal-like structure to their body and as they move so do the articulated mechanical parts, measuring the performer’s relative motion. Mechanical motion capture systems are real-time, relatively low-cost, free-of-occlusion, and wireless (untethered) systems that have unlimited capture volume. Typically, they are rigid structures of jointed, straight metal or plastic rods linked together with potentiometers that articulate at the joints of the body. These suits tend to be in the $25,000 to $75,000 range plus an external absolute positioning system. Some suits provide limited force feedback or haptic input.

text: Mechanical motion capture systems directly track body joint angles and are often referred to as exoskeleton motion capture systems, due to the way the sensors are attached to the body. A performer attaches the skeletal-like structure to their body and as they move so do the articulated mechanical parts, measuring the performer’s relative motion. Mechanical motion capture systems are real-time, relatively low-cost, free-of-occlusion, and wireless (untethered) systems that have unlimited capture volume. Typically, they are rigid structures of jointed, straight metal or plastic rods linked together with potentiometers that articulate at the joints of the body. These suits tend to be in the $25,000 to $75,000 range plus an external absolute positioning system. Some suits provide limited force feedback or

text: haptic

text: input.

text: A sprain is a type of acute injury which results from the stretching or tearing of a ligament. Depending on the severity of the sprain, the movement on the joint can be compromised since ligaments aid in the stability and support of joints. Sprains are commonly seen in vulnerable areas such as the wrists, knees, and ankles. They can occur from movements such as falling on an outstretched hand, or a twisting of the ankle or foot.

text: In 2004, Dabashi was involved in a dispute at Columbia University between Jewish students and pro-Palestinian professors, which included accusations of antisemitism against the professors. According to the New York Times, Dabashi was mentioned principally because of his published political viewpoints, and that he canceled a class to attend a Palestinian rally. The New York chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union sided with the professors. An ad hoc committee formed by Lee C. Bollinger, Columbia University's president, reported in March 2005 that they could not find any credible allegations of antisemitism, but did criticize the university's grievance procedures, and recommended changes. However, the committee was criticized for failing to examine an article in which Dabashi wrote that Israelis suffer from "a vulgarity of character that is bone-deep and structural to the skeletal vertebrae of its culture."

text: In 2004, Dabashi was involved in a dispute at

text: Columbia University

text: between Jewish students and pro-Palestinian professors, which included accusations of antisemitism against the professors. According to the

text: New York Times

text: , Dabashi was mentioned principally because of his published political viewpoints, and that he canceled a class to attend a Palestinian rally. The New York chapter of the

text: American Civil Liberties Union

text: sided with the professors. An ad hoc committee formed by

text: Lee C. Bollinger

text: , Columbia University's president, reported in March 2005 that they could not find any credible allegations of antisemitism, but did criticize the university's grievance procedures, and recommended changes. However, the committee was criticized for failing to examine an article in which Dabashi wrote that Israelis suffer from "a vulgarity of character that is bone-deep and structural to the skeletal vertebrae of its culture."

text: VPHOP will realize "P2 medicine" for osteoporosis patients. Predictive: multiscale models, representing skeletal mechanobiology, from the whole body down to the molecular constituents, to simulate skeletal loading in various conditions and predict bone failure. Personalised: The multiscale model is personalised using information which is to the patient. The more information which is available the more personalised becomes the model.

text: DCS is classified by symptoms. The earliest descriptions of DCS used the terms: "bends" for joint or skeletal pain; "chokes" for breathing problems; and "staggers" for neurological problems. In 1960, Golding et al. introduced a simpler classification using the term "Type I ('simple')" for symptoms involving only the skin, musculoskeletal system, or lymphatic system, and "Type II ('serious')" for symptoms where other organs (such as the central nervous system) are involved. Type II DCS is considered more serious and usually has worse outcomes. This system, with minor modifications, may still be used today. Following changes to treatment methods, this classification is now much less useful in diagnosis, since neurological symptoms may develop after the initial presentation, and both Type I and Type II DCS have the same initial management.

text: DCS is classified by symptoms. The earliest descriptions of DCS used the terms: "bends" for joint or skeletal pain; "chokes" for breathing problems; and "staggers" for neurological problems. In 1960, Golding et al. introduced a simpler classification using the term "Type I ('simple')" for symptoms involving only the

text: skin

text: musculoskeletal system

text: , or

text: lymphatic system

text: , and "Type II ('serious')" for symptoms where other organs (such as the

text: central nervous system

text: ) are involved. Type II DCS is considered more serious and usually has worse outcomes. This system, with minor modifications, may still be used today. Following changes to treatment methods, this classification is now much less useful in diagnosis, since neurological symptoms may develop after the initial presentation, and both Type I and Type II DCS have the same initial management.

text: In a study published in 2013, Delgado-Calle and colleagues compared genome-wide methylation patterns in women with osteoporosis and women with osteoarthritis.   They found about 250 differentially methylated sites.  These were primarily in regions coding for transcription factors that are involved in cell differentiation and skeletal formation, suggesting there may be a developmental predisposition for these disorders.

text: The expression of talin-2 in striated muscle is developmentally regulated. Undifferentiated myoblasts primarily express talin-1, and both mRNA and protein expression of talin-2 is upregulated during differentiation; ectopic expression of talin-2 in undifferentiated myoblasts dysregulates the actin cytoskeleton, demonstrating that the timing of talin-2 expression during development is critical. In mature cardiomyocytes and skeletal muscle, talin-2 is expressed at costameres and intercalated discs, thus demonstrating that talin2 links integrins and the actin cytoskeleton in stable adhesion complexes involving mature sarcomeres. Talin-2 appears to play a role in skeletal muscle development; specifically, in myoblast fusion, sarcomere assembly, and the integrity of myotendinous junctions. Ablation of both talin isoforms, talin-2 and talin-1 prevented normal myoblast fusion and sarcomere assembly, as well as assembly of integrin adhesion complexes, which was attributed to disrupted interactions between integrins and the actin cytoskeleton. Interestingly, the mRNA expression of talin-2 has been shown to be regulated by the muscle-specific fragile X mental retardation, autosomal homolog 1 (FXR1) protein, which binds talin2 mRNAs directly and represses translation. Knockout of FXR1 upregulates talin-2 protein, which disrupts the architecture of desmosomes and costameres in cardiac muscle.

text: The expression of talin-2 in

text: striated muscle

text: is developmentally regulated. Undifferentiated

text: myoblast

text: s primarily express

text: , and both

text: mRNA

text: and

text: protein

text: expression of talin-2 is upregulated during differentiation; ectopic expression of talin-2 in undifferentiated

text: myoblast

text: s dysregulates the

text: actin

text: cytoskeleton

text: , demonstrating that the timing of talin-2 expression during development is critical. In mature

text: cardiomyocytes

text: and

text: skeletal muscle

text: , talin-2 is expressed at

text: costamere

text: s and

text: intercalated disc

text: s, thus demonstrating that talin2 links

text: integrins

text: and the

text: actin

text: cytoskeleton

text: in stable adhesion complexes involving mature

text: sarcomere

text: s. Talin-2 appears to play a role in

text: skeletal muscle

text: development; specifically, in

text: myoblast

text: fusion,

text: sarcomere

text: assembly, and the integrity of myotendinous junctions. Ablation of both talin isoforms, talin-2 and

text: prevented normal

text: myoblast

text: fusion and

text: sarcomere

text: assembly, as well as assembly of integrin adhesion complexes, which was attributed to disrupted interactions between

text: integrins

text: and the

text: actin

text: cytoskeleton

text: . Interestingly, the

text: mRNA

text: expression of talin-2 has been shown to be regulated by the

text: muscle-specific fragile X mental retardation, autosomal homolog 1 (FXR1)

text: protein

text: , which binds talin2

text: mRNA

text: s directly and represses translation. Knockout of

text: upregulates talin-2

text: protein

text: , which disrupts the architecture of

text: desmosome

text: s and

text: costamere

text: s in

text: cardiac muscle

text: However, there are also disadvantages. Vertex animation is usually a lot more labour-intensive than skeletal animation because every vertex position must be manually manipulated and, for this reason, the number of pre-made target morphs is typically limited.Also, in methods of rendering where vertices move from position to position during in-between frames, a distortion is created that does not happen when using skeletal animation. This is described by critics of the technique as looking "shaky". On the other hand, this distortion may be part of the desired "look".

text: Part of the skeletal analysis included findings of maxillary sinusitis. Approximately 60% of the remains recovered from the Moatfield ossuary exhibited skeletal pathology consistent with maxillary sinusitis. Although not all cases of this pathology will leave evidence on bone, the results do provide a significant indicator of living conditions and overall health of the population. The predominance of individuals under the age of 12 showed minimal symptoms, however after reaching adulthood prevalence increases and remains high throughout all age groups.

text: Examination of fruiting bodies using scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy has revealed details about their ultrastructure—their microscopic architecture and arrangement. For example, the hyphae of the hapteron form a dense tangled network, while the hyphae of the funicular cord are arranged in a twisted form like a rope. Further, the funicular cord, known to be highly elastic and with a high tensile strength, is made of thicker hyphae than the rest of the funiculus. Also, the ecto- and endoperidium are made of thick-walled, unbranched hyphae, known as skeletal hyphae. It has been proposed that these skeletal hyphae form a structural network that helps the fruiting body maintain the elasticity vital for proper functioning of the spore dispersal mechanism.

text: Examination of fruiting bodies using

text: scanning electron microscopy

text: and

text: transmission electron microscopy

text: has revealed details about their ultrastructure—their microscopic architecture and arrangement. For example, the hyphae of the hapteron form a dense tangled network, while the hyphae of the funicular cord are arranged in a twisted form like a rope. Further, the funicular cord, known to be highly elastic and with a high

text: tensile strength

text: , is made of thicker hyphae than the rest of the funiculus. Also, the ecto- and endoperidium are made of thick-walled, unbranched hyphae, known as skeletal hyphae. It has been proposed that these skeletal hyphae form a structural network that helps the fruiting body maintain the elasticity vital for proper functioning of the spore dispersal mechanism.

text: The Duchess of Cornwall Award is an award created by  the society named after Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall.  The award recognizes an individual for their outstanding contribution to the field of osteoporosis.  This award can be given to individual who meets these:

text: Research has determined through experimental rodent studies with estradiol, 16α-LE2, and 8β-VE2 that the positive, protective effects of estrogens on bone formation resorption and bone mineral density are mediated via the ERα, whereas the ERβ does not appear to be involved. On the other hand, while both ERα and ERβ are expressed in skeletal muscle, it was found that ERβ is the predominant ER subtype that is responsible for estrogen stimulation of skeletal muscle growth and regeneration. Moreover, similarly to testosterone, 8β-VE2 has anabolic effects in skeletal muscle and significantly increases muscle mass as well as produces muscle hypertrophy in rats. In contrast to testosterone however, 8β-VE2 shows no androgenic effects. The effects of 8β-VE2 and ERβ may be mediated, in part, by local stimulation of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)-induced myogenic protein synthesis, as 8β-VE2 has been found to strongly induce expression of IGF-1 in the rat levator ani muscle.

text: Research has determined through experimental rodent studies with estradiol, 16α-LE2, and 8β-VE2 that the positive, protective effects of estrogens on

text: bone formation

text: resorption

text: and

text: bone mineral density

text: are mediated via the ERα, whereas the ERβ does not appear to be involved. On the other hand, while both ERα and ERβ are expressed in

text: skeletal muscle

text: , it was found that ERβ is the predominant ER subtype that is responsible for estrogen stimulation of skeletal muscle growth and regeneration. Moreover, similarly to

text: testosterone

text: , 8β-VE2 has

text: anabolic

text: effects in skeletal muscle and significantly increases muscle mass as well as produces

text: muscle hypertrophy

text: in rats. In contrast to testosterone however, 8β-VE2 shows no

text: androgenic

text: effects. The effects of 8β-VE2 and ERβ may be mediated, in part, by local stimulation of

text: insulin-like growth factor 1

text: myogenic

text: protein synthesis

text: , as 8β-VE2 has been found to strongly induce expression of IGF-1 in the rat

text: levator ani

text: muscle.

text: Assumptions made about how the system operates and how it is physically arranged are structural assumptions.  For example, the number of servers in a fast food drive through lane and if there is more than one how are they utilized?  Do the servers work in parallel where a customer completes a transaction by visiting a single server or does one server take orders and handle payment while the other prepares and serves the order.  Many structural problems in the model come from poor or incorrect assumptions.  If possible the workings of the actual system should be closely observed to understand how it operates.  The systems structure and operation should also be verified with users of the actual system.

text: The TNNT1 gene is located at 19q13.4 in the human chromosomal genome, encoding the slow twitch skeletal muscle isoform of troponin T (ssTnT). ssTnT is an ~32-kDa protein consisting of 262 amino acids (including the first methionine) with an isoelectric point (pI) of 5.95. It is the tropomyosin binding and thin filament anchoring subunit of the troponin complex in the sarcomeres of slow twitch skeletal muscle fibers. TNNT1 gene is specifically expressed in slow skeletal muscle of vertebrates, with one exception that dry land toad (Bufo) cardiac muscle expresses ssTnT other than  cardiac TnT.

text: The TNNT1 gene is located at 19q13.4 in the human chromosomal genome, encoding the slow twitch

text: skeletal muscle

text: isoform of

text: troponin T

text: (ssTnT). ssTnT is an ~32-kDa protein consisting of 262 amino acids (including the first

text: methionine

text: ) with an

text: isoelectric point

text: (pI) of 5.95. It is the

text: tropomyosin

text: binding and thin filament anchoring subunit of the troponin complex in the

text: sarcomere

text: s of slow twitch skeletal muscle fibers. TNNT1 gene is specifically expressed in slow skeletal muscle of vertebrates, with one exception that dry land toad (Bufo) cardiac muscle expresses ssTnT other than  cardiac TnT.

text: Mechanically speaking, ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression and weak in shearing and tension. Brittle materials may exhibit significant tensile strength by supporting a static load. Toughness indicates how much energy a material can absorb before mechanical failure, while fracture toughness (denoted K ) describes the ability of a material with inherent microstructural flaws to resist fracture via crack growth and propagation. If a material has a large value of fracture toughness, the basic principles of fracture mechanics suggest that it will most likely undergo ductile fracture. Brittle fracture is very characteristic of most ceramic and glass-ceramic materials which typically exhibit low (and inconsistent) values of K.

text: Mechanically speaking, ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression and weak in shearing and tension.

text: Brittle

text: materials may exhibit significant

text: tensile strength

text: by supporting a static load.

text: Toughness

text: indicates how much energy a material can absorb before mechanical failure, while

text: fracture toughness

text: (denoted K ) describes the ability of a material with inherent

text: microstructural flaws

text: to resist

text: fracture

text: via crack growth and propagation. If a material has a large value of

text: fracture toughness

text: , the basic principles of

text: fracture mechanics

text: suggest that it will most likely undergo ductile fracture. Brittle fracture is very characteristic of most

text: ceramic

text: and

text: glass-ceramic

text: materials which typically exhibit low (and inconsistent) values of K.

text: Using microscopic analysis, Marshack showed that seemingly random or meaningless notches on bone were sometimes interpretable as structured series of numbers.  For instance, Marshack hypothesized that notches on the bone plaque from the Grotte de Thaïs in southern France (which dates to approximately 12,000 BP) were structured in subsets of 29 notches, thus suggesting that they were used to mark the duration between two lunations.

text: Using microscopic analysis, Marshack showed that seemingly random or meaningless notches on bone were sometimes interpretable as structured series of numbers.  For instance, Marshack hypothesized that notches on the bone plaque from the

text: Grotte de Thaïs

text: in southern

text: France

text: (which dates to approximately 12,000

text: BP

text: ) were structured in subsets of 29 notches, thus suggesting that they were used to mark the duration between two

text: lunation

text: s.

text: By the end of puberty, adult men have heavier bones and nearly twice as much skeletal muscle. Some of the bone growth (e.g. shoulder width and jaw) is disproportionately greater, resulting in noticeably different male and female skeletal shapes. The average adult male has about 150% of the lean body mass of an average female, and about 50% of the body fat.

text: By the end of puberty, adult men have heavier

text: bone

text: s and nearly twice as much skeletal

text: muscle

text: . Some of the bone growth (e.g. shoulder width and jaw) is disproportionately greater, resulting in noticeably different male and female skeletal shapes. The average adult male has about 150% of the lean body mass of an average female, and about 50% of the body fat.

text: It stains some tissue in contrasting colors in a way similar to haematoxylin and eosin stain, as phosphotungstic acid binds to tissue proteins. It is used to show gliosis in the central nervous system, tumours of skeletal muscles, and fibrin deposits in lesions. Muscle is stained blue-black to dark brown, connective tissue is pale orange-pink to brownish red, fibrin and neuroglia stain deep blue, coarse elastic fibers show as purple, and bone and cartilage obtain yellowish to brownish red color.

text: It stains some tissue in contrasting colors in a way similar to

text: haematoxylin and eosin stain

text: , as phosphotungstic acid binds to tissue

text: protein

text: s. It is used to show

text: gliosis

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: tumour

text: s of

text: skeletal muscle

text: s, and

text: fibrin

text: deposits in

text: lesion

text: s. Muscle is stained blue-black to dark brown,

text: connective tissue

text: is pale orange-pink to brownish red, fibrin and

text: neuroglia

text: stain deep blue, coarse elastic fibers show as purple, and

text: bone

text: and

text: cartilage

text: obtain yellowish to brownish red color.

text: is a π-system generated by the random pair (X,Y), the π-λ theorem is used to show that the joint cumulative distribution function suffices to determine the joint law of (X,Y). In other words, (X,Y) and (W,Z) have the same distribution if and only if they have the same joint cumulative distribution function.

text: All those genes are involved in the production of the extracellular matrix (ECM). The role of COMP gene still remains unclear. It is a noncollagenous protein of the ECM.  Mutations in this gene can also cause the pseudoachondroplasia (PSACH). It should play a role in the structural integrity of cartilage via its interaction with other extracellular matrix proteins and can be part of the interaction of the chondrocytes with the matrix through. It is a potent suppressor of apoptosis in chondrocytes and can suppressapoptosis. Another one of it roles is maintaining a vascular smooth muscle cells contractileunder physiological or pathological stimuliSince 2003, the European Skeletal Dysplasia Network has used an on-line system to do diagnose cases referred to the network prior to mutation analysis in order to study the different mutations causing PSACH or MED.

text: All those genes are involved in the production of the

text: extracellular matrix

text: (ECM). The role of

text: COMP

text: gene still remains unclear. It is a noncollagenous protein of the ECM.  Mutations in this gene can also cause the

text: pseudoachondroplasia

text: (PSACH). It should play a role in the structural integrity of cartilage via its interaction with other extracellular matrix proteins and can be part of the interaction of the chondrocytes with the matrix through. It is a potent suppressor of apoptosis in chondrocytes and can suppress

text: apoptosis

text: . Another one of it roles is maintaining a vascular smooth muscle cells contractileunder physiological or pathological stimuliSince 2003, the European Skeletal Dysplasia Network has used an on-line system to do diagnose cases referred to the network prior to mutation analysis in order to study the different mutations causing PSACH or MED.

text: Many of those who have been identified with gigantism have suffered from multiple health issues involving their circulatory or skeletal system.

text: Many of those who have been identified with gigantism have suffered from multiple health issues involving their

text: circulatory

text: or

text: skeletal system

text: Viscoelasticity of bone can arise from multiple factors related to structures on multiple length scales. Bone is a composite of the bio-polymer collagen and the bio-ceramic hydroxyapatite. Additionally the collagen is plied in various directions around the bone. Bone has two structural forms; cortical and cancellous.³

text: Viscoelasticity of bone can arise from multiple factors related to structures on multiple length scales. Bone is a composite of the bio-polymer collagen and the

text: bio-ceramic

text: hydroxyapatite. Additionally the collagen is plied in various directions around the bone. Bone has two structural forms; cortical and cancellous.³

text: The formation of bone is called ossification. During the fetal stage of development this occurs by two processes, Intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification. Intramembranous ossification involves the creation of bone from connective tissue, whereas in the process of endochondral ossification bone is created from cartilage.

text: The formation of bone is called

text: ossification

text: . During the fetal stage of development this occurs by two processes,

text: Intramembranous ossification

text: and

text: endochondral ossification

text: . Intramembranous ossification involves the creation of bone from

text: connective tissue

text: , whereas in the process of endochondral ossification bone is created from

text: cartilage

text: Joint mobilization is a manual therapy intervention, a type of passive movement of a skeletal joint. It is usually aimed at a 'target' synovial joint with the aim of achieving a therapeutic effect. When applied to the spine, it is known as spinal mobilization. These techniques are often used by chiropractors, osteopaths, occupational therapists, and physical therapists.

text: Joint mobilization is a

text: manual therapy

text: intervention, a type of passive movement of a skeletal joint. It is usually aimed at a 'target'

text: synovial joint

text: with the aim of achieving a

text: therapeutic

text: effect. When applied to the spine, it is known as

text: spinal mobilization

text: . These techniques are often used by

text: chiropractors

text: osteopaths

text: occupational therapists

text: , and

text: physical therapists

text: The anatomy of a fetal pig is similar to that of the adult pig in various aspects. Systems that are similar include the nervous, skeletal, respiratory (neglecting the under developed diaphragm), and muscular. Other important body systems have significant differences from the adult pig.

text: The anatomy of a fetal pig is similar to that of the adult pig in various aspects. Systems that are similar include the nervous,

text: skeletal

text: respiratory

text: (neglecting the under developed diaphragm), and

text: muscular

text: . Other important body systems have significant differences from the adult pig.

text: Bone mineral loss and osteoporosis are common consequences after spinal cord injury. Therapeutic standing, a weight-bearing intervention that can be applied using a standing frame, has traditionally been incorporated into rehabilitation programs for those with chronic spinal cord injury in order to prevent osteoporosis. A systematic review of the literature conducted by Biering-Sorenson et al. (2009) shows that therapeutic standing in the chronic phase of injury, defined as one year after injury, has no effect on maintaining bone density. Results on the effectiveness of therapeutic standing during the first year of injury are conflicting and show that shorter, less aggressive intervention is less effective. If therapeutic standing is to be incorporated into treatment, it should be more aggressive and initiated in the early stages of injury if any beneficial impacts on bone mineral density are hoped to be achieved.

text: Bone mineral loss and

text: osteoporosis

text: are common consequences after

text: spinal cord injury

text: . Therapeutic standing, a weight-bearing intervention that can be applied using a standing frame, has traditionally been incorporated into rehabilitation programs for those with chronic spinal cord injury in order to prevent osteoporosis. A systematic review of the literature conducted by Biering-Sorenson et al. (2009) shows that therapeutic standing in the chronic phase of injury, defined as one year after injury, has no effect on maintaining

text: bone density

text: . Results on the effectiveness of therapeutic standing during the first year of injury are conflicting and show that shorter, less aggressive intervention is less effective. If therapeutic standing is to be incorporated into treatment, it should be more aggressive and initiated in the early stages of injury if any beneficial impacts on bone mineral density are hoped to be achieved.

text: Slow expansion techniques expands maxilla at a much slower rate compare to the rapid maxillary expansion technique. In slow expansion technique, a patient is ordered to turn the screw 4 times which amounts of 1mm per week. Patient is instructed to turn the jackscrew at the same rate for next 8–10 weeks to achieve the desired expansion. This slow rate of expansion allows skeletal and dental changes to happen in a 1:1 ratio. This means that equal amount of dental and skeletal expansion is achieved, compared to RME technique where mostly skeletal expansion is achieved initially.

text: Through common genetrapping mechanisms, homozygous MSulf2 mice were created to assess the in vivo phenotypic traits. Strain specific nonpenetrant lethality resulted (48% fewer than expected), pups were smaller, and some lung defects were observed, but MSulf2-/- were largely as healthy and viable as wild type litter mates. MSulf2 nulls indicate MSulf1 and MSulf2 may have overlapping functions in regulating sulfation patterns in HSPGs. Given that MSulf2 null mice did not present major abnormal phenotypes double MSulf1/2 knockouts were generated. Again, MSulf1 and MSulf2 nulls individually did not display damaging phenotypes; however MSulf-/-;MSulf2-/- mice showed highly penetrant perinatal lethality.  However, some double null mice survived into adulthood, and displayed smaller stature, skeletal lesions, and unusually small but functioning kidneys.  The skeletal lesions (axial and appendicular skeleton showing decreases in ossified bone volume; sternal fusion and defective basisphenoid patterning) display similar phenotype to heparan sulfate 2-O-transferase (Hs2st)-deficient mice, BMP deficient mice and hypermorphic Fgfr1 and 3 mice.  This provides evidence that Sulf1 and 2 is linked to HS modulation effecting BMP and FGF.  In addition, this confirms that Sulf1 and 2 perform overlapping functions, but are needed for survival.  Further studies on MSulf1-/-;MSulf2-/- mice extended the role of Sulfs in skeletal development.  Double nulls displayed reduced bone length, premature ossification, and sternum and tail vertebrae fusion (Ratzka, Kalus et al. 2008).  Also, the zone of proliferating chondrocytes was reduced by 90%, indicating defects in chondrogenesis.

text: Distal radius fractures might occur when a person falls on an outstretched hand (FOOSH). Immediate pain, swelling and loss of wrist function are the most common symptoms. These fractures have wide variety of classification systems, but for arthroscopic intervention a difference is made between extra- or intra-articular fractures. Arthroscopy can be used to treat an intra-articular distal radius fracture and at the same time examine the Scapholunate ligament, Lunotriquetral ligament and articular disk. The shifted bone segment is relocated, in necessary a bone autograft can be used to fill up the fracture. At the end the fracture is stabilized using percutane wires. Arthroscopy has good results as treatment for distal radius fracture, with over 85% of the patiënts showing good to excellent postoperative results.

text: Endocrine disorder is more common in women than men, as it is associated with menstrual disorders. Thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary, adrenal and pancreases are common are part of the endocrine system and therefore are associated with bone disease. Some common endocrine disorders are hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, Paget’s disease, Osteoporosis, and diabetes. The thyroid gland produces thyroxin (T3, and T4) which is necessary for normal development of nervous system, it function includes: promoting growth, increasing  basal metabolic rate and controls body temperature. Adequate Iodine, found in salt fish water, shrimp is necessary for the production of thyroid hormone. According to Payton R. G et al., common disorder of the thyroid gland is hypothyroidism which is common in women than men. Symptoms of hypothyroidism include cold intolerance, weight gain, fatigue, anemia, difficulty concentrating, amenorrhea, bradycardia (low heart rate) and goitre.  Another hormone that is secreted by Para follicular cells of the thyroid gland is calcitonin. Calcitonin works in an antagonistic fashion with parathyroid hormone (PTH): both regulate the level of calcium in the blood. Blood calcium level is tightly regulated by these two hormones. The cells of our bone that is involved in bone formation and bone breakdown is osteoblast and osteoclast respectively. Osteoclasts are cells of bones that promote bone demineralization or bone resorption. In contrast, Osteoblast promotes calcium absorption by the bone therefore, promoting bone mineralization and formation of new bones. Thus Calcitonin activates osteoblasts, therefore decrease blood calcium levels by decreasing bone breakdown (resorption) by inhibiting osteoclast. Whereas, PTH activates osteoclast and thereby increases blood calcium.  The hormone produced by the thyroid gland has big impact on bone density, blood calcium levee.  Abnormalities of the thyroid gland impact bone disease such as osteoporosis, a condition that is common in women but men can be diagnosed with this silent disease as well as it mainly affects elderly individual.

text: Endocrine disorder is more common in women than men, as it is associated with menstrual disorders. Thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary, adrenal and pancreases are common are part of the

text: endocrine system

text: and therefore are associated with bone disease. Some common endocrine disorders are hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism,

text: Paget’s disease

text: , Osteoporosis, and diabetes. The thyroid gland produces thyroxin (T3, and T4) which is necessary for normal development of nervous system, it function includes: promoting growth, increasing  basal metabolic rate and controls body temperature. Adequate Iodine, found in salt fish water, shrimp is necessary for the production of thyroid hormone. According to Payton R. G et al., common disorder of the thyroid gland is hypothyroidism which is common in women than men. Symptoms of hypothyroidism include cold intolerance, weight gain, fatigue, anemia, difficulty concentrating, amenorrhea, bradycardia (low heart rate) and goitre.  Another hormone that is secreted by Para follicular cells of the thyroid gland is calcitonin. Calcitonin works in an antagonistic fashion with parathyroid hormone (PTH): both regulate the level of calcium in the blood.

text: Blood calcium

text: level is tightly regulated by these two hormones. The cells of our bone that is involved in bone formation and bone breakdown is osteoblast and osteoclast respectively. Osteoclasts are cells of bones that promote bone demineralization or bone

text: resorption

text: . In contrast, Osteoblast promotes

text: calcium

text: absorption

text: by the bone therefore, promoting bone mineralization and formation of new bones. Thus Calcitonin activates osteoblasts, therefore decrease blood calcium levels by decreasing bone breakdown (resorption) by inhibiting osteoclast. Whereas, PTH activates osteoclast and thereby increases blood calcium.  The hormone produced by the

text: thyroid gland

text: has big impact on bone density, blood calcium levee.  Abnormalities of the thyroid gland impact bone disease such as osteoporosis, a condition that is common in women but men can be diagnosed with this silent disease as well as it mainly affects

text: elderly

text: individual.

text: Various body systems, including the urinary, respiratory and skeletal systems, interact to maintain the body's proper pH levels. Certain conditions, such as kidney disease, cause an imbalance and lowering of pH levels due to the build-up of H+ ions in the blood. In response to the acidic conditions, bone tissue will dissolve to release calcium carbonate into the bloodstream. The carbonate ions act to neutralize some of the acidity of the blood. However, the loss of calcium carbonate can lead to osteomalacia, the softening of the bones due to the inability to properly construct new bone. With osteomalacia, there is a higher risk for breaks and fractures, similar to osteoporosis.

text: Various body systems, including the urinary, respiratory and skeletal systems, interact to maintain the body's proper

text: pH

text: levels. Certain conditions, such as

text: kidney disease

text: , cause an imbalance and lowering of pH levels due to the build-up of

text: H+ ions

text: in the blood. In response to the acidic conditions, bone tissue will dissolve to release

text: calcium carbonate

text: into the bloodstream. The carbonate ions act to neutralize some of the acidity of the blood. However, the loss of calcium carbonate can lead to

text: osteomalacia

text: , the softening of the bones due to the inability to properly construct new bone. With osteomalacia, there is a higher risk for breaks and fractures, similar to osteoporosis.

text: Osteochondritis dissecans is difficult to diagnose clinically as the animal may only exhibit an unusual gait. Consequently, OCD may be masked by, or misdiagnosed as, other skeletal and joint conditions such as hip dysplasia.

text: Osteochondritis dissecans is difficult to diagnose clinically as the animal may only exhibit an unusual gait. Consequently, OCD may be masked by, or misdiagnosed as, other skeletal and joint conditions such as

text: hip dysplasia

text: She died at a hospital in Morristown, New Jersey from complications of meningioma and osteoporosis, on July 9, 2014, aged 92.

text: She died at a hospital in

text: Morristown, New Jersey

text: from complications of

text: meningioma

text: and

text: osteoporosis

text: , on July 9, 2014, aged 92.

text: In 2014, US communities with non-hospital-based urgent care centers (UCCs) were mainly urban, located in areas with higher income levels and higher levels of private insurance.Kaissi et al considered local multi-hospital systems in Florida, Maryland, Nevada, Texas, Virginia and Washington.  In 2012 50% of 117 hospital-based "clusters" included either UCCs, retail clinics, or both. 57% of systems in Washington operated an UCC, compared to 36% of systems in Washington, while systems in Florida had the largest share of UCCs (17.6%).  Authors noted unexplained state-by-state variation in hospital system partnership with UCC and retail clinic models.  Corwin et al considered Medicare beneficiaries presenting to an UCC (n=1,426,354) emergency department (ED) (n=334,841) or physicians office (n=8,359,498) with upper respiratory or urinary tract infections, bronchitis, sprains or contusions, and back or arthritic pain, in 2012.  Patients who presented to an ED were more likely to be female (67% of ED presentations) compared to those who presented to a UCC or physicians office (65% and 64% respectively).  Patients who presented to an UCC were significantly more likely to be aged over 85 (27%, compared to 15% of physicians office presentations, and 13% of ED presentations) or Black (11%, compared to 6% of physicians office presentations, and 4% of ED presentations).In 2014, 3.1% of Family Physicians in the United States worked primarily in UCCs, with a male:female ratio of workforce is 6:7, and an urban:rural ratio of 2:1.  This compares to 3.6% of Family Physicians working primarily in Emergency Care, with a male:female ratio of 5:3 and urban:rural ratio approaching 1:2.

text: The skeletal structure of these ground sloths indicates that the animals were massive. Their thick bones and even thicker joints (especially those on the hind legs) gave their appendages tremendous power that, combined with their size and fearsome claws, provided a formidable defense against predators.

text: The skeletal structure of these ground sloths indicates that the animals were massive. Their thick

text: bones

text: and even thicker

text: joint

text: s (especially those on the hind legs) gave their appendages tremendous power that, combined with their size and fearsome

text: claw

text: s, provided a formidable defense against predators.

text: Orthopedic physical therapists diagnose, manage, and treat disorders and injuries of the musculoskeletal system including rehabilitation after orthopedic surgery. acute trauma such as sprains, strains, and injuries of insidious onset such as tendinopathy and bursitis. This speciality of physical therapy is most often found in the out-patient clinical setting. Orthopedic therapists are trained in the treatment of post-operative orthopedic procedures, fractures, acute sports injuries, arthritis, sprains, strains, back and neck pain, spinal conditions, and amputations.

text: Orthopedic physical therapists diagnose, manage, and treat disorders and injuries of the

text: musculoskeletal system

text: including rehabilitation after

text: orthopedic surgery

text: . acute trauma such as sprains, strains, and injuries of insidious onset such as tendinopathy and bursitis. This speciality of physical therapy is most often found in the out-patient clinical setting. Orthopedic therapists are trained in the treatment of post-operative orthopedic procedures, fractures, acute sports injuries, arthritis, sprains, strains, back and neck pain, spinal conditions, and amputations.

text: A list of the known skeletal pieces include:

text: Extreme Reality’s Extreme Motion is the only technology to provide full-body, software-based, motion analysis and control to any computing device or operating system via a standard camera. Extreme Motion is a motion capture engine that extracts the 3D position (X,Y,Z) of the user skeletal position in front of the camera in every frame and creates a live 3D model of the user in real time. This model is then analyzed and gestures are extracted according to skeleton positioning and/or trajectories.

text: The first modality for a sprain can be remembered using the acronym RICE. The treatment of sprains depends on the extent of injury and the joint involved. Medications like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs can relieve pain. Topical NSAIDs appear to be as good as those taken by mouth.

text: The first modality for a sprain can be remembered using the acronym

text: RICE

text: . The treatment of sprains depends on the extent of injury and the joint involved. Medications like

text: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

text: can relieve pain. Topical NSAIDs appear to be as good as those taken by mouth.

text: Geraldine Smith is the Patron of the Morecambe Bay National Osteoporosis Society Support Group.

text: Geraldine Smith is the Patron of the Morecambe Bay

text: National Osteoporosis Society

text: Support Group.

text: In corals, the coenosarc is the living tissue overlying the stony skeletal material of the coral. It secretes the coenosteum, the layer of skeletal material lying between the corallites (the stony cups in which the polyps sit). The coensarc is composed of mesogloea between two thin layers of epidermis and is continuous with the body wall of the polyps. The coenosarc contains the gastrovascular canal system that links the polyps and allow them to share nutrients and symbiotic zooxanthellae.

text: In

text: coral

text: s, the coenosarc is the living tissue overlying the stony skeletal material of the coral. It secretes the

text: coenosteum

text: , the layer of skeletal material lying between the

text: corallite

text: s (the stony cups in which the

text: polyp

text: s sit). The coensarc is composed of

text: mesogloea

text: between two thin layers of

text: epidermis

text: and is continuous with the body wall of the polyps. The coenosarc contains the gastrovascular canal system that links the polyps and allow them to share nutrients and symbiotic

text: zooxanthellae

text: The term human biocomputer, coined by John C. Lilly, refers to the "hardware" of the human anatomy. This would include the brain, internal organs, and other human organ systems such as cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, immune, integumentary, lymphatic, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, skeletal, and urinary systems. The biocomputer has stored program properties, and self-metaprogramming properties, with limits determinable and to be determined.

text: The term human biocomputer, coined by

text: John C. Lilly

text: , refers to the "hardware" of the

text: human anatomy

text: . This would include the

text: brain

text: internal organs

text: , and other human organ systems such as

text: cardiovascular

text: digestive

text: endocrine

text: immune

text: integumentary

text: lymphatic

text: muscular

text: nervous

text: reproductive

text: respiratory

text: skeletal

text: , and

text: urinary

text: systems. The biocomputer has stored program properties, and self-metaprogramming properties, with limits determinable and to be determined.

text: Before Game 7, the Cardinals replaced Matt Holliday, who sprained his wrist in Game 6, on their roster with Adron Chambers.

text: Before Game 7, the Cardinals replaced

text: Matt Holliday

text: , who sprained his wrist in Game 6, on their roster with

text: Adron Chambers

text: The skeletal effects of PTH depend upon the pattern of systemic exposure. Transient elevations in PTH levels after subcutaneous injection of Preotact stimulates new bone formation on trabecular and cortical bone surfaces by preferential stimulation of osteoblastic activity over osteoclastic activity.

text: The skeletal effects of PTH depend upon the pattern of systemic exposure. Transient elevations in PTH levels after subcutaneous injection of Preotact stimulates new bone formation on

text: trabecular

text: and

text: cortical bone

text: surfaces by preferential stimulation of osteoblastic activity over

text: osteoclast

text: ic activity.

text: It is alleged that proper diagnosis of plaintiff's condition would have included taking X-rays of her entire skeletal structure, and that such procedure would have revealed the fracture of her skull. Defendants negligently failed to take such X-rays, and thereby negligently failed to diagnose her true condition. It is further alleged that proper medical treatment of plaintiff's battered child syndrome would have included reporting her injuries to local law enforcement authorities or juvenile probation department. Such a report would have resulted in an investigation by the concerned agencies, followed by a placement of plaintiff in protective custody until her safety was assured. Defendants negligently failed to make such report.

text: As the Blackbird returns to Earth, it runs into rough turbulence. Flashes of Wolverine's consciousness are shown as he struggles to stay alive. The X-Men on Earth watch in horror as the crew frantically tries to stabilize the ship and care for Wolverine. The ship's hatch opens, and Wolverine sees himself "going towards the light", but he is pushed back. He awakens in time to prevent Jean Grey from getting sucked out of the Blackbird. The X-Men land on the Earth safely. As Wolverine recovers from his injuries, he and the X-Men learn that his claws were a part of his actual skeletal structure all along, as he now possesses claws made of bone.

text: The oracle-bone script is a well-developed writing system, suggesting that the Chinese script's origins may lie earlier than the late second millennium BC.  Although these divinatory inscriptions are the earliest surviving evidence of ancient Chinese writing, it is widely believed that writing was used for many other non-official purposes, but that the materials upon which non-divinatory writing was done – likely wood and bamboo – were less durable than bone and shell and have since decayed away.

text: The

text: oracle-bone script

text: is a well-developed writing system, suggesting that the Chinese script's origins may lie earlier than the late second millennium BC.  Although these divinatory inscriptions are the earliest surviving evidence of ancient Chinese writing, it is widely believed that writing was used for many other non-official purposes, but that the materials upon which non-divinatory writing was done – likely wood and bamboo – were less durable than bone and shell and have since decayed away.

text: A common fracture of the hand is a scaphoid fracture—a fracture of the scaphoid bone, one of the carpal bones. This is the commonest carpal bone fracture and can be slow to heal due to a limited blood flow to the bone. There are various types of fracture to the base of the thumb and these are known as a Rolando fracture, Bennet's fracture and Gamekeeper's thumb. Another common fracture is to the neck of a metacarpal, known as Boxer's fracture.

text: A common

text: fracture

text: of the hand is a

text: scaphoid fracture

text: —a fracture of the

text: scaphoid bone

text: , one of the carpal bones. This is the commonest

text: carpal bone

text: fracture and can be slow to heal due to a limited blood flow to the bone. There are various types of fracture to the base of the thumb and these are known as a

text: Rolando fracture

text: Bennet's fracture

text: and

text: Gamekeeper's thumb

text: . Another common fracture is to the neck of a metacarpal, known as

text: Boxer's fracture

text: Neck stiffness, stiff neck and nuchal rigidity are terms often used interchangeably to describe the medical condition when one experiences discomfort or pain when trying to turn, move, or flex the neck. Possible causes include muscle strain or sprain, cervical spine disorders, meningitis, and subarachnoid hemorrhage.

text: Neck stiffness, stiff neck and nuchal rigidity are terms often used interchangeably to describe the medical condition when one experiences discomfort or pain when trying to turn, move, or flex the

text: neck

text: . Possible causes include

text: muscle strain

text: or

text: sprain

text: cervical spine disorders

text: meningitis

text: , and

text: subarachnoid hemorrhage

text: Skeletal muscles produce reactive forces and moments at the joints. To avoid injury or fatigue, when person is performing a task, such as pushing or lifting a load, the external moments created at the joints due to the load at the hand and the weight of the body segments must be ideally less than the muscular moment strengths at the joint.

text: A spinal fracture, also called a vertebral fracture or a broken back, is a fracture affecting the vertebrae of the spinal column. Types of spinal fracture include vertebral compression fracture and burst fracture,  cervical fracture, Jefferson fracture, Hangman's fracture, Flexion teardrop fracture, Clay-shoveler fracture, Chance fracture and Holdsworth fracture.

text: A spinal fracture, also called a vertebral fracture or a broken back, is a

text: fracture

text: affecting the

text: vertebrae

text: of the

text: spinal column

text: . Types of spinal fracture include

text: vertebral compression fracture

text: and

text: burst fracture

text: cervical fracture

text: Jefferson fracture

text: Hangman's fracture

text: Flexion teardrop fracture

text: Clay-shoveler fracture

text: Chance fracture

text: and

text: Holdsworth fracture

text: Skeletal muscles, like other striated muscles, are composed of myocytes, or muscle fibers, which are in turn composed of myofibrils, which are composed of sarcomeres, the basic building block of striated muscle tissue. Upon stimulation by an action potential, skeletal muscles perform a coordinated contraction by shortening each sarcomere. The best proposed model for understanding contraction is the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. Within the sarcomere, actin and myosin fibers overlap in a contractile motion towards each other. Myosin filaments have club-shaped heads that project toward the actin filaments.

text: Skeletal muscles, like other

text: striated muscle

text: s, are composed of

text: myocytes

text: , or muscle fibers, which are in turn composed of

text: myofibrils

text: , which are composed of

text: sarcomere

text: s, the basic building block of striated muscle tissue. Upon stimulation by an

text: action potential

text: , skeletal muscles perform a coordinated contraction by shortening each sarcomere. The best proposed model for understanding contraction is the

text: sliding filament model

text: of muscle contraction. Within the sarcomere,

text: actin

text: and

text: myosin

text: fibers overlap in a contractile motion towards each other. Myosin filaments have club-shaped heads that project toward the actin filaments.

text: It forms the ranelate ion, CHNOS. Strontium ranelate, the strontium salt of ranelic acid, is a drug used to treat osteoporosis and increase bone mineral density (BMD).

text: It forms the ranelate ion, CHNOS.

text: Strontium ranelate

text: , the

text: strontium

text: salt

text: of ranelic acid, is a drug used to treat

text: osteoporosis

text: and increase

text: bone mineral density

text: (BMD).

text: Spaceflight osteopenia refers to the characteristic bone loss that occurs during spaceflight.  Astronauts lose an average of more than 1% bone mass per month spent in space. There is concern that during long duration flights, excessive bone loss and the associated increase in serum calcium ion levels will interfere with execution of mission tasks and result in irreversible skeletal damage.

text: Spaceflight osteopenia refers to the characteristic

text: bone loss

text: that occurs during

text: spaceflight

text: Astronaut

text: s lose an average of more than 1% bone mass per month spent in

text: space

text: . There is concern that during long duration flights, excessive bone loss and the associated increase in serum

text: calcium

text: ion levels will interfere with execution of mission tasks and result in irreversible

text: skeletal

text: damage.

text: Before ForDisc, many anthropologists based their studies off of museum skeletal collections such as the Hamann-Todd collection that is housed at Case Western Reserve in Cleveland, Ohio, and the Terry collection housed at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. These museum collections house skeletal remains that were amassed from 50 to 100 years ago. Due to the age of these collections, their use in a medico-legal context did not produce accurate determination of the biological profile. ForDisc was forensic anthropologists solution to this problem, and allowed for classification when some measurements are not available.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Book review: FORDISC 2.0: PERSONAL COMPUTER FORENSIC DISCRIMINANT FUNCTIONS.|last = Ubelaker|first = Douglas H.|date = 1998|journal = International Journal of Osteoarchaeology|volume =8| issue =2| pages= 128–131|doi = 10.1002/(sici)1099-1212(199803/04)8:2

text: Before ForDisc, many anthropologists based their studies off of museum skeletal collections such as the

text: Hamann-Todd collection

text: that is housed at Case Western Reserve in Cleveland, Ohio, and the

text: Terry collection

text: housed at the

text: Smithsonian Institution

text: in Washington, DC. These museum collections house skeletal remains that were amassed from 50 to 100 years ago. Due to the age of these collections, their use in a medico-legal context did not produce accurate determination of the biological profile. ForDisc was forensic anthropologists solution to this problem, and allowed for classification when some measurements are not available.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Book review: FORDISC 2.0: PERSONAL COMPUTER FORENSIC DISCRIMINANT FUNCTIONS.|last = Ubelaker|first = Douglas H.|date = 1998|journal = International Journal of Osteoarchaeology|volume =8| issue =2| pages= 128–131|doi = 10.1002/(sici)1099-1212(199803/04)8:2

text: The human remains recovered from Semna South have been studied by numerous anthropologists and other specialists.  Hrdy (1978) analyzed hair samples from Semna South mummies.  He concluded that the hair color of these individuals was lighter than previously thought in ancient Nubia and the hair of the X-Group males was curlier than the Meroitic males (Hrdy, 1978, 277).  In 1993, Arriaza, Merbs, and Rothschild published a study evaluating the prevalence of a pathological condition known as diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH).  They found that approximately 13% of the individuals from the Meroitic cemetery were afflicted with this condition and that it was more common among males (Arriaza, Merbs, & Rothschild, 1993, p. 243).  Alvrus (1999) assessed the skeletal fracture patterns for almost 600 individuals from the Semna South site.  She analyzed healed fractures of the skull and appendicular skeleton and found that almost 21% of adults had at least one healed fracture and that the skull was the most frequently injured region of the body.  She attributes much of the trauma to the rocky physical environment, but also notes that craniofacial trauma may be the result of interpersonal violence (Alvrus, 1999, p. 417).

text: Notes in the ranges outside the central octave are represented with one or more dots above or below the each number. For the most part, these cipher notations are mainly used to notate the skeletal melody (the balungan) and vocal parts (gerongan), although transcriptions of the elaborating instrument variations are sometimes used for analysis and teaching. Drum parts are notated with a system of symbols largely based on letters representing the vocables used to learn and remember drumming patterns; these symbols are typically laid out in a grid underneath the skeletal melody for a specific or generic piece.

text: Notes in the ranges outside the central octave are represented with one or more dots above or below the each number. For the most part, these cipher notations are mainly used to notate the skeletal melody (the

text: balungan

text: ) and vocal parts (

text: gerong

text: an), although transcriptions of the elaborating instrument variations are sometimes used for analysis and teaching. Drum parts are notated with a system of symbols largely based on letters representing the vocables used to learn and remember drumming patterns; these symbols are typically laid out in a grid underneath the skeletal melody for a specific or generic piece.

text: Favre failed to finish a game due to injury on only eight occasions since taking control of the Packers as quarterback. Significant injuries suffered by Favre during the streak includes a first-degree shoulder separation, deep thigh bruise, severely bruised left hip, severely sprained left ankle, wind knocked out coupled with coughing up blood, sprained right thumb, right elbow tendinitis, left mid-foot sprain, sprained lateral collateral ligament of the left knee, broken left thumb, softball-sized bruise of the left hamstring, mild concussion, sprained right hand, injured ulnar nerve of the right elbow, bone spurs on the left ankle, torn right biceps, pulled groin, stress fracture of the left ankle coupled with an avulsion fracture of calcaneus, and a sprained sternoclavicular joint of the right shoulder.

text: A fasciculation , or muscle twitch, is a small, local, involuntary muscle contraction and relaxation which may be visible under the skin. Deeper areas can be detected by electromyography (EMG) testing, though they can happen in any skeletal muscle in the body. Fasciculations arise as a result of spontaneous depolarization of a lower motor neuron leading to the synchronous contraction of all the skeletal muscle fibers within a single motor unit. An example of normal spontaneous depolarization is the constant contractions of cardiac muscle, causing the heart to beat. Usually, intentional movement of the involved muscle causes fasciculations to cease immediately, but they may return once the muscle is at rest again.

text: A fasciculation , or muscle twitch, is a small, local, involuntary

text: muscle contraction

text: and relaxation which may be visible under the skin. Deeper areas can be detected by

text: electromyography

text: (EMG) testing, though they can happen in any

text: skeletal muscle

text: in the body. Fasciculations arise as a result of spontaneous depolarization of a

text: lower motor neuron

text: leading to the synchronous contraction of all the skeletal muscle fibers within a single motor unit. An example of normal spontaneous depolarization is the constant contractions of

text: cardiac muscle

text: , causing the

text: heart

text: to beat. Usually, intentional movement of the involved muscle causes fasciculations to cease immediately, but they may return once the muscle is at rest again.

text: Diastrophic dysplasia affects about 1 in 100,000 births. It is one of a spectrum of skeletal disorders caused by mutations in the SLC26A2 gene. The protein encoded by this gene is essential for the normal development of cartilage and for its conversion to bone. Cartilage is a tough, flexible tissue that makes up much of the skeleton during early development. Most cartilage is later converted to bone, but in adulthood this tissue continues to cover and protect the ends of bones and is present in the nose and external ears. Mutations in the SLC26A2 gene alter the structure of developing cartilage, preventing bones from forming properly and resulting in the skeletal problems characteristic of diastrophic dysplasia.

text: Diastrophic dysplasia affects about 1 in 100,000 births. It is one of a spectrum of skeletal disorders caused by

text: mutation

text: s in the

text: gene

text: . The protein encoded by this gene is essential for the normal development of cartilage and for its conversion to bone. Cartilage is a tough, flexible tissue that makes up much of the

text: skeleton

text: during early development. Most cartilage is later converted to bone, but in adulthood this tissue continues to cover and protect the ends of bones and is present in the nose and external ears. Mutations in the SLC26A2 gene alter the structure of developing cartilage, preventing bones from forming properly and resulting in the skeletal problems characteristic of diastrophic dysplasia.

text: Teriparatide is indicated as well for the treatment of men and women with osteoporosis associated with sustained systemic glucocorticoid therapy.

text: Teriparatide is indicated as well for the treatment of men and women with osteoporosis associated with sustained systemic

text: glucocorticoid

text: therapy.

text: Even many terrestrial vertebrates exhibit differences in the scaling of limb dimension, limb coordination and magnitude of forelimb-hind limb loading, in the dog, horse and elephant the structure of the distal forelimb is similar to that of the distal hind limb.  In the human, the structures of the hand are generally similar in shape and arrangement to those of the foot. Terrestrial vertebrate quadrupeds and bipeds generally possess distal limb and foot endoskeleton structures that are aligned in series, stacked in a relatively vertical orientation and arranged in a quasi-columnar fashion in the extended limb.  In the dog and horse, the bones of the proximal limbs are oriented vertically, whereas the distal limb structures of the ankle and foot have an angulated orientation.  In humans and elephants, a vertical-column orientation of the bones in the limbs and feet is also evident for associated skeletal muscle-tendon units.  The horse’s foot contains an external nail (hoof) oriented about the perimeter in the shape of a semicircle.  The underlying bones are arranged in a semi-vertical orientation.  The dog’s paw similarly contains bones arranged in a semi-vertical orientation.

text: Even many terrestrial vertebrates exhibit differences in the scaling of limb dimension, limb coordination and magnitude of forelimb-hind limb loading, in the dog, horse and elephant the structure of the distal forelimb is similar to that of the distal hind limb.  In the human, the structures of the hand are generally similar in shape and arrangement to those of the foot. Terrestrial vertebrate quadrupeds and bipeds generally possess distal limb and foot

text: endoskeleton

text: structures that are aligned in series, stacked in a relatively vertical orientation and arranged in a quasi-columnar fashion in the extended limb.  In the dog and horse, the bones of the proximal limbs are oriented vertically, whereas the distal limb structures of the ankle and foot have an angulated orientation.  In humans and elephants, a vertical-column orientation of the bones in the limbs and feet is also evident for associated skeletal muscle-tendon units.  The horse’s foot contains an external nail (hoof) oriented about the perimeter in the shape of a semicircle.  The underlying bones are arranged in a semi-vertical orientation.  The dog’s paw similarly contains bones arranged in a semi-vertical orientation.

text: David Sillence’s current research interests include a) Genetics and treatment of osteopenic and other metabolic bone disorders of childhood, b) Characterization of the molecular genetics and pathogenesis of specific skeletal birth defects in mouse and man, c) Consanguinity and paediatric morbidity/population genetics of consanguinity in Middle Eastern Populations, d) Evaluation of Innovative Genetic Therapies. Previous studies in the genetics and treatment of osteopenic and other metabolic bone disorders has led to the development of i) Normal range of bone density and skeletal metabolites in children, ii) a delineation of the natural history of various skeletal disorders collectively known as Osteogenesis Imperfecta and iii) the definition of the specific conditions for treatment of these disorders with Bisphosphonates.

text: David Sillence’s current research interests include a) Genetics and treatment of osteopenic and other

text: metabolic bone disorder

text: s of childhood, b) Characterization of the

text: molecular genetics

text: and

text: pathogenesis

text: of specific skeletal

text: birth defect

text: s in mouse and man, c)

text: Consanguinity

text: and

text: paediatric morbidity

text: population genetics

text: of consanguinity in Middle Eastern Populations, d) Evaluation of Innovative Genetic Therapies. Previous studies in the genetics and treatment of osteopenic and other metabolic bone disorders has led to the development of i) Normal range of

text: bone density

text: and skeletal metabolites in children, ii) a delineation of the natural history of various

text: skeletal disorder

text: s collectively known as Osteogenesis Imperfecta and iii) the definition of the specific conditions for treatment of these disorders with

text: Bisphosphonate

text: s.

text: Bone tissue is a mineralized connective tissue. It is formed by cells, called osteoblasts, that deposit a matrix of Type-I collagen and also release calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions that ultimately combine chemically within the collagenous matrix into a crystalline mineral, known as bone mineral, in the form of carbonated hydroxyapatite. The combination of hard mineral and flexible collagen makes bone harder and stronger than cartilage without being brittle. Cortical bone consists of a repeating structure called an osteon or haversian system, which is the primary anatomical and functional unit. Each osteon has concentric lamellae (layers) of mineralized matrix, which are deposited around a central canal, known as the haversian canal, each containing blood and nerve supply.

text: Bone tissue is a

text: mineralized connective tissue

text: . It is formed by cells, called

text: osteoblast

text: s, that deposit a matrix of

text: Type-I collagen

text: and also release calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions that ultimately combine chemically within the collagenous matrix into a crystalline mineral, known as

text: bone mineral

text: , in the form of carbonated

text: hydroxyapatite

text: . The combination of hard mineral and flexible collagen makes bone harder and stronger than

text: cartilage

text: without being brittle. Cortical bone consists of a repeating structure called an

text: osteon

text: or haversian system, which is the primary anatomical and functional unit. Each osteon has concentric

text: lamellae

text: (layers) of mineralized matrix, which are deposited around a central canal, known as the

text: haversian canal

text: , each containing blood and nerve supply.

text: Many diseases and disorders have been associated with osteoporosis. For some, the underlying mechanism influencing the bone metabolism is straightforward, whereas for others the causes are multiple or unknown.

text: The hoof is the tip of a toe of an ungulate mammal, strengthened by a thick horny (keratin) covering. The hoof consists of a hard or rubbery sole, and a hard wall formed by a thick nail rolled around the tip of the toe. The weight of the animal is normally borne by both the sole and the edge of the hoof wall. Hooves grow continuously, and are constantly worn down by use. In most modern ungulates, the radius and ulna are fused along the length of the forelimb; early ungulates, such as the arctocyonids, did not share this unique skeletal structure. The fusion of the radius and ulna prevents an ungulate from rotating its forelimb. Since this skeletal structure has no specific function in ungulates, it is considered a homologous characteristic that ungulates share with other mammals. This trait would have been passed down from a common ancestor. While the two orders of ungulates colloquial names are based on the number of toes of their members ("odd-toed" for the perissodactyls and "even-toed" for the terrestrial artiodactyls), it is not an accurate reason they are grouped. Tapirs have four toes in the front, yet they are members of the "odd-toed" order; peccaries and modern cetaceans are members of the "even-toed" order, yet peccaries have three toes in the front and whales are an extreme example as they have flippers instead of hooves. Scientists had classified them according to the distribution of their weight to their toes.

text: The hoof is the tip of a

text: toe

text: of an ungulate

text: mammal

text: , strengthened by a thick horny (

text: keratin

text: ) covering. The hoof consists of a hard or rubbery sole, and a hard wall formed by a thick

text: nail

text: rolled around the tip of the toe. The weight of the animal is normally borne by both the sole and the edge of the hoof wall. Hooves grow continuously, and are constantly worn down by use. In most modern ungulates, the

text: radius

text: and

text: ulna

text: are fused along the length of the forelimb; early ungulates, such as the

text: arctocyonids

text: , did not share this unique skeletal structure. The fusion of the radius and ulna prevents an ungulate from rotating its forelimb. Since this skeletal structure has no specific function in ungulates, it is considered a homologous characteristic that ungulates share with other mammals. This trait would have been passed down from a common ancestor. While the two orders of ungulates colloquial names are based on the number of toes of their members ("odd-toed" for the perissodactyls and "even-toed" for the terrestrial artiodactyls), it is not an accurate reason they are grouped. Tapirs have four toes in the front, yet they are members of the "odd-toed" order; peccaries and modern cetaceans are members of the "even-toed" order, yet peccaries have three toes in the front and whales are an extreme example as they have flippers instead of hooves. Scientists had classified them according to the distribution of their weight to their toes.

text: The Joint Interoperability Test Command (JITC) is DoD's Joint Interoperability Certifier and only non-Service Operational Test Agency for Information Technology (IT)/National Security Systems (NSS). JITC provides risk based Test Evaluation & Certification services, tools, and environments to ensure Joint Warfighting IT capabilities are interoperable and support mission needs.

text: The Grassy Sprain Reservoir is a  storage reservoir in northern Yonkers, New York. It was completed in 1876 by the city of Yonkers as the city's main storage reservoir. The reservoir was formed by the Grassy Sprain Brook Dam which impounded the Sprain Brook River and Grassy Sprain River. The reservoir itself has a maximum capacity of , and water from the reservoir is sent to a water filtration plant prior to civil consumption.

text: The Grassy Sprain Reservoir is a  storage

text: reservoir

text: in northern

text: Yonkers, New York

text: . It was completed in 1876 by the city of Yonkers as the city's main storage reservoir. The reservoir was formed by the Grassy Sprain Brook Dam which impounded the Sprain Brook River and Grassy Sprain River. The reservoir itself has a maximum capacity of , and water from the reservoir is sent to a water filtration plant prior to civil consumption.

text: The Sanders classification system is the most commonly used system for categorizing intrarticular fractures. There are 4 types:

text: The

text: Sanders classification

text: system is the most commonly used system for categorizing intrarticular fractures. There are 4 types:

text: Intramembranous ossification is one of the two essential processes during fetal development of the gnathostome (excluding chondrichthyans such as sharks) skeletal system by which rudimentary bone tissue is created. Intramembranous ossification is also an essential process during the natural healing of bone fractures and the rudimentary formation of bones of the head. Unlike endochondral ossification, which is the other process by which bone tissue is created during fetal development, cartilage is not present during intramembranous ossification.

text: Intramembranous ossification is one of the two essential processes during

text: fetal

text: development of the

text: gnathostome

text: (excluding

text: chondrichthyans

text: such as

text: shark

text: s)

text: skeletal system

text: by which rudimentary

text: bone tissue

text: is created. Intramembranous ossification is also an essential process during the natural healing of

text: bone fractures

text: and the rudimentary formation of

text: bone

text: s of the

text: head

text: . Unlike

text: endochondral ossification

text: , which is the other process by which bone tissue is created during fetal development,

text: cartilage

text: is not present during intramembranous ossification.

text: Another study comparing gender influences on ankle sprains found that male and female counterparts had similar incidence rates of ankle sprains.  However, at a specific age range of 19–25 years old, males were found to have a substantially greater rate of ankle sprains than females.  Furthermore, at ages 30 and over, females showed a higher incidence of ankle sprains than males.  From this, it can be said that age and activity levels are better indicators of ankle sprain risks than gender.

text: Ibandronic acid (INN) or ibandronate sodium (USAN) is a potent bisphosphonate drug developed by Hoffman La Roche and used in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis and metastasis-associated skeletal fractures in people with cancer. It may also be used to treat hypercalcemia (elevated blood calcium levels).  Global sales in 2008 were 1.1B CHF ($1.0B USD at 01/01/2009 exchange rates).

text: Ibandronic acid (

text: INN

text: ) or ibandronate sodium (

text: USAN

text: ) is a potent

text: bisphosphonate

text: drug

text: developed by

text: Hoffman La Roche

text: and used in the prevention and treatment of

text: osteoporosis

text: and metastasis-associated skeletal fractures in people with cancer. It may also be used to treat

text: hypercalcemia

text: (elevated blood

text: calcium

text: levels).  Global sales in 2008 were 1.1B CHF ($1.0B USD at 01/01/2009 exchange rates).

text: The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "fight or flight" response, indicated by accelerated pulse and respiration rates, pupil dilation, and a general feeling of anxiety and hyper-awareness.  This is caused by the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands. the norepinephrine and epinephrine strike the beta receptors of the heart in order to feed the heart sympathetic nerve fibers to increase the strength of heart muscle contraction. as a result more blood is being circulated increasing the heart rate and respiratory rate. The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the skeletal system and muscular system in an effort to pump more blood to those areas to handle the acute stress. simultaneously the sympathetic nervous system inhibits the digestive system and the urinary system in order to optimize blood flow to the heart, lungs, and skeletal muscles. this plays a role in the alarm reaction stage. The para-sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "rest and digest" response, indicated by reduced heart and respiration rates, and more obviously by a temporary loss of consciousness if the system is fired at a rapid rate. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the digestive system and urinary system in order to send more blood to those systems to increase the process of digestion. In order to do this, it must inhibit the cardiovascular system and respiratory system in an effort to optimize blood flow to the digestive tract causing low heart and respiratory rates. parasympathetic plays no role in acute stress response (VanPutte Regan Russo 2014).

text: The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "

text: fight or flight

text: Tarsal Coalition (also known as Peroneal Spastic Flatfoot   : Calcaneonavicular bar  : Talocalcaneal bar  : Tarsal synostosis  : Tarsal dysostosis) is an abnormal bridge of tissue that connects two normally-separate tarsal bones. The term ‘tarsal’ refers to the seven bones in the rear to mid part of the foot known as the tarsus.  The term ‘coalition’ means a coming together of two or more entities to merge into one mass. The term “bar” refers to the abnormal “bar of bone” or fibrous tissue between the two bones.  The bones of children are very malleable in infancy. This will generally mean that, despite the presence of a coalition, the bones can deform enough to allow painless walking until the child’s skeleton has matured enough.  'Skeletal maturing' means that bone is laid down in the tissue that forms the immature bone shape gradually until adult bone is achieved at about the age of seventeen years in the feet. Other body parts reach skeletal maturity at different times. The onset of symptoms related to a tarsal coalition usually occurs at about nine to seventeen years of age, with a peak incidence occurring at ten to fourteen years of age.

text: Tarsal Coalition (also known as Peroneal Spastic Flatfoot   : Calcaneonavicular bar  : Talocalcaneal bar  : Tarsal synostosis  : Tarsal dysostosis) is an abnormal bridge of

text: tissue

text: that connects two normally-separate

text: tarsal

text: bones. The term ‘tarsal’ refers to the seven bones in the rear to mid part of the foot known as the

text: tarsus

text: .  The term ‘coalition’ means a coming together of two or more entities to merge into one mass. The term “bar” refers to the abnormal “bar of bone” or fibrous tissue between the two bones.  The bones of children are very malleable in infancy. This will generally mean that, despite the presence of a coalition, the bones can deform enough to allow painless walking until the child’s skeleton has matured enough.  'Skeletal maturing' means that bone is laid down in the tissue that forms the immature bone shape gradually until adult bone is achieved at about the age of seventeen years in the feet. Other body parts reach skeletal maturity at different times. The onset of symptoms related to a tarsal coalition usually occurs at about nine to seventeen years of age, with a peak incidence occurring at ten to fourteen years of age.

text: Sea otter forelimbs are small and not used in swimming. Forelimb structure, particularly musculature and skeletal anatomy, are potentially adapted for, "tactile sensitivity and tool use associated with detection, handling, and consumption of prey".

text: Sea otter

text: forelimb

text: s are small and not used in swimming. Forelimb structure, particularly musculature and skeletal anatomy, are potentially adapted for, "tactile sensitivity and tool use associated with detection, handling, and consumption of prey".

text: Osteoporosis is a disease where decreased bone strength increases the risk of a broken bone. It is the most common reason for a broken bone among the elderly. Bones that commonly break include the back bones, the bones of the forearm, and the hip. Until a broken bone occurs there are typically no symptoms. Bones may weaken to such a degree that a break may occur with minor stress or spontaneously. Chronic pain and a decreased ability to carry out normal activities may occur following a broken bone.

text: Osteoporosis is a

text: disease

text: where decreased bone strength increases the risk of a

text: broken bone

text: . It is the most common reason for a broken bone among

text: the elderly

text: . Bones that commonly break include the

text: back bones

text: , the bones of the

text: forearm

text: , and the

text: hip

text: . Until a broken bone occurs there are typically no symptoms. Bones may weaken to such a degree that a break may occur with minor stress or spontaneously.

text: Chronic pain

text: and a decreased ability to carry out normal activities may occur following a broken bone.

text: Simple fractures are usually treated with closed reduction and indirect skeletal fixation, more commonly referred to as maxillo-mandibular fixation (MMF).  The closed reduction is explained above. The indirect skeletal fixation is accomplished by placing an arch bar, secured to the teeth on the maxillary and mandibular dentition, then securing the top and bottom arch bars with wire loops.

text: Predisposition of acute myeloid leukemia; skeletal abnormalities; radial hypoplasia and vertebral defect and other physical abnormalities, bone marrow failure (pancytopenia), endocrine dysfunction, early onset osteopenia/osteoporosis and lipid abnormalities, spontaneous chromosomal breakage exacerbated by exposure to DNA cross-linking agents.

text: Osteosynthesis is the reduction and internal fixation of a bone fracture with implantable devices that are usually made of metal. It is a surgical procedure with an open or per cutaneous approach to the fractured bone. Osteosynthesis aims to bring the fractured bone ends together and immobilize the fracture site while healing takes place. In a fracture that is rigidly immobilized the fracture heals by the process of intramembranous ossification.

text: Osteosynthesis is the

text: reduction

text: and

text: internal fixation

text: of a

text: bone fracture

text: with implantable devices that are usually made of metal. It is a surgical procedure with an open or per cutaneous approach to the fractured bone. Osteosynthesis aims to bring the fractured bone ends together and immobilize the fracture site while healing takes place. In a fracture that is rigidly immobilized the fracture heals by the process of

text: intramembranous ossification

text: Since about 2002, some patients with this disorder have been offered drug therapy with bisphosphonates (a class of osteoporosis drugs) to treat problems with bone resorption associated with the bone breakdown and skeletal malformations that characterize this disorder. Brand names include Actonel (risedronate/alendronate), made by Merck Pharmaceuticals. Other drugs include Pamidronate, made by Novartis and Strontium Ranelate, made by Eli Lilly. However, for more progressive cases, surgery and bone grafting are necessary.

text: Since about 2002, some patients with this disorder have been offered drug therapy with

text: bisphosphonate

text: s (a class of osteoporosis drugs) to treat problems with bone resorption associated with the bone breakdown and skeletal malformations that characterize this disorder. Brand names include Actonel (risedronate/alendronate), made by Merck Pharmaceuticals. Other drugs include Pamidronate, made by Novartis and Strontium Ranelate, made by Eli Lilly. However, for more progressive cases, surgery and bone grafting are necessary.

text: The engine supported loading of 3D models in the DTS and DIF file formats. DTS models were typically used for characters and vehicles though occasionally for buildings and interiors. They could be animated using either skeletal or morph target animation. It was also possible to blend multiple skeletal animations together by playing them simultaneously or automatically tweening the different positions of bones in the skeleton. DIF models have pre-calculated lighting and as such are ill-suited for animation. Instead, they were used for buildings and interiors. They automatically had bounding boxes that perfectly match the visible geometry. This was so that it was not made overly difficult for a player in a Torque Game Engine game to move or fire weapons around them.

text: The engine supported loading of

text: 3D model

text: s in the DTS and DIF

text: file format

text: s. DTS models were typically used for characters and vehicles though occasionally for buildings and interiors. They could be animated using either

text: skeletal

text: or

text: morph target animation

text: . It was also possible to blend multiple skeletal animations together by playing them simultaneously or automatically

text: tweening

text: the different positions of bones in the skeleton. DIF models have

text: pre-calculated lighting

text: and as such are ill-suited for animation. Instead, they were used for buildings and interiors. They automatically had

text: bounding boxes

text: that perfectly match the visible geometry. This was so that it was not made overly difficult for a player in a Torque Game Engine game to move or fire weapons around them.

text: Sprain Your Tapedeck is the first EP by American hip hop musician Edan, released on Lewis Recordings in 2001.

text: Sprain Your Tapedeck is the first EP by American hip hop musician

text: Edan

text: , released on

text: Lewis Recordings

text: in 2001.

text: Bone is an active tissue composed of different types of bone cells. Osteoblasts and osteocytes are involved in the creation and mineralisation of bone;  osteoclasts are involved in the reabsorption of bone tissue. The mineralised matrix of bone tissue has an organic component of mainly collagen called ossein and an inorganic component of bone mineral made up of various salts.

text: Bone is an active tissue composed of different types of

text: bone cell

text: s.

text: Osteoblast

text: s and

text: osteocyte

text: s are involved in the creation and mineralisation of bone;

text: osteoclast

text: s are involved in the reabsorption of bone tissue. The mineralised matrix of bone tissue has an organic component of mainly

text: collagen

text: called ossein and an inorganic component of

text: bone mineral

text: made up of various salts.

text: Most often the physical characteristics of the Pika species are compared to the family Leporidae, which includes rabbits and hares. The comparisons of the family Ochotonidae with those of the family Leporidae are due to the very similar physical characteristics shared by Pikas, rabbits and hares. However, there is a distinction between each, including size of the body and skeletal structure of each family, as well as distinctive characteristics in the length of the ears. A skeletal distinction can be seen in the Gaoligong Pika which lacks a supraorbital process in the skull skeletal feature and have a long and broad posterior nasal bone.

text: Most often the physical characteristics of the Pika species are compared to the family Leporidae, which includes rabbits and hares. The comparisons of the family Ochotonidae with those of the family Leporidae are due to the very similar physical characteristics shared by Pikas, rabbits and hares. However, there is a distinction between each, including size of the body and skeletal structure of each family, as well as distinctive characteristics in the length of the ears. A skeletal distinction can be seen in the Gaoligong Pika which lacks a

text: supraorbital

text: process in the skull skeletal feature and have a long and broad posterior nasal bone.

text: Joints that connect bodies in this system remove degrees of freedom and reduce mobility.   Specifically, hinges and sliders each impose five constraints and therefore remove five degrees of freedom.  It is convenient to define the number of constraints c that a joint imposes in terms of the joint's freedom f, where c = 6 − f.  In the case of a hinge or slider, which are one degree of freedom joints, have f = 1 and therefore c = 6 − 1 = 5.

text: World Osteoporosis Day is observed annually on 20 October, and launches a year-long campaign dedicated to raising global awareness of the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis and metabolic bone disease. Organized by the International Osteoporosis Foundation (IOF), World Osteoporosis Day involves campaigns by national osteoporosis patient societies from around the world with activities in over 90 countries.

text: World Osteoporosis Day is observed annually on 20 October, and launches a year-long campaign dedicated to raising global awareness of the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of

text: osteoporosis

text: and

text: metabolic bone disease

text: . Organized by the

text: International Osteoporosis Foundation

text: (IOF), World Osteoporosis Day involves campaigns by national osteoporosis patient societies from around the world with activities in over 90 countries.

text: Stevens and associates  reported that in isolated single-fiber analyses, deficits in force generation capacity were found along with a reduced sensitivity to calcium stimulation. Similar observations occurred for both slow and fast ankle extensor fibers after 14 days of spaceflight.  This study focused on the force-generating aspects of muscle fibers. It appears that only two additional studies have been conducted to examine the effects of spaceflight on rodent skeletal muscle functional properties using a more comprehensive set of analyses. One project was carried out for 6 days  while the other involved a 2-week flight (SLS-2). In both studies, the measurements focused on the force-velocity properties, which define the limits of functional capacity of the muscle. These studies were conducted on the soleus skeletal muscle, in which slow-twitch myofibers predominate, because of the dynamic changes in fiber morphology and phenotype that were observed in the other studies summarized above. Analyses on the animals were initiated within 6 hours of return from spaceflight. The findings showed that the maximal strength of the muscle, as studied in situ using a computer-programmed ergometer system, was reduced by 24% after the 6-day flight and 37% after the 14-day flight.  These changes were consistent with the degree of atrophy observed at both the gross and single-myofiber level. Also, shifts occurred in the force-frequency response of the soleus in the flight animals, suggesting a switch to a faster contractile phenotype. Maximal shortening velocities were increased by 14% and 24% in the 6-day and 14-day spaceflight groups, respectively. These intrinsic increases in shortening speed were attributed, in part, to the de novo expression of the fast type IIx MHC in many of the slow muscle fibers. On the other hand, both work- and power-generating capacities of the flight-induced atrophied muscles were significantly decreased. Additionally, the resistance to fatigue was significantly decreased as well as the ability to sustain work and power output in response to a paradigm involving repetitive contraction output. Similar findings have been observed using comparable analytical approaches involving the HS model. Taken together, the findings clearly indicate that when skeletal muscles, especially those having a large proportion of slow myofibers, undergo both atrophy and remodeling of the contractile phenotype, the functional capacity of the muscle is reduced along with its ability to sustain work output. If a sufficient mass of muscle tissue across several key muscle groups were similarly affected, this would most likely impair the fitness of the individual when challenged with moderate-intensity exercise scenarios.

text: A  Dovetail key , Dutchman Joint,  or Butterfly joint   is a type of joint used either to hold two or more wooden boards together or to keep two halves of a board that have already started to split from splitting further. They may also be used to stabilize the core of a knothole, preventing it from dropping out over time. They are also commonly used as decorative inlays for non structural aesthetic purposes.

text: A  Dovetail key , Dutchman Joint,  or Butterfly joint   is a type of

text: joint

text: used either to hold two or more wooden boards together or to keep two halves of a board that have already started to split from splitting further. They may also be used to stabilize the core of a knothole, preventing it from dropping out over time. They are also commonly used as decorative inlays for non structural aesthetic purposes.

text: Ankle sprain – The ligaments that hold the ankle bones in place can easily be overstretched.

text: Allmusic reviewer Thom Jurek states "For the most part, it is a spare and lovely beauty of an album, with few surpises save for the elegance that Sakamoto performs these indelible pieces with". PopMatters John Garrett noted "An important selling point for Playing the Piano is how Ryuichi Sakamoto takes the opportunity to “cover himself”, so to speak. His soundtrack work is up for grabs as well as a fantastic pre-Yellow Magic Orchestra composition called “Thousand Knives”. The advantage of this is that Sakamoto boils these pieces down to their skeletal form, presenting them to the listener in a way that’s probably close to how he was writing them all these years ago". Sputnikmusic stated "This album is a testament to the fact that a truly wonderful song needs nothing else to make it special. Although not every song shines, every one of them has something unique about it. That makes this album grand. Only one piano creates true emotion, and unique songs".

text: Allmusic

text: reviewer Thom Jurek states "For the most part, it is a spare and lovely beauty of an album, with few surpises save for the elegance that Sakamoto performs these indelible pieces with".

text: PopMatters

text: John Garrett noted "An important selling point for Playing the Piano is how Ryuichi Sakamoto takes the opportunity to “cover himself”, so to speak. His soundtrack work is up for grabs as well as a fantastic pre-

text: Yellow Magic Orchestra

text: composition called “Thousand Knives”. The advantage of this is that Sakamoto boils these pieces down to their skeletal form, presenting them to the listener in a way that’s probably close to how he was writing them all these years ago".

text: Sputnikmusic

text: stated "This album is a testament to the fact that a truly wonderful song needs nothing else to make it special. Although not every song shines, every one of them has something unique about it. That makes this album grand. Only one piano creates true emotion, and unique songs".

text: Zircon crystals were identified in skeletal frameworks.

text: Other fractures of the body, are classified as open or closed.   Because fractures that involve the teeth, by definition, communicate with the mouth this distinction is largely lost in mandible fractures.  Condylar, ramus, and coronoid process fractures are generally closed whereas angle, body and parasymphsis fractures are generally open.

text: TnT and TnI in cardiac muscle are presented by forms different from those in skeletal muscles. Two isoforms of TnI and two isoforms of TnT are expressed in human skeletal muscle tissue (skTnI and skTnT). Only one tissue-specific isoform of TnI is described for cardiac muscle tissue (cTnI), whereas the existence of several cardiac specific isoforms of TnT (cTnT) are described in the literature. No cardiac specific isoforms are known for human TnC. TnC in human cardiac muscle tissue is presented by an isoform typical for slow skeletal muscle. Another form of TnC, fast skeletal TnC isoform, is more typical for fast skeletal muscles. cTnI is expressed only in myocardium. No examples of cTnI expression in healthy or injured skeletal muscle or in other tissue types are known. cTnT is probably less cardiac specific. Expression of cTnT in skeletal tissue of patients with chronic skeletal muscle injuries has been described.

text: Taurine is necessary for normal skeletal muscle functioning. Mice with a genetic taurine deficiency had a nearly complete depletion of skeletal and cardiac muscle taurine levels and a reduction of more than 80% of exercise capacity compared to control mice. Taurine can influence (and possibly reverse) defects in nerve blood flow, motor nerve conduction velocity, and nerve sensory thresholds in experimental diabetic neuropathic rats.

text: Most hip fractures are treated by implanting an orthosis. The surgery is a major stress, particularly in the elderly. Pain is also significant, resulting in immobilization. Since prolonged immobilization can be more of a health risk than the surgery itself, post-op people are encouraged to become mobile as soon as possible, often with the assistance of physical therapy. Skeletal traction pending surgery is not supported by the evidence. Regional nerve blocks are useful for pain management in hip fractures.

text: Most hip fractures are treated by

text: implanting

text: an

text: orthosis

text: . The surgery is a major stress, particularly in the elderly. Pain is also significant, resulting in immobilization. Since prolonged immobilization can be more of a health risk than the surgery itself, post-op people are encouraged to become mobile as soon as possible, often with the assistance of

text: physical therapy

text: Skeletal traction

text: pending surgery is not supported by the evidence.

text: Regional nerve block

text: s are useful for pain management in hip fractures.

text: Renal osteodystrophy is currently defined as an alteration of bone morphology in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD).  It is one measure of the skeletal component of the systemic disorder of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD). The term "renal osteodystrophy" was coined in 1943, 60 years after an association was identified between bone disease and renal failure. The traditional types of renal osteodystrophy have been defined on the basis of turnover and mineralization as follows: mild, slight increase in turnover and normal mineralization; osteitis fibrosa, increased turnover and normal mineralization; osteomalacia, decreased turnover and abnormal mineralization; adynamic, decreased turnover and acellularity; mixed, increased turnover with abnormal mineralization. A Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes report has suggested that bone biopsies in patients with CKD should be characterized by determining bone turnover, mineralization, and volume (TMV system). On the other hand, CKD-MBD is defined as a systemic disorder of mineral and bone metabolism due to CKD manifested by either one or a combination of the following: 1) abnormalities of calcium, phosphorus, PTH, or vitamin D metabolism; 2) abnormalities in bone turnover, mineralization, volume, linear growth, or strength (renal osteodystrophy); and 3) vascular or other soft-tissue calcification.

text: Renal osteodystrophy is currently defined as an alteration of bone morphology in patients with

text: chronic kidney disease

text: (CKD).  It is one measure of the skeletal component of the systemic disorder of

entity_name: Chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder

text: chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder

text: (CKD-MBD). The term "renal osteodystrophy" was coined in 1943, 60 years after an association was identified between bone disease and renal failure. The traditional types of renal osteodystrophy have been defined on the basis of turnover and mineralization as follows: mild, slight increase in turnover and normal mineralization; osteitis fibrosa, increased turnover and normal mineralization;

text: osteomalacia

text: , decreased turnover and abnormal mineralization; adynamic, decreased turnover and acellularity; mixed, increased turnover with abnormal mineralization. A Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes report has suggested that bone biopsies in patients with CKD should be characterized by determining bone turnover, mineralization, and volume (TMV system). On the other hand, CKD-MBD is defined as a systemic disorder of mineral and bone metabolism due to CKD manifested by either one or a combination of the following: 1) abnormalities of calcium, phosphorus, PTH, or vitamin D metabolism; 2) abnormalities in bone turnover, mineralization, volume, linear growth, or strength (renal osteodystrophy); and 3) vascular or other soft-tissue calcification.

text: Alpha-7 integrin is highly expressed in striated muscle, namely skeletal and cardiac muscle, and functions as the major laminin-binding integrin. It was later shown that alpha-7 integrin is also highly expressed in smooth muscle. The two major splice variants of alpha-7 integrin appear to have developmentally regulated expression; alpha-7A integrin is expressed solely in skeletal muscle, however alpha-7B integrin is expressed more loosely in striated muscle as well as the vasculature.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Velling|first1=T|last2=Collo|first2=G|last3=Sorokin|first3=L|last4=Durbeej|first4=M|last5=Zhang|first5=H|last6=Gullberg|first6=D|title=Distinct alpha 7A beta 1 and alpha 7B beta 1 integrin expression patterns during mouse development: alpha 7A is restricted to skeletal muscle but alpha 7B is expressed in striated muscle, vasculature, and nervous system.|journal=Developmental Dynamics|date=December 1996|volume=207|issue=4|pages=355–71|pmid=8950511|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0177(199612)207:4

text: Alpha-7 integrin is highly expressed in

text: striated muscle

text: , namely

text: skeletal

text: and

text: cardiac muscle

text: , and functions as the major

text: laminin

text: -binding integrin. It was later shown that alpha-7 integrin is also highly expressed in

text: smooth muscle

text: . The two major

text: splice variant

text: s of alpha-7 integrin appear to have developmentally regulated expression; alpha-7A integrin is expressed solely in

text: skeletal muscle

text: , however alpha-7B integrin is expressed more loosely in

text: striated muscle

text: as well as the vasculature.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Velling|first1=T|last2=Collo|first2=G|last3=Sorokin|first3=L|last4=Durbeej|first4=M|last5=Zhang|first5=H|last6=Gullberg|first6=D|title=Distinct alpha 7A beta 1 and alpha 7B beta 1 integrin expression patterns during mouse development: alpha 7A is restricted to skeletal muscle but alpha 7B is expressed in striated muscle, vasculature, and nervous system.|journal=Developmental Dynamics|date=December 1996|volume=207|issue=4|pages=355–71|pmid=8950511|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0177(199612)207:4

text: A sternal fracture is a fracture of the sternum (the breastbone), located in the center of the chest.  The injury, which occurs in 5–8% of people who experience significant blunt chest trauma, may occur in vehicle accidents, when the still-moving chest strikes a steering wheel or dashboard or is injured by a seatbelt. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation, commonly known as CPR,  has also been known to cause thoracic injury, including sternum and rib fractures. Sternal fractures may also occur as a pathological fracture, in people who have weakened bone in their sternum, due to another disease process.  Sternal fracture can interfere with breathing by making it more painful; however, its primary significance is that it can indicate the presence of serious associated internal injuries, especially to the heart and lungs.

text: A sternal fracture is a

text: fracture

text: of the

text: sternum

text: (the breastbone), located in the center of the

text: chest

text: .  The injury, which occurs in 5–8% of people who experience significant blunt

text: chest trauma

text: , may occur in vehicle accidents, when the still-moving chest strikes a steering wheel or dashboard or is injured by a seatbelt.

text: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation

text: , commonly known as

text: CPR

text: ,  has also been known to cause thoracic injury, including sternum and

text: rib fracture

text: s. Sternal fractures may also occur as a

text: pathological fracture

text: , in people who have weakened bone in their sternum, due to another disease process.  Sternal fracture can interfere with breathing by making it more painful; however, its primary significance is that it can indicate the presence of serious associated internal injuries, especially to the heart and

text: lung

text: s.

text: It is most often used for modifying weight maps for skeletal animation, to tweak the influence of individual bones when deforming surfaces around joints.

text: It is most often used for modifying

text: weight map

text: s for

text: skeletal animation

text: , to tweak the influence of individual

text: bones

text: when deforming surfaces around joints.

text: Skeletal pneumaticity allows animals to redistribute the skeletal mass within their body. The skeletal mass of a bird (pneumatized) and a mammal (not pneumatized) with similar body size is roughly the same, yet the bones of birds were found to be denser than the bones of mammals. This suggests that pneumatization of bird bones does not affect the overall mass but allows for a better balance of weight within the body to allow for greater balance, agility and ease of flight.

text: Though stem cells isolated from the muscle (satellite cells) have the ability to differentiate into myotubes when injected directly into the muscle of animals, they lack the ability to spread systemically throughout. To effectively deliver a therapeutic dose to an isolated muscle it would require direct injections to that muscle every 2mm. This problem was circumvented by using another multipotent stem cell, termed pericytes, that are located within the blood vessels of skeletal muscle. These cells have the ability to be delivered systemically and uptaken by crossing the vascular barrier. Once past the vasculature, pericytes have the ability to fuse and form myotubes. This means that they can be injected arterially, crossing through arterial walls into muscle, where they can differentiate into potentially functional muscle. These findings show potential for stem cell therapy of DMD. The pericyte-derived cells would be extracted, grown in culture, and then these cells would be injected into the blood stream where the possibility exists that they might find their way into injured regions of skeletal muscle.

text: Though

text: stem cells

text: isolated from the muscle (

text: satellite cell

text: s) have the ability to differentiate into myotubes when injected directly into the muscle of animals, they lack the ability to spread systemically throughout. To effectively deliver a therapeutic dose to an isolated muscle it would require direct injections to that muscle every 2mm. This problem was circumvented by using another multipotent stem cell, termed

text: pericyte

text: s, that are located within the blood vessels of skeletal muscle. These cells have the ability to be delivered systemically and uptaken by crossing the vascular barrier. Once past the vasculature, pericytes have the ability to fuse and form myotubes. This means that they can be injected arterially, crossing through arterial walls into muscle, where they can differentiate into potentially functional muscle. These findings show potential for stem cell therapy of DMD. The pericyte-derived cells would be extracted, grown in culture, and then these cells would be injected into the blood stream where the possibility exists that they might find their way into injured regions of skeletal muscle.

text: Skeletal muscles work as antagonistic pairs. Contracting one skeletal muscle requires the relaxation of the opposing muscle in the pair. Cramps can occur when muscles are unable to relax properly due to myosin fibers not fully detaching from actin filaments. In skeletal muscle, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) must attach to the myosin heads for them to disassociate from the actin and allow relaxation; the absence of ATP in sufficient quantities means that the myosin heads remains attached to actin. An attempt to force a muscle cramped in this way to extend (by contracting the opposing muscle) can tear muscle tissue and worsen the pain. The muscle must be allowed to recover (resynthesize ATP), before the myosin fibres can detach and allow the muscle to relax.

text: Skeletal muscles work as

text: antagonistic pairs

text: . Contracting one skeletal muscle requires the relaxation of the opposing muscle in the pair. Cramps can occur when muscles are unable to relax properly due to

text: myosin

text: fibers not fully detaching from

text: actin

text: filaments. In skeletal muscle,

text: adenosine triphosphate

text: (ATP) must attach to the myosin heads for them to disassociate from the actin and allow relaxation; the absence of ATP in sufficient quantities means that the myosin heads remains attached to actin. An attempt to force a muscle cramped in this way to extend (by contracting the opposing muscle) can tear muscle tissue and worsen the pain. The muscle must be allowed to recover (resynthesize ATP), before the myosin fibres can detach and allow the muscle to relax.

text: From the very beginning of the U.S. human space program, serious and reasonable concern has been expressed about exposure of humans to the microgravity of space due to the potential systemic effects on terrestrially-evolved life forms that are so suitably adapted to Earth gravity.  Humans in the microgravity environment of space, within our current space vehicles, are exposed to various mission-specific periods of skeletal muscle unloading (unweighting).  Unloading of skeletal muscle, both on Earth and during spaceflight, results in remodeling of muscle (atrophic response) as an adaptation to the reduced loads placed upon it.  As a result, decrements occur in skeletal muscle strength, fatigue resistance, motor performance, and connective tissue integrity.  In addition, there are cardiopulmonary and vascular changes, including a significant decrease in red blood cell mass, that affect skeletal muscle function.  This normal adaptive response to the microgravity environment is, for the most part, of little consequence within the space vehicle per se, but may become a liability resulting in increased risk of an inability or decreased efficiency in crewmember performance of physically demanding tasks during extravehicular activity (EVA) or abrupt transitions to environments of increased gravity (return to Earth, landing on the surface of another planetary body).

text: In the GPLed version of the source code, most of the code dealing with the MD4 skeletal animation files was missing. It is presumed that id simply never finished the format, although almost all licensees derived their own skeletal animation systems from what was present. Ritual Entertainment did this for use in the game, Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.², the SDK to which formed the basis of MD4 support completed by someone who used the pseudonym Gongo.

text: In the GPLed version of the source code, most of the code dealing with the MD4

text: skeletal animation

text: files was missing. It is presumed that id simply never finished the format, although almost all licensees derived their own skeletal animation systems from what was present.

text: Ritual Entertainment

text: did this for use in the game,

text: Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.²

text: , the

text: SDK

text: to which formed the basis of MD4 support completed by someone who used the

text: pseudonym

text: Gongo.

text: Calsequestrin is a calcium-binding protein of the sarcoplasmic reticulum.  The protein helps hold calcium in the cisterna of the sarcoplasmic reticulum after a muscle contraction, even though the concentration of calcium in the sarcoplasmic reticulum is much higher than in the cytosol. It also helps the sarcoplasmic reticulum store an extraordinarily high amount of calcium ions.  Each molecule of calsequestrin can bind 18 to 50 Ca ions. Sequence analysis has suggested that calcium is not bound in distinct pockets via EF-hand motifs, but rather via presentation of a charged protein surface. Two forms of calsequestrin have been identified. The cardiac form Calsequestrin-2 (CASQ2) is present in cardiac and slow skeletal muscle and the fast skeletal form Calsequestrin-1(CASQ1) is found in fast skeletal muscle. The release of calsequestrin-bound calcium (through a calcium release channel) triggers muscle contraction. The active protein is not highly structured, more than 50% of it adopting a random coil conformation. When calcium binds there is a structural change whereby the alpha-helical content of the protein increases from 3 to 11%. Both forms of calsequestrin are phosphorylated by casein kinase 2, but the cardiac form is phosphorylated more rapidly and to a higher degree. Calsequestrin is also secreted in the gut where it deprives bacteria of calcium ions..

text: Calsequestrin is a

text: calcium-binding protein

text: of the

text: sarcoplasmic reticulum

text: .  The protein helps hold calcium in the

text: cisterna

text: of the sarcoplasmic reticulum after a muscle contraction, even though the concentration of calcium in the sarcoplasmic reticulum is much higher than in the cytosol. It also helps the

text: sarcoplasmic reticulum

text: store an extraordinarily high amount of calcium ions.  Each molecule of calsequestrin can bind 18 to 50 Ca ions.

text: Sequence

text: analysis has suggested that calcium is not bound in distinct pockets via

text: EF-hand motifs

text: , but rather via presentation of a charged protein surface. Two forms of calsequestrin have been identified. The cardiac form Calsequestrin-2 (CASQ2) is present in cardiac and slow skeletal muscle and the fast skeletal form Calsequestrin-1(CASQ1) is found in fast skeletal muscle. The release of calsequestrin-bound calcium (through a calcium release channel) triggers

text: muscle contraction

text: . The active protein is not highly structured, more than 50% of it adopting a random coil conformation. When calcium binds there is a structural change whereby the

text: alpha-helical

text: content of the protein increases from 3 to 11%. Both forms of calsequestrin are

text: phosphorylated

text: by

text: casein kinase 2

text: , but the cardiac form is

text: phosphorylated

text: more rapidly and to a higher degree. Calsequestrin is also secreted in the gut where it deprives bacteria of calcium ions..

text: Given the limited resources of many developing nations, funding vitally effects how emergency medicine fits into the health system. Preventive care is a crucial part of healthcare in developing countries, and it may be difficult to budget for emergency medicine without cutting into those resources. This is a particular problem for poorer nations such as Zambia, which had a per capita health expenditure of 23 US dollars in 2003. Regardless of the amount of preventive care available, health problems requiring immediate attention will still occur, and emergency medical programs could increase access to care. Kobusingye et al. argue that expanding emergency medicine does not need to be unreasonably expensive, particularly if developing countries focus on low-cost but effective treatments administered by first responders.

text: Given the limited resources of many developing nations, funding vitally effects how emergency medicine fits into the health system.

text: Preventive care

text: is a crucial part of healthcare in developing countries, and it may be difficult to budget for emergency medicine without cutting into those resources. This is a particular problem for poorer nations such as Zambia, which had a per capita health expenditure of 23 US dollars in 2003. Regardless of the amount of preventive care available, health problems requiring immediate attention will still occur, and emergency medical programs could increase access to care. Kobusingye et al. argue that expanding emergency medicine does not need to be unreasonably expensive, particularly if developing countries focus on low-cost but effective treatments administered by

text: first responders

text: After the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) was passed as a federal law in 1990, efforts were made in the field of biological anthropology to provide better documentation of skeletal remains. The Smithsonian does not fall under NAGPRA, but falls under the National Museum of the American Indian Act (NMAIA). Prior to the passing of NAGPRA, the NMAIA was passed by the U.S. Congress in 1989. This act is similar to NAGPRA, in that it requires the repatriation of Native American skeletal remains and spiritually significant artifacts to the tribes to which they belong. Osteoware grew out of these efforts. After Buikstra and Ubelaker's Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains was published and began to be used by biological anthropologists as a field and data collection manual, the Smithsonian deemed it necessary to create a digital data entry system that was modeled after the work of these authors.

text: After the

entity_name: Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act

text: Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act

text: (NAGPRA) was passed as a federal law in 1990, efforts were made in the field of biological anthropology to provide better documentation of skeletal remains. The Smithsonian does not fall under NAGPRA, but falls under the

entity_name: National Museum of the American Indian Act

text: National Museum of the American Indian Act

text: (NMAIA). Prior to the passing of NAGPRA, the NMAIA was passed by the

text: U.S. Congress

text: in 1989. This act is similar to NAGPRA, in that it requires the repatriation of Native American skeletal remains and spiritually significant artifacts to the tribes to which they belong. Osteoware grew out of these efforts. After

text: Buikstra

text: and

text: Ubelaker

text: 's Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains was published and began to be used by biological anthropologists as a field and data collection manual, the Smithsonian deemed it necessary to create a digital data entry system that was modeled after the work of these authors.

text: Some fractures can lead to serious complications including a condition known as compartment syndrome. If not treated, compartment syndrome can eventually require amputation of the affected limb. Other complications may include non-union, where the fractured bone fails to heal or mal-union, where the fractured bone heals in a deformed manner.

text: Some fractures can lead to serious complications including a condition known as

text: compartment syndrome

text: . If not treated, compartment syndrome can eventually require

text: amputation

text: of the affected limb. Other complications may include non-union, where the fractured bone fails to heal or mal-union, where the fractured bone heals in a deformed manner.

text: DISA's Joint Interoperability Test Command (JITC) provides testing and joint certification for the net-centric systems employed by U.S. armed forces.

text: DePuy Orthopaedics designs, manufactures, markets and distributes products for reconstructing damaged or diseased joints and for repairing and reconstructing traumatic skeletal injuries.

text: DePuy Orthopaedics designs, manufactures, markets and distributes products for

text: reconstructing damaged or diseased joints

text: and for repairing and reconstructing traumatic skeletal injuries.

text: A tapered or scarfed finger joint is the most common joint used to form long pieces of lumber from solid boards; the result is finger-jointed lumber.

text: A tapered or scarfed finger joint is the most common joint used to form long pieces of lumber from solid boards; the result is finger-jointed

text: lumber

text: Bats rely on skin on their wings to generate lift and thrust used in flight. Therefore, the structure of the bat wing skin is different from the skin of the bat body. Bat wing skin consists of two thin layers of epidermis with a thin layer of dermis/hypodermis located between the epidermal layers whereas  the skin of the bat body consists of a single layer of epidermis with a thicker layer of dermis internal to the epidermis. Within the dermal and epidermal layer of bat wing skin, the connective tissue and muscle fibers provide the structural support. The connective tissue fibers within bat wing skin consists of collagen and elastin fiber bundles arranged in a "regular mesh like scaffolding", which the nerves, skeletal muscle fibers and blood vessels embed themselves into. Of the muscles that insert themselves into the mesh scaffolding, larger muscles anchor the skin to the bone and control the membrane tension and camber of the bat wing during flight, whereas smaller muscles, which originate from within the mesh scaffolding, attach to collagen fibers within the fiber network and modulate bone loading and allow for precise control of wing shape and tension. As seen in snakes, local structural differences within the arrangement of the fibers change the mechanical properties of local area, but there are general characteristics that describe the mechanical behavior of bat wing skin. Within the mesh scaffolding of bat wing skin, collagen fibers cross bones perpendicular to the long axes of the bones, therefore mechanical properties of bat wing  skin oriented perpendicular to the long axes of the bones exhibit a lower stiffness than the skin that is oriented parallel to the long axes of the bodies. Stiffer skin is necessary for bat wing skin oriented in the direction parallel to the long axes of the bones to prevent too much deformation of bat wing skin during flight(with respect to the bone), resulting in the shearing of the bat wing skin off of the bone. Flexible skin is necessary for the direction perpendicular to the long axes of the bones for facilitating the shape changes needed for movement and control during flight.  This anisotropy of bat wing skin is also useful as method of storing and releasing elastic energy, particularly during the downstroke. During the downstroke, the bat extends its wing  and the wing skin experiences an aerodynamic force. The wing skin expands and  counteracts the aerodynamic force. After the wing is fully extended, the orientation of the wing is nearly vertical and the aerodynamic forces on the wing are reduced. As the aerodynamic force is reduced, the wing recoils, drawing the digits of the wings together in preparation for the upstroke.

text: Bat

text: s rely on skin on their wings to generate

text: lift

text: and

text: thrust

text: used in flight. Therefore, the structure of the bat wing skin is different from the skin of the bat body. Bat wing skin consists of two thin layers of

text: epidermis

text: with a thin layer of

text: dermis

text: /hypodermis located between the epidermal layers whereas  the skin of the bat body consists of a single layer of epidermis with a thicker layer of dermis internal to the epidermis. Within the dermal and epidermal layer of bat wing skin, the connective tissue and muscle fibers provide the structural support. The connective tissue fibers within bat wing skin consists of collagen and elastin fiber bundles arranged in a "regular mesh like scaffolding", which the nerves, skeletal muscle fibers and blood vessels embed themselves into. Of the muscles that insert themselves into the mesh scaffolding, larger muscles anchor the skin to the bone and control the membrane tension and

text: camber

text: of the bat wing during flight, whereas smaller muscles, which originate from within the mesh scaffolding, attach to collagen fibers within the fiber network and modulate bone loading and allow for precise control of wing shape and tension. As seen in snakes, local structural differences within the arrangement of the fibers change the mechanical properties of local area, but there are general characteristics that describe the mechanical behavior of bat wing skin. Within the mesh scaffolding of bat wing skin, collagen fibers cross bones perpendicular to the long axes of the bones, therefore mechanical properties of bat wing  skin oriented perpendicular to the long axes of the bones exhibit a lower stiffness than the skin that is oriented parallel to the long axes of the bodies. Stiffer skin is necessary for bat wing skin oriented in the direction parallel to the long axes of the bones to prevent too much deformation of bat wing skin during flight(with respect to the bone), resulting in the shearing of the bat wing skin off of the bone. Flexible skin is necessary for the direction perpendicular to the long axes of the bones for facilitating the shape changes needed for movement and control during flight.  This

text: anisotropy

text: of bat wing skin is also useful as method of storing and releasing elastic energy, particularly during the downstroke. During the downstroke, the bat extends its wing  and the wing skin experiences an aerodynamic force. The wing skin expands and  counteracts the aerodynamic force. After the wing is fully extended, the orientation of the wing is nearly vertical and the aerodynamic forces on the wing are reduced. As the aerodynamic force is reduced, the wing recoils, drawing the digits of the wings together in preparation for the upstroke.

text: The arresting hypothesis underpinning the creation of the device is that factors foreign to the body as germs viruses are only secondary to the condition of the muscular and skeletal system of the body. The readings identified building of calcium and mineral deposits around the joints as a major factor for stress and illness.

text: In the detection of bone metastases, skeletal scintigraphy (bone scan) is very sensitive and is recommended as the first imaging study in asymptomatic individuals with suspected breast-cancer metastases. X-ray radiography is recommended if there is abnormal radionuclide uptake from the bone scan and in assessing the risk of pathological fractures, and is recommended as the initial imaging study in patients with bone pain. MRI or the combination PET-CT may be considered for cases of abnormal radionuclide uptake on bone scan, when radiography does not give an acceptably clear result.

text: In the detection of bone metastases,

text: skeletal scintigraphy

text: (bone scan) is very sensitive and is recommended as the first imaging study in asymptomatic individuals with suspected breast-cancer metastases. X-ray

text: radiography

text: is recommended if there is abnormal radionuclide uptake from the bone scan and in assessing the risk of

text: pathological fracture

text: s, and is recommended as the initial imaging study in patients with bone pain.

text: MRI

text: or the combination

text: PET-CT

text: may be considered for cases of abnormal radionuclide uptake on bone scan, when radiography does not give an acceptably clear result.

text: Fractures in rocks can be formed either due to compression or tension. Fractures due to compression include thrust faults. Fractures may also be a result from shear or tensile stress. Some of the primary mechanisms are discussed below.

text: Fractures in rocks can be formed either due to compression or tension. Fractures due to compression include

text: thrust fault

text: s. Fractures may also be a result from shear or tensile stress. Some of the primary mechanisms are discussed below.

text: The exact function of skeletal pneumaticity is not definitively known, but there are several working hypotheses concerning the role of skeletal pneumaticity in an organism.

text: In both Canada and the United States, access can be a problem. Studies suggest that 40% of U.S. citizens do not have adequate health insurance, if any at all. In Canada, 5% of Canadian citizens have not been able to find a regular doctor, with a further 9% having never looked for one.  Yet, even if some cannot find a family doctor, every Canadian citizen is covered by the national health care system.  The U.S. data is evidenced in a 2007 Consumer Reports study on the U.S. health care system which showed that the underinsured account for 24% of the U.S. population and live with skeletal health insurance that barely covers their medical needs and leaves them unprepared to pay for major medical expenses.  When added to the population of uninsured (approximately 16% of the U.S. population), a total of 40% of Americans ages 18–64 have inadequate access to healthcare, according to the Consumer Reports study. The Canadian data comes from the 2003 Canadian Community Health Survey,

text: The senior editor of this book and accompanying website on ExpertConsult  is Professor Susan Standring, who is Emeritus Professor of Anatomy at King's College London. The three most recent editions differ from all previous editions in an important respect: they present anatomical structures by their regional anatomy (i.e. ordered according to what part of the body the structures are located in – e.g. the anatomy of the bones, blood vessels and nerves, etc. of the upper extremity is described in one place). All previous editions of Gray's Anatomy were organized by systemic anatomy (i.e. there were separate sections for the body's entire skeletal system, entire circulatory system and entire nervous system, etc.). The editors of the 39th edition acknowledged the validity of both approaches but switched to regional anatomy by popular demand.

text: The senior editor of this book and accompanying website on ExpertConsult  is Professor

text: Susan Standring

text: , who is

text: Emeritus Professor

text: of Anatomy at

text: King's College London

text: . The three most recent editions differ from all previous editions in an important respect: they present anatomical structures by their

text: regional anatomy

text: (i.e. ordered according to what part of the body the structures are located in – e.g. the anatomy of the bones, blood vessels and nerves, etc. of the

text: upper extremity

text: is described in one place). All previous editions of Gray's Anatomy were organized by

text: systemic anatomy

text: (i.e. there were separate sections for the body's entire

text: skeletal system

text: , entire

text: circulatory system

text: and entire

text: nervous system

text: , etc.). The editors of the 39th edition acknowledged the validity of both approaches but switched to regional anatomy by popular demand.

text: Noggin function is required for correct nervous system, somite, and skeletal development. Experiments in mice have shown that noggin also plays a role in learning, cognition, bone development, and neural tube fusion. Heterozygous missense mutations in the noggin gene can cause deformities such as joint fusions and syndromes such as multiple synostosis syndrome (SYNS1) and proximal symphalangism (SIM1). SYNS1 is different from SYM1 by causing hip and vertebral fusions.  The embryo may also develop shorter bones, miss any skeletal elements, or lack multiple articulating joints.

text: Noggin function is required for correct nervous system, somite, and skeletal development. Experiments in mice have shown that noggin also plays a role in learning, cognition, bone development, and neural tube fusion. Heterozygous

text: missense mutation

text: s in the noggin gene can cause deformities such as joint fusions and syndromes such as multiple

text: synostosis

text: syndrome (SYNS1) and proximal symphalangism (SIM1). SYNS1 is different from SYM1 by causing hip and vertebral fusions.  The embryo may also develop shorter bones, miss any skeletal elements, or lack multiple articulating joints.

text: A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping fracturing fluid into a wellbore at a rate sufficient to increase pressure at the target depth (determined by the location of the well casing perforations), to exceed that of the fracture gradient (pressure gradient) of the rock. The fracture gradient is defined as pressure increase per unit of depth relative to density, and is usually measured in pounds per square inch, per square foot, or bars.  The rock cracks, and the fracture fluid permeates the rock extending the crack further, and further, and so on.  Fractures are localized as pressure drops off with the rate of frictional loss, which is relevant to the distance from the well.  Operators typically try to maintain "fracture width", or slow its decline following treatment, by introducing a proppant into the injected fluida material such as grains of sand, ceramic, or other particulate, thus preventing the fractures from closing when injection is stopped and pressure removed. Consideration of proppant strength and prevention of proppant failure becomes more important at greater depths where pressure and stresses on fractures are higher. The propped fracture is permeable enough to allow the flow of gas, oil, salt water and hydraulic fracturing fluids to the well.

text: A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping

text: fracturing fluid

text: into a wellbore at a rate sufficient to increase pressure at the target depth (determined by the location of the well casing perforations), to exceed that of the fracture gradient (pressure gradient) of the rock. The fracture gradient is defined as pressure increase per unit of depth relative to density, and is usually measured in pounds per square inch, per square foot, or bars.  The rock cracks, and the fracture fluid permeates the rock extending the crack further, and further, and so on.  Fractures are localized as pressure drops off with the rate of frictional loss, which is relevant to the distance from the well.  Operators typically try to maintain "fracture width", or slow its decline following treatment, by introducing a

text: proppant

text: into the injected fluida material such as grains of sand, ceramic, or other particulate, thus preventing the fractures from closing when injection is stopped and pressure removed. Consideration of proppant strength and prevention of proppant failure becomes more important at greater depths where pressure and stresses on fractures are higher. The propped fracture is permeable enough to allow the flow of gas, oil, salt water and hydraulic fracturing fluids to the well.

text: The gene for human IL-17 is 1874 base pairs long and was cloned from CD4+ T cells. Each member of the IL-17 family has a distinct pattern of cellular expression.  The expression of IL-17A and IL-17F appear to be restricted to a small group of activated T cells, and upregulated during inflammation. IL-17B is expressed in several peripheral tissues and immune tissues. IL-17C is also highly upregulated in inflammatory conditions, although in resting conditions is low in abundance.  IL-17D is highly expressed in the nervous system and in skeletal muscle and  IL-17E is found at low levels in various peripheral tissues.

text: The

text: gene

text: for human IL-17 is 1874

text: base pair

text: s long and was cloned from CD4+ T cells. Each member of the IL-17 family has a distinct pattern of cellular

text: expression

text: .  The expression of IL-17A and IL-17F appear to be restricted to a small group of activated

text: T cells

text: , and upregulated during

text: inflammation

text: . IL-17B is expressed in several peripheral tissues and immune tissues. IL-17C is also highly upregulated in

text: inflammatory

text: conditions, although in resting conditions is low in abundance.  IL-17D is highly expressed in the

text: nervous system

text: and in

text: skeletal muscle

text: and  IL-17E is found at low levels in various peripheral tissues.

text: The Gustilo open fracture classification system is the most commonly used classification system for open fractures.  It was created by Ramón Gustilo and Anderson, and then further expanded by Gustilo, Mendoza, and Williams.

text: The Gustilo open fracture classification system is the most commonly used classification system for

text: open fractures

text: .  It was created by Ramón Gustilo and Anderson, and then further expanded by Gustilo, Mendoza, and Williams.

text: FSTL1 has a role in development, such as lung development, ureter development, central nervous system development, and skeletal development.

text: HMB attenuates muscle protein breakdown in an insulin-independent manner in humans. HMB is believed to reduce muscle protein breakdown in humans by inhibiting the 19S and 20S subunits of the ubiquitin–proteasome system in skeletal muscle and by inhibiting apoptosis of skeletal muscle nuclei via unidentified mechanisms.

text: HMB attenuates muscle protein breakdown in an

text: insulin

text: -independent manner in humans. HMB is believed to reduce muscle protein breakdown in humans by inhibiting the

text: and

text: subunits of the

text: ubiquitin–proteasome system

text: in skeletal muscle and by inhibiting

text: apoptosis

text: of

text: skeletal muscle nuclei

text: via unidentified mechanisms.

text: In 1969, John Ostrom described Deinonychus antirrhopus, a theropod that he had discovered in Montana in 1964 and whose skeletal resemblance to birds seemed unmistakable. Ostrom became a leading proponent of the theory that birds are direct descendants of dinosaurs. Further comparisons of bird and dinosaur skeletons, as well as cladistic analysis strengthened the case for the link, particularly for a branch of theropods called maniraptors. Skeletal similarities include the neck, the pubis, the wrists (semi-lunate carpal), the 'arms' and pectoral girdle, the shoulder blade, the clavicle and the breast bone. In all, over a hundred distinct anatomical features are shared by birds and theropod dinosaurs.

text: In 1969,

text: John Ostrom

text: described

text: Deinonychus antirrhopus

text: , a

text: theropod

text: that he had discovered in Montana in 1964 and whose skeletal resemblance to birds seemed unmistakable. Ostrom became a leading proponent of the theory that birds are direct descendants of dinosaurs. Further comparisons of bird and dinosaur skeletons, as well as

text: cladistic analysis

text: strengthened the case for the link, particularly for a branch of theropods called

text: maniraptor

text: s. Skeletal similarities include the

text: neck

text: , the

text: pubis

text: , the

text: wrist

text: s (semi-lunate

text: carpal

text: ), the '

text: arm

text: s' and

text: pectoral girdle

text: , the

text: shoulder blade

text: , the

text: clavicle

text: and the

text: breast bone

text: . In all, over a hundred distinct anatomical features are shared by birds and theropod dinosaurs.

text: "In summary, physical inactivity and muscle disuse lead to loss of muscle mass and accumulation of visceral adipose tissue and consequently to the activation of a network of inflammatory pathways, which promote development of insulin resistance, atherosclerosis, neurodegeneration and tumour growth and, thereby, promote the development of a cluster of chronic diseases. By contrast, the finding that muscles produce and release myokines provides a molecular basis for understanding how physical activity could protect against premature mortality.... Given that muscle is the largest organ in the body, the identification of the muscle secretome could set a new agenda for the scientific community. To view skeletal muscle as a secretory organ provides a conceptual basis for understanding how muscles communicate with other organs such as adipose tissue, liver, pancreas, bone and brain. Physical inactivity or muscle disuse potentially leads to an altered or impaired myokine response and/or resistance to the effects of myokines, which explains why lack of physical activity increases the risk of a whole network of diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, T2DM (Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus), cancer and osteoporosis."

text: Fractures of the dens, not to be confused with Hangman's fractures, are classified into three categories according to the Anderson–D'Alonso system:

text: Fractures of the dens, not to be confused with

text: Hangman's fracture

text: s, are classified into three categories according to the Anderson–D'Alonso system:

text: In adult striated muscle cells, alpha-7 integrin (complexed to beta-1 integrin) is localized to Z-discs and costamere structures, bound to the four and one half LIM domain proteins, FHL1 and FHL2. It has been demonstrated that alpha-7 integrin can be mono-ADP-ribosylated on the cell surface in skeletal muscle cells; however, the functional significance of this modification has not been investigated.

text: In adult

text: striated muscle

text: cells, alpha-7 integrin (complexed to

text: beta-1 integrin

text: ) is localized to

text: Z-disc

text: s and

text: costamere

text: structures, bound to the four and one half

text: LIM domain

text: proteins,

text: and

text: . It has been demonstrated that alpha-7 integrin can be mono-ADP-ribosylated on the cell surface in

text: skeletal muscle

text: cells; however, the functional significance of this modification has not been investigated.

text: Growth disturbance: Children with JIA may have reduced overall rate of growth, especially if the disease involves many joints or other body systems.  Paradoxically, individually affected large joints (such as the knee) may grow faster, due to inflammation - induced, increased blood supply to the bone growth plates situated near the joints. This can result in leg length discrepancy, and also deformities such as genu valgum. Asymmetrical growth can also affect other bones e.g. discrepancy in digit length. There can be marked difference in bone age (skeletal maturation).

text: A fracture can involve any damage to the denture. Any type of repair to the denture is much less ideal then making a new one. The ratio of fracture to a denture is a 1:3 ratio of the upper to lower.

text: This section summarizes the studies that have been conducted on animal subjects (such as rodents and non-human primates) that have been exposed either to spaceflight or (in the case of rodents) to the well accepted ground-based analog of hind-limb suspension (HS) to ascertain the effects of unloading states on the properties of muscle mass, strength, and endurance. The results presented herein overwhelmingly corroborate the body of evidence that has been reported on human subjects in the preceding sections of this report. Importantly, through the use of more cellular and molecular analyses, greater insights have been obtained into the underlying mechanisms associated with these alterations in muscle structure and function. Since the majority of evidence concerning the effects of spaceflight on mammalian skeletal muscle has been derived from rodent studies, the information provided here is focused mostly on the rodent model. It is important to point out that the structure and function of rodent skeletal muscle are nearly identical to those of human skeletal muscle. For example, rodent muscle is composed of the same general fiber-type profile and is sensitive to the same environmental (mechanical, hormonal, metabolic) cues observed for human muscle. Thus, the information summarized below provides credence to the data base derived from human subjects. However, it is important to point out that one primary advantage of the rodent model is that adaptive changes that occur in both species unfold in a much shorter time frame in rodents than in humans (hours to days versus days to weeks), making it possible to predict long-term changes in human skeletal muscle based on the shorter absolute time frame of the studies performed on rodents. Another important consideration in the context of animal research during spaceflight is that one can perform a straightforward experiment in which there is no requirement to provide some type of countermeasure intervention as there is for humans, and can thereby avoid the introduction of a confounding variable in ascertaining the true effects of spaceflight on a wide range of physiological variables. Also, given the remarkable agreement in the quantitative and qualitative nature of the findings observed in the spaceflight studies versus those obtained from ground-based HS studies, we have chosen to combine and integrate significant portions of the data that have been gathered in the last 25 years. This rodent data base in space life sciences research includes 14 flight experiments with 8 sponsored by the Russian Cosmos Program and 6 sponsored by NASA Space Life Sciences (SLS) and Space Transportation System (STS) missions. These flight experiments are complemented by numerous ground-based research studies that focused collectively on the topics described below. Most importantly, all of the data reported in this summary are derived from animal cohorts in which the control animals were studied from a synchronous vivarium group of the same age, strain, and gender, and the analyses were performed at the same time as that of the experimental groups. The provided information is based entirely on peer-reviewed experiments as detailed in the bibliography provided.

text: During embryo development in mice, Cyr61 is highly expressed in the cardiovascular, skeletal, and neuronal systems. Cyr61 knockout mice are embryonic lethal due to defects in cardiac septal morphogenesis, deficient blood vessel formation in placenta, and compromised vascular integrity. In Xenopus laevis, Cyr61 is required for normal gastrulation and modulation of Wnt signaling.

text: During embryo development in mice, Cyr61 is highly expressed in the cardiovascular, skeletal, and neuronal systems. Cyr61

text: knockout mice

text: are embryonic lethal due to defects in cardiac septal morphogenesis, deficient blood vessel formation in placenta, and compromised vascular integrity. In

text: Xenopus laevis

text: , Cyr61 is required for normal

text: gastrulation

text: and modulation of

text: Wnt signaling

text: A forensic examination of the skeletal remains revealed injuries, including a broken ankle and a double fracture to the larynx, which indicated strangulation as the cause of death. At times, both Lady Shaftesbury and her brother admitted their involvement in the death of Lord Shaftesbury and the French authorities decided to charge both her and her brother with the crime of premeditated murder. Fearing that her Arab ancestry might alienate the jury, the defendant demanded to be referred to by the titles she had gained when she married Shaftesbury, much to the dismay of his family.

text: Despite the robustness of the individual skeletal modules complete skeletons of starfish, brittle stars and crinoids are rare in the fossil record. This is because they quickly disarticulate (disconnect from each other) once the encompassing skin rots away, and in the absence of tissue there is nothing to hold the plates together. The modular construction is a result of the growth system employed by echinoderms, which adds new segments at the centre of the radial limbs, pushing the existing plates outwards and lengthening the arms. Sea urchins on the other hand are often well preserved in chalk beds or limestone. During fossilization, the cavities in the stereom are filled in with calcite that is in crystalline continuity with the surrounding material. On fracturing such rock, distinctive cleavage patterns can be seen and sometimes even the intricate internal and external structure of the test.

text: Ligaments and tendons hold the skeletal system together.  Ligaments hold bones to bones and tendons hold bones to muscles.  Synovial membranes are found in joint capsules, where they contain synovial fluid, which lubricates joints.  Bones are covered by a tough membrane called periosteum, which covers the entire bone excluding areas of articulation.

text: Ligaments

text: and

text: tendons

text: hold the skeletal system together.  Ligaments hold bones to bones and tendons hold bones to muscles.

text: Synovial membranes

text: are found in joint capsules, where they contain

text: synovial fluid

text: , which lubricates joints.  Bones are covered by a tough membrane called periosteum, which covers the entire bone excluding areas of articulation.

text: Well-known modifications to Angle's classification date back to Martin Dewey (1915) and Benno Lischer (1912, 1933). Alternative systems have been suggested by, among others, Simon (1930, the first three-dimensional classification system), Jacob A. Salzmann (1950, with a classification system based on skeletal structures) and James L. Ackerman and William R. Proffit (1969).

text: Well-known modifications to Angle's classification date back to

text: Martin Dewey

text: (1915) and

text: Benno Lischer

text: (1912, 1933). Alternative systems have been suggested by, among others, Simon (1930, the first three-dimensional classification system),

text: Jacob A. Salzmann

text: (1950, with a classification system based on skeletal structures) and

text: James L. Ackerman

text: and

text: William R. Proffit

text: L-type calcium channels are also enriched in the t-tubules of striated muscle cells, i.e., skeletal and cardiac myofibers. When these cells are depolarized, the L-type calcium channels open as in smooth muscle. In skeletal muscle, the actual opening of the channel, which is mechanically gated to a calcium-release channel (a.k.a. ryanodine receptor, or RYR) in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), causes opening of the RYR. In cardiac muscle, opening of the L-type calcium channel permits influx of calcium into the cell. The calcium binds to the calcium release channels (RYRs) in the SR, opening them; this phenomenon is called "calcium-induced calcium release", or CICR. However the RYRs are opened, either through mechanical-gating or CICR, Ca is released from the SR and is able to bind to troponin C on the actin filaments. The muscles then contract through the sliding filament mechanism, causing shortening of sarcomeres and muscle contraction.

text: L-type calcium channels are also enriched in the

text: t-tubule

text: s of

text: striated muscle

text: cells, i.e., skeletal and cardiac

text: myofiber

text: s. When these cells are depolarized, the L-type calcium channels open as in smooth muscle. In skeletal muscle, the actual opening of the channel, which is mechanically gated to a

text: calcium-release channel

text: (a.k.a.

text: ryanodine receptor

text: , or RYR) in the

text: sarcoplasmic reticulum

text: (SR), causes opening of the RYR. In

text: cardiac muscle

text: , opening of the L-type calcium channel permits influx of calcium into the cell. The calcium binds to the calcium release channels (RYRs) in the SR, opening them; this phenomenon is called "

text: calcium-induced calcium release

text: ", or CICR. However the RYRs are opened, either through mechanical-gating or CICR, Ca is released from the SR and is able to bind to

text: troponin C

text: on the actin filaments. The muscles then contract through the sliding filament mechanism, causing shortening of

text: sarcomeres

text: and muscle contraction.

text: There may also be a myogenic cause to the fetal akinesia, meaning that fetal muscles do not develop properly due to a muscle disease (for example, a congenital muscular dystrophy). Similarly, connective tissue tendon and skeletal defects may contribute to the fetal akinesia and be the primary cause of amyoplasia. Additionally, malformations may occur in the central nervous system and/or spinal cord that can lead to a lack of fetal movement in utero. This neurogenic cause is often accompanied by a wide range of other conditions. Other causes of fetal akinesia may include a maternal fever during pregnancy or a virus.

text: There may also be a

text: myogenic

text: cause to the fetal akinesia, meaning that fetal muscles do not develop properly due to a muscle disease (for example, a congenital

text: muscular dystrophy

text: ). Similarly, connective tissue tendon and skeletal defects may contribute to the fetal akinesia and be the primary cause of amyoplasia. Additionally, malformations may occur in the central nervous system and/or spinal cord that can lead to a lack of fetal movement in utero. This

text: neurogenic

text: cause is often accompanied by a wide range of other conditions. Other causes of fetal akinesia may include a maternal fever during pregnancy or a virus.

text: Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with higher bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. "...Alcohol consumption significantly decreased the likelihood [of osteoporosis]." "Moderate alcohol intake was associated with higher BMD in postmenopausal elderly women." "Social drinking is associated with higher bone mineral density in men and women [over 45]." However, alcohol abuse is associated with bone loss.

text: Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with higher

text: bone mineral density

text: in postmenopausal women. "...Alcohol consumption significantly decreased the likelihood [of

text: osteoporosis

text: ]." "Moderate alcohol intake was associated with higher BMD in postmenopausal elderly women." "Social drinking is associated with higher bone mineral density in men and women [over 45]." However, alcohol abuse is associated with bone loss.

text: Human body shape is a complex phenomenon with sophisticated detail and function. The general shape or figure of a person is defined mainly by the molding of skeletal structures, as well as the distribution of muscles and fat. Skeletal structure grows and changes only up to the point at which a human reaches adulthood and remains essentially the same for the rest of his or her life. Growth is usually completed between the ages of 13 and 18, at which time the epiphyseal plates of long bones close, allowing no further growth (see Human skeleton).

text: Human body shape is a complex phenomenon with sophisticated detail and function. The general shape or figure of a person is defined mainly by the molding of skeletal structures, as well as the distribution of

text: muscle

text: s and fat. Skeletal structure grows and changes only up to the point at which a human reaches adulthood and remains essentially the same for the rest of his or her life. Growth is usually completed between the ages of 13 and 18, at which time the epiphyseal plates of long bones close, allowing no further growth (see

text: Human skeleton

text: In skeletal muscle, the influx of calcium through the L-type calcium channel on the T-tubule contributes little to excitation-contraction coupling, whereas it is crucial to the proper function of cardiac muscle (see Cardiac action potential). Conversely, the mechanical interaction between the T-tubule's L-type calcium channel and the calcium-release channel is critical to proper skeletal muscle contraction, whereas it contributes little to the contraction of cardiac muscle.

text: In

text: skeletal muscle

text: , the influx of calcium through the L-type calcium channel on the T-tubule contributes little to excitation-contraction coupling, whereas it is crucial to the proper function of

text: cardiac muscle

text: (see

text: Cardiac action potential

text: ). Conversely, the mechanical interaction between the T-tubule's L-type calcium channel and the calcium-release channel is critical to proper

text: skeletal muscle contraction

text: , whereas it contributes little to the contraction of cardiac muscle.

text: In the development of vertebrate animals, the functional matrix hypothesis is a phenomenological description of bone growth.  It proposes that "the origin, development and maintenance of all skeletal units are secondary, compensatory and mechanically obligatory responses to temporally and operationally prior demands of related functional matrices."

text: In the

text: development

text: of

text: vertebrate animals

text: , the functional matrix hypothesis is a phenomenological description of bone growth.  It proposes that "the origin, development and maintenance of all skeletal units are secondary, compensatory and mechanically obligatory responses to temporally and operationally prior demands of related functional matrices."

text: For example, during exercise such as running, the metabolic needs of the active leg skeletal muscles increase significantly. The muscle cells are in much more demand for nutrients such as oxygen. However, the body "reserves" as much blood as possible to the active tissues (in this case skeletal muscle). Therefore, during exercise more blood will flow to-and-from the muscle than it will in inactive tissue, such as the hand muscles.

text: For example, during exercise such as running, the

text: metabolic needs

text: of the active leg

text: skeletal muscle

text: s increase significantly. The

text: muscle cell

text: s are in much more demand for nutrients such as

text: oxygen

text: . However, the body "reserves" as much

text: blood

text: as possible to the active tissues (in this case skeletal muscle). Therefore, during exercise more blood will flow to-and-from the muscle than it will in inactive tissue, such as the hand muscles.

text: The long bones are those that are longer than they are wide. They are one of five types of bones: long, short, flat, irregular and sesamoid. Long bones, especially the femur and tibia, are subjected to most of the load during daily activities and they are crucial for skeletal mobility. They grow primarily by elongation of the diaphysis, with an epiphysis at each end of the growing bone. The ends of epiphyses are covered with hyaline cartilage ("articular cartilage").  The longitudinal growth of long bones is a result of endochondral ossification at the epiphyseal plate. Bone growth in length is stimulated by the production of growth hormone (GH), a secretion of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

text: The long bones are those that are longer than they are wide. They are one of five types of

text: bone

text: s: long,

text: short

text: flat

text: irregular

text: and

text: sesamoid

text: . Long bones, especially the

text: femur

text: and

text: tibia

text: , are subjected to most of the load during daily activities and they are crucial for skeletal mobility. They grow primarily by elongation of the

text: diaphysis

text: , with an

text: epiphysis

text: at each end of the growing

text: bone

text: . The ends of epiphyses are covered with

text: hyaline cartilage

text: ("articular cartilage").  The longitudinal growth of long bones is a result of

text: endochondral ossification

text: at the

text: epiphyseal plate

text: . Bone growth in length is stimulated by the production of

text: growth hormone

text: (GH), a secretion of the

text: anterior lobe of the pituitary gland

text: Loss of muscle mass with an imbalance of muscle power at the joint can lead to connective tissue abnormality. This leads to joint fixation and reduced fetal movement. Also muscle abnormalities could lead to a reduction of fetal movement.Those could be: dystrophy, myopathy and mitochondrial disorders. This is mostly the result of abnormal function of the dystrophin-glycoprotein-associated complex in the sarcolemma of skeletal muscles.

text: Loss of muscle mass with an imbalance of muscle power at the joint can lead to connective tissue abnormality. This leads to joint fixation and reduced fetal movement. Also muscle abnormalities could lead to a reduction of fetal movement.Those could be:

text: dystrophy

text: myopathy

text: and

text: mitochondrial

text: disorders. This is mostly the result of abnormal function of the

text: dystrophin

text: glycoprotein

text: -associated complex in the

text: sarcolemma

text: of skeletal muscles.

text: Creatine, synthesized in the liver and kidney, is transported through the blood and taken up by tissues with high energy demands, such as the brain and skeletal muscle, through an active transport system.  The concentration of ATP in skeletal muscle is usually 2-5 mM, which would result in a muscle contraction of only a few seconds.  Fortunately, during times of increased energy demands, the phosphagen (or ATP/PCr) system rapidly resynthesizes ATP from ADP with the use of phosphocreatine (PCr) through a reversible reaction with the enzyme creatine kinase (CK). In skeletal muscle, PCr concentrations may reach 20-35 mM or more.  Additionally, in most muscles, the ATP regeneration capacity of CK is very high and is therefore not a limiting factor. Although the cellular concentrations of ATP are small, changes are difficult to detect because ATP is continuously and efficiently replenished from the large pools of PCr and CK. Creatine has the ability to increase muscle stores of PCr, potentially increasing the muscle’s ability to resynthesize ATP from ADP to meet increased energy demands.

text: Creatine, synthesized in the liver and kidney, is transported through the blood and taken up by tissues with high energy demands, such as the brain and skeletal muscle, through an active transport system.  The concentration of

text: ATP

text: in skeletal muscle is usually 2-5 mM, which would result in a muscle contraction of only a few seconds.  Fortunately, during times of increased energy demands, the phosphagen (or ATP/PCr) system rapidly resynthesizes ATP from

text: ADP

text: with the use of

text: phosphocreatine

text: (PCr) through a reversible reaction with the enzyme

text: creatine kinase

text: (CK). In skeletal muscle, PCr concentrations may reach 20-35 mM or more.  Additionally, in most muscles, the ATP regeneration capacity of CK is very high and is therefore not a limiting factor. Although the cellular concentrations of ATP are small, changes are difficult to detect because ATP is continuously and efficiently replenished from the large pools of PCr and CK. Creatine has the ability to increase muscle stores of PCr, potentially increasing the muscle’s ability to resynthesize ATP from ADP to meet increased energy demands.

text: The individual parkways vary widely in composition. Some, such as the Sprain Brook Parkway, are functionally equivalent to a freeway; others, like Seven Lakes Drive, are a two-lane undivided surface road. The majority of parkways are located in downstate New York, where the state parkway system originated in the early 20th century.

text: The individual parkways vary widely in composition. Some, such as the

text: Sprain Brook Parkway

text: , are functionally equivalent to a

text: freeway

text: ; others, like

text: Seven Lakes Drive

text: , are a two-lane undivided surface road. The majority of parkways are located in

text: downstate New York

text: , where the state parkway system originated in the early 20th century.

text: The strengthening mechanisms observed vary depending on the material system, and there does not appear to be any general consensus regarding strengthening mechanisms, even within a given system. In the SiC/AlO system, for example, it is widely known and accepted that the addition of SiC particles to the AlO matrix results in a change of failure mechanism from intergranular (between grains) to intragranular (within grains) fracture. The explanations for improved strength include:

text: The undersized development of one side of a person’s face, demonstrates the influence of skeletal development upon the position of the external ear on the head, as caused by the deficient morphologic development of the temporal bone, and by the medial positioning of the temporomandibular joint, the synovial joint between the temporal bone and the mandible (upper jaw). Moreover, in severe cases of hemifacial microsomia, without the occurrence of microtia (small ears), the normal external ear might appear to have been sheared off the head, because the upper half of the pinna is projecting outwards, and, at the middle point, the lower half of the pinna is canted inwards, towards the hypoplastic, underdeveloped side of the face of the patient. A similar type of asymmetric development of the head and face features a relatively broad head, a narrow face, and a narrow mandible; when observed from the front perspective, the head and face of the person present a triangular configuration. Such wide-to-narrow skeletal sloping, from the head to the face, might create the bone promontory upon which rests and from which projects the upper anatomy of the pinna, which otherwise is an external ear of normal proportions, size, and contour.

text: The undersized development of one side of a person’s face, demonstrates the influence of skeletal development upon the position of the external ear on the head, as caused by the deficient morphologic development of the

text: temporal bone

text: , and by the medial positioning of the

text: temporomandibular joint

text: , the synovial joint between the

text: temporal bone

text: and the

text: mandible

text: (upper jaw). Moreover, in severe cases of hemifacial microsomia, without the occurrence of

text: microtia

text: (small ears), the normal external ear might appear to have been sheared off the head, because the upper half of the pinna is projecting outwards, and, at the middle point, the lower half of the pinna is canted inwards, towards the

text: hypoplastic

text: , underdeveloped side of the face of the patient. A similar type of asymmetric development of the head and face features a relatively broad head, a narrow face, and a narrow

text: mandible

text: ; when observed from the front perspective, the head and face of the person present a triangular configuration. Such wide-to-narrow skeletal sloping, from the head to the face, might create the bone promontory upon which rests and from which projects the upper anatomy of the pinna, which otherwise is an external ear of normal proportions, size, and contour.

text: Danis–Weber classification- Darrach's procedure- Darrah procedure- De Quervain syndrome- Denis Browne bar- Denis classification- Destot's sign- Diaphysis- Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis- Discectomy- Discoid meniscus- Dislocated shoulder- Dislocation of hip- Displacement (orthopedic surgery)- Distal radius fracture- Distraction osteogenesis- Drawer test- Dupuytren's contracture- Durkan's test- Duverney fracture- Dynamic compression plate- Dynamic hip screw- Dysplasia epiphysealis hemimelica

text: Danis–Weber classification

text: Darrach's procedure

text: Darrah procedure

text: De Quervain syndrome

text: Denis Browne bar

text: Denis classification

text: Destot's sign

text: Diaphysis

entity_name: Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis

text: Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis

text: Discectomy

text: Discoid meniscus

text: Dislocated shoulder

text: Dislocation of hip

text: Displacement (orthopedic surgery)

text: Distal radius fracture

text: Distraction osteogenesis

text: Drawer test

text: Dupuytren's contracture

text: Durkan's test

text: Duverney fracture

text: Dynamic compression plate

text: Dynamic hip screw

text: Dysplasia epiphysealis hemimelica

text: Aside from 5α-reductase, aromatase may inactivate testosterone signaling in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, so AAS that lack aromatase affinity, in addition to being free of the potential side effect of gynecomastia, might be expected to have a higher myotrophic-androgenic ratio in comparison. In addition, DHT is inactivated by high activity of 3α-HSD in skeletal muscle (and cardiac tissue), and AAS that lack affinity for 3α-HSD could similarly be expected to have a higher myotrophic-androgenic ratio (although perhaps also increased long-term cardiovascular risks).

text: Aside from 5α-reductase, aromatase may inactivate testosterone signaling in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, so AAS that lack aromatase affinity, in addition to being free of the potential side effect of

text: gynecomastia

text: , might be expected to have a higher myotrophic-androgenic ratio in comparison. In addition, DHT is inactivated by high activity of 3α-HSD in skeletal muscle (and cardiac tissue), and AAS that lack affinity for 3α-HSD could similarly be expected to have a higher myotrophic-androgenic ratio (although perhaps also increased long-term cardiovascular risks).

text: Skeletal muscle fibers are made when myoblasts fuse together; muscle fibers therefore are cells with multiple nuclei, known as myonuclei, with each cell nucleus originating from a single myoblast. The fusion of myoblasts is specific to skeletal muscle (e.g., biceps brachii) and not cardiac muscle or smooth muscle.

text: Skeletal muscle fibers

text: are made when myoblasts fuse together; muscle fibers therefore are cells with

text: multiple nuclei

text: , known as myonuclei, with each

text: cell nucleus

text: originating from a single myoblast. The fusion of myoblasts is specific to skeletal muscle (e.g.,

text: biceps brachii

text: ) and not

text: cardiac muscle

text: or

text: smooth muscle

text: There have been considerable amounts of research performed utilizing the skeletal remains within the Robert J. Terry collection. Much of this research has centered around attempts to create new methods of determining biological profile (height, age, sex, and ancestry) from an individual's skeletal remains. Some of the more prominent studies have included ones such as Trotter and Gleser's stature estimation from the long bones of American Whites and Negroes, Giles and Elliot's cranial measurements for determining ancestry and sex, Işcan's ancestry determination using the pelvis, DiBennardo and Taylor's method of sex and ancestry assessment utilizing the pelvis and femur, which was later expanded upon by Işcan and Cotton, who included the tibia in the analysis. Other, more modern, studies using the Terry Collection have continued to focus on estimation of sex, ancestry, and stature as well. These include the attempt to estimate sex from the posterior portion of the ilium by Novak, Schultz, and McIntyre, Kindschuh, Dupras, and Cowgill's approach for estimating ancestry utilizing the hyoid, and Albanese's use of the clavicle, humerus, radius, and ulna to estimate sex.

text: The date of the domestication of the horse depends to some degree upon the definition of "domestication". Some zoologists define "domestication" as human control over breeding, which can be detected in ancient skeletal samples by changes in the size and variability of ancient horse populations. Other researchers look at broader evidence, including skeletal and dental evidence of working activity; weapons, art, and spiritual artifacts; and lifestyle patterns of human cultures. There is also evidence that horses were kept as meat animals prior to being trained as working animals.

text: The date of the domestication of the horse depends to some degree upon the definition of "domestication". Some zoologists define "domestication" as human control over breeding, which can be detected in ancient skeletal samples by changes in the size and variability of ancient horse populations. Other researchers look at broader evidence, including skeletal and dental evidence of working activity; weapons, art, and spiritual artifacts; and lifestyle patterns of human cultures. There is also evidence that horses were kept as meat animals prior to being trained as

text: working animal

text: s.

text: Sacralization of the fifth lumbar vertebra- Salter–Harris fracture- Sanders classification- Sarcoma- Scaphoid fracture- Scapular fracture- Schenck classification- Scheuermann's disease- Schmorl's nodes- Schober's test- Schwartz–Jampel syndrome- Scoliosis- Seddon classification- Segond fracture- Seidel nail- Seinsheimer classification- Separated shoulder- Sequestrum- Sesamoid bone- Sesamoiditis- Sever's disease- Shenton's Line- Shepherd's fracture- Shin splints- Short bone- Shoulder examination- Shoulder fracture- Shoulder replacement- Shoulder surgery- Silver–Russell syndrome- Simmonds' test- Skeletal fluorosis- SLAP tear- Slipped capital femoral epiphysis- Slipped Upper Femoral Epiphysis- Smith Peterson nail- Smith-Petersen anterior approach to the hip- Smith's fracture- Soft tissue injury- Southwick angle- Speed's test- Spina bifida occulta- Spinal curvature- Spinal fracture- Spinal fusion- Spiral fracture- Splint (medicine)- Spondylolisthesis- Sports injury- Sprained ankle- Sprengel's deformity- Steinmann pin- Stener lesion- Sternal fracture- Stieda fracture- Straight leg raise- Stress fracture- Subacromial bursitis- Sudeck's atrophy- Sulcoplasty- Supracondylar fracture- Swan neck deformity- Swanson prosthesis- Swanson's Arthroplasty- Symphysis- Synchondrosis- Syndactyly- Syndesmosis- Synovectomy- Synovial fluid- Synovial joint

text: Sacralization of the fifth lumbar vertebra

text: Salter–Harris fracture

text: Sanders classification

text: Sarcoma

text: Scaphoid fracture

text: Scapular fracture

text: Schenck classification

text: Scheuermann's disease

text: Schmorl's nodes

text: Schober's test

text: Schwartz–Jampel syndrome

text: Scoliosis

text: Seddon classification

text: Segond fracture

text: Seidel nail

text: Seinsheimer classification

text: Separated shoulder

text: Sequestrum

text: Sesamoid bone

text: Sesamoiditis

text: Sever's disease

text: Shenton's Line

text: Shepherd's fracture

text: Shin splints

text: Short bone

text: Shoulder examination

text: Shoulder fracture

text: Shoulder replacement

text: Shoulder surgery

text: Silver–Russell syndrome

text: Simmonds' test

text: Skeletal fluorosis

text: SLAP tear

text: Slipped capital femoral epiphysis

text: Slipped Upper Femoral Epiphysis

text: Smith Peterson nail

text: Smith-Petersen anterior approach to the hip

text: Smith's fracture

text: Soft tissue injury

text: Southwick angle

text: Speed's test

text: Spina bifida occulta

text: Spinal curvature

text: Spinal fracture

text: Spinal fusion

text: Spiral fracture

text: Splint (medicine)

text: Spondylolisthesis

text: Sports injury

text: Sprained ankle

text: Sprengel's deformity

text: Steinmann pin

text: Stener lesion

text: Sternal fracture

text: Stieda fracture

text: Straight leg raise

text: Stress fracture

text: Subacromial bursitis

text: Sudeck's atrophy

text: Sulcoplasty

text: Supracondylar fracture

text: Swan neck deformity

text: Swanson prosthesis

text: Swanson's Arthroplasty

text: Symphysis

text: Synchondrosis

text: Syndactyly

text: Syndesmosis

text: Synovectomy

text: Synovial fluid

text: Synovial joint

text: Atrophy is a decrease in cell size. If enough cells in an organ atrophy the entire organ will decrease in size. Thymus atrophy during early human development (childhood) is an example of physiologic atrophy. Skeletal muscle atrophy is a common pathologic adaptation to skeletal muscle disuse (commonly called "disuse atrophy). Tissue and organs especially susceptible to atrophy include skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, secondary sex organs, and the brain.

text: Atrophy is a decrease in cell size. If enough cells in an organ atrophy the entire organ will decrease in size.

text: Thymus

text: atrophy during early

text: human development

text: (childhood) is an example of physiologic atrophy.

text: Skeletal muscle

text: atrophy is a common pathologic adaptation to skeletal muscle disuse (commonly called "disuse atrophy). Tissue and organs especially susceptible to atrophy include skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle,

text: secondary

text: sex organ

text: s, and the

text: brain

text: In human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as 1) the carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the hand; (2) the wrist joint or radiocarpal joint, the joint between the radius and the carpus; and(3) the anatomical region surrounding the carpus including the distal parts of the bones of the forearm and the proximal parts of the metacarpus or five metacarpal bones and the series of joints between these bones, thus referred to as wrist joints.  This region also includes the carpal tunnel, the anatomical snuff box, the flexor retinaculum, and the extensor retinaculum.

text: In

text: human anatomy

text: , the wrist is variously defined as 1) the

text: carpus

text: or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the hand; (2) the wrist joint or radiocarpal joint, the joint between the

text: radius

text: and the carpus; and(3) the anatomical region surrounding the carpus including the distal parts of the bones of the forearm and the proximal parts of the

text: metacarpus

text: or five metacarpal bones and the series of joints between these bones, thus referred to as wrist joints.  This region also includes the

text: carpal tunnel

text: , the

text: anatomical snuff box

text: , the

text: flexor retinaculum

text: , and the

text: extensor retinaculum

text: Targeted disruption of the related gene in mice led to severe osteopetrosis and a lack of osteoclasts. Deficient mice, with an inactivation of RANKL or its receptor RANK, exhibited defects in early differentiation of T and B lymphocytes, and failed to form lobulo-alveolar mammary structures during pregnancy.It was observed that during pregnancy, RANK-RANKL signaling played a critical role in  regulating skeletal calcium release; in which contributed to the hormone response that stimulated proliferation in the mammary cells. Ultimately, impaired lobuloalveolar mammary structures resulted in death of the fetus. Those who suffer from osteoporosis often have a cardiovascular defect, such as heart failure. Some studies suggest, since RANK-RANKL pathway regulates calcium release and homeostasis, RANK-RANKL signal could invertedly affect the cardiovascular system; thus, an explanation for the positive correlation between osteoporosis and cardiovascular deficiencies.

text: Targeted disruption of the related gene in mice led to severe

text: osteopetrosis

text: and a lack of osteoclasts. Deficient mice, with an inactivation of RANKL or its receptor RANK, exhibited defects in early differentiation of T and B lymphocytes, and failed to form

text: lobulo-alveolar mammary structures

text: during pregnancy.It was observed that during pregnancy, RANK-RANKL signaling played a critical role in  regulating skeletal calcium release; in which contributed to the hormone response that stimulated proliferation in the mammary cells. Ultimately, impaired lobuloalveolar mammary structures resulted in death of the fetus. Those who suffer from osteoporosis often have a cardiovascular defect, such as heart failure. Some studies suggest, since RANK-RANKL pathway regulates calcium release and homeostasis, RANK-RANKL signal could invertedly affect the cardiovascular system; thus, an explanation for the positive correlation between osteoporosis and cardiovascular deficiencies.

text: Bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebral skeleton. Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals and also enable mobility.  Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have a complex internal and external structure. They are lightweight yet strong and hard, and serve multiple functions. Mineralized osseous tissue or bone tissue, is of two types – cortical and cancellous and gives it rigidity and a coral-like three-dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue found in bones include marrow, endosteum, periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and cartilage.

text: Bone is a

text: rigid

text: organ

text: that constitutes part of the

text: vertebral

text: skeleton

text: . Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce

text: red

text: and

text: white blood cell

text: s, store

text: mineral

text: s and also enable mobility.

text: Bone tissue

text: is a type of dense

text: connective tissue

text: . Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have a complex internal and external

text: structure

text: . They are lightweight yet strong and hard, and serve multiple

text: functions

text: Mineralized

text: osseous tissue

text: or bone tissue, is of two types –

text: cortical

text: and

text: cancellous

text: and gives it rigidity and a

text: coral

text: -like three-dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue found in bones include

text: marrow

text: endosteum

text: periosteum

text: nerve

text: s,

text: blood vessel

text: s and

text: cartilage

text: Cartilage differentiates from the condensations, giving rise to the skeletal primordia.  In most tetrapod limb skeletons (though not in some amphibians), the cartilage skeleton is replaced by bone later in development.

text: Cartilage

text: differentiates from the condensations, giving rise to the skeletal primordia.  In most tetrapod limb skeletons (though not in some amphibians), the cartilage skeleton is replaced by bone later in development.

text: mGRs have been implicated in the rapid effects of glucocorticoids in the early central stress response via modulating neuronal activity in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex, among other areas. In accordance, glucocorticoids are known to affect cognition, stress-adaptive behavior, and neuroendocrine output (e.g., suppression of oxytocin and vasopressin secretion) within minutes. mGRs appear to be partially involved in the anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressant effects of glucocorticoids. mGRs are present in and appear to regulate many major bodily systems and organs, including the cardiovascular, immune, endocrine, and nervous systems, smooth and skeletal muscle, the liver, and fat tissue. mGRs appear to cooperate with, complement, and synergize with classical nuclear GRs in various ways.

text: mGRs have been implicated in the rapid effects of glucocorticoids in the early

text: central

text: stress response

text: via modulating

text: neuronal activity

text: in the

text: hypothalamus

text: hippocampus

text: amygdala

text: , and

text: prefrontal cortex

text: , among other areas. In accordance, glucocorticoids are known to affect

text: cognition

text: stress-adaptive behavior

text: , and

text: neuroendocrine

text: output (e.g., suppression of

text: oxytocin

text: and

text: vasopressin

text: secretion

text: ) within minutes. mGRs appear to be partially involved in the

text: anti-inflammatory

text: and

text: immunosuppressant

text: effects of glucocorticoids. mGRs are present in and appear to regulate many major bodily systems and organs, including the

text: cardiovascular

text: immune

text: endocrine

text: , and

text: nervous system

text: s,

text: smooth

text: and

text: skeletal muscle

text: , the

text: liver

text: , and

text: fat tissue

text: . mGRs appear to cooperate with, complement, and synergize with classical nuclear GRs in various ways.

text: As an example, Bayesian network methods attempt to decompose a joint distribution along its causal fault lines, thus "cutting nature at its seams". The essential motivation behind these methods is again that within most systems (natural or artificial), relatively few components/events interact with one another directly on equal footing . Rather, one observes pockets of dense connections (direct interactions) among small subsets of components, but only loose connections between these densely connected subsets. There is thus a notion of "causal proximity" in physical systems under which variables naturally precipitate into small clusters. Identifying these clusters and using them to represent the joint provides the basis for great efficiency of storage (relative to the full joint distribution) as well as for potent inference algorithms.

text: As an example,

text: Bayesian network

text: methods attempt to decompose a joint distribution along its causal fault lines, thus "cutting nature at its seams". The essential motivation behind these methods is again that within most systems (natural or artificial), relatively few components/events interact with one another directly on equal footing . Rather, one observes pockets of dense connections (direct interactions) among small subsets of components, but only loose connections between these densely connected subsets. There is thus a notion of "causal proximity" in physical systems under which variables naturally precipitate into small clusters. Identifying these clusters and using them to represent the joint provides the basis for great efficiency of storage (relative to the full joint distribution) as well as for potent inference algorithms.

text: Neuro Biomechanics is based upon the research of bioengineering researchers, neuro-surgery, orthopedic surgery and biomechanists. Neuro Biomechanics are utilized by neurosurgeons, orthopedic surgeons and primarily by integrated physical medicine practitioners. Practitioners are focused on aiding people in the restoration of biomechanics of the skeletal system in order to measurably improve nervous system function, health, function, quality of life, reduce pain and the progression of degenerative joint and disc disease.

text: Neuro Biomechanics is based upon the research of

text: bioengineering

text: researchers, neuro-surgery, orthopedic surgery and biomechanists. Neuro Biomechanics are utilized by neurosurgeons, orthopedic surgeons and primarily by integrated physical medicine practitioners. Practitioners are focused on aiding people in the restoration of biomechanics of the skeletal system in order to measurably improve nervous system function, health, function, quality of life, reduce pain and the progression of degenerative joint and disc disease.

text: Skeletal Biology and Population Size

text: Skeletal Biology and Population Size

text: All three dietary monosaccharides are transported into the liver by the GLUT2 transporter. Fructose and galactose are phosphorylated in the liver by fructokinase (K= 0.5 mM) and galactokinase (K = 0.8 mM). By contrast, glucose tends to pass through the liver (K of hepatic glucokinase = 10 mM) and can be metabolised anywhere in the body. Uptake of fructose by the liver is not regulated by insulin. However, insulin is capable of increasing the abundance and functional activity of GLUT5 in skeletal muscle cells.

text: All three dietary monosaccharides are transported into the liver by the GLUT2 transporter. Fructose and

text: galactose

text: are

text: phosphorylated

text: in the liver by

text: fructokinase

text: (K= 0.5 mM) and galactokinase (K = 0.8 mM). By contrast, glucose tends to pass through the liver (K of hepatic glucokinase = 10 mM) and can be metabolised anywhere in the body. Uptake of fructose by the liver is not regulated by insulin. However, insulin is capable of increasing the abundance and functional activity of GLUT5 in skeletal muscle cells.

text: Kinect was first announced on June 1, 2009 at E3 2009 under the code name "Project Natal". Three demos were shown to showcase Kinect when it was revealed at Microsoft's E3 2009 Media Briefing: Ricochet, Paint Party and Milo & Kate. A demo based on Burnout Paradise was also shown outside of Microsoft's media briefing. The skeletal mapping technology shown at E3 2009 was capable of simultaneously tracking four people, with a feature extraction of 48 skeletal points on a human body at 30 Hz.

text: Kinect was first announced on June 1, 2009 at

text: E3 2009

text: under the code name "Project Natal". Three demos were shown to showcase Kinect when it was revealed at Microsoft's E3 2009 Media Briefing: Ricochet, Paint Party and

text: Milo & Kate

text: . A demo based on

text: Burnout Paradise

text: was also shown outside of Microsoft's media briefing. The skeletal mapping technology shown at E3 2009 was capable of simultaneously tracking four people, with a feature extraction of 48

text: skeletal

text: points on a human body at 30 Hz.

text: The main tool used by this approach is risk assessment. A risk assessment method, based on experimenting and assessing risk ex-post, once the technology is in place. In the context of hydraulic fracturing, it means that drilling permits are issued and exploitation conducted before the potential risks on the environment and human health are known. The risk-based approach mainly relies on a discourse that sacralizes technological innovations as an intrinsic good, and the analysis of such innovations, such as hydraulic fracturing, is made on a sole cost-benefit framework, which does not allow prevention or ex-ante debates on the use of the technology. This is also referred to as "learning-by-doing". A risk assessment method has for instance led to regulations that exist in the hydraulic fracturing in the United States (EPA will release its study on the effect of hydraulic fracturing on groundwater in 2014, though hydraulic fracturing has been used for more than 60 years.  Commissions that have been implemented in the US to regulate the use of hydraulic fracturing have been created after hydraulic fracturing had started in their area of regulation. This is for instance the case in the Marcellus shale area where three regulatory committees were implemented ex-post.

text: The main tool used by this approach is risk assessment. A

text: risk assessment

text: method, based on experimenting and assessing risk ex-post, once the technology is in place. In the context of hydraulic fracturing, it means that drilling permits are issued and exploitation conducted before the potential risks on the environment and human health are known. The risk-based approach mainly relies on a discourse that sacralizes

text: technological innovations

text: as an intrinsic good, and the analysis of such innovations, such as hydraulic fracturing, is made on a sole

text: cost-benefit

text: framework, which does not allow

text: prevention

text: or ex-ante debates on the use of the technology. This is also referred to as "learning-by-doing". A

text: risk assessment

text: method has for instance led to regulations that exist in the hydraulic fracturing in the United States (EPA will release its study on the effect of hydraulic fracturing on groundwater in 2014, though hydraulic fracturing has been used for more than 60 years.  Commissions that have been implemented in the US to regulate the use of hydraulic fracturing have been created after hydraulic fracturing had started in their area of regulation. This is for instance the case in the Marcellus shale area where three regulatory committees were implemented ex-post.

text: Evidence from the skeletal remains shows that the majority of joints were affected by eburnation, including the jaw, ankles, wrists, and elbows, in addition to the hips and knees. There are a few ways for eburnation to occur: the continual movement of those joints, ingestion of a specific fungus that consumes cartilage or a combination of the two. The presence of bone in the joints is another way in which osteoarthritis presents itself. In the case of the Stillwater Marsh people, it seems more likely that continual movement of the joints, making bone come through the tissue layers, is the cause of their osteoarthritis.

text: Evidence from the skeletal remains shows that the majority of joints were affected by

text: eburnation

text: , including the jaw, ankles, wrists, and elbows, in addition to the hips and knees. There are a few ways for

text: eburnation

text: to occur: the continual movement of those joints, ingestion of a specific fungus that consumes cartilage or a combination of the two. The presence of bone in the joints is another way in which

text: osteoarthritis

text: presents itself. In the case of the Stillwater Marsh people, it seems more likely that continual movement of the joints, making bone come through the tissue layers, is the cause of their

text: osteoarthritis

text: - Skeletal Muscle and Bone: sarcopenia and osteoporosis

text: Several studies have indicated that toward the end of the laying phase (approximately 72 weeks of age), a combination of high calcium demand for egg production and a lack of exercise can lead to osteoporosis.  This can occur in all housing systems for egg laying hens, but is particularly prevalent in battery cage systems where it has sometimes been called 'cage layer osteoporosis'.  Osteoporosis leads to the skeleton becoming fragile and an increased risk of bone breakage, particularly in the legs and keel bone.  Fractures may occur whilst the hens are in the cage and these are usually discovered at depopulation as old, healed breaks, or they might be fresh breaks which occurred during the process of depopulation.  One study showed that 24.6% of hens from battery cages had recent keel fractures whereas hens in furnished cages, barn and free-range had 3.6%, 1.2% and 1.3% respectively. However, hens from battery cages experienced fewer old breaks (17.7%) compared to hens in  barn (69.1%), free-range (59.8%) and furnished cages (31.7%).

text: Several studies have indicated that toward the end of the laying phase (approximately 72 weeks of age), a combination of high calcium demand for egg production and a lack of exercise can lead to

text: osteoporosis

text: .  This can occur in all housing systems for egg laying hens, but is particularly prevalent in battery cage systems where it has sometimes been called 'cage layer osteoporosis'.  Osteoporosis leads to the skeleton becoming fragile and an increased risk of bone breakage, particularly in the legs and

text: keel

text: bone.  Fractures may occur whilst the hens are in the cage and these are usually discovered at depopulation as old, healed breaks, or they might be fresh breaks which occurred during the process of depopulation.  One study showed that 24.6% of hens from battery cages had recent keel fractures whereas hens in furnished cages, barn and

text: free-range

text: had 3.6%, 1.2% and 1.3% respectively. However, hens from battery cages experienced fewer old breaks (17.7%) compared to hens in  barn (69.1%), free-range (59.8%) and furnished cages (31.7%).

text: Clyde learns About First Aid, Clyde Frog learns first aid for bleeding and sprained ankles while reading about one of his ancestors.

text: CLCN1 is critical for the normal function of skeletal muscle cells. For the body to move normally, skeletal muscles must tense (contract) and relax in a coordinated way. Muscle contraction and relaxation are controlled by the flow of ions into and out of muscle cells. CLCN1 forms an ion channel that controls the flow of negatively charged chloride ions into these cells. The main function of this channel is to stabilize the cells' electrical charge, enabling muscles to contract normally.

text: CLCN1 is critical for the normal function of skeletal muscle cells. For the body to move normally, skeletal muscles must tense (contract) and relax in a coordinated way. Muscle contraction and relaxation are controlled by the flow of

text: ions

text: into and out of muscle cells. CLCN1 forms an

text: ion channel

text: that controls the flow of negatively charged chloride ions into these cells. The main function of this channel is to stabilize the cells' electrical charge, enabling muscles to contract normally.

text: A fracture is any separation in a geologic formation, such as a joint or a fault that divides the rock into two or more pieces.  A fracture will sometimes form a deep fissure or crevice in the rock.  Fractures are commonly caused by stress exceeding the rock strength, causing the rock to lose cohesion along its weakest plane. Fractures can provide permeability for fluid movement, such as water or hydrocarbons. Highly fractured rocks can make good aquifers or hydrocarbon reservoirs, since they may possess both significant permeability and fracture porosity.

text: A fracture is any separation in a

text: geologic formation

text: , such as a

text: joint

text: or a

text: fault

text: that divides the

text: rock

text: into two or more pieces.  A fracture will sometimes form a deep fissure or crevice in the rock.  Fractures are commonly caused by

text: stress

text: exceeding the rock strength, causing the rock to lose cohesion along its weakest plane. Fractures can provide

text: permeability

text: for

text: fluid

text: movement, such as

text: water

text: or

text: hydrocarbon

text: s. Highly fractured rocks can make good

text: aquifer

text: s or

text: hydrocarbon reservoirs

text: , since they may possess both significant

text: permeability

text: and fracture

text: porosity

text: The most common type of ankle sprain occurs when the foot is inverted too much, affecting the lateral side of the foot. When this type of ankle sprain happens, the outer, or lateral, ligaments are stretched too much. The anterior talofibular ligament is one of the most commonly involved ligaments in this type of sprain. Approximately 70-85% of ankle sprains are inversion injuries.

text: The most common type of ankle sprain occurs when the foot is inverted too much, affecting the lateral side of the foot. When this type of ankle sprain happens, the outer, or lateral, ligaments are stretched too much. The

text: anterior talofibular ligament

text: is one of the most commonly involved ligaments in this type of sprain. Approximately 70-85% of ankle sprains are inversion injuries.

text: The skeletal system serves many important functions; it provides the shape and form for the body, support and protection, allows bodily movement, produces blood for the body, and stores minerals. The number of bones in the human skeletal system is a controversial topic. Humans are born with over 300 bones; however, many bones fuse together between birth and maturity. As a result, an average adult skeleton consists of 206 bones. The number of bones varies according to the method used to derive the count. While some consider certain structures to be a single bone with multiple parts, others may see it as a single part with multiple bones. There are five general classifications of bones. These are long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, and sesamoid bones. The human skeleton is composed of both fused and individual bones supported by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It is a complex structure with two distinct divisions; the axial skeleton, which includes the vertebral column, and the appendicular skeleton.

text: The skeletal system serves many important functions; it provides the shape and form for the body, support and protection, allows bodily movement, produces

text: blood

text: for the body, and stores minerals. The number of bones in the human skeletal system is a controversial topic. Humans are born with over 300 bones; however, many bones fuse together between birth and maturity. As a result, an average adult

text: skeleton

text: consists of 206 bones. The number of bones varies according to the method used to derive the count. While some consider certain structures to be a single bone with multiple parts, others may see it as a single part with multiple bones. There are five general classifications of bones. These are

text: long bones

text: short bones

text: flat bones

text: irregular bones

text: , and

text: sesamoid bones

text: . The human skeleton is composed of both fused and individual bones supported by

text: ligaments

text: tendons

text: muscles

text: and

text: cartilage

text: . It is a complex structure with two distinct divisions; the

text: axial skeleton

text: , which includes the

text: vertebral column

text: , and the

text: appendicular skeleton

text: The two hip bones join at the pubic symphysis and together with the sacrum and coccyx (the pelvic part of the spine) comprise the skeletal component of the pelvis – the pelvic girdle which surrounds the pelvic cavity. They are connected to the sacrum, which is part of the axial skeleton, at the sacroiliac joint. Each hip bone is connected to the corresponding femur (thigh bone) (forming the primary connection between the bones of the lower limb and the axial skeleton) through the large ball and socket joint of the hip.

text: The two hip bones join at the

text: pubic symphysis

text: and together with the

text: sacrum

text: and

text: coccyx

text: (the pelvic part of the

text: spine

text: ) comprise the

text: skeletal

text: component of the

text: pelvis

text: – the

text: pelvic girdle

text: which surrounds the

text: pelvic cavity

text: . They are connected to the sacrum, which is part of the

text: axial skeleton

text: , at the

text: sacroiliac joint

text: . Each hip bone is connected to the corresponding

text: femur

text: (thigh bone) (forming the primary connection between the bones of the

text: lower limb

text: and the axial skeleton) through the large

text: ball and socket joint

text: of the

text: hip

text: Joint recurrence plots are the Hadamard product of the recurrence plots of the considered sub-systems (Romano et al. 2004), e.g. for two systems

text: Joint recurrence plots are the

text: Hadamard product

text: of the recurrence plots of the considered sub-systems (Romano et al. 2004), e.g. for two systems

text: One useful definition distinguishes reefs from mounds as follows.  Both are considered to be varieties of organosedimentary buildups: sedimentary features, built by the interaction of organisms and their environment, that have synoptic relief and whose biotic composition differs from that found on and beneath the surrounding sea floor. Reefs are held up by a macroscopic skeletal framework.  Coral reefs are an excellent example of this kind. Corals and calcareous algae grow on top of one another and form a three-dimensional framework that is modified in various ways by other organisms and inorganic processes.  By contrast, mounds lack a macroscopic skeletal framework.  Mounds are built by microorganisms or by organisms that don't grow a skeletal framework.  A microbial mound might be built exclusively or primarily by cyanobacteria.  Excellent examples of biostromes formed by cyanobacteria occur in the Great Salt Lake of Utah (USA), and in Shark Bay, Western Australia.

text: One useful definition distinguishes reefs from mounds as follows.  Both are considered to be varieties of organosedimentary buildups: sedimentary features, built by the interaction of organisms and their environment, that have synoptic relief and whose biotic composition differs from that found on and beneath the surrounding sea floor. Reefs are held up by a macroscopic skeletal framework.  Coral reefs are an excellent example of this kind. Corals and calcareous algae grow on top of one another and form a three-dimensional framework that is modified in various ways by other organisms and inorganic processes.  By contrast, mounds lack a macroscopic skeletal framework.  Mounds are built by microorganisms or by organisms that don't grow a skeletal framework.  A microbial mound might be built exclusively or primarily by

text: cyanobacteria

text: .  Excellent examples of biostromes formed by cyanobacteria occur in the

text: Great Salt Lake

text: of

text: Utah

text: (USA), and in

text: Shark Bay

text: Western Australia

text: Many injuries to the spine occur as a result of vehicle accidents, falling, and sports and recreation. While it is impossible to prevent such events from happening, increasing intra-abdominal pressure and strengthening the musculature in the back, along with keeping a neutral spine, can minimize injuries like hernias, strains, and sprains.

text: Many injuries to the spine occur as a result of

text: vehicle accidents

text: falling

text: , and

text: sports

text: and

text: recreation

text: . While it is impossible to prevent such events from happening, increasing intra-abdominal pressure and strengthening the musculature in the back, along with keeping a neutral spine, can minimize injuries like

text: hernia

text: s,

text: strain

text: s, and

text: sprains

text: The symptoms of Leydig cell hypoplasia include pseudohermaphroditism (i.e., feminized, ambiguous, or relatively mildly underdeveloped (e.g., micropenis, severe hypospadias, and/or cryptorchidism (undescended testes)) external genitalia), a female gender identity or gender variance, hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (hypogonadism despite high levels of gonadotropins), delayed, impaired, or fully absent puberty with an associated reduction in or complete lack of development of secondary sexual characteristics (sexual infantilism), impaired fertility or complete sterility, tall stature (due to delayed epiphyseal closure), eunuchoid skeletal proportions, delayed or absent bone maturation, and osteoporosis.

text: The

text: symptom

text: s of Leydig cell hypoplasia include pseudohermaphroditism (i.e.,

text: feminized

text: ambiguous

text: , or relatively mildly underdeveloped (e.g.,

text: micropenis

text: , severe

text: hypospadias

text: , and/or

text: cryptorchidism

text: (undescended testes))

text: external genitalia

text: ), a female

text: gender identity

text: or

text: gender variance

text: hypergonadotropic hypogonadism

text: hypogonadism

text: despite high levels of gonadotropins), delayed, impaired, or fully absent

text: puberty

text: with an associated reduction in or complete lack of development of secondary sexual characteristics (

text: sexual infantilism

text: ), impaired

text: fertility

text: or complete

text: sterility

text: tall stature

text: (due to delayed

text: epiphyseal closure

text: eunuch

text: oid

text: skeletal

text: proportions, delayed or absent

text: bone maturation

text: , and

text: osteoporosis

text: Because of this functional design, during dynamic movement there is more dependence on core musculature than just skeletal rigidity as in a static situation.  This is because the purpose of movement is not to resist a static, unchanging resistance, but to resist a force that changes its plane of motion.  By incorporating movement, the bones of the body must absorb the resistance in a fluid manner, and thus tendons, ligaments, muscles, and innervation take on different responsibilities.  These responsibilities include postural reactions to changes in speed (quickness of a contraction), motion (reaction time of a contraction) and power (amount of resistance resisted in a period of time).

text: Because of this functional design, during dynamic movement there is more dependence on core musculature than just skeletal rigidity as in a static situation.  This is because the purpose of movement is not to resist a static, unchanging resistance, but to resist a force that changes its

text: plane of motion

text: .  By incorporating movement, the bones of the body must absorb the resistance in a fluid manner, and thus tendons, ligaments, muscles, and innervation take on different responsibilities.  These responsibilities include postural reactions to changes in speed (quickness of a contraction), motion (reaction time of a contraction) and power (amount of resistance resisted in a period of time).

text: The bones show a variety of diseases and degenerative processes. Six skeletons showed evidence of Paget's disease of bone (osteitis deformans). The most severe case of Paget's disease was in a body buried in the nave in a stone coffin. The lid was carved with two shields, indicating that the occupant had been a knight. One skeleton showed signs of leprosy affecting bones in the face, hands and feet. No definite cases of tuberculosis directly affecting bones were found but in two individuals there were changes in the ribs consistent with their having suffered from tuberculosis of the lungs. The only major congenital abnormality found consisted of bony changes resulting from a possible case of Down's syndrome. Relatively minor congenital abnormalities of the spine were found in 19 skeletons, ten of which were cases of spina bifida occulta. Other spinal abnormalities included fused vertebrae, spondylolysis and transitional vertebrae. Definite evidence of fractured bones was found in ten skeletons, and evidence of possible fractures was found in three other cases. One cranium contained a large circular lesion which may have been the consequence of trepanning. Other diseases specific to bones and joints were osteoarthritis, diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH), and possible cases of spondyloarthropathy. Three skeletons showed possible evidence of rickets, two had changes of osteoporosis, and three crania had features of hyperostosis frontalis interna, a metabolic condition affecting post-menopausal women. Osteomata (benign tumours of bone) were found in three cases.

text: The bones show a variety of diseases and degenerative processes. Six skeletons showed evidence of

text: Paget's disease of bone

text: (osteitis deformans). The most severe case of Paget's disease was in a body buried in the nave in a stone coffin. The lid was carved with two shields, indicating that the occupant had been a

text: knight

text: . One skeleton showed signs of

text: leprosy

text: affecting bones in the face, hands and feet. No definite cases of

text: tuberculosis

text: directly affecting bones were found but in two individuals there were changes in the ribs consistent with their having suffered from tuberculosis of the lungs. The only major

text: congenital abnormality

text: found consisted of bony changes resulting from a possible case of

text: Down's syndrome

text: . Relatively minor congenital abnormalities of the spine were found in 19 skeletons, ten of which were cases of

text: spina bifida occulta

text: . Other spinal abnormalities included fused

text: vertebra

text: e,

text: spondylolysis

text: and

text: transitional vertebrae

text: . Definite evidence of

text: fractured bones

text: was found in ten skeletons, and evidence of possible fractures was found in three other cases. One cranium contained a large circular lesion which may have been the consequence of

text: trepanning

text: . Other diseases specific to bones and joints were

text: osteoarthritis

text: , diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH), and possible cases of

text: spondyloarthropathy

text: . Three skeletons showed possible evidence of

text: rickets

text: , two had changes of

text: osteoporosis

text: , and three crania had features of hyperostosis frontalis interna, a

text: metabolic

text: condition affecting post-

text: menopausal

text: women.

text: Osteoma

text: ta (benign tumours of bone) were found in three cases.

text: Loweomyces is distinguished by the ease of spore germination in growth media, larger basidia, the absence of skeletal hyphae, and smaller tubes, plates or spines, compared with European Spongipellis species. Fruit bodies are either crust-like or have a cap and stipe. The hyphal system is either monomitic (possessing only generative hyphae) or dimitic (having both generative and pseudo-skeletal hyphae).

text: Loweomyces is distinguished by the ease of

text: spore

text: germination in

text: growth media

text: , larger

text: basidia

text: , the absence of skeletal

text: hypha

text: e, and smaller tubes, plates or spines, compared with European Spongipellis species.

text: Fruit bodies

text: are either crust-like or have a

text: cap

text: and

text: stipe

text: . The

text: hypha

text: l system is either monomitic (possessing only generative hyphae) or dimitic (having both generative and pseudo-skeletal hyphae).

text: There are three types of muscles—cardiac, skeletal, and smooth. Smooth muscles are used to control the flow of substances within the lumens of hollow organs, and are not consciously controlled. Skeletal and cardiac muscles have striations that are visible under a microscope due to the components within their cells. Only skeletal and smooth muscles are part of the musculoskeletal system and only the skeletal muscles can move the body. Cardiac muscles are found in the heart and are used only to circulate blood; like the smooth muscles, these muscles are not under conscious control. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones and arranged in opposing groups around joints.  Muscles are innervated, to communicate nervous energy to, by nerves, which conduct electrical currents from the central nervous system and cause the muscles to contract.

text: There are three types of muscles—

text: cardiac

text: skeletal

text: , and

text: smooth

text: . Smooth muscles are used to control the flow of substances within the

text: lumens

text: of hollow

text: organs

text: , and are

text: not consciously controlled

text: . Skeletal and cardiac muscles have

text: striations

text: that are visible under a

text: microscope

text: due to the components within their cells. Only skeletal and smooth muscles are part of the musculoskeletal system and only the skeletal muscles can move the body. Cardiac muscles are found in the

text: heart

text: and are used only to circulate

text: blood

text: ; like the smooth muscles, these muscles are not under conscious control. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones and arranged in opposing groups around

text: joints

text: .  Muscles are innervated, to communicate nervous energy to, by

text: nerve

text: s, which conduct electrical currents from the

text: central nervous system

text: and cause the muscles to contract.

text: Although the combined data set that CranID utilizes includes many geographical regions, there are still many regions that are not accounted for in this data set. According to Fenja Theden-Ringl and colleagues, the use of CranID and another forensic anthropology software program, FORDISC, were unable to place skeletal remains from two site found in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory of Australia. The researchers believe that both these programs were unable to accurately assign the skeletal remains to any group due to both programs lacking Indonesian data in the databases that are used by these programs.

text: Although the combined data set that CranID utilizes includes many geographical regions, there are still many regions that are not accounted for in this data set. According to Fenja Theden-Ringl and colleagues, the use of CranID and another forensic anthropology software program,

text: FORDISC

text: , were unable to place skeletal remains from two site found in

text: Arnhem Land

text: Northern Territory of Australia

text: . The researchers believe that both these programs were unable to accurately assign the skeletal remains to any group due to both programs lacking Indonesian data in the databases that are used by these programs.

text: The caudal fin is homocercal, meaning the upper and lower lobes are about equal in size. The spine ends at the caudal peduncle, the base of the caudal fin, distinguishing this group from those in which the spine extends into the upper lobe of the caudal fin, such as most fish from the Paleozoic (541 to 252 million years ago). The neural arches are elongated to form uroneurals which provide support for this upper lobe. In addition, the hypurals, bones that form a flattened plate at the posterior end of the vertebral column, are enlarged providing further support for the caudal fin. In general, teleosts tend to be quicker and more flexible than more basal bony fishes. Their skeletal structure has evolved towards greater lightness. While teleost bones are well calcified, they are constructed from a scaffolding of struts, rather than the dense cancellous bones of holostean fish. In addition, the lower jaw of the teleost is reduced to just three bones; the dentary, the angular bone and the articular bone.

text: The

text: caudal fin

text: is

text: homocercal

text: , meaning the upper and lower lobes are about equal in size. The spine ends at the caudal peduncle, the base of the caudal fin, distinguishing this group from those in which the spine extends into the upper lobe of the caudal fin, such as most fish from the

text: Paleozoic

text: (541 to 252 million years ago). The neural arches are elongated to form uroneurals which provide support for this upper lobe. In addition, the

text: hypurals

text: , bones that form a flattened plate at the posterior end of the vertebral column, are enlarged providing further support for the caudal fin. In general, teleosts tend to be quicker and more flexible than more basal bony fishes. Their skeletal structure has evolved towards greater lightness. While teleost bones are well

text: calcified

text: , they are constructed from a scaffolding of struts, rather than the dense

text: cancellous bone

text: s of

text: holostean

text: fish. In addition, the lower jaw of the teleost is reduced to just three bones; the

text: dentary

text: , the

text: angular bone

text: and the

text: articular bone

text: Fungi that form fusiform skeletal hyphae bound by generative hyphae are said to have sarcodimitic hyphal systems.  A few fungi form fusiform skeletal hyphae, generative hyphae, and binding hyphae, and these are said to have sarcotrimitic hyphal systems.  These terms were introduced as a later refinement by E. J. H. Corner in 1966.

text: Fungi that form

text: fusiform

text: skeletal hyphae bound by generative hyphae are said to have sarcodimitic hyphal systems.  A few fungi form fusiform skeletal hyphae, generative hyphae, and binding hyphae, and these are said to have sarcotrimitic hyphal systems.  These terms were introduced as a later refinement by E. J. H. Corner in 1966.

text: Skeletal muscle TnI has been proposed as a sensitive and fast fiber-specific serum marker of skeletal muscle injury. fsTnI concentration in increased peripheral blood when fast twitch fibers were damaged.

text: Laboratory experiments have shown that T. kauffmanii contains norcaperatic acid, though at lower concentrations than T. floccosus. Norcaperatic acid increases tone of guinea pig smooth muscle of the small bowel (ileum), and that when given to rats, leads to mydriasis, skeletal muscle weakness, and central nervous system depression. It is likely the agent responsible for toxic (gastrointestinal) symptoms that occur in T. floccosus.

text: The affinity of this species for native sulfur has yet to be explained. The morphology of S. thermophilus does not show any differences from other deepwater Symphurus species that would suggest adaptations to its unique habitat. However, S. thermophilus likely possesses extensive physiological and biochemical adaptations for coping with the harsh conditions around hydrothermal vents, such as temperature and pH fluctuations, and exposure to heavy metals. In particular, they must have high hemoglobin oxygen affinities and efficient respiratory systems to deal with the toxic hydrogen sulfide in venting fluid. S. thermophilus is also capable of tolerating pH as low as 2, akin to sulfuric acid, and can rest over pools of molten sulfur without harm. Individuals of S. thermophilus often show skeletal abnormalities such as undeveloped fin rays or fused bones, likely attributable to the vent environment.

text: The affinity of this species for native sulfur has yet to be explained. The

text: morphology

text: of S. thermophilus does not show any differences from other deepwater Symphurus species that would suggest

text: adaptation

text: s to its unique habitat. However, S. thermophilus likely possesses extensive

text: physiological

text: and

text: biochemical

text: adaptations for coping with the harsh conditions around hydrothermal vents, such as

text: temperature

text: and

text: pH

text: fluctuations, and exposure to

text: heavy metal

text: s. In particular, they must have high

text: hemoglobin

text: oxygen

text: affinities and efficient

text: respiratory system

text: s to deal with the toxic

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: in venting fluid. S. thermophilus is also capable of tolerating pH as low as 2, akin to

text: sulfuric acid

text: , and can rest over pools of molten sulfur without harm. Individuals of S. thermophilus often show

text: skeletal

text: abnormalities such as undeveloped

text: fin ray

text: s or fused

text: bone

text: s, likely attributable to the vent environment.

text: Osteoimmunology (όστέον, osteon from Greek, “bone”; immunitas from Latin, “immunity”; and λόγος, logos, from Greek “study”) is a field that emerged about 40 years ago that studies the interface between the skeletal system and the immune system, comprising the “osteo-immune system”. Osteoimmunology also studies the shared components and mechanisms between the two systems in vertebrates, including ligands, receptors, signaling molecules and transcription factors. Over the past decade, osteoimmunology has been investigated clinically for the treatment of bone metastases, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), osteoporosis, osteopetrosis, and periodontitis. Studies in osteoimmunology reveal relationships between molecular communication among blood cells and structural pathologies in the body.

text: Osteoimmunology (όστέον, osteon from Greek, “bone”; immunitas from Latin, “immunity”; and λόγος, logos, from Greek “study”) is a field that emerged about 40 years ago that studies the interface between the

text: skeletal system

text: and the

text: immune system

text: , comprising the “osteo-immune system”. Osteoimmunology also studies the shared components and mechanisms between the two systems in vertebrates, including ligands, receptors, signaling molecules and transcription factors. Over the past decade, osteoimmunology has been investigated clinically for the treatment of

text: bone metastases

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: (RA),

text: osteoporosis

text: osteopetrosis

text: , and

text: periodontitis

text: . Studies in osteoimmunology reveal relationships between molecular communication among blood cells and structural pathologies in the body.

text: The word fracture is often applied to bones of living creatures (i.e. a bone fracture), or to crystalline materials, such as gemstones or metal. Sometimes, individual crystals fracture without the structure actually separating into two or more pieces. Depending on the substance, a fracture reduces strength (most substances) or inhibits transmission of waves, such as light (optical crystals).  A detailed understanding of how fracture occurs in materials may be assisted by the study of fracture mechanics.

text: The word fracture is often applied to

text: bone

text: s of living creatures (i.e. a

text: bone fracture

text: ), or to

text: crystalline materials

text: , such as

text: gemstone

text: s or

text: metal

text: . Sometimes, individual crystals fracture without the structure actually separating into two or more pieces. Depending on the substance, a fracture reduces

text: strength

text: (most substances) or inhibits

text: transmission

text: of

text: wave

text: s, such as

text: light

text: optical

text: crystals).  A detailed understanding of how fracture occurs in materials may be assisted by the study of

text: fracture mechanics

text: At birth, only the metaphyses of the "long bones" are present. The long bones are those that grow primarily by elongation at an epiphysis at one end of the growing bone. The long bones include the femurs, tibias, and fibulas of the lower limb, the humeri, radii, and ulnas of the upper limb (arm + forearm), and the phalanges of the fingers and toes. The long bones of the leg comprise nearly half of adult height. The other primary skeletal component of height is the spine and skull.

text: At birth, only the

text: metaphyses

text: of the "

text: long bone

text: s" are present. The long bones are those that grow primarily by elongation at an

text: epiphysis

text: at one end of the growing bone. The long bones include the

text: femur

text: s,

text: tibia

text: s, and

text: fibula

text: s of the lower limb, the

text: humeri

text: radii

text: , and

text: ulna

text: s of the upper limb (arm + forearm), and the

text: phalanges

text: of the

text: finger

text: s and

text: toe

text: s. The long bones of the leg comprise nearly half of adult height. The other primary skeletal component of height is the

text: spine

text: and

text: skull

text: Greys are typically depicted as dark grey-skinned diminutive humanoid beings that possess reduced forms of, or completely lack, external human organs such as noses, ears or sex organs. Their bodies are usually depicted as being elongated, having a small chest, and lacking in muscular definition and visible skeletal structure. Their legs are shorter and jointed differently from what one would expect in a human. Their limbs are often depicted as proportionally different from a human's; their humerus and thighs are the same lengths as their forearms and shins, respectively.

text: Greys are typically depicted as dark grey-skinned diminutive

text: humanoid

text: beings that possess reduced forms of, or completely lack, external human

text: organ

text: s such as noses, ears or

text: sex organ

text: s. Their bodies are usually depicted as being elongated, having a small chest, and lacking in muscular definition and visible

text: skeletal

text: structure. Their legs are shorter and jointed differently from what one would expect in a human. Their limbs are often depicted as proportionally different from a human's; their

text: humerus

text: and thighs are the same lengths as their

text: forearm

text: s and

text: shin

text: s, respectively.

text: The object of pressure immobilization is to contain venom within a bitten limb and prevent it from moving through the lymphatic system to the vital organs. This therapy has two components: pressure to prevent lymphatic drainage, and immobilization of the bitten limb to prevent the pumping action of the skeletal muscles.

text: The object of pressure immobilization is to contain venom within a bitten limb and prevent it from moving through the

text: lymphatic system

text: to the vital organs. This therapy has two components: pressure to prevent lymphatic drainage, and immobilization of the bitten limb to prevent the pumping action of the

text: skeletal muscle

text: s.

text: On November 11, 1962, the Sprain Brook branch of the Library opened on Central Park Avenue in east Yonkers.  In honor of the Library's longtime director, the Sprain Brook branch was renamed the Grinton I. Will branch in 1973.

text: The human skeleton takes 20 years before it is fully developed. In many animals, the skeleton bones contain marrow, which produces blood cells.

text: The human skeleton takes 20 years before it is fully developed. In many animals, the skeleton bones contain

text: marrow

text: , which produces blood cells.

text: Jansen's metaphyseal chondrodysplasia- Jefferson fracture- Jobe's test- Joint dislocation- Joint locking (symptom)- Joint replacement- Joint replacement registry- Joint stiffness- Joint- Jones fracture- Juvenile osteoporosis

text: Jansen's metaphyseal chondrodysplasia

text: Jefferson fracture

text: Jobe's test

text: Joint dislocation

text: Joint locking (symptom)

text: Joint replacement

text: Joint replacement registry

text: Joint stiffness

text: Joint

text: Jones fracture

text: Juvenile osteoporosis

text: The Joint Capability Areas (JCA) are a standardized set of United States military definitions that cover the complete range of military activities. The system was initially established in May 2005 by the United States Department of Defense Joint Staff with input from each of the services, designed to begin "a new framework that paves the way for side-by-side comparisons of service contributions to joint warfighting and a tool that will assist decision-makers in deciding whether to move resources between service budgets."

text: The Joint Capability Areas (JCA) are a

text: standardized

text: set of United States military definitions that cover the complete range of military activities. The system was initially established in May 2005 by the United States

text: Department of Defense

text: Joint Staff

text: with input from each of the services, designed to begin "a new framework that paves the way for side-by-side comparisons of service contributions to joint warfighting and a tool that will assist decision-makers in deciding whether to move resources between service budgets."

text: The Sprain Brook Parkway, designated by the New York State Department of Transportation as NY 987F, a state reference route, begins at a fork from the Bronx River Parkway along the latter's right-of-way along the Bronx River in the city of Yonkers. Crossing through the Northeast Yonkers neighborhood as a six-lane freeway design, the Sprain Brook crosses an interchange with NY 100 (Central Park Avenue) south of Andrus Park. Bending to the north through Yonkers, the Sprain Brook reaches an interchange with Tuckahoe Road, with the northbound and southbound lanes splitting around the Grassy Sprain Reservoir. The two directions bend northeast along the reservoir. The southbound lanes cross Sprain Ridge Park, while the northbound lanes cross through a golf course. Leaving Yonkers for the town of Greenburgh, the lanes of the Sprain Brook come back together, reaching an interchange with Jackson Avenue. The six lane parkway continues northward and to the northeast through Greenburgh, crossing under Ardsley Road. After turning northward once again, the Sprain Brook crosses under a former alignment of NY 131 (Underhill Road) and passes by the Sunningdale Country Club.

text: The Sprain Brook Parkway, designated by the

entity_name: New York State Department of Transportation

text: New York State Department of Transportation

text: as NY 987F, a state

text: reference route

text: , begins at a fork from the

text: Bronx River Parkway

text: along the latter's right-of-way along the

text: Bronx River

text: in the city of

text: Yonkers

text: . Crossing through the Northeast Yonkers neighborhood as a six-lane freeway design, the Sprain Brook crosses an interchange with

text: NY 100

text: (Central Park Avenue) south of Andrus Park. Bending to the north through Yonkers, the Sprain Brook reaches an interchange with Tuckahoe Road, with the northbound and southbound lanes splitting around the

text: Grassy Sprain Reservoir

text: . The two directions bend northeast along the reservoir. The southbound lanes cross Sprain Ridge Park, while the northbound lanes cross through a golf course. Leaving Yonkers for the town of

text: Greenburgh

text: , the lanes of the Sprain Brook come back together, reaching an interchange with Jackson Avenue. The six lane parkway continues northward and to the northeast through Greenburgh, crossing under Ardsley Road. After turning northward once again, the Sprain Brook crosses under a former alignment of

text: NY 131

text: (Underhill Road) and passes by the Sunningdale Country Club.

text: Mirischia was a small bipedal predator. Its length was in 2004 estimated at 2.1 metres. In 2010 Gregory S. Paul estimated the weight at seven kilogrammes. The holotype of Mirischia is notable for having asymmetrical ischia. Quoting from Naish et al. (2004): "The ischia of Mirischia are asymmetrical, that on the left being perforated by an oval foramen while that on the right has an open notch in the same position." The specimen is also unusual in that it preserves some soft tissue remains: apart from the intestine, what the describers interpreted to have been an air sac was preserved between its pubic and ischial bones in the form of a vacuity. Previous workers had suggested that non-avian theropods might — like birds — possess post-cranial air sacs, and Mirischia seems to confirm that. Another notable trait is the exceptional thinness of the bone wall of all skeletal elements.

text: Mirischia was a small bipedal predator. Its length was in 2004 estimated at 2.1 metres. In 2010

text: Gregory S. Paul

text: estimated the weight at seven kilogrammes. The holotype of Mirischia is notable for having asymmetrical

text: ischia

text: . Quoting from

text: Naish

text: et al. (2004): "The ischia of Mirischia are asymmetrical, that on the left being perforated by an oval foramen while that on the right has an open notch in the same position." The specimen is also unusual in that it preserves some soft tissue remains: apart from the intestine, what the describers interpreted to have been an air sac was preserved between its pubic and ischial bones in the form of a vacuity. Previous workers had suggested that non-avian theropods might — like birds — possess post-cranial

text: air sacs

text: , and Mirischia seems to confirm that. Another notable trait is the exceptional thinness of the bone wall of all skeletal elements.

text: Given the high morbidity and mortality associated with hip fractures and the cost to the health system, in England and Wales, the National Hip Fracture Database is a mandatory nationwide audit of care and treatment of all hip fractures.

text: Given the high morbidity and mortality associated with hip fractures and the cost to the health system, in England and Wales, the

text: National Hip Fracture Database

text: is a mandatory nationwide audit of care and treatment of all hip fractures.

text: Osteoporosis International is a peer-reviewed medical journal published by Springer Science+Business Media. The journal was launched in 1990. It is an official journal of the International Osteoporosis Foundation and the National Osteoporosis Foundation. The journal is published monthly and includes original research on all areas of osteoporosis and its related fields, alongside reviews, educational articles, and case reports.

text: Osteoporosis International is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: medical journal

text: published by

text: Springer Science+Business Media

text: . The journal was launched in 1990. It is an official journal of the

text: International Osteoporosis Foundation

text: and the

text: National Osteoporosis Foundation

text: . The journal is published monthly and includes original research on all areas of

text: osteoporosis

text: and its related fields, alongside reviews, educational articles, and case reports.

text: Bone volume is determined by the rates of bone formation and bone resorption. Recent research has suggested that certain growth factors may work to locally alter bone formation by increasing osteoblast activity. Numerous bone-derived growth factors have been isolated and classified via bone cultures. These factors include insulin-like growth factors I and II, transforming growth factor-beta, fibroblast growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and bone morphogenetic proteins. Evidence suggests that bone cells produce growth factors for extracellular storage in the bone matrix. The release of these growth factors from the bone matrix could cause the proliferation of osteoblast precursors. Essentially, bone growth factors may act as potential determinants of local bone formation. Research has suggested that trabecular bone volume in postemenopausal osteoporosis may be determined by the relationship between the total bone forming surface and the percent of surface resorption.

text: The EPG5 human gene is located on chromosome 18q12.3, has a length of 119,67Kb (NC_000018.10), consists of 44 exons and is transcriptionally driven from the centromere toward the telomere. The messenger RNA (mRNA) is 12633bp long (NM_020964.2) and contains a CDS of 7740 bp translated into a protein sequence of 2579 amino acids (NP_066015.2) with a molecular weight of 280kDa, presumed. The protein EPG5 is expressed primarily in the central nervous system (CNS), skeletal muscle, heart, thymus, cells of the immune system, lungs and kidneys.

text: The outer surface of a bone is lined by a thin layer of connective tissue that is very similar in morphology and function to endosteum. It is called the periosteum, or the periosteal surface. During bone growth, the width of the bone increases as osteoblasts lay new bone tissue at the periosteum. To prevent the bone from becoming unnecessarily thick, osteoclasts resorb the bone from the endosteal side.

text: The outer surface of a bone is lined by a thin layer of connective tissue that is very similar in

text: morphology

text: and function to endosteum. It is called the

text: periosteum

text: , or the periosteal surface. During bone growth, the width of the bone increases as

text: osteoblasts

text: lay new bone tissue at the periosteum. To prevent the bone from becoming unnecessarily thick,

text: osteoclasts

text: resorb the bone from the endosteal side.

text: The underlying mechanism in all cases of osteoporosis is an imbalance between bone resorption and bone formation. In normal bone, matrix remodeling of bone is constant; up to 10% of all bone mass may be undergoing remodeling at any point in time. The process takes place in bone multicellular units (BMUs) as first described by Frost & Thomas in 1963. Osteoclasts are assisted by transcription factor PU.1 to degrade the bone matrix, while osteoblasts rebuild the bone matrix. Low bone mass density can then occur when osteoclasts are degrading the bone matrix faster than the osteoblasts are rebuilding the bone.

text: The underlying mechanism in all cases of osteoporosis is an imbalance between

text: bone resorption

text: and

text: bone formation

text: . In normal bone,

text: matrix

text: remodeling of bone is constant; up to 10% of all bone mass may be undergoing remodeling at any point in time. The process takes place in bone multicellular units (BMUs) as first described by Frost & Thomas in 1963.

text: Osteoclasts

text: are assisted by transcription factor PU.1 to degrade the bone matrix, while

text: osteoblasts

text: rebuild the bone matrix. Low bone mass density can then occur when osteoclasts are degrading the bone matrix faster than the osteoblasts are rebuilding the bone.

text: Fetal rhabdomyoma are separated into two histologic types: Myxoid and cellular. However, irrespective of histologic type, these tumors almost never show necrosis or increased mitoses. However, a cambium layer, abnormal mitoses and nuclear pleomorphism is not seen.Cellular fetal rhabdomyomas are composed of bland, primitive spindled cells. The spindle cells are haphazardly arranged primitive, elongated skeletal muscle cells. The cells are set within a well-developed fibromyxoid stroma. A different pattern (intermediate type) is predominantly composed of cells with better differentiation towards skeletal muscle. There are often large ganglion cell-like rhabdomyoblasts showing prominent nucleoli within nuclei that show vesicular chromatin distribution. Another population includes strap-like rhabdomyoblasts with darkly staining pink cytoplasm. Nearly all tumors show short to more sweeping fascicles of spindled rhabdomyoblasts. The tumor cells may infiltrate into adjacent skeletal muscle or fat. It is not uncommon to see peri-neural association, although not perineural infiltration.

text: Fetal rhabdomyoma are separated into two histologic types: Myxoid and cellular. However, irrespective of histologic type, these tumors almost never show necrosis or increased mitoses. However, a

text: cambium

text: layer, abnormal mitoses and nuclear pleomorphism is not seen.Cellular fetal rhabdomyomas are composed of bland, primitive spindled cells. The spindle cells are haphazardly arranged primitive, elongated skeletal muscle cells. The cells are set within a well-developed fibromyxoid stroma. A different pattern (intermediate type) is predominantly composed of cells with better differentiation towards skeletal muscle. There are often large ganglion cell-like rhabdomyoblasts showing prominent nucleoli within nuclei that show vesicular chromatin distribution. Another population includes strap-like rhabdomyoblasts with darkly staining pink cytoplasm. Nearly all tumors show short to more sweeping fascicles of spindled rhabdomyoblasts. The tumor cells may infiltrate into adjacent skeletal muscle or fat. It is not uncommon to see peri-neural association, although not perineural infiltration.

text: In individuals with normal plasma levels of normally functioning pseudocholinesterase enzyme, hydrolysis and inactivation of approximately 90-95% of an intravenous dose of succinylcholine occurs before it reaches the neuromuscular junction. The remaining 5-10% of the succinylcholine dose acts as an acetylcholine receptor agonist at the neuromuscular junction, causing prolonged depolarization of the postsynaptic junction of the motor-end plate. This depolarization initially triggers fasciculation of skeletal muscle. As a result of prolonged depolarization, endogenous acetylcholine released from the presynaptic membrane of the motor neuron does not produce any additional change in membrane potential after binding to its receptor on the myocyte. Flaccid paralysis of skeletal muscles develops within 1 minute. In normal subjects, skeletal muscle function returns to normal approximately 5 minutes after a single bolus injection of succinylcholine as it passively diffuses away from the neuromuscular junction. Pseudocholinesterase deficiency can result in higher levels of intact succinylcholine molecules reaching receptors in the neuromuscular junction, causing the duration of paralytic effect to continue for as long as 8 hours. This condition is recognized clinically when paralysis of the respiratory and other skeletal muscles fails to spontaneously resolve after succinylcholine is administered as an adjunctive paralytic agent during anesthesia procedures. In such cases respiratory assistance is required.

text: In individuals with normal plasma levels of normally functioning pseudocholinesterase enzyme, hydrolysis and inactivation of approximately 90-95% of an intravenous dose of succinylcholine occurs before it reaches the neuromuscular junction. The remaining 5-10% of the succinylcholine dose acts as an acetylcholine receptor agonist at the neuromuscular junction, causing prolonged depolarization of the postsynaptic junction of the motor-end plate. This depolarization initially triggers

text: fasciculation

text: of skeletal muscle. As a result of prolonged depolarization, endogenous acetylcholine released from the presynaptic membrane of the motor neuron does not produce any additional change in membrane potential after binding to its receptor on the myocyte. Flaccid paralysis of skeletal muscles develops within 1 minute. In normal subjects, skeletal muscle function returns to normal approximately 5 minutes after a single bolus injection of succinylcholine as it passively diffuses away from the neuromuscular junction. Pseudocholinesterase deficiency can result in higher levels of intact succinylcholine molecules reaching receptors in the neuromuscular junction, causing the duration of paralytic effect to continue for as long as 8 hours. This condition is recognized clinically when paralysis of the respiratory and other skeletal muscles fails to spontaneously resolve after succinylcholine is administered as an adjunctive paralytic agent during anesthesia procedures. In such cases respiratory assistance is required.

text: Osteoporosis may be due to lower than normal peak bone mass and greater than normal bone loss. Bone loss increases after menopause due to lower levels of estrogen. Osteoporosis may also occur due to a number of diseases or treatments including alcoholism, anorexia, hyperthyroidism, surgical removal of the ovaries, and kidney disease. Certain medications increase the rate of bone loss including some antiseizure medications, chemotherapy, proton pump inhibitors, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and steroids. Not enough exercise and smoking are also risk factors. Osteoporosis is defined as a bone density of 2.5 standard deviations below that of a young adult. This is typically measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry at the hip.

text: Osteoporosis may be due to lower than normal

text: peak bone mass

text: and greater than normal bone loss. Bone loss increases after

text: menopause

text: due to lower levels of

text: estrogen

text: . Osteoporosis may also occur due to a number of diseases or treatments including

text: alcoholism

text: anorexia

text: hyperthyroidism

text: surgical removal of the ovaries

text: , and

text: kidney disease

text: . Certain medications increase the rate of bone loss including some

text: antiseizure medication

text: s,

text: chemotherapy

text: proton pump inhibitor

text: s,

text: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

text: , and

text: steroid

text: s. Not enough exercise and smoking are also risk factors. Osteoporosis is defined as a

text: bone density

text: of 2.5

text: standard deviation

text: s below that of a young adult. This is typically measured by

text: dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry

text: at the hip.

text: Juvenile osteoporosis is osteoporosis in children and adolescents.

text: Juvenile osteoporosis is

text: osteoporosis

text: in children and adolescents.

text: Laudexium metilsulfate is a neuromuscular blocking drug or skeletal muscle relaxant in the category of non-depolarizing neuromuscular-blocking drugs, used adjunctively in surgical anesthesia to facilitate endotracheal intubation and to provide skeletal muscle relaxation during surgery or mechanical ventilation.

text: Laudexium metilsulfate is a

text: neuromuscular blocking drug

text: or

text: skeletal muscle relaxant

text: in the category of non-depolarizing

text: neuromuscular-blocking drugs

text: , used adjunctively in surgical

text: anesthesia

text: to facilitate endotracheal

text: intubation

text: and to provide

text: skeletal muscle

text: relaxation during

text: surgery

text: or

text: mechanical ventilation

text: Noonan Syndrome with Multiple Lentigines (NSML) (also known as LEOPARD syndrome, Cardiocutaneous syndrome, Gorlin syndrome II, Lentiginosis profusa syndrome, Progressive cardiomyopathic lentiginosis, Capute-Rimoin-Konigsmark-Esterly-Richardson syndrome, or Moynahan syndrome), which is part of a group called Ras/MAPK pathway syndromes,  — is a rare autosomal dominant, multisystem disease caused by a mutation in the protein tyrosine phosphatase, non-receptor type 11 gene (PTPN11). The disease is a complex of features, mostly involving the skin, skeletal and cardiovascular systems, which may or may not be present in all patients. The nature of how the mutation causes each of the condition's symptoms is not well known; however, research is ongoing.  It is a RASopathy.

text: Noonan Syndrome with Multiple Lentigines (NSML) (also known as LEOPARD syndrome, Cardiocutaneous syndrome, Gorlin syndrome II, Lentiginosis profusa syndrome, Progressive cardiomyopathic lentiginosis, Capute-Rimoin-Konigsmark-Esterly-Richardson syndrome, or Moynahan syndrome), which is part of a group called Ras/MAPK pathway syndromes,  — is a rare

text: autosomal dominant

text: , multisystem disease caused by a

text: mutation

text: in the

text: protein tyrosine phosphatase

text: , non-receptor type 11 gene (

text: ). The disease is a complex of features, mostly involving the skin, skeletal and cardiovascular systems, which may or may not be present in all patients. The nature of how the mutation causes each of the condition's symptoms is not well known; however, research is ongoing.  It is a

text: RASopathy

text: Most patients exhibit some degree of intellectual disability, abnormal skeletal and muscular development, and abnormal facial structures. Cognitive symptoms range from slight learning disabilities to severe deficits in intellectual functioning. Due to abnormal development of the muscles, individuals often experience limited or delayed mobility. Atypical facial features are characteristic of the syndrome, including widely spaced eyes, a large nose, and unusually positioned ears. Additionally, patients often have extra skin around the neck and widely spaced nipples. A wide range of renal, digestive, cardiac, respiratory, and nervous system abnormalities have been observed.

text: Neuromuscular and skeletal: arthralgia, myositis

text: •	SKELETAL – Symptoms of lymphangiomatosis in the skeletal system are the same as those of Gorham’s disease. Frequently asymptomatic, skeletal lymphangiomatosis may be discovered incidentally or when a pathological fracture occurs. Patients may experience pain of varying severity in areas around the effected bone. When the disease occurs in the bones of the spine, neurological symptoms such as numbness and tingling may occur due to spinal nerve compression. Progression of disease in the spine may lead to paralysis. Lymphangiomatosis in conjunction with Chiari I malformation also has been reported.

text: A fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of stress.  The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops perpendicular to the surface of displacement, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops tangentially to the surface of displacement, it is called a shear crack, slip band, or dislocation.  Fracture strength or breaking strength is the stress when a specimen fails or fractures.

text: A fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of

text: stress

text: .  The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops perpendicular to the surface of displacement, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops tangentially to the surface of displacement, it is called a shear crack, slip band, or dislocation.  Fracture strength or breaking strength is the stress when a specimen fails or fractures.

text: Doxacurium chloride (formerly recognized as BW938U80 or BW A938U) is a neuromuscular-blocking drug or skeletal muscle relaxant in the category of non-depolarizing neuromuscular-blocking drugs, used adjunctively in anesthesia to provide skeletal muscle relaxation during surgery or mechanical ventilation. Unlike a number of other related skeletal muscle relaxants, it is rarely used adjunctively to facilitate endotracheal intubation.

text: Doxacurium chloride (formerly recognized as BW938U80 or BW A938U) is a

text: neuromuscular-blocking drug

text: or

text: skeletal muscle relaxant

text: in the category of non-depolarizing

text: neuromuscular-blocking drugs

text: , used adjunctively in

text: anesthesia

text: to provide

text: skeletal muscle

text: relaxation during

text: surgery

text: or

text: mechanical ventilation

text: . Unlike a number of other related skeletal muscle relaxants, it is rarely used adjunctively to facilitate endotracheal

text: intubation

text: Skeletal muscles can be voluntarily controlled, under normal circumstances. Skeletal muscles that cramp the most often are the calves, thighs, and arches of the foot, and are sometimes called a "Charley horse" or a "corky".  Such cramping is associated with strenuous physical activity and can be intensely painful; however, they can even occur while inactive and relaxed. Around 40% of people who experience skeletal cramps are likely to endure extreme muscle pain, and may be unable to use the entire limb that contains the "locked-up" muscle group. It may take up to seven days for the muscle to return to a pain-free state.

text: Skeletal muscle

text: s can be voluntarily controlled, under normal circumstances. Skeletal muscles that cramp the most often are the

text: calves

text: thighs

text: , and

text: arches of the foot

text: , and are sometimes called a "

text: Charley horse

text: " or a "corky".  Such cramping is associated with strenuous physical activity and can be intensely painful; however, they can even occur while inactive and relaxed. Around 40% of people who experience skeletal cramps are likely to endure extreme muscle pain, and may be unable to use the entire limb that contains the "locked-up" muscle group. It may take up to seven days for the muscle to return to a pain-free state.

text: P. brasiliensis causes a disease known as paracoccidioidomycosis characterized by slow, progressive granulomatous changes in the head mucosa, notably the nose and sinuses or the skin. Uncommonly, the disease affects the lymphatic system, the central nervous system, the gastrointestinal tract, or the skeletal system. Due to the high proportion of cases affecting the oral mucosa,  these tissues were originally thought to be the primary route of entry of fungus. However, strong evidence now indicates  the respiratory tract is the chief point of entry and P. brasiliensis lung lesions occur in nearly a third of progressive cases. The disease is not contagious.Paracoccidioidomycosis is more frequently seen in adult males than females. The hormone estrogen is thought to inhibit the transformation of the mycelial to the yeast form, as supported by in vitro experimental data, and this factor may account for the relative resistance of women to infection.

text: P. brasiliensis causes a disease known as

text: paracoccidioidomycosis

text: characterized by slow, progressive granulomatous changes in the head mucosa, notably the nose and sinuses or the skin. Uncommonly, the disease affects the lymphatic system, the central nervous system, the gastrointestinal tract, or the skeletal system. Due to the high proportion of cases affecting the oral mucosa,  these tissues were originally thought to be the primary route of entry of fungus. However, strong evidence now indicates  the respiratory tract is the chief point of entry and P. brasiliensis lung lesions occur in nearly a third of progressive cases. The disease is not contagious.Paracoccidioidomycosis is more frequently seen in adult males than females. The hormone

text: estrogen

text: is thought to inhibit the transformation of the mycelial to the yeast form, as supported by in vitro experimental data, and this factor may account for the relative resistance of women to infection.

text: Within Orthopedic surgery, there has been some exploration of the use of the tuning fork, smallest frequency C128, to assist the assessment of injuries where bone fracture is suspected. The tuning fork is toned on the suspected bone with fracture and toned progressively closer to suspected area of fracture. If there is a fracture, the periosteum of the bone will vibrate and fire nociceptors (pain receptors) causing a local sharp pain. This is a positive indication of a fracture that the practitioner is indicated to refer for medical x-ray. On this note, any sprains will give a false positive with local sharp pain. However, it is established practice to refer for an x-ray regardless; thought to be better than missing a real fracture while ruminating on possibilities that it could instead be a sprain. A systematic review published in 2014 in BMJ Open suggests that this technique is not sufficiently reliable or accurate for widespread clinical use.

text: Within

text: Orthopedic surgery

text: , there has been some exploration of the use of the tuning fork, smallest frequency C128, to assist the assessment of injuries where bone fracture is suspected. The tuning fork is toned on the suspected bone with fracture and toned progressively closer to suspected area of fracture. If there is a fracture, the periosteum of the bone will vibrate and fire nociceptors (pain receptors) causing a local sharp pain. This is a positive indication of a fracture that the practitioner is indicated to refer for medical x-ray. On this note, any sprains will give a false positive with local sharp pain. However, it is established practice to refer for an x-ray regardless; thought to be better than missing a real fracture while ruminating on possibilities that it could instead be a sprain. A systematic review published in 2014 in

text: BMJ Open

text: suggests that this technique is not sufficiently reliable or accurate for widespread clinical use.

text: The nature of dynamic movement must take into account our skeletal structure (as a lever) in addition to the force of external resistance, and consequently incorporates a vastly different complex of muscles and joints versus a static position.

text: The conditioning program for the different horses varies depending on the race length.  Genetics, training, age, and skeletal soundness are all factors that contribute to a horse's performance.  The muscle structure and fiber type of horses depends on the breed, therefore genetics must be considered when constructing a conditioning plan.  A horse's fitness plan must be coordinated properly in order to prevent injury or unnecessary lameness.  If these were to occur, they may negatively affect a horse's willingness to learn.  Sprinting exercises are appropriate for training two-year-old racehorses, but they are mentally incapable of handling too many of them.  A horse's skeletal system adapts to the exercise they are receiving.  Because the skeletal system does not reach full maturity until the horse is at least four years of age, young racehorses often suffer multiple injuries.

text: Osteoporosis is rare in children and adolescents. When it occurs, it is usually secondary to some other condition, e.g. osteogenesis imperfecta, rickets, eating disorders or arthritis. In some cases, there is no known cause and it is called idiopathic juvenile osteoporosis. Idiopathic juvenile osteoporosis usually goes away spontaneously.

text: Osteoporosis is rare in children and adolescents. When it occurs, it is usually secondary to some other condition, e.g.

text: osteogenesis imperfecta

text: rickets

text: eating disorders

text: or

text: arthritis

text: . In some cases, there is no known cause and it is called idiopathic juvenile osteoporosis. Idiopathic juvenile osteoporosis usually goes away spontaneously.

text: Avenanthramides extracted from oats show potent antioxidant properties in vitro and in vivo, and according to studies made by Dimberg (1992), its antioxidant activity is many times greater than other antioxidants such as caffeic acid and vanillin. Aven-C is one of the most significant avenanthramides present in the oats, and it is responsible for oats' antioxidant activity. The effects of the Avenanthramide-enriched extract of oats has been investigated in animals, and a diet of 20 mg Avenanthramide per kilogram body weight in rats has been shown to increase the superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in skeletal muscle, liver, and kidneys, destroying harmful free radicals in the body and ensuring a long healthy life span by preventing the onset of a liver cancer, muscle mass loss, and earlier incidence of cataracts. Also, a diet based on Avenanthramides enhances glutathione peroxidase activity in heart and skeletal muscles, protecting the organism from oxidative damages.

text: Avenanthramides extracted from oats show potent antioxidant properties in vitro and in vivo, and according to studies made by Dimberg (1992), its antioxidant activity is many times greater than other antioxidants such as

text: caffeic acid

text: and

text: vanillin

text: . Aven-C is one of the most significant avenanthramides present in the oats, and it is responsible for oats' antioxidant activity. The effects of the Avenanthramide-enriched extract of oats has been investigated in animals, and a diet of 20 mg Avenanthramide per kilogram body weight in rats has been shown to increase the

text: superoxide dismutase

text: (SOD) activity in skeletal muscle, liver, and kidneys, destroying harmful free radicals in the body and ensuring a long healthy life span by preventing the onset of a liver cancer, muscle mass loss, and earlier incidence of cataracts. Also, a diet based on Avenanthramides enhances

text: glutathione peroxidase

text: activity in heart and skeletal muscles, protecting the organism from oxidative damages.

text: In the mastaba were found the skeletal remains of a man over 1.87m (1870mm) tall. According to Charles S. Myers, this stature was considerably higher than the 1.67m (1670mm) average of later and prehistoric Egyptians. The specimen's skull was very large and capacious. Although his cranial index was unusually broad and almost brachycephalic, the proportions of his long bones were tropically adapted like those of most other ancient Egyptians; especially those from the predynastic period. His overall cranial features, however, were closer to those of dynastic period Egyptian skulls.

text: In the mastaba were found the skeletal remains of a man over 1.87m (1870mm) tall. According to

text: Charles S. Myers

text: , this stature was considerably higher than the 1.67m (1670mm) average of later and prehistoric Egyptians. The specimen's skull was very large and capacious. Although his

text: cranial index

text: was unusually broad and almost brachycephalic, the proportions of his long bones were tropically adapted like those of most other ancient Egyptians; especially those from the predynastic period. His overall cranial features, however, were closer to those of dynastic period Egyptian skulls.

text: Circulatory capacity is partially determined by functional mass of the heart and spleen. Once the oxygen has entered the bloodstream it must be transported to working muscle and waste products removed. The equine cardiovascular system is hugely compliant with a heart rate range from 20 to 240 beats per minute and a splenic red cell reserve able to double packed cell volume and oxygen delivery during maximal exercise. However, studies on Thoroughbreds have shown that the proportion of skeletal muscle exceeds 50% of body weight, and so the energetic capacity of the muscular system far exceeds the capacity of the cardiovascular system to deliver oxygen.

text: Circulatory capacity is partially determined by functional mass of the heart and spleen. Once the oxygen has entered the bloodstream it must be transported to working muscle and waste products removed. The equine cardiovascular system is hugely compliant with a heart rate range from 20 to 240 beats per minute and a splenic red cell reserve able to double packed cell volume and oxygen delivery during maximal exercise. However, studies on

text: Thoroughbred

text: s have shown that the proportion of skeletal muscle exceeds 50% of body weight, and so the energetic capacity of the muscular system far exceeds the capacity of the cardiovascular system to deliver oxygen.

text: Human skeletal remains most likely associated with the Middle Stone Age of South Africa were found in Border Cave. The two human remains consisted of the partial cranium of an adult of approximately thirty years and the skeleton of an infant of about three months. Additionally, there were many other adult skeletal fragments found. Interestingly, these skeletal remains were found in an excavation of deposit focused on studying the agricultural purposes of Border Cave. This was when the initial skull and other adult fragments were found. After a second excavation focused on skeletal remains, the infant skeleton was found.

text: Representing a minority viewpoint among chiropractors that is shared by those known as reform chiropractors, the NACM advocated a highly limited use of spinal manipulative procedures "only for the treatment of some neuromusculoskeletal conditions of musculoskeletal origin," for example the treatment of "sore backs and other musculo-skeletal problems." By openly rejecting some of the more controversial aspects of chiropractic, including a basic concept of chiropractic, vertebral subluxations as the cause of all diseases. NACM members claimed to receive mainstream approval more so than practitioners of straight or mixing chiropractic.

text: Representing a minority viewpoint among chiropractors that is shared by those known as

text: reform chiropractors

text: , the NACM advocated a highly limited use of

text: spinal manipulative procedures

text: "only for the treatment of some neuromusculoskeletal conditions of

text: musculoskeletal

text: origin," for example the treatment of "sore backs and other musculo-skeletal problems." By openly rejecting some of the more controversial aspects of chiropractic, including a basic concept of chiropractic,

text: vertebral subluxation

text: s as the cause of all diseases. NACM members claimed to receive mainstream approval more so than practitioners of

text: straight

text: or

text: mixing

text: chiropractic.

text: Prevention of osteoporosis includes a proper diet during childhood and efforts to avoid medications that cause the condition. Efforts to prevent broken bones in those with osteoporosis include a good diet, exercise, and fall prevention. Lifestyle changes such as stopping smoking and not drinking alcohol may help. Medication of the bisphosphonate type are useful in those with previous broken bones due to osteoporosis. In those with osteoporosis but no previous broken bones they are less effective. A number of other medications may also be useful.

text: Prevention of osteoporosis includes a proper diet during childhood and efforts to avoid medications that cause the condition. Efforts to prevent broken bones in those with osteoporosis include a good diet, exercise, and

text: fall prevention

text: . Lifestyle changes such as stopping smoking and not drinking alcohol may help. Medication of the

text: bisphosphonate

text: type are useful in those with previous broken bones due to osteoporosis. In those with osteoporosis but no previous broken bones they are less effective. A number of other medications may also be useful.

text: Teriparatide ( a recombinant parathyroid hormone ) has been shown to be effective in treatment of women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. Some evidence also indicates strontium ranelate is effective in decreasing the risk of vertebral and nonvertebral fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Hormone replacement therapy, while effective for osteoporosis, is only recommended in women who also have menopausal symptoms. Raloxifene, while effective in decreasing vertebral fractures, does not affect the risk of nonvertebral fracture. And while it reduces the risk of breast cancer, it increases the risk of blood clots and strokes. Denosumab is also effective for preventing osteoporotic fractures. In hypogonadal men, testosterone has been shown to improve bone quantity and quality, but, as of 2008, no studies evaluated its effect on fracture risk or in men with a normal testosterone levels. Calcitonin while once recommended is no longer due to the associated risk of cancer with its use and questionable effect on fracture risk.

text: Teriparatide

text: ( a

text: recombinant

text: parathyroid hormone ) has been shown to be effective in treatment of women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. Some evidence also indicates

text: strontium ranelate

text: is effective in decreasing the risk of vertebral and nonvertebral fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Hormone replacement therapy, while effective for osteoporosis, is only recommended in women who also have menopausal symptoms.

text: Raloxifene

text: , while effective in decreasing vertebral fractures, does not affect the risk of nonvertebral fracture. And while it reduces the risk of

text: breast cancer

text: , it increases the risk of

text: blood clots

text: and

text: stroke

text: s.

text: Denosumab

text: is also effective for preventing osteoporotic fractures. In hypogonadal men, testosterone has been shown to improve bone quantity and quality, but, as of 2008, no studies evaluated its effect on fracture risk or in men with a normal testosterone levels.

text: Calcitonin

text: while once recommended is no longer due to the associated risk of

text: cancer

text: with its use and questionable effect on fracture risk.

text: Moreover, average ankle sprains for the general U.S. population are estimated at 5-7 ankle sprains for every 1000 person-years; however a study showed that for military cadets’ incidences for ankle sprains were about 10 times those of the general population

text: Economic effects of hydraulic fracturing include increases in jobs and by extension and increases in business. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that it is unclear on a local level how and for how long hydraulic fracturing affects a community economically. It is hypothesized that hydraulic fracturing may not provide jobs to local communities due to the specialized nature of hydraulic fracturing tasks. Also, communities’ local resources could potentially be taxed due to the increase in industry traffic or if an accident occurs.

text: Economic effects of hydraulic fracturing include increases in jobs and by extension and increases in business. The

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

text: states that it is unclear on a local level how and for how long hydraulic fracturing affects a community economically. It is hypothesized that hydraulic fracturing may not provide jobs to local communities due to the specialized nature of hydraulic fracturing tasks. Also, communities’ local resources could potentially be taxed due to the increase in industry traffic or if an accident occurs.

text: Conditions for which ultrasound may be used for treatment include the follow examples: ligament sprains, muscle strains, tendonitis, joint inflammation, plantar fasciitis, metatarsalgia, facet irritation, impingement syndrome, bursitis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and scar tissue adhesion.

text: Conditions for which ultrasound may be used for treatment include the follow examples: ligament

text: sprain

text: s, muscle

text: strains

text: tendonitis

text: , joint inflammation,

text: plantar fasciitis

text: metatarsalgia

text: , facet irritation,

text: impingement syndrome

text: bursitis

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: osteoarthritis

text: , and scar tissue adhesion.

text: Movements - especially twisting, turning, and rolling of the foot - are the primary cause of an ankle sprain.

text: Curiously, in the mdx mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, the lack of dystrophin is associated with increased calcium levels and skeletal muscle myonecrosis. The intrinsic laryngeal muscles (ILMs) are protected and do not undergo myonecrosis. ILMs have a calcium regulation system profile suggestive of a better ability to handle calcium changes in comparison to outher muscles, and this may provide a mechanistic insight for their unique pathophysiological properties. The ILM may facilitate the development of novel strategies for the prevention and treatment of muscle wasting in a variety of clinical scenarios.

text: Curiously, in the

text: mdx

text: mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, the lack of dystrophin is associated with increased calcium levels and skeletal muscle myonecrosis. The

text: intrinsic laryngeal muscles

text: (ILMs) are protected and do not undergo myonecrosis. ILMs have a calcium regulation system profile suggestive of a better ability to handle calcium changes in comparison to outher muscles, and this may provide a mechanistic insight for their unique pathophysiological properties. The ILM may facilitate the development of novel strategies for the prevention and treatment of muscle wasting in a variety of clinical scenarios.

text: Skeletal striated muscle, or Voluntary muscle, primarily links to bone through tendon, thus enabling through levers of the bones of the human skeleton posturing, upright stance under atmospheric pressure, and voluntary movements.

text: Skeletal striated muscle

text: , or Voluntary muscle, primarily links to bone through tendon, thus enabling through levers of the bones of the human skeleton posturing, upright stance under atmospheric pressure, and voluntary movements.

text: To prevent a key from being guessed, keys need to be generated truly randomly and contain sufficient entropy. The problem of how to safely generate truly random keys is difficult, and has been addressed in many ways by various cryptographic systems. There is a RFC on generating randomness (RFC 4086, Randomness Requirements for Security). Some operating systems include tools for "collecting" entropy from the timing of unpredictable operations such as disk drive head movements. For the production of small amounts of keying material, ordinary dice provide a good source of high quality randomness.

text: To prevent a key from being guessed, keys need to be generated truly

text: random

text: ly and contain sufficient

text: entropy

text: . The problem of how to safely generate truly random keys is difficult, and has been addressed in many ways by various cryptographic systems. There is a

text: RFC

text: on

text: generating randomness

text: (RFC 4086, Randomness Requirements for Security). Some operating systems include tools for "collecting" entropy from the timing of unpredictable operations such as

text: disk drive

text: head movements. For the production of small amounts of keying material, ordinary

text: dice

text: provide a good source of high quality randomness.

text: Down Beat critic John Ephland commented that "there is indeed a sense of adventure, of taking chances with so much talent, and with such skeletal designs", adding that "Big Fun reinforces the notion that Miles' primary contributions to music have come via orchestrating, organizing, enabling. How this music was put together proves to be as interesting as any solo or ensemble work [...] Incidentally, the digital sound quality is consistently high throughout".

text: Down Beat

text: critic John Ephland commented that "there is indeed a sense of adventure, of taking chances with so much talent, and with such skeletal designs", adding that "Big Fun reinforces the notion that Miles' primary contributions to music have come via orchestrating, organizing, enabling. How this music was put together proves to be as interesting as any solo or ensemble work [...] Incidentally, the digital sound quality is consistently high throughout".

text: While their cell bodies are found in the central nervous system (CNS), α motor neurons are also considered part of the somatic nervous system—a branch of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)—because their axons extend into the periphery to innervate skeletal muscles.

text: While their

text: cell bodies

text: are found in the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), α motor neurons are also considered part of the

text: somatic nervous system

text: —a branch of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS)—because their

text: axon

text: s extend into the periphery to innervate

text: skeletal muscle

text: s.

text: Ankle sprains can occur through either sports or activities of daily living, and individuals can be at higher or lower risk depending on a variety of circumstances including their homeland, race, age, sex, or profession    In addition, there are different types of ankle sprains such as eversion ankle sprains and inversion ankle sprains.  Overall, the most common type of ankle sprain to occur is an inversion ankle sprain, where excessive plantar flexion and supination cause the anterior talofibular ligament to be affected.  A study showed that for a population of Scandinavians, inversion ankle sprains accounted for 85% of all ankle sprains  Most ankle sprains occur in more active people, such as athletes and regular exercisers.

text: Ankle sprains can occur through either sports or activities of daily living, and individuals can be at higher or lower risk depending on a variety of circumstances including their homeland, race, age, sex, or profession    In addition, there are different types of ankle sprains such as eversion ankle sprains and inversion ankle sprains.  Overall, the most common type of ankle sprain to occur is an inversion ankle sprain, where excessive

text: plantar flexion

text: and

text: supination

text: cause the

text: anterior talofibular ligament

text: to be affected.  A study showed that for a population of

text: Scandinavia

text: ns,

text: inversion

text: ankle sprains accounted for 85% of all ankle sprains  Most ankle sprains occur in more active people, such as athletes and regular exercisers.

text: Stephan was born and grew up in Nehren, a small village close to Tübingen, Germany. He received his M.Sc. in geology from Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, then went on to receive his Ph.D. in geology from Australian National University. Later, he was a postdoctoral research fellow at Cornell and Stanford University. From 1996 to 2000 he was employed at the ETH Zurich. From 2001 to 2008 he was Governor's Lecturer at Imperial College London. During his time at Cornell he originated CSMP++, a finite element-finite volume software to solve partial differential equations involved with fluid flow in porous media and fractures.Matthai is an expert on multiphase fluid flow in naturally fractured reservoirs, reservoir characterization and discrete fracture-matrix systems.

text: Stephan was born and grew up in Nehren, a small village close to Tübingen, Germany. He received his M.Sc. in geology from

text: Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen

text: , then went on to receive his Ph.D. in geology from

text: Australian National University

text: . Later, he was a postdoctoral research fellow at

text: Cornell

text: and

text: Stanford University

text: . From 1996 to 2000 he was employed at the

text: ETH Zurich

text: . From 2001 to 2008 he was Governor's Lecturer at

text: Imperial College London

text: . During his time at Cornell he originated CSMP++, a finite element-finite volume software to solve

text: partial differential equation

text: s involved with

text: fluid flow

text: in porous media and fractures.Matthai is an expert on

text: multiphase fluid flow

text: in naturally

text: fractured

text: reservoirs, reservoir characterization and discrete fracture-matrix systems.

text: Kyle Orton (8/14 for 108 yards) left the game in the second quarter with a sprained right ankle.

text: During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass.  This condition is called "sarcopenia", and may be distinct from atrophy in its pathophysiology.  While the exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, it may be induced by a combination of a gradual failure in the "satellite cells" which help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors which are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival.

text: During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass.  This condition is called "

text: sarcopenia

text: ", and may be distinct from atrophy in its pathophysiology.  While the exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, it may be induced by a combination of a gradual failure in the "

text: satellite cells

text: " which help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors which are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival.

text: In the European Union 1 Billion € flagship Human Brain Project, simulated brains are being built. The Roboy team, in close collaboration with the head of the Neurorobotics part of the project, Prof. Alois Knoll from the Technical University of Munich, provides a basis for the robots to be used in the project. Muscolo-skeletal systems are natural partners for brains as they evolved together. Their goals are to find insights on how to control complex soft robots and also to bring virtual brains into physical reality.

text: In the European Union 1 Billion € flagship

text: Human Brain Project

text: , simulated brains are being built. The Roboy team, in close collaboration with the head of the Neurorobotics part of the project, Prof. Alois Knoll from the

text: Technical University of Munich

text: , provides a basis for the robots to be used in the project. Muscolo-skeletal systems are natural partners for brains as they evolved together. Their goals are to find insights on how to control complex soft robots and also to bring virtual brains into physical reality.

text: Skeletal muscles are sensitive to physiological stress, as exercise can impair ER homeostasis. This causes the expression of ER chaperones to be induced by the UPR in response to the exercise-induced ER stress. Muscular contraction during exercise causes calcium to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), a specialized ER network in skeletal muscles. This calcium then interacts with calcineurin and calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinases that in turn activate transcription factors. These transcription factors then proceed to alter the expression of exercise-regulated muscle genes. PGC-1alpha, a transcriptional coactivator, is a key transcription factor involved in mediating the UPR in a tissue-specific manner in skeletal muscles by coactivating ATF6alpha. Therefore, PGC-1alpha gets expressed in muscles after acute and long-term exercise training. The function of this transcription factor is to increase the number and function of mitochondria, as well as to induce a switch of skeletal fibers to slow oxidative muscle fibers, as these are fatigue-resistant. Therefore, this UPR pathway mediates changes in muscles that have undergone endurance training by making them more resistant to fatigue and protecting them from future stress.

text: Skeletal muscles are sensitive to physiological stress, as exercise can impair ER homeostasis. This causes the expression of ER chaperones to be induced by the UPR in response to the exercise-induced

text: ER stress

text: . Muscular contraction during exercise causes calcium to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), a specialized ER network in skeletal muscles. This calcium then interacts with calcineurin and calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinases that in turn activate transcription factors. These transcription factors then proceed to alter the expression of exercise-regulated muscle genes. PGC-1alpha, a transcriptional coactivator, is a key transcription factor involved in mediating the UPR in a tissue-specific manner in skeletal muscles by coactivating ATF6alpha. Therefore, PGC-1alpha gets expressed in muscles after acute and long-term exercise training. The function of this transcription factor is to increase the number and function of mitochondria, as well as to induce a switch of skeletal fibers to slow oxidative muscle fibers, as these are fatigue-resistant. Therefore, this UPR pathway mediates changes in muscles that have undergone endurance training by making them more resistant to fatigue and protecting them from future stress.

text: Estazolam (desmethylalprazolam, marketed under the brand names ProSom, Eurodin) is a benzodiazepine derivative drug developed by Upjohn in the 1970s. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. Estazolam is an intermediate-acting oral benzodiazepine.

text: Estazolam (desmethylalprazolam, marketed under the brand names ProSom, Eurodin) is a

text: benzodiazepine

text: derivative

text: drug developed by Upjohn in the 1970s. It possesses

text: anxiolytic

text: anticonvulsant

text: sedative

text: and

text: skeletal muscle relaxant

text: properties. Estazolam is an intermediate-acting oral benzodiazepine.

text: Nerves that control skeletal muscles in mammals correspond with neuron groups along the primary motor cortex of the brain's cerebral cortex. Commands are routed though the basal ganglia and are modified by input from the cerebellum before being relayed through the pyramidal tract to the spinal cord and from there to the motor end plate at the muscles. Along the way, feedback, such as that of the extrapyramidal system contribute signals to influence muscle tone and response.

text: Nerves that control skeletal muscles in

text: mammal

text: s correspond with neuron groups along the

text: primary motor cortex

text: of the brain's

text: cerebral cortex

text: . Commands are routed though the

text: basal ganglia

text: and are modified by input from the

text: cerebellum

text: before being relayed through the

text: pyramidal tract

text: to the

text: spinal cord

text: and from there to the

text: motor end plate

text: at the muscles. Along the way, feedback, such as that of the

text: extrapyramidal system

text: contribute signals to influence

text: muscle tone

text: and response.

text: Beaubois missed Game 1 against Portland due to a foot sprain. He also missed Games 2–5.

text: Casseus suffers from polyostotic fibrous dysplasia, a genetic condition in which the bone structure is replaced by connective tissue. This condition affects more than one bone in the body, impairs skeletal growth and development, and can cause deformity. The growth started when she was three years old, and by age 13, had continued to advance until her facial features were completely disfigured.

text: Casseus suffers from

text: polyostotic fibrous dysplasia

text: , a genetic condition in which the bone structure is replaced by connective tissue. This condition affects more than one bone in the body, impairs skeletal growth and development, and can cause deformity. The growth started when she was three years old, and by age 13, had continued to advance until her facial features were completely disfigured.

text: Weight-bearing endurance exercise and/or exercises to strengthen muscles improve bone strength in those with osteoporosis. Aerobics, weight bearing, and resistance exercises all maintain or increase BMD in postmenopausal women. Fall prevention can help prevent osteoporosis complications. There is some evidence for hip protectors specifically among those who are in care homes.

text: Weight-bearing endurance exercise and/or exercises to strengthen muscles improve bone strength in those with osteoporosis. Aerobics, weight bearing, and resistance exercises all maintain or increase

text: BMD

text: in postmenopausal women.

text: Fall prevention

text: can help prevent osteoporosis complications. There is some evidence for

text: hip protector

text: s specifically among those who are in care homes.

text: Stereochemistry is conveniently denoted in skeletal formulae:

text: Stereochemistry

text: is conveniently denoted in skeletal formulae:

text: As mentioned above, numerous studies have utilized the Robert J. Terry Collection for research and development of skeletal identification techniques. A vast majority have been aimed at advancing forensic anthropology and its methodologies for identification through various aspects of skeletal anatomy. One of the most well known of these studies was performed by Mildred Trotter and Goldine Gleser in 1952. Trotter and Gleser utilized the Terry Collection to create stature estimation formulas for American Whites and Negroes utilizing the long bones of the arm (humerus, radius, and ulna) and of the leg (femur, tibia, and fibula). This was achieved by taking measurements of all of the aforementioned bones and creating regression formulas from the taken measurements. The result was a number of formulas that allow for accurate estimation of the living stature of both American White and African-American males and females from dry bone.

text: Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita (abbreviated to SED more often than SDC) is a rare disorder of bone growth that results in dwarfism, characteristic skeletal abnormalities, and occasionally problems with vision and hearing. The name of the condition indicates that it affects the bones of the spine (spondylo-) and the ends of bones (epiphyses), and that it is present from birth (congenital). The signs and symptoms of spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita are similar to, but milder than, the related skeletal disorders achondrogenesis type 2 and hypochondrogenesis. Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita is a subtype of collagenopathy, types II and XI.

text: Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita (abbreviated to SED more often than SDC) is a rare disorder of

text: bone

text: growth that results in

text: dwarfism

text: , characteristic skeletal abnormalities, and occasionally problems with

text: vision

text: and

text: hearing

text: . The name of the condition indicates that it affects the bones of the

text: spine

text: (spondylo-) and the ends of bones (

text: epiphyses

text: ), and that it is present from birth (

text: congenital

text: ). The signs and symptoms of spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita are similar to, but milder than, the related skeletal disorders

text: achondrogenesis type 2

text: and

text: hypochondrogenesis

text: . Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita is a subtype of

text: collagenopathy, types II and XI

text: The hair, teeth, and skeletal side effects of TDO are lifelong, and treatment is used to manage those effects.  A person with TDO has the same life expectancy as a person without TDO.  There are no cures or medications used to treat systemic effects of TDO, but medications for the frequent ear and dental infections can be used to manage its symptoms. A team based approach between dental specialists, oral and maxillofacial surgeons, and physicians is necessary for treating the systemic effects and improves the prognosis. It is also recommended for affected individuals to seek counseling to be better able to cope with any psychosocial problems due to oral and facial abnormalities that occur with TDO.

text: The female skeletal system is less dense, and more prone to breakages. There is also a concern that, in aviation, the female body is not as adept at handling the increased g-forces experienced by combat pilots. However, there is evidence that the male body is less able to handle the g-forces than the female body with regard to black outs: women are less likely to black out due to shorter blood vessel routes in the neck. Furthermore, health issues regarding women are argued as the reason that some submarine services avoid accepting women, although mixed-gender accommodations in a small space is also an issue, as is explained in more depth below.

text: The female skeletal system is less dense, and more prone to breakages. There is also a concern that, in aviation, the female body is not as adept at handling the increased

text: g-force

text: s experienced by combat pilots. However, there is evidence that the male body is less able to handle the g-forces than the female body with regard to black outs: women are less likely to black out due to shorter blood vessel routes in the neck. Furthermore, health issues regarding women are argued as the reason that some submarine services avoid accepting women, although mixed-gender accommodations in a small space is also an issue, as is explained in more depth below.

text: The terms "back mitre" and "mason's mitre" (or "miter") are often used interchangeably, but are actually different joints, used for different purposes. Both joints are traditionally used in stone or woodwork. Neither joint requires that one part be coped (or fit) over the other.  In the back mitre, the actual joints follow the mitre and stile/rail joining lines. In the mason's mitre, the intersecting mouldings are carved within a single stone block or the woodwork's stile, with the rail or adjacent block having a straight profile.

text: The terms "back mitre" and "mason's mitre" (or "miter") are often used interchangeably, but are actually different joints, used for different purposes. Both joints are traditionally used in stone or woodwork. Neither joint requires that one part be

text: coped

text: (or fit) over the other.  In the back mitre, the actual joints follow the mitre and

text: stile

text: /rail joining lines. In the mason's mitre, the intersecting

text: mouldings

text: are carved within a single stone block or the woodwork's stile, with the rail or adjacent block having a straight profile.

text: "Tonouchisaurus" (meaning "Tonouchi lizard") is the informal name given to an as yet undescribed genus of dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous Period. It was a theropod which lived in what is now Mongolia. The suggested "type species", "Tonouchisaurus mongoliensis", was coined by Barsbold in 1994. It was notably small: less than three feet in length. It may have been a tyrannosaurid, judging by the known skeletal elements, which include only limb bones. These limb bones include "a complete didactyl manus and complete pes, as well as other limb bones" (Olshevsky 1996).

text: "Tonouchisaurus" (meaning "Tonouchi lizard") is the

text: informal name

text: given to an as yet undescribed

text: genus

text: of

text: dinosaur

text: from the Early

text: Cretaceous

text: Period

text: . It was a

text: theropod

text: which lived in what is now

text: Mongolia

text: . The suggested "

text: type species

text: ", "Tonouchisaurus mongoliensis", was coined by

text: Barsbold

text: in 1994. It was notably small: less than three feet in length. It may have been a

text: tyrannosaurid

text: , judging by the known skeletal elements, which include only limb bones. These limb bones include "a complete didactyl

text: manus

text: and complete

text: pes

text: , as well as other limb bones" (

text: Olshevsky

text: The first two performances were canceled after Manson sprained his ankle during the final Beautiful Monsters show in Los Angeles and rescheduled for later dates.

text: Opsismodysplasia is a type of skeletal dysplasia (a bone disease that interferes with bone development) first described by Zonana and associates in 1977, and designated under its current name by Maroteaux (1984). Derived from the Greek opsismos ("late"), the name "opsismodysplasia" describes a delay in bone maturation. In addition to this delay, the disorder is characterized by micromelia (short or undersized bones), particularly of the hands and feet, delay of ossification (bone cell formation), platyspondyly (flattened vertebrae), irregular metaphyses, an array of facial aberrations and respiratory distress related to chronic infection. Opsismodysplasia is congenital, being apparent at birth. It has a variable mortality, with some affected individuals living to adulthood. The disorder is rare, with an incidence of less than 1 per 1,000,000 worldwide. It is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern, which means the defective (mutated) gene that causes the disorder is located on an autosome, and the disorder occurs when two copies of this defective gene are inherited. No specific gene has been found to be associated with the disorder. It is similar to spondylometaphyseal dysplasia, Sedaghatian type.<ref name=oaur>{{Cite journal | last1 = Tyler | first1 = K. | last2 = Sarioglu | first2 = N. | last3 = Kunze | first3 = J. | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(19990305)83:1

text: Opsismodysplasia is a type of

text: skeletal dysplasia

text: (a bone disease that interferes with bone development) first described by Zonana and associates in 1977, and designated under its current name by Maroteaux (1984). Derived from the

text: Greek

text: opsismos ("late"), the name "opsismodysplasia" describes a delay in

text: bone maturation

text: . In addition to this delay, the disorder is characterized by

text: micromelia

text: (short or undersized bones), particularly of the hands and feet, delay of

text: ossification

text: (bone cell formation),

text: platyspondyly

text: (flattened

text: vertebrae

text: ), irregular

text: metaphyses

text: , an array of facial aberrations and

text: respiratory distress

text: related to chronic

text: infection

text: . Opsismodysplasia is

text: congenital

text: , being apparent at birth. It has a variable mortality, with some affected individuals living to adulthood. The disorder is

text: rare

text: , with an incidence of less than 1 per 1,000,000 worldwide. It is inherited in an

text: autosomal

text: recessive

text: pattern, which means the defective (mutated) gene that causes the disorder is

text: located

text: on an

text: autosome

text: , and the disorder occurs when two copies of this defective gene are inherited. No specific gene has been found to be associated with the disorder. It is similar to

text: spondylometaphyseal dysplasia, Sedaghatian type

text: .<ref name=oaur>{{Cite journal | last1 = Tyler | first1 = K. | last2 = Sarioglu | first2 = N. | last3 = Kunze | first3 = J. | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(19990305)83:1

text: As a child grows the epiphyses become calcified and appear on the x-rays, as do the carpal and tarsal bones of the hands and feet, separated on the x-rays by a layer of invisible cartilage where most of the growth is occurring. As sex steroid levels rise during puberty, bone maturation accelerates. As growth nears conclusion and attainment of adult height, bones begin to approach the size and shape of adult bones. The remaining cartilaginous portions of the epiphyses become thinner. As these cartilaginous zones become obliterated, the epiphyses are said to be "closed" and no further lengthening of the bones will occur. A small amount of spinal growth concludes an adolescent's growth.

text: As a child grows the epiphyses become calcified and appear on the x-rays, as do the carpal and tarsal bones of the

text: hand

text: s and feet, separated on the x-rays by a layer of invisible

text: cartilage

text: where most of the growth is occurring. As

text: sex steroid

text: levels rise during puberty, bone maturation accelerates. As growth nears conclusion and attainment of adult height, bones begin to approach the size and shape of adult bones. The remaining cartilaginous portions of the epiphyses become thinner. As these cartilaginous zones become obliterated, the epiphyses are said to be "

text: closed

text: " and no further lengthening of the bones will occur. A small amount of spinal growth concludes an adolescent's growth.

text: Heart muscles are distinct from skeletal muscles because the muscle fibers are laterally connected to each other. Furthermore, just as with smooth muscles, their movement is involuntary. Heart muscles are controlled by the sinus node influenced by the autonomic nervous system.

text: Heart muscles are distinct from skeletal muscles because the

text: muscle fibers

text: are laterally connected to each other. Furthermore, just as with smooth muscles, their movement is involuntary. Heart muscles are controlled by the

text: sinus node

text: influenced by the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: The bony structures can provide a much better stability and reproducibility of the landmarks for patient registration. Based on this concept, a further technique was used: to implant temporary markers into bone structures that are superficial to the skin, under local anestesia. This was also combined with surface markers and CT registration. The technique has the disadvantage of a further minimal surgical procedure of placing the bone implants, with some risk of infection for the patient.

text: When a mineral is broken in a direction that does not correspond to a plane of cleavage, it is termed to have been fractured. There are several types of uneven fracture. The classic example is conchoidal fracture, like that of quartz; rounded surfaces are created, which are marked by smooth curved lines. This type of fracture occurs only in very homogeneous minerals. Other types of fracture are fibrous, splintery, and hackly. The latter describes a break along a rough, jagged surface; an example of this property is found in native copper.

text: When a mineral is broken in a direction that does not correspond to a plane of cleavage, it is termed to have been fractured. There are several types of uneven fracture. The classic example is conchoidal fracture, like that of quartz; rounded surfaces are created, which are marked by smooth curved lines. This type of fracture occurs only in very homogeneous minerals. Other types of fracture are fibrous, splintery, and hackly. The latter describes a break along a rough, jagged surface; an example of this property is found in

text: native copper

text: Passive-dynamic systems cite low power consumption, high durability, and low cost.  The design is based on the skeletal structure of the human body, consisting of two legs with hip, knee, and ankle joints, each representing 1 degree of freedom (DOF).  Movement is accomplished with the aid of gravity (walking down a slope) or by minimal  actuation to enable the machine to walk on level ground.  SIGMO was developed using proven methods of gravity-driven passive dynamic bipeds.  Small actuators were added to the legs to provide walking capability on level ground.

text: Passive-dynamic systems cite low power consumption, high durability, and low cost.  The design is based on the skeletal structure of the

text: human body

text: , consisting of two legs with hip, knee, and ankle joints, each representing 1

text: degree of freedom

text: (DOF).  Movement is accomplished with the aid of

text: gravity

text: (walking down a slope) or by minimal  actuation to enable the machine to walk on level ground.  SIGMO was developed using proven methods of gravity-driven passive dynamic bipeds.  Small actuators were added to the legs to provide walking capability on level ground.

text: Galeazzi fractures are best treated with open reduction of the radius and the distal radio-ulnar joint. It has been called the "fracture of necessity," because it necessitates open surgical treatment in the adult. Nonsurgical treatment results in persistent or recurrent dislocations of the distal ulna. However, in skeletally immature patients such as children, the fracture is typically treated with closed reduction.

text: Galeazzi fractures are best treated with open reduction of the radius and the distal

text: radio-ulnar joint

text: . It has been called the "fracture of necessity," because it necessitates open surgical treatment in the adult. Nonsurgical treatment results in persistent or recurrent dislocations of the distal ulna. However, in skeletally immature patients such as

text: children

text: , the fracture is typically treated with closed reduction.

text: Sweroside is an iridoid glycoside, found also in the fruits of Cornus officinalis and plant material of Gentiana lutea, with anti-osteoporosis and wound-healing properties.

text: Sweroside

text: is an

text: iridoid

text: glycoside

text: , found also in the fruits of

text: Cornus officinalis

text: and plant material of

text: Gentiana lutea

text: , with anti-

text: osteoporosis

text: and wound-healing properties.

text: The term "established osteoporosis" is used when a broken bone due to osteoporosis has occurred. Osteoporosis is a part of frailty syndrome.

text: The term "established osteoporosis" is used when a

text: broken bone due to osteoporosis

text: has occurred. Osteoporosis is a part of

text: frailty syndrome

text: Virtual entities may contain and be controlled by assorted attributes, such as transform values (location, orientation, and scale) stored in an object's transformation matrix. Animation is the change of an attribute over time. Multiple methods of achieving animation exist; the rudimentary form is based on the creation and editing of keyframes, each storing a value at a given time, per attribute to be animated. The 2D/3D graphics software will change with each keyframe, creating an editable curve of a value mapped over time, in which results in animation. Other methods of animation include procedural and expression-based techniques: the former consolidates related elements of animated entities into sets of attributes, useful for creating particle effects and crowd simulations; the latter allows an evaluated result returned from a user-defined logical expression, coupled with mathematics, to automate animation in a predictable way (convenient for controlling bone behavior beyond what a hierarchy offers in skeletal system set up).

text: Virtual entities may contain and be controlled by assorted attributes, such as transform values (location, orientation, and scale) stored in an object's

text: transformation matrix

text: . Animation is the change of an attribute over time. Multiple methods of achieving animation exist; the rudimentary form is based on the creation and editing of

text: keyframe

text: s, each storing a value at a given time, per attribute to be animated. The 2D/3D graphics software will change with each keyframe, creating an editable curve of a value mapped over time, in which results in animation. Other methods of animation include

text: procedural

text: and

text: expression

text: -based techniques: the former consolidates related elements of animated entities into sets of attributes, useful for creating

text: particle

text: effects and

text: crowd simulation

text: s; the latter allows an evaluated result returned from a user-defined logical expression, coupled with mathematics, to automate animation in a predictable way (convenient for controlling bone behavior beyond what a

text: hierarchy

text: offers in

text: skeletal system

text: set up).

text: It is made up of the bones of the skeleton, muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints, and other connective tissue that supports and binds tissues and organs together. The musculoskeletal system's primary functions include supporting the body, allowing motion, and protecting vital organs. The skeletal portion of the system serves as the main storage system for calcium and phosphorus and contains critical components of the hematopoietic system.

text: It is made up of the bones of the

text: skeleton

text: muscle

text: s,

text: cartilage

text: tendons

text: ligaments

text: joints

text: , and other

text: connective tissue

text: that supports and binds tissues and organs together. The musculoskeletal system's primary functions include supporting the body, allowing motion, and protecting vital organs. The skeletal portion of the system serves as the main storage system for

text: calcium

text: and

text: phosphorus

text: and contains critical components of the

text: hematopoietic system

text: , several components of the signaling cascade that mediate the HMB-induced increase in human skeletal muscle protein synthesis have been identified in vivo. Similar to ,

text: , several components of the

text: signaling cascade

text: that mediate the HMB-induced increase in human skeletal muscle protein synthesis have been identified

text: in vivo

text: . Similar to ,

text: Open reduction with direct skeletal fixation allows the bones to be directly mandibulated through an incision so that the fractured ends meet, then they can be secured together either rigidly (with screws or plates and screws) or non-rigidly (with transosseous wires).  There are a multitude of various plate and screw combinations including compression plates, non-compression plates, lag-screws, mini-plates and biodegradable plates.

text: Rac1 is expressed in significant amounts in insulin sensitive tissues, such as adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. Here Rac1 regulated the translocation of glucose transporting GLUT4 vesicles from intracellular compartments to the plasma membrane. In response to insulin, this allows for blood glucose to enter the cell to lower blood glucose. In conditions of obesity and type 2 diabetes, Rac1 signaling in skeletal muscle is dysfunctional, suggesting that Rac1 contributes to the progression of the disease. Rac1 protein is also necessary for glucose uptake in skeletal muscle activated by exercise  and muscle stretching

text: Rac1 is expressed in significant amounts in insulin sensitive tissues, such as adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. Here Rac1 regulated the translocation of glucose transporting

text: vesicles from intracellular compartments to the plasma membrane. In response to

text: insulin

text: , this allows for blood glucose to enter the cell to lower blood glucose. In conditions of

text: obesity

text: and

text: type 2 diabetes

text: , Rac1 signaling in skeletal muscle is dysfunctional, suggesting that Rac1 contributes to the progression of the disease. Rac1 protein is also necessary for glucose uptake in skeletal muscle activated by exercise  and muscle stretching

text: Osteoporosis is common in ankylosing spondylitis, both from chronic systemic inflammation and decreased mobility resulting from AS. Over a long-term period, osteopenia or osteoporosis of the AP spine may occur, causing eventual compression fractures and a back "hump". Hyperkyphosis from ankylosing spondylitis can also lead to impairment in mobility and balance, as well as impaired peripheral vision, which increases the risk of falls which can cause fracture of already-fragile vertebrae.  Typical signs of progressed AS are the visible formation of syndesmophytes on X-rays and abnormal bone outgrowths similar to osteophytes affecting the spine. In compression fractures of the vertebrae, paresthesia is a complication due to the inflammation of the tissue surrounding nerves.

text: Osteoporosis is common in ankylosing spondylitis, both from chronic systemic inflammation and decreased mobility resulting from AS. Over a long-term period,

text: osteopenia

text: or

text: osteoporosis

text: of the AP spine may occur, causing eventual compression fractures and a back "hump". Hyperkyphosis from ankylosing spondylitis can also lead to impairment in mobility and balance, as well as impaired peripheral vision, which increases the risk of falls which can cause fracture of already-fragile vertebrae.  Typical signs of progressed AS are the visible formation of

text: syndesmophyte

text: s on X-rays and abnormal bone outgrowths similar to

text: osteophyte

text: s affecting the spine. In compression fractures of the vertebrae,

text: paresthesia

text: is a complication due to the inflammation of the tissue surrounding nerves.

text: Following denervation, muscular atrophy and degeneration occurs within affected skeletal muscle tissue. Within the skeletal tissue is observable progressive loss of weight of denervated muscles as well as reduction in muscle fiber size and quantity. These muscles exhibit a slowing of contraction speed, a reduction of developed tension, and twitch force.

text: Up to 8 different types of animations can be assigned to a single object, including skeletal and per-vertex animation. The speed and the direction of animation (forward/backward play), as well as particle system parameters (size, initial velocity and count) can be changed though the API.

text: Up to 8 different types of animations can be assigned to a single object, including

text: skeletal

text: and

text: per-vertex

text: animation. The speed and the direction of animation (forward/backward play), as well as particle system parameters (size, initial velocity and count) can be changed though the

text: API

text: The prognosis after different treatments varies and is based on several factors which include the age of the patient, the affected joint, the stage of the lesion and, most importantly, the state of the growth plate. It follows that the two main forms of osteochondritis dissecans are defined by skeletal maturity. The juvenile form of the disease occurs in open growth plates, usually affecting children between the ages of 5 and 15 years. The adult form commonly occurs between ages 16 to 50, although it is unclear whether these adults developed the disease after skeletal maturity or were undiagnosed as children.

text: A Soft tissue injury (STI) is the damage of muscles, ligaments and tendons throughout the body. Common soft tissue injuries usually occur from a sprain, strain, a one off blow resulting in a contusion or overuse of a particular part of the body. Soft tissue injuries can result in pain, swelling, bruising and loss of function (Lovering, 2008)

text: A Soft tissue injury (STI) is the damage of

text: muscles

text: ligaments

text: and

text: tendons

text: throughout the body. Common

text: soft tissue

text: injuries usually occur from a

text: sprain

text: strain

text: , a one off blow resulting in a

text: contusion

text: or overuse of a particular part of the body. Soft tissue injuries can result in

text: pain

text: swelling

text: bruising

text: and loss of function (Lovering, 2008)

text: This technique is used by constructing a series of 'bones,' sometimes referred to as rigging. Each bone has a three-dimensional transformation (which includes its position, scale and orientation), and an optional parent bone. The bones therefore form a hierarchy. The full transform of a child node is the product of its parent transform and its own transform. So moving a thigh-bone will move the lower leg too. As the character is animated, the bones change their transformation over time, under the influence of some animation controller. A rig is generally composed of both forward kinematics and inverse kinematics parts that may interact with each other. Skeletal animation is referring to the forward kinematics part of the rig, where a complete set of bones configurations identifies a unique pose.

text: This technique is used by constructing a series of 'bones,' sometimes referred to as rigging. Each bone has a

text: three-dimensional transformation

text: (which includes its position, scale and orientation), and an optional parent bone. The bones therefore form a

text: hierarchy

text: . The full transform of a

text: child node

text: is the product of its parent transform and its own transform. So moving a thigh-bone will move the lower leg too. As the character is animated, the bones change their transformation over time, under the influence of some animation controller. A rig is generally composed of both

text: forward kinematics

text: and

text: inverse kinematics

text: parts that may interact with each other. Skeletal animation is referring to the

text: forward kinematics

text: part of the rig, where a complete set of bones configurations identifies a unique pose.

text: Further investigation into the mechanisms of heterotopic bone formation in FOP could aid in the development of treatments for other disorders involving extra-skeletal bone formation.

text: In 1994, a 28-year-old man with EIS was reported. He was fully masculinized. At 204 cm, he had tall stature. His epiphyses were unfused, and there was evidence of still-occurring slow linear growth (for comparison, his height at 16 years of age was 178 cm). He also had markedly delayed skeletal maturation (bone age 15 years), a severely undermineralized skeleton, evidence of increased bone resorption, and very early-onset osteoporosis. The genitalia, testes, and prostate of the patient were all normal and of normal size/volume. The sperm count of the patient was normal (25 million/mL; normal, >20 million/mL), but his sperm viability was low (18%; normal, >50%), indicating some degree of infertility. The patient also had early-onset temporal hair loss. He reported no history of gender identity disorder, considered himself to have strong heterosexual interests, and had normal sexual function, including morning erections and nocturnal emissions.

text: In 1994, a 28-year-old man with EIS was reported. He was fully masculinized. At 204 cm, he had

text: tall stature

text: . His

text: epiphyses

text: were unfused, and there was evidence of still-occurring slow linear growth (for comparison, his height at 16 years of age was 178 cm). He also had markedly delayed

text: skeletal maturation

text: bone age

text: 15 years), a severely undermineralized skeleton, evidence of increased

text: bone resorption

text: , and very early-onset

text: osteoporosis

text: . The

text: genitalia

text: testes

text: , and

text: prostate

text: of the patient were all normal and of normal size/volume. The

text: sperm count

text: of the patient was normal (25 million/mL; normal, >20 million/mL), but his

text: sperm viability

text: was low (18%; normal, >50%), indicating some degree of

text: infertility

text: . The patient also had early-onset

text: temporal hair loss

text: . He reported no history of

text: gender identity disorder

text: , considered himself to have strong

text: heterosexual

text: interests, and had normal

text: sexual function

text: , including

text: morning erection

text: s and

text: nocturnal emission

text: s.

text: In humans, it is provided by proprioceptors (muscle spindles) in skeletal striated muscles  and tendons (Golgi tendon organ) and the fibrous capsules in joints. It is distinguished from exteroception, by which one perceives the outside world, and interoception, by which one perceives pain, hunger, etc., and the movement of internal organs.

text: In humans, it is provided by proprioceptors (

text: muscle spindle

text: s) in

text: skeletal striated muscle

text: s  and

text: tendon

text: s (

text: Golgi tendon organ

text: ) and the fibrous capsules in

text: joint

text: s. It is distinguished from

text: exteroception

text: , by which one perceives the outside world, and

text: interoception

text: , by which one perceives pain, hunger, etc., and the movement of internal organs.

text: This area of the femur being an important pillar for weight bearing through the skeletal system is subject to comparatively high levels of dynamic stress, pathological strain, physiological strain and trauma. This area is prone to fractures due to high velocity trauma in the young and trivial trauma in the elderly. The fractures in this line are called intertrochantric fractures and are classified as per the pattern of the fracture geometry.

text: The Occupational Health Safety Network is a system developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to address health and safety risks among health care providers. Hospitals and other healthcare facilities can upload the occupational injury data they already collect to the secure database for analysis and benchmarking with other de-identified facilities from throughout the U.S. NIOSH works with OHSN participants in identifying and implementing timely and targeted interventions. OHSN modules currently focus on three high risk and preventable events that can lead to injuries or musculoskeletal disorders among healthcare providers: musculoskeletal injuries from patient handling activities; slips, trips, and falls; and workplace violence. Slips, trips, and falls are the second-most common cause of worker's compensation claims in the US, and cause 21% of work absences due to injury. These injuries most commonly result in strains and sprains; women, those older than 45, and those who have been working less than a year in a healthcare setting are at the highest risk.

text: The Occupational Health Safety Network is a system developed by the

entity_name: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

text: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)

text: to address health and safety risks among health care providers. Hospitals and other healthcare facilities can upload the occupational injury data they already collect to the secure database for analysis and benchmarking with other de-identified facilities from throughout the U.S. NIOSH works with OHSN participants in identifying and implementing timely and targeted interventions. OHSN modules currently focus on three high risk and preventable events that can lead to injuries or musculoskeletal disorders among healthcare providers: musculoskeletal injuries from patient handling activities; slips, trips, and falls; and workplace violence. Slips, trips, and falls are the second-most common cause of worker's compensation claims in the US, and cause 21% of work absences due to injury. These injuries most commonly result in

text: strain

text: s and

text: sprains

text: ; women, those older than 45, and those who have been working less than a year in a healthcare setting are at the highest risk.

text: In late September 2013, the San Diego County Medical Examiner's office released results of the autopsies of Christina and Ethan Anderson.  The autopsy of Christina Anderson found that a plastic cable tie had been used to bind her ankles, and that duct tape was wrapped around her neck and mouth. Her right arm and both legs were fractured, and there was a cut on her neck. She had been struck at least twelve times in the head. The autopsy of Ethan Anderson determined that the boy died because of the fire, though he also had skeletal fractures that could have been caused by events the day of the murders.

text: In late September 2013, the San Diego County

text: Medical Examiner

text: 's office released results of the

text: autopsies

text: of Christina and Ethan Anderson.  The autopsy of Christina Anderson found that a plastic cable tie had been used to bind her ankles, and that duct tape was wrapped around her neck and mouth. Her right arm and both legs were fractured, and there was a cut on her neck. She had been struck at least twelve times in the head. The autopsy of Ethan Anderson determined that the boy died because of the fire, though he also had skeletal fractures that could have been caused by events the day of the murders.

text: Myology is the study of the muscular system, including the study of the structure, function and diseases of muscle. The muscular system consists of skeletal muscle, which contracts to move or position parts of the body (e.g., the bones that articulate at joints), smooth and cardiac muscle that propels, expels or controls the flow of fluids and contained substance.

text: Myology is the study of the muscular system, including the study of the structure, function and

text: diseases

text: of

text: muscle

text: . The muscular system consists of

text: skeletal muscle

text: , which contracts to move or position parts of the body (e.g., the bones that articulate at joints),

text: smooth

text: and

text: cardiac muscle

text: that propels, expels or controls the flow of fluids and contained substance.

text: The hyphae are Dimitic, composed of binding or skeletal hyphae.   The skeletal hyphae is inflated and axial.

text: Drinking more than one drink a day for women or two drinks for men increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. Risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine. Long-term alcohol abuse can cause a number of physical symptoms, including cirrhosis of the liver, pancreatitis, epilepsy, polyneuropathy, alcoholic dementia, heart disease, nutritional deficiencies, peptic ulcers and sexual dysfunction, and can eventually be fatal. Other physical effects include an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, malabsorption, alcoholic liver disease, and cancer. Damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from sustained alcohol consumption. A wide range of immunologic defects can result and there may be a generalized skeletal fragility, in addition to a recognized tendency to accidental injury, resulting a propensity to bone fractures.

text: Drinking more than one drink a day for women or two drinks for men increases the risk of heart disease,

text: high blood pressure

text: atrial fibrillation

text: , and

text: stroke

text: . Risk is greater in younger people due to

text: binge drinking

text: which may result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine. Long-term alcohol abuse can cause a number of physical symptoms, including

text: cirrhosis

text: of the liver,

text: pancreatitis

text: epilepsy

text: polyneuropathy

text: alcoholic dementia

text: , heart disease, nutritional deficiencies,

text: peptic ulcers

text: and

text: sexual dysfunction

text: , and can eventually be fatal. Other physical effects include an increased risk of developing

text: cardiovascular disease

text: malabsorption

text: alcoholic liver disease

text: , and

text: cancer

text: . Damage to the

text: central nervous system

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: can occur from sustained alcohol consumption. A wide range of immunologic defects can result and there may be a generalized skeletal fragility, in addition to a recognized tendency to accidental injury, resulting a propensity to bone fractures.

text: Cal3D is a skeletal animation based 3D character animation library written in C++ in a platform-/graphic API-independent way. Originally designed to be used in a 3D client for Worldforge, it evolved into a stand-alone product which can be used in many different kinds of projects. It supports combining animations and actions through a "mixer" interface, and work is currently underway to integrate morph targets (interpolating between one mesh and another, using the same vertex sequence) easily into the system.

text: Cal3D is a

text: skeletal animation

text: based 3D character animation library written in

text: C++

text: in a platform-/graphic API-independent way. Originally designed to be used in a 3D client for

text: Worldforge

text: , it evolved into a stand-alone product which can be used in many different kinds of projects. It supports combining animations and actions through a "mixer" interface, and work is currently underway to integrate morph targets (interpolating between one mesh and another, using the same vertex sequence) easily into the system.

text: Osteochondrodysplasia or skeletal dysplasia is a general term for a disorder of the development (dysplasia) of bone ("osteo") and cartilage ("chondro").

text: Osteochondrodysplasia or skeletal dysplasia is a general term for a disorder of the development (

text: dysplasia

text: ) of

text: bone

text: ("osteo") and

text: cartilage

text: ("chondro").

text: Like other technologies for estimating the bone mineral density, the outputs are an areal BMD value, a T-score and a Z-score for assessing osteoporosis and the risk of bone fracture.

text: Like other technologies for estimating the bone mineral density, the outputs are an areal BMD value, a

text: T-score

text: and a

text: Z-score

text: for assessing

text: osteoporosis

text: and the risk of bone fracture.

text: Cardiac and skeletal muscles are "striated" in that they contain sarcomeres and are packed into highly regular arrangements of bundles; smooth muscle has neither. While skeletal muscles are arranged in regular, parallel bundles, cardiac muscle connects at branching, irregular angles (called intercalated discs). Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short, intense bursts, whereas smooth muscle sustains longer or even near-permanent contractions.

text: Cardiac and skeletal muscles are "striated" in that they contain

text: sarcomere

text: s and are packed into highly regular arrangements of bundles; smooth muscle has neither. While skeletal muscles are arranged in regular, parallel bundles, cardiac muscle connects at branching, irregular angles (called

text: intercalated disc

text: s). Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short, intense bursts, whereas smooth muscle sustains longer or even near-permanent contractions.

text: AARP has also shown to play a role in models of disease. AARP has also exhibited elevated expression following skeletal muscle denervation, persisting for four weeks following the insult. AARP (ANKRD2) gene expression was also shown to be rapidly induced in a model of eccentric contraction-related injury, showing peak expression (6-11 times normal value) within 12–24 hours following injury, suggesting that AARP may play a role in repair. In a mouse model of muscular dystrophy with myositis (mdm) caused by a small deletion in titin, ANKRD2 mRNA expression was shown to be significantly elevated in skeletal muscle tissue along with that of CARP, suggesting a role for AARP in titin-based signaling. Levels of AARP were also altered in a mouse model of diabetes.

text: AARP has also shown to play a role in models of disease. AARP has also exhibited elevated expression following

text: skeletal muscle

text: denervation

text: , persisting for four weeks following the insult. AARP (ANKRD2) gene expression was also shown to be rapidly induced in a model of

text: eccentric contraction

text: -related injury, showing peak expression (6-11 times normal value) within 12–24 hours following injury, suggesting that AARP may play a role in repair. In a mouse model of

text: muscular dystrophy

text: with

text: myositis

text: (mdm) caused by a small deletion in

text: titin

text: , ANKRD2

text: mRNA

text: expression was shown to be significantly elevated in

text: skeletal muscle

text: tissue along with that of

text: CARP

text: , suggesting a role for AARP in

text: titin

text: -based signaling. Levels of AARP were also altered in a mouse model of diabetes.

text: At one point the Yonkers Public Library operated four branch libraries.  Though Armour Villa Park closed (as superfluous) at about the same time that the Sprain Brook/Grinton I. Will branch opened, the Crestwood branch has always continued to operate.  And Sprain Brook and Crestwood were joined for a time by branch libraries in Coyne Park and in the Hudson River Museum (both now closed).

text: The Young-Burgess classification is a system of categorizing pelvic fractures based on fracture pattern, allowing judgment on the stability of the pelvic ring.

text: The Young-Burgess classification is a system of categorizing

text: pelvic fracture

text: pelvic ring

text: Slip joints can be designed to allow continuous relative motion of two components or it can allow an adjustment from one temporarily fixed position to another.  Examples of the latter are tripods, hiking poles, or similar telescoping device.  The position is fixed using a clamping mechanism based on a cam, a set screw or similar locking mechanism.  Slip joints can also be non-telescoping, such as the joints on some older wooden surveyor's levelling rods.  These use a joint that keeps the sections offset from each other but able to be slid together for transport.

text: Slip joints can be designed to allow continuous relative motion of two components or it can allow an adjustment from one temporarily fixed position to another.  Examples of the latter are

text: tripod

text: s,

text: hiking pole

text: s, or similar

text: telescoping

text: device.  The position is fixed using a clamping mechanism based on a

text: cam

text: , a

text: set screw

text: or similar locking mechanism.  Slip joints can also be non-telescoping, such as the joints on some older wooden surveyor's

text: levelling rod

text: s.  These use a joint that keeps the sections offset from each other but able to be slid together for transport.

text: Joints are structures that connect individual bones and may allow bones to move against each other to cause movement. There are two divisions of joints, diarthroses which allow extensive mobility between two or more articular heads, and false joints or synarthroses, joints that are immovable, that allow little or no movement and are predominantly fibrous. Synovial joints, joints that are not directly joined, are lubricated by a solution called synovial fluid that is produced by the synovial membranes. This fluid lowers the friction between the articular surfaces and is kept within an articular capsule, binding the joint with its taut tissue.

text: Joints are structures that connect individual bones and may allow bones to move against each other to cause movement. There are two divisions of joints,

text: diarthroses

text: which allow extensive mobility between two or more articular heads, and false joints or

text: synarthroses

text: , joints that are immovable, that allow little or no movement and are predominantly

text: fibrous

text: Synovial joint

text: s, joints that are not directly joined, are lubricated by a solution called

text: synovial fluid

text: that is produced by the

text: synovial membrane

text: s. This fluid lowers the

text: friction

text: between the articular surfaces and is kept within an

text: articular capsule

text: , binding the joint with its taut tissue.

text: The Teisen classification is a system of categorizing lunate fractures.

text: The Teisen classification is a system of categorizing

text: lunate

text: fractures.

text: In his last years he suffered from osteoporosis. He died in Eching near Munich. Felmy was the son of the German airforce general and war criminal Hellmuth Felmy (1885-1965).

text: In his last years he suffered from

text: osteoporosis

text: . He died in

text: Eching

text: near

text: Munich

text: . Felmy was the son of the German airforce general and war criminal

text: Hellmuth Felmy

text: s, steroids, and so forth, leading to low bone turnover or adynamic bone disease. Both high and low bone turnover diseases are currently observed equally in CKD patients treated by dialysis, and all types of renal osteodystrophy are associated with an increased risk of skeletal fractures, reduced quality of life, and poor clinical outcomes.

text: Webb officially retired from Major League Baseball on February 4, 2013. In May 2013, he filed a workers' compensation claim against the Texas Rangers for shoulder, neck, back, arm, and musculo-skeletal system injuries.

text: Since the late eighties, during long-duration space travel, was placed as a problem as the ability to maintain power the muscles of astronauts engaged in missions, given that the absence of gravity led to an environment in which they operated ipotrofismo of the musculoskeletal system, no longer called to support the load of the body weight, as well as a reduction in bone mineral density. Studies and research carried out about a solution that led to the strengthening of muscles of astronauts and subsequently, over the years, has become a method of muscle training very useful for preservation, prevention and rehabilitation. In practice it was created a system for resistance training with a belt and a flywheel that, driven by the belt, controlling a process which generated movement regardless of the strength of gravity.

text: Since the late eighties, during long-duration

text: space travel

text: , was placed as a problem as the ability to maintain power the muscles of

text: astronauts

text: engaged in missions, given that the absence of

text: gravity

text: led to an environment in which they operated

text: ipotrofismo

text: of the

text: musculoskeletal system

text: , no longer called to support the load of the body weight, as well as a reduction in bone mineral density. Studies and research carried out about a solution that led to the strengthening of

text: muscles

text: of astronauts and subsequently, over the years, has become a method of muscle training very useful for preservation, prevention and rehabilitation. In practice it was created a system for

text: resistance training

text: with a belt and a

text: flywheel

text: that, driven by the belt, controlling a process which generated movement regardless of the strength of gravity.

text: Early examples of animation databases include the system MOVE which used an object oriented database. Modern animation databases can be populated via the extraction of skeletal animations from motion capture data.

text: Early examples of animation databases include the system MOVE which used an

text: object oriented database

text: . Modern animation databases can be populated via the extraction of

text: skeletal animation

text: s from

text: motion capture

text: data.

text: According to the Trigenics Manual, contraindications to treatment include: nerve lesions, unexplained severe calf pain, open sores or skin lesions, severe bruising, fractured bone, acute systemic flare-ups (RA, diabetic shock), direct treatment over both carotid arteries, tissues subject to highly exaggerated pain on palpation, dislocated shoulder that has not been reduced. Risk of injury from Trigenics can occur during manual muscle testing (strains, sprains). Due to the maximal contraction during a lengthening procedure, there is a risk of injury and subluxation. Minor bruising may also occur in susceptible patients due to manual pressure being applied to the muscles.

text: According to the Trigenics Manual, contraindications to treatment include: nerve lesions, unexplained severe calf pain, open sores or skin lesions, severe bruising, fractured bone, acute systemic flare-ups (

text: RA

text: diabetic shock

text: ), direct treatment over both carotid arteries, tissues subject to highly exaggerated pain on palpation, dislocated shoulder that has not been reduced. Risk of injury from Trigenics can occur during manual muscle testing (

text: strains

text: sprain

text: s). Due to the maximal contraction during a lengthening procedure, there is a risk of injury and subluxation. Minor bruising may also occur in susceptible patients due to manual pressure being applied to the muscles.

text: The somatic nervous system (SoNS or voluntary nervous system) is the part of the peripheral nervous system associated with skeletal muscle voluntary control of body movements. The SoNS consists of afferent nerves and efferent nerves. Afferent nerves are responsible for relaying sensation from the body to the  central nervous system (CNS); efferent nerves are responsible for sending out commands from the CNS to the body, stimulating muscle contraction; they include all the non-sensory neurons connected with skeletal muscles and skin. The a- of afferent and the e- of efferent correspond to the prefixes ad- (to, toward) and ex- (out of).

text: The somatic nervous system (SoNS or voluntary nervous system) is the part of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: associated with

text: skeletal muscle

text: voluntary

text: control of body movements. The SoNS consists of

text: afferent nerves

text: and

text: efferent nerve

text: s. Afferent nerves are responsible for relaying sensation from the body to the  central nervous system (CNS); efferent nerves are responsible for sending out commands from the CNS to the body, stimulating

text: muscle contraction

text: ; they include all the non-sensory

text: neuron

text: s connected with skeletal

text: muscle

text: s and

text: skin

text: . The a- of afferent and the e- of efferent correspond to the

text: prefix

text: es ad- (to, toward) and ex- (out of).

text: If a sudden pull or stretch occurs, the body responds by automatically increasing the muscle's tension, a reflex which helps guard against danger as well as helping maintain balance.  Such near-continuous innervation can be thought of as a "default" or "steady state" condition for muscles. Both the extensor and flexor muscles are involved in the maintenance of a constant tone while at rest. In skeletal muscles, this helps maintain a normal posture.

text: If a sudden

text: pull

text: or stretch occurs, the body responds by automatically increasing the muscle's tension, a reflex which helps guard against danger as well as helping maintain

text: balance

text: .  Such near-continuous innervation can be thought of as a "default" or "steady state" condition for muscles. Both the

text: extensor

text: and

text: flexor

text: muscles are involved in the maintenance of a constant tone while at rest. In skeletal muscles, this helps maintain a normal posture.

text: Joints that connect bodies in this system remove degrees of freedom and reduce mobility. Specifically, hinges and sliders each impose five constraints and therefore remove five degrees of freedom.  It is convenient to define the number of constraints c that a joint imposes in terms of the joint's freedom f, where c=6-f.  In the case of a hinge or slider, which are one degree of freedom joints, we have f=1 and therefore c=6-1=5.

text: The somatosensory system comprises a diverse range of receptors and processing centers to produce the perception of touch, temperature, proprioception, and nociception.  Receptors are located throughout the body including the skin, epithelia, internal organs, skeletal muscles, bones, and joints. The cutaneous receptors of the skin project in an orderly fashion to the spinal cord, and from there, via different afferent pathways (dorsal column-medial lemniscus tract and spinothalamic tract), to the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus and the primary somatosensory cortex. Again, adjacent areas on the skin are represented by adjacent neurons in all aforementioned structures.  This projection pattern has been termed somatotopy.

text: The

text: somatosensory system

text: comprises a diverse range of receptors and processing centers to produce the perception of touch, temperature,

text: proprioception

text: , and

text: nociception

text: .  Receptors are located throughout the body including the

text: skin

text: , epithelia, internal organs,

text: skeletal muscle

text: s,

text: bone

text: s, and

text: joint

text: s. The

text: cutaneous receptors

text: of the skin project in an orderly fashion to the

text: spinal cord

text: , and from there, via different afferent pathways (

text: dorsal column-medial lemniscus tract

text: and

text: spinothalamic tract

text: ), to the

text: ventral posterior nucleus

text: of the

text: thalamus

text: and the primary

text: somatosensory cortex

text: . Again, adjacent areas on the skin are represented by adjacent neurons in all aforementioned structures.  This projection pattern has been termed

text: somatotopy

text: The surviving arches of the structure have been described as "beautifully boned", "strong" and "impressive", "almost surreal", and "a striking collection of skeletal arches".

text: The skeletal system of the horse has three major functions in the body.  It protects vital organs, provides framework, and supports soft parts of the body.  Horses typically have 205 bones.  The pelvic limb typically contains 19 bones, while the thoracic limb contains 20 bones.

text: The skeletal system of the

text: horse

text: has three major functions in the body.  It protects vital organs, provides framework, and supports soft parts of the body.  Horses typically have 205 bones.  The pelvic limb typically contains 19 bones, while the thoracic limb contains 20 bones.

text: The pressure immobilisation technique is a first aid treatment used as a way to treat spider bite, snakebite, bee, wasp and ant stings in allergic individuals, blue ringed octopus stings, cone shell stings, etc.The object of pressure immobilisation is to contain venom within a bitten limb and prevent it from moving through the lymphatic system to the vital organs. This therapy has two components: pressure to prevent lymphatic drainage, and immobilisation of the bitten limb to prevent the pumping action of the skeletal muscles.

text: The pressure immobilisation technique is a

text: first aid

text: treatment used as a way to treat

text: spider bite

text: snakebite

text: , bee, wasp and ant stings in allergic individuals,

text: blue ringed octopus

text: stings,

text: cone shell

text: stings, etc.The object of pressure immobilisation is to contain venom within a bitten limb and prevent it from moving through the

text: lymphatic system

text: to the vital organs. This therapy has two components: pressure to prevent lymphatic drainage, and immobilisation of the bitten limb to prevent the pumping action of the

text: skeletal muscle

text: s.

text: For ball-and-socket joints (also known as spherical joints), the inner joint is a ball and the outer joint is a socket, both having holes leading to the interior of their respective tube ends, to which they are fused. The ball tip is a hemisphere with a ground-glass surface on the outside, which fits inside of the socket, where the ground glass surface is on the inside. Ball-and-socket joints are labeled with a size code consisting of a number, a slash, and another number. The first number represents the outer diameter in mm of the ball at its base or the inner diameter in millimeters at the tip of the socket, in both cases where the diameters are their maximum in the joints.

text: There are certain factors which increase risk of sprains. Fatigue of muscles generally leads to sprains. When one suddenly starts to exercise after a sedentary lifestyle, sprains are quite common.While scientific studies are lacking, it is often thought that not warming-up is a common cause of sprains in athletes. Warming-up is thought to loosen the joint, increases blood flow and makes the joint more flexible.

text: There are certain factors which increase risk of sprains.

text: Fatigue

text: of muscles generally leads to sprains. When one suddenly starts to exercise after a

text: sedentary lifestyle

text: , sprains are quite common.While scientific studies are lacking, it is often thought that not warming-up is a common cause of sprains in athletes. Warming-up is thought to loosen the joint, increases

text: blood flow

text: and makes the joint more flexible.

text: The syrinx depends on the air sac system in birds to function; specifically, it requires the presence of a clavicular air sac near the wishbone or collar bone. This air sac leaves distinctive marks or opening on the bones, including a distinct opening in the upper arm bone (humerus). While extensive air sac systems are a unique characteristic of saurischian dinosaurs, the clavicular air sac necessary to vocalize does not appear in the fossil record until the enantiornithines (one exception, Aerosteon, probably evolved its clavicular air sac independently of birds for reasons other than vocalization). Senter suggests that non-avian dinosaurs used primarily visual communication, in the form of distinctive-looking (and possibly brightly colored) horns, frills, crests, sails and feathers. This is similar to some modern reptile groups such as lizards, in which many forms are largely silent (though like dinosaurs they possess well-developed senses of hearing) but use complex coloration and display behaviors to communicate. In addition, other, non-vocal, methods of producing sound for communication include hissing, jaw grinding or clapping, use of environment (such as splashing), and wing beating (possible in winged maniraptoran dinosaurs). Senter states that the presence of resonance chambers in some dinosaurs is not necessarily evidence of vocalization as modern snake such chambers which intensify their hisses.

text: The syrinx depends on the air sac system in birds to function; specifically, it requires the presence of a clavicular air sac near the wishbone or collar bone. This air sac leaves distinctive marks or opening on the bones, including a distinct opening in the upper arm bone (humerus). While extensive air sac systems are a unique characteristic of saurischian dinosaurs, the clavicular air sac necessary to vocalize does not appear in the fossil record until the

text: enantiornithine

text: s (one exception,

text: Aerosteon

text: , probably evolved its clavicular air sac independently of birds for reasons other than vocalization). Senter suggests that non-avian dinosaurs used primarily visual communication, in the form of distinctive-looking (and possibly brightly colored) horns, frills, crests, sails and feathers. This is similar to some modern reptile groups such as lizards, in which many forms are largely silent (though like dinosaurs they possess well-developed senses of hearing) but use complex coloration and display behaviors to communicate. In addition, other, non-vocal, methods of producing sound for communication include hissing, jaw grinding or clapping, use of environment (such as splashing), and wing beating (possible in winged

text: maniraptora

text: n dinosaurs). Senter states that the presence of resonance chambers in some dinosaurs is not necessarily evidence of vocalization as modern snake such chambers which intensify their hisses.

text: Amphibians have a skeletal system that is structurally homologous to other tetrapods, though with a number of variations. They all have four limbs except for the legless caecilians and a few species of salamander with reduced or no limbs. The bones are hollow and lightweight. The musculoskeletal system is strong to enable it to support the head and body. The bones are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other by means of overlapping processes. The pectoral girdle is supported by muscle, and the well-developed pelvic girdle is attached to the backbone by a pair of sacral ribs. The ilium slopes forward and the body is held closer to the ground than is the case in mammals.

text: Amphibians have a skeletal system that is structurally

text: homologous

text: to other tetrapods, though with a number of variations. They all have four limbs except for the legless caecilians and a few species of salamander with reduced or no limbs. The bones are hollow and lightweight. The musculoskeletal system is strong to enable it to support the head and body. The bones are fully

text: ossified

text: and the vertebrae interlock with each other by means of overlapping processes. The

text: pectoral girdle

text: is supported by muscle, and the well-developed

text: pelvic girdle

text: is attached to the backbone by a pair of sacral ribs. The

text: ilium

text: slopes forward and the body is held closer to the ground than is the case in mammals.

text: Camazepam is a benzodiazepine psychoactive drug, marketed under the brand names Albego, Limpidon and Paxor. It is the dimethyl carbamate ester of temazepam, a metabolite of diazepam. While it possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, skeletal muscle relaxant and hypnotic properties it differs from other benzodiazepines in that its anxiolytic properties are particularly prominent but has comparatively limited anticonvulsant, hypnotic and skeletal muscle relaxant properties.

text: Camazepam is a

text: benzodiazepine

text: psychoactive drug, marketed under the brand names Albego, Limpidon and Paxor. It is the dimethyl

text: carbamate

text: ester

text: of

text: temazepam

text: , a metabolite of

text: diazepam

text: . While it possesses

text: anxiolytic

text: anticonvulsant

text: skeletal muscle relaxant

text: and

text: hypnotic

text: properties it differs from other benzodiazepines in that its

text: anxiolytic

text: properties are particularly prominent but has comparatively limited

text: anticonvulsant

text: hypnotic

text: and

text: skeletal muscle relaxant

text: properties.

text: The Isosceles Stance passively absorbs the recoil of firing the handgun using the shooter's skeletal structure, rather than active muscular tension, as in other shooting stances, like the Weaver Stance.

text: The Isosceles Stance passively absorbs the

text: recoil

text: of firing the handgun using the shooter's skeletal structure, rather than active muscular tension, as in other shooting stances, like the

text: Weaver Stance

text: The PlayStation had a 512 x 240 video mode and used up video memory that would normally be used for textures, but was effective in rendering shaded (if untextured) polygons. Rubin pointed out that since the polygons on the characters were just a few pixels in size, shaded characters would look better than textured ones. Thus, polygons were emphasized over textures; this was advantageous in that it allowed the programmers more polygons to work with and allowed them to work around the PlayStation's lack of texture correction or polygon clipping. To give the game more of a resemblance to an animated cartoon, vertex animation was implemented rather than the standard skeletal animation with "one-joint" weighting; this allowed the programmers to use the more sophisticated three-to-four-joint weighting available in PowerAnimator. Because the PlayStation was unable to match this at runtime, the location of every vertex was stored in every frame at 30 frames a second. Gavin, Baggett, and Cerny attempted to invent assembly language vertex compressors for this manner of animation; Cerny's version was the most successful and the most complicated.

text: The PlayStation had a 512 x 240 video mode and used up video memory that would normally be used for textures, but was effective in rendering shaded (if untextured) polygons. Rubin pointed out that since the polygons on the characters were just a few pixels in size, shaded characters would look better than textured ones. Thus, polygons were emphasized over textures; this was advantageous in that it allowed the programmers more polygons to work with and allowed them to work around the PlayStation's lack of texture correction or polygon clipping. To give the game more of a resemblance to an animated cartoon,

text: vertex animation

text: was implemented rather than the standard

text: skeletal animation

text: with "one-joint" weighting; this allowed the programmers to use the more sophisticated three-to-four-joint weighting available in

text: PowerAnimator

text: . Because the PlayStation was unable to match this at runtime, the location of every vertex was stored in every frame at 30 frames a second. Gavin, Baggett, and Cerny attempted to invent assembly language vertex compressors for this manner of animation; Cerny's version was the most successful and the most complicated.

text: Evidence for the semi-aquatic life of dyrosaurids comes from careful analysis of bone structure. There are two types of structural bone organization that can occur in aquatic tetrapods: osteoporotic or pachyostotic. Osteoporotic bone is spongy and porous whereas pachyostotic involves an increase in skeletal mass. Spongy/porous bone such as osteoporotic is associated with faster swimming and better maneuverability in water because of the reduction in bone tissue many extant cetaceans and marine turtles have osteoporotic bone which enables them to be good swimmers. Pachyostotic bone is a general/local increase in skeletal mass which can be caused by osteosclerosis (inner compaction of bone), pachyostosis (hyperplasy of compact cortices) or pachyeosclerosis (combination of the two). Research on dryosaur bone performed by Rafael César Lima Pedroso de Andrade, Juliana Manso Sayao revealed that this family had osteoporotic bone tissue indicative of a fast-swimming ecology as well as some osteosclerosis which is a component of pachyostotic bone tissue. Osteoporosis is associated with a fully aquatic lifestyle whereas pachyostotic is not fully aquatic but is associated with fast swimming ecology. therefore dyrosaurs are semi-aquatic fast swimmers as indicated by their bone structure. Other evidence for near shore, semi-aquatic life style is where the fossils are found, often in transitional marine sediments. -using axial frequency swimming (that used primarily by extant crocodylians) with a greater undulatory motion and frequency of the tail due to highly developed musculature allowing a more powerful forward thrust.

text: Evidence for the semi-aquatic life of dyrosaurids comes from careful analysis of bone structure. There are two types of structural bone organization that can occur in aquatic tetrapods:

text: osteoporotic

text: or

text: pachyostotic

text: . Osteoporotic bone is spongy and porous whereas pachyostotic involves an increase in skeletal mass. Spongy/porous bone such as osteoporotic is associated with faster swimming and better maneuverability in water because of the reduction in bone tissue many extant cetaceans and marine turtles have osteoporotic bone which enables them to be good swimmers. Pachyostotic bone is a general/local increase in skeletal mass which can be caused by osteosclerosis (inner compaction of bone), pachyostosis (hyperplasy of compact cortices) or pachyeosclerosis (combination of the two). Research on dryosaur bone performed by Rafael César Lima Pedroso de Andrade, Juliana Manso Sayao revealed that this family had osteoporotic bone tissue indicative of a fast-swimming

text: ecology

text: as well as some

text: osteosclerosis

text: which is a component of pachyostotic bone tissue. Osteoporosis is associated with a fully aquatic lifestyle whereas pachyostotic is not fully aquatic but is associated with fast swimming ecology. therefore dyrosaurs are semi-aquatic fast swimmers as indicated by their bone structure. Other evidence for near shore, semi-aquatic life style is where the fossils are found, often in transitional marine sediments. -using axial frequency swimming (that used primarily by extant crocodylians) with a greater

text: undulatory

text: motion and frequency of the tail due to highly developed

text: musculature

text: allowing a more powerful forward thrust.

text: Decorin is an example of a proteoglycan which functions as a myokine. Kanzleiter et al have established that this myokine is secreted during muscular contraction against resistance, and plays a role in muscle growth. They reported on July 1, 2014: "The small leucine-rich proteoglycan decorin has been described as a myokine for some time. However, its regulation and impact on skeletal muscle (had) not been investigated in detail. In (our recent) study, we report decorin to be differentially expressed and released in response to muscle contraction using different approaches. Decorin is released from contracting human myotubes, and circulating decorin levels are increased in response to acute resistance exercise in humans. Moreover, decorin expression in skeletal muscle is increased in humans and mice after chronic training. Because decorin directly binds myostatin, a potent inhibitor of muscle growth, we investigated a potential function of decorin in the regulation of skeletal muscle growth. In vivo overexpression of decorin in murine skeletal muscle promoted expression of the pro-myogenic factor Mighty, which is negatively regulated by myostatin. We also found Myod1 and follistatin to be increased in response to decorin overexpression. Moreover, muscle-specific ubiquitin ligases atrogin1 and MuRF1, which are involved in atrophic pathways, were reduced by decorin overexpression. In summary, our findings suggest that decorin secreted from myotubes in response to exercise is involved in the regulation of muscle hypertrophy and hence could play a role in exercise-related restructuring processes of skeletal muscle."

text: Decorin

text: Misfiring and fatiguing of the VMO causes mal-tracking of the patella and subsequent damage to surrounding structures creating increased force on the knees, often resulting in injuries such as patellofemoral pain syndrome, anterior cruciate ligament rupture, chondromalacia, and tendinitis. Through the use of electromyography, researchers can evaluate and record the electrical activity produced by the skeletal muscle of the VMO to analyze the biomechanics and detect any possible abnormalities, weakness, or fatigue. With an analysis of muscle activity of the VMO through the use of electromyography, proper rehabilitative plans and goals can be established to not only correct the already established abnormality, but even prevent such injuries if tested sooner.  Preventing injuries is crucial as well as teaching proper training techniques to ensure there are no valgus collapse forces causing unplanned stress on other structures of the knee, causing asymmetry, and predisposing that individual for injury.

text: Misfiring and fatiguing of the VMO causes mal-tracking of the patella and subsequent damage to surrounding structures creating increased force on the knees, often resulting in injuries such as

text: patellofemoral pain syndrome

text: anterior cruciate ligament

text: rupture,

text: chondromalacia

text: , and

text: tendinitis

text: . Through the use of

text: electromyography

text: , researchers can evaluate and record the electrical activity produced by the skeletal muscle of the VMO to analyze the

text: biomechanics

text: and detect any possible abnormalities, weakness, or fatigue. With an analysis of muscle activity of the VMO through the use of electromyography, proper rehabilitative plans and goals can be established to not only correct the already established abnormality, but even prevent such injuries if tested sooner.  Preventing injuries is crucial as well as teaching proper training techniques to ensure there are no valgus collapse forces causing unplanned stress on other structures of the knee, causing

text: asymmetry

text: , and predisposing that individual for injury.

text: In the third decade of the condition, individuals develop further visual problems including retinitis pigmentosa, and bilateral cataracts.  Sufferers endure the restriction of visual fields, night blindness, and eventually severe or complete blindness.Individuals with this syndrome exhibit many physical deformities including skeletal, epidermal, and subcutaneous abnormalities. The skeletal problems are characterized by scoliosis and muscle weakness indicative of the kyphoscoliotic type which follow muscle wasting and peripheral neuritis (nerve inflammation). Osteoporosis is also observed in many cases. Skin and subcutaneous atrophy is common as well as skin ulcerations due to inability of the skin to heal. One of the final manifestations of disease is baldness.

text: In the third decade of the condition, individuals develop further visual problems including retinitis pigmentosa, and bilateral cataracts.  Sufferers endure the restriction of visual fields, night blindness, and eventually severe or complete

text: blindness

text: .Individuals with this syndrome exhibit many physical deformities including skeletal, epidermal, and subcutaneous abnormalities. The skeletal problems are characterized by scoliosis and muscle weakness indicative of the kyphoscoliotic type which follow muscle wasting and

text: peripheral neuritis

text: (nerve inflammation).

text: Osteoporosis

text: is also observed in many cases. Skin and subcutaneous atrophy is common as well as skin ulcerations due to inability of the skin to heal. One of the final manifestations of disease is

text: baldness

text: Osteoporosis is defined by the National Institutes of Health as ‘‘a skeletal disorder characterized by compromised bone strength predisposing a person to an increased risk of fracture.’’<ref>Osteoporosis. 2006. National Institutes of Health.

text: Bones serve three major functions in the skeletal system; they act as levers, they store minerals, and they are the site of red blood cell formation.  Bones can be classified into five categories

text: Bones serve three major functions in the skeletal system; they act as levers, they store minerals, and they are the site of

text: red blood cell

text: formation.  Bones can be classified into five categories

text: Myopathies with central nuclei, such as myotubular myopathy, involves an error in the gene involved in vesicle movement throughout the cell. This creates problems in vesicles reaching the plasma membrane with the cellular components necessary to fuse myoblast, a major step in the formation of the skeletal muscle. This creates structural problems throughout the skeletal muscle and in the Z line of the sarcomere, creating the weakness in the muscle.

text: While in automotive parlance the term "ball joint" usually refers to the primary ball joint connections at the ends of the control arms, this type of joint is used in other parts as well, including tie rod ends. In these other applications, they are typically called tie rod ends or, when they are an inner tie rod end on a rack-and-pinion steering system, they are called inner socket assemblies. These joints are also used in a number of other non-automotive applications, from the joints of dolls to other mechanical linkages for a variety of devices, or any place where a degree of rotation in movement is desired.

text: While in automotive parlance the term "ball joint" usually refers to the primary ball joint connections at the ends of the control arms, this type of joint is used in other parts as well, including tie rod ends. In these other applications, they are typically called tie rod ends or, when they are an inner tie rod end on a rack-and-pinion steering system, they are called inner socket assemblies. These joints are also used in a number of other non-automotive applications, from the joints of

text: doll

text: s to other mechanical linkages for a variety of devices, or any place where a degree of rotation in movement is desired.

text: Overt hyperthyroidism is associated with accelerated bone remodeling (resulting in increased porosity of cortical bone and reduced volume of trabecular bone), a generally reduced bone density, osteoporosis, and an increase in fracture rate. The changes in bone metabolism are connected with negative calcium balance, an increased excretion of calcium and phosphorus in the urine (hypercalciuria) and stool, and, rarely, hypercalcemia. In hyperthyroidism, the normal cycle duration of bone resorption of approximately 200 days is halved, and each cycle is associated with a 9.6 percent loss of mineralized bone. In hypothyroidism, cycle length approximates 700 days and is associated with a 17 percent increase in mineralized bone.

text: Overt hyperthyroidism is associated with accelerated

text: bone remodeling

text: (resulting in increased porosity of

text: cortical bone

text: and reduced volume of

text: trabecular bone

text: ), a generally reduced

text: bone density

text: osteoporosis

text: , and an increase in

text: fracture

text: rate. The changes in bone metabolism are connected with negative

text: calcium balance

text: , an increased excretion of

text: calcium

text: and

text: phosphorus

text: in the urine (

text: hypercalciuria

text: ) and stool, and, rarely,

text: hypercalcemia

text: . In hyperthyroidism, the normal cycle duration of

text: bone resorption

text: of approximately 200 days is halved, and each cycle is associated with a 9.6 percent loss of mineralized

text: bone

text: . In hypothyroidism, cycle length approximates 700 days and is associated with a 17 percent increase in mineralized bone.

text: Kuo has another role as a post-doc in Arhat Abzhanov's lab at the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University. He is currently trying to understand craniofacial abnormalities related to bone and cartilage. Craniofacial abnormalities are some of the most common structural birth defects that are often associated with developmental disabilities, abnormalities to brain maturation, hearing loss, functional problems related to breathing, eating, and speech. Children with these malformations and disabilities generally require an interdisciplinary team composing of many specialties for most of their life. Impaired cranial bone formation and remodeling can contribute to many of these craniofacial abnormalities such as Apert’s, Crouzon’s, Treacher-Collins, Pierre Robin Complex, hemifacial microsomia, etc. Great strides have been made in identifying the genetic etiologies of a number of syndromes, though the pathogenesis of the developing cranial skeletal structures still remains poorly understood. His research focuses on roles of microRNAs in craniofacial development in general and in skull development in particular. A conditional knock-out mutation in Dicer, which is involved in microRNAs processing, with several cre-LoxP lines that target various craniofacial and skeletal tissues and structures will be used to describe the overall roles for miRNAs in craniofacial development. Preliminary results showed a profound yet specific intramebranous (dermal) bone phenotype. His goals are to better characterize the nature of miRNA involvement and search for specific microRNAs involved in cranial development. He plans to study the transcriptional activity of multiple skeletogenic markers and signaling molecules using microRNA and DNA microarrays, and of key classes of kinase-dependent pathways using kinase-protein chips.

text: Kuo has another role as a post-doc in Arhat Abzhanov's lab at the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at

text: Harvard University

text: Osteoporosis is due to causal factors like atrophy of disuse and gonadal deficiency. Hence osteoporosis is common in post menopausal women and in men above 50 yrs. Hypercorticism may also be causal factor- osteoporosis may be seen as a feature of Cushing's syndrome.

text: Osteoporosis

text: is due to causal factors like

text: atrophy

text: of disuse and gonadal deficiency. Hence osteoporosis is common in post menopausal women and in men above 50 yrs. Hypercorticism may also be causal factor- osteoporosis may be seen as a feature of Cushing's syndrome.

text: Skeletal Family are an English gothic rock band which was formed in Keighley, West Yorkshire,  in December 1982. The band was formed from the remaining membership of an earlier group, called The Elements, and took its name from the title of the song "Chant of the Ever Circling Skeletal Family" from the 1974 David Bowie album, Diamond Dogs.

text: Skeletal Family are an

text: English

text: gothic rock

text: band which was formed in

text: Keighley

text: West Yorkshire

text: ,  in December 1982. The band was formed from the remaining membership of an earlier group, called The Elements, and took its name from the title of the song "

text: Chant of the Ever Circling Skeletal Family

text: " from the 1974

text: David Bowie

text: album,

text: Diamond Dogs

text: The condition is also associated with abnormalities of the renal system. Further, skeletal abnormalities have been linked to the condition.

text: Mutations in the COL2A1 gene interfere with the assembly of type II collagen molecules, resulting in a reduced amount of this type of collagen in the body. Instead of forming collagen molecules, the abnormal COL2A1 protein builds up in cartilage cells (chondrocytes). These changes disrupt the normal development of bones and other connective tissues, leading to the skeletal abnormalities characteristic of platyspondylic lethal skeletal dysplasia, Torrance type.

text: Mutations in the COL2A1 gene interfere with the assembly of type II collagen molecules, resulting in a reduced amount of this type of collagen in the body. Instead of forming collagen molecules, the abnormal COL2A1 protein builds up in cartilage cells (

text: chondrocytes

text: ). These changes disrupt the normal development of bones and other connective tissues, leading to the skeletal abnormalities characteristic of platyspondylic lethal skeletal dysplasia, Torrance type.

text: In skeletal and heart muscle calcium ions, released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (the endoplasmic reticulum of striated muscles) binds to the troponin C present on the actin-containing thin filaments of the myofibrils. The troponin's 3D structure changes as a result,  causing the tropomyosin to which it is attached to be rolled away from the myosin-binding sites on the actin molecules that form the back-bone of the thin filaments. Myosin can then bind to the exposed myosin-binding sites on the thin filament, to undergo a repeating series of conformational changes called the cross-bridge cycle, for which ATP provides the energy. During the cycle, each myosin protein ‘paddles’ along the thin actin filament, repeatedly binding to myosin-binding sites along the actin filament, ratcheting and letting go. In effect, the thick filament moves or slides along the thin filament, resulting in muscle contraction. This process is known as the sliding filament model of muscle contraction.

text: In

text: skeletal

text: and

text: heart muscle

text: calcium ions, released from the

text: sarcoplasmic reticulum

text: (the

text: endoplasmic reticulum

text: of

text: striated muscles

text: ) binds to the

text: troponin C

text: present on the

text: actin

text: -containing thin filaments of the

text: myofibril

text: s. The troponin's

text: 3D structure changes

text: as a result,  causing the

text: tropomyosin

text: to which it is attached to be rolled away from the

text: myosin

text: -binding sites on the

text: actin molecules

text: that form the back-bone of the thin filaments. Myosin can then bind to the exposed myosin-binding sites on the thin filament, to undergo a repeating series of conformational changes called the

text: cross-bridge cycle

text: , for which

text: ATP

text: provides the energy. During the cycle, each myosin protein ‘paddles’ along the thin actin filament, repeatedly binding to myosin-binding sites along the actin filament, ratcheting and letting go. In effect, the thick filament moves or slides along the thin filament, resulting in

text: muscle contraction

text: . This process is known as the

text: sliding filament model

text: of muscle contraction.

text: In addition to the actin and myosin components that constitute the sarcomere, skeletal muscle fibers also contain two other important regulatory proteins, troponin and tropomyosin, that are necessary for muscle contraction to occur. These proteins are associated with actin and cooperate to prevent its interaction with myosin. Skeletal muscle cells are excitable and are subject to depolarization by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, released at the neuromuscular junction by motor neurons.

text: In addition to the

text: actin

text: and

text: myosin

text: components that constitute the

text: sarcomere

text: , skeletal muscle fibers also contain two other important regulatory proteins,

text: troponin

text: and

text: tropomyosin

text: , that are necessary for muscle contraction to occur. These proteins are associated with actin and cooperate to prevent its interaction with myosin. Skeletal muscle cells are excitable and are subject to

text: depolarization

text: by the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: , released at the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: by

text: motor neurons

text: A myocyte (also known as a muscle cell) is the type of cell found in muscle tissue. Myocytes are long, tubular cells that develop from myoblasts to form muscles in a process known as myogenesis. There are various specialized forms of myocytes: cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle cells, with various properties. The striated cells of cardiac and skeletal muscles are referred to as muscle fibers. Cardiomyocytes are the muscle fibres that form the chambers of the heart, and have a single central nucleus. Skeletal muscle fibers help support and move the body and tend to have peripheral nuclei. Smooth muscle cells control involuntary movements such as the peristalsis contractions in the oesophagus and stomach.

text: A myocyte (also known as a muscle cell) is the type of

text: cell

text: found in

text: muscle tissue

text: . Myocytes are long, tubular cells that develop from myoblasts to form

text: muscle

text: s in a process known as

text: myogenesis

text: . There are various specialized forms of myocytes:

text: cardiac

text: skeletal

text: , and

text: smooth muscle

text: cells, with various properties. The

text: striated cells

text: of cardiac and skeletal muscles are referred to as muscle fibers.

text: Cardiomyocytes

text: are the muscle fibres that form the chambers of the heart, and have a single central nucleus. Skeletal muscle fibers help support and move the body and tend to have peripheral nuclei. Smooth muscle cells control involuntary movements such as the

text: peristalsis

text: contractions in the

text: oesophagus

text: and

text: stomach

text: The manghihilot ("massager", "folk massage therapist", "folk chiropractor") uses massaging techniques to treat sprains, fractures, and other similar conditions that affect the skeletal system and the musculatory system, including ligaments. The manghihilot is often ordained or chosen by the mediko or an ermitanya (a female hermit and "teacher", a type of high priestess). They are folk practitioners who perform massage and healing sessions under the influence of "powerful" amulets, "empowered" cane, or a "Nazarene garb". Their chiropractic techniques utilizes "symbolic patterns" reminiscent of the shape of the cross of the Christ, of crown of thorns, and of hands and feet nailed to the cross.

text: The manghihilot ("massager", "folk massage therapist", "folk

text: chiropractor

text: ") uses massaging techniques to treat sprains, fractures, and other similar conditions that affect the skeletal system and the musculatory system, including

text: ligament

text: s. The manghihilot is often ordained or chosen by the mediko or an ermitanya (a female

text: hermit

text: and "teacher", a type of high priestess). They are folk practitioners who perform massage and healing sessions under the influence of "powerful" amulets, "empowered" cane, or a "Nazarene garb". Their chiropractic techniques utilizes "symbolic patterns" reminiscent of the shape of the cross of the

text: Christ

text: , of crown of thorns, and of hands and feet nailed to the cross.

text: The differences between the two breeds include bone structure, body length, and size. Cardigans are the larger of the two breeds, with large rounded ears and a  long fox-like, flowing tail set in line with the body. Though the Cardigan is allowed more colours than the Pembroke, white should not predominate in its coat. The Cardigan is a double-coated dog where the outer coat is dense, slightly harsh in texture, and of medium length. The dog's undercoat is short, soft, and thick. According to the breed standard, the breed stands between  at the withers, and should weigh between . The skeletal structure of the Cardigan differs from the Pembroke, in that there is a more exaggerated bend in the front two legs, which fits around the ribcage of the animal. In addition, the Cardigan is more heavily set than the Pembroke, with denser bone mass.

text: The differences between the two breeds include bone structure, body length, and size. Cardigans are the larger of the two breeds, with large rounded ears and a  long fox-like, flowing tail set in line with the body. Though the Cardigan is allowed more colours than the Pembroke, white should not predominate in its

text: coat

text: . The Cardigan is a double-coated dog where the outer coat is dense, slightly harsh in texture, and of medium length. The dog's undercoat is short, soft, and thick. According to the breed standard, the breed stands between  at the

text: withers

text: , and should weigh between . The skeletal structure of the Cardigan differs from the Pembroke, in that there is a more exaggerated bend in the front two legs, which fits around the

text: ribcage

text: of the animal. In addition, the Cardigan is more heavily set than the Pembroke, with denser bone mass.

text: Pilon fractures are categorized by the Ruedi-Allgower classification system.

text: Pilon fractures are categorized by the

text: Ruedi-Allgower classification

text: system.

text: The PNS can be divided into the autonomic and somatic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system can be divided into the parasympathetic, sympathetic, and enteric nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system regulates the “fight or flight” responses. The parasympathetic nervous system regulates the “rest and digest” responses. The enteric nervous system innervates the viscera (gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and gall bladder). The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that send sensory information to the central nervous system and motor nerve fibers that project to skeletal muscle. The somatic nervous system engages in voluntary reactions, and the autonomic nervous system engages in involuntary reactions.

text: Electronic Arts licensed Ritual Entertainment's Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.² engine, which is in turn a modified Quake III Arena engine. The most notable changes in the engine include the use of the Tiki model system, which enables the engine to use skeletal animation among other things, the Babble dialog system which enables lip synching of audio with character animations, dynamic music system, scriptable camera, particle system and extended shader support. The changes implemented to the engine for Alice remained minimal however. The game's .bsp files even retain F.A.K.K.²s headers, albeit sporting a different version number.

text: Electronic Arts

text: licensed

text: Ritual Entertainment

text: 's

text: Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.²

text: engine, which is in turn a modified

text: Quake III Arena engine

text: . The most notable changes in the engine include the use of the Tiki model system, which enables the engine to use

text: skeletal animation

text: among other things, the Babble dialog system which enables lip synching of audio with character animations, dynamic music system, scriptable camera, particle system and extended shader support. The changes implemented to the engine for Alice remained minimal however. The game's

text: .bsp

text: files even retain F.A.K.K.²s headers, albeit sporting a different version number.

text: Credits for Sprained Ankle adapted from 6131 Records' website. and AllMusic.

text: Credits for Sprained Ankle adapted from 6131 Records' website. and

text: AllMusic

text: The Thompson and Epstein classification is a system of categorizing posterior fracture/dislocations of the hip.

text: The Thompson and Epstein classification is a system of categorizing

text: posterior

text: fracture/dislocations of the hip

text: It is a lethal rhizomelic (malformations which result in short, underdeveloped limbs) form of dwarfism, exhibiting both skeletal dysplasia (malformations of bone) and fibroblastic dysplasia (abnormal development of fibroblasts, specialized cells that make up fibrous connective tissue, which plays a role in the formation of cellular structure and promotes healing of damaged tissues). Death caused by complications of fibrochondrogenesis occurs in infancy.

text: It is a lethal

text: rhizomelic

text: (malformations which result in short, underdeveloped limbs) form of

text: dwarfism

text: , exhibiting both

text: skeletal dysplasia

text: (malformations of

text: bone

text: ) and

text: fibroblastic dysplasia

text: (abnormal development of

text: fibroblast

text: s, specialized

text: cells

text: that make up

text: fibrous connective tissue

text: , which plays a role in the formation of cellular structure and promotes healing of damaged

text: tissues

text: ). Death caused by complications of fibrochondrogenesis occurs in

text: infancy

text: In 1956, the inventor Even P. Bone developed a system where a vane in front of each head light moved automatically and caused a shadow in front of the approaching vehicle, allowing for high beam use without glare for the approaching driver. The system, called "Bone-Midland Lamps," was never taken up by any car manufacturer.

text: Osteoporosis itself has no symptoms; its main consequence is the increased risk of bone fractures. Osteoporotic fractures occur in situations where healthy people would not normally break a bone; they are therefore regarded as fragility fractures. Typical fragility fractures occur in the vertebral column, rib, hip and wrist.

text: Osteoporosis itself has

text: no symptoms

text: ; its main consequence is the increased risk of bone fractures. Osteoporotic

text: fractures

text: occur in situations where healthy people would not normally break a bone; they are therefore regarded as fragility fractures. Typical fragility fractures occur in the

text: vertebral column

text: rib

text: , hip and

text: wrist

text: To achieve welds which penetrate the full depth of the material, it is necessary to either specially design and prepare the geometry of the joint or cause vaporization of the material to such a degree that a "keyhole" is formed, allowing the heat to penetrate the joint. This is not a significant disadvantage in many types of material, as good joint strengths can be achieved, however for certain material classes such as ceramics or metal ceramic composites, such processing can significantly limit joint strength. They have great potential for use in the aerospace industry, provided a joining process that maintains the strength of the material can be found.

text: To achieve welds which penetrate the full depth of the material, it is necessary to either specially design and prepare the geometry of the joint or cause vaporization of the material to such a degree that a "keyhole" is formed, allowing the heat to penetrate the joint. This is not a significant disadvantage in many types of material, as good joint strengths can be achieved, however for certain material classes such as ceramics or

text: metal ceramic composites

text: , such processing can significantly limit joint strength. They have great potential for use in the aerospace industry, provided a joining process that maintains the strength of the material can be found.

text: Actin-associated LIM protein (ALP), also known as PDZ and LIM domain protein 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PDLIM3 gene. ALP is highly expressed in cardiac and skeletal muscle, where it localizes to Z-discs and intercalated discs. ALP functions to enhance the crosslinking of actin by alpha actinin-2 and also appears to be essential for right ventricular chamber formation and contractile function.

text: Actin-associated LIM protein (ALP), also known as PDZ and LIM domain protein 3 is a

text: protein

text: that in humans is encoded by the PDLIM3

text: gene

text: . ALP is highly expressed in

text: cardiac

text: and

text: skeletal muscle

text: , where it localizes to

text: Z-discs

text: and

text: intercalated disc

text: s. ALP functions to enhance the crosslinking of

text: actin

text: by

text: alpha actinin-2

text: and also appears to be essential for

text: right ventricular

text: chamber formation and

text: contractile

text: function.

text: Muscular hydrostats function independently of a hardened skeletal system. Muscular hydrostats are typically supported by a membrane of connective tissue which holds the volume constant. Retaining a constant volume enables the fibers to stabilize the muscle’s structure that would otherwise require skeletal support. Muscle fibers change the shape of the muscle by contracting along three general lines of action relative to the long axis: parallel, perpendicular and helical. These contractions can apply or resist compressive forces to the overall structure. A balance of synchronized, compressive and resistive forces along the  three lines of action, enable the muscle to move in diverse and complex ways.

text: Muscular hydrostat

text: s function independently of a hardened skeletal system. Muscular hydrostats are typically supported by a membrane of connective tissue which holds the volume constant. Retaining a constant volume enables the fibers to stabilize the muscle’s structure that would otherwise require skeletal support. Muscle fibers change the shape of the muscle by contracting along three general lines of action relative to the long axis: parallel, perpendicular and helical. These contractions can apply or resist compressive forces to the overall structure. A balance of synchronized, compressive and resistive forces along the  three lines of action, enable the muscle to move in diverse and complex ways.

text: Ospemifene (Z-2-(4-(4-chloro-1,2-diphenyl-but-1-enyl)phenoxy)ethanol; see figure 13) is a triphenylethylene and a known metabolite of toremifene. It´s structurally very similar to tamoxifen and toremifene. Ospemifene does not have 2-(dimethylamino)ethoxy group as tamoxifen. Structure-activity relationship studies shoved that by removing that group of tamoxifen agonistic activity in the uterus was significantly reduced, but not in bone and cardiovascular system. Preclinical and clinical data show that ospemifene is well tolerated with no major side effects. Benefits that ospemifene may have over other SERMs is its neutral effect on hot flushes and ER-agonist effect on the vagina, improving the symptoms of vaginal dryness.

text: Fibrochondrogenesis alters the normal function of chondrocytes, fibroblasts, metaphyseal cells and others associated with cartilage, bone and connective tissues. Overwhelmingdisorganization of cellular processes involved in the formation of cartilage and bone (ossification), in combination with fibroblastic degeneration of these cells, developmental errors and systemic skeletal malformations describes the severity of this lethal osteochondrodysplasia.

text: Fibrochondrogenesis alters the normal function of chondrocytes, fibroblasts, metaphyseal cells and others associated with cartilage, bone and

text: connective tissue

text: s. Overwhelmingdisorganization of cellular processes involved in the formation of cartilage and bone (

text: ossification

text: ), in combination with fibroblastic degeneration of these cells, developmental errors and systemic skeletal malformations describes the severity of this lethal osteochondrodysplasia.

text: A variety of imaging studies can be used to diagnose chondroblastoma, with radiographs being the most common. Laboratory studies are not considered useful. Classical chondroblastoma (appearing on long bones) appears as a well-defined eccentric oval or round lytic lesion that usually involves the adjacent bone cortex without periosteal reaction. A sclerotic margin can be seen in some cases. For long bone chondroblastomas the tumor is typically contained to the epiphysis or apophysis but may extend through the epiphyseal plate.  Chondroblastomas are usually located in the medullary portion of bones and can, in some cases, include the metaphysis. However, true metaphyseal chondroblastomas are rare and are typically the result of an extension from a neighboring epiphyseal legion. Most lesions are less than 4 cm. A mottled appearance on the radiograph is not atypical and indicates areas of calcification which is commonly associated with skeletally immature patients. Additionally, one-third of all cases involve aneurysmal bone cysts which are thought to be the result of stress, trauma or hemorrhage. In cases involving older patients or flat bones, typical radiographic presentation is not as common and may mimic aggressive processes.

text: A variety of imaging studies can be used to diagnose chondroblastoma, with

text: radiographs

text: being the most common. Laboratory studies are not considered useful. Classical chondroblastoma (appearing on long bones) appears as a well-defined eccentric oval or round lytic lesion that usually involves the adjacent

text: bone cortex

text: without

text: periosteal

text: reaction. A

text: sclerotic

text: margin can be seen in some cases. For long bone chondroblastomas the tumor is typically contained to the epiphysis or apophysis but may extend through the epiphyseal plate.  Chondroblastomas are usually located in the

text: medullary

text: portion of bones and can, in some cases, include the

text: metaphysis

text: . However, true metaphyseal chondroblastomas are rare and are typically the result of an extension from a neighboring epiphyseal legion. Most lesions are less than 4 cm. A mottled appearance on the radiograph is not atypical and indicates areas of

text: calcification

text: which is commonly associated with skeletally immature patients. Additionally, one-third of all cases involve

text: aneurysmal bone cyst

text: s which are thought to be the result of stress,

text: trauma

text: or

text: hemorrhage

text: . In cases involving older patients or flat bones, typical radiographic presentation is not as common and may mimic aggressive processes.

text: There are two types of bone tissue: cortical bone and cancellous bone. Cortical bone is synonymous with compact bone, and cancellous bone is synonymous with trabecular and spongy bone. Cortical bone forms the extremely hard exterior while cancellous bone fills the hollow interior.  The tissues are biologically identical; the difference is in how the microstructure is arranged.

text: There are two types of bone tissue:

text: cortical bone

text: and

text: cancellous bone

text: . Cortical bone is synonymous with compact bone, and cancellous bone is synonymous with trabecular and spongy bone. Cortical bone forms the extremely hard exterior while cancellous bone fills the hollow interior.  The tissues are biologically identical; the difference is in how the microstructure is arranged.

text: Fractures of the humerus are classified based on the location of the fracture and then by the type of fracture. There are three locations that humerus fractures occur: at the proximal location, which is the top of the humerus near the shoulder, in the middle, which is at the shaft of the humerus, and the distal location, which is the bottom of the humerus near the elbow. Proximal fractures are classified into one of four types of fractures based on the displacement of the greater tubercle, the lesser tubercle, the surgical neck, and the anatomical neck, which are the four parts of the proximal humerus, with fracture displacement being defined as at least one centimeter of separation or an angulation greater than 45 degrees. One-part fractures involve no displacement of any parts of the humerus, two-part fractures have one part displaced relative to the other three; three-part fractures have two displaced fragments, and four-part fractures have all fragments displaced from each other. Fractures of the humerus shaft are subdivided into transverse fractures, spiral fractures, "butterfly" fractures, which are a combination of transverse and spiral fractures, and pathological fractures, which are fractures caused by medical conditions. Distal fractures are split between supracondylar fractures, which are transverse fractures above the two condyles at the bottom of the humerus, and intercondylar fractures, which involve a T- or Y-shaped fracture that splits the condyles.

text: Fractures of the humerus are classified based on the location of the fracture and then by the type of fracture. There are three locations that humerus fractures occur: at the proximal location, which is the top of the humerus near the shoulder, in the middle, which is at the shaft of the humerus, and the distal location, which is the bottom of the humerus near the elbow. Proximal fractures are classified into one of four types of fractures based on the displacement of the

text: greater tubercle

text: , the

text: lesser tubercle

text: , the

text: surgical neck

text: , and the

text: anatomical neck

text: , which are the four parts of the proximal humerus, with fracture displacement being defined as at least one centimeter of separation or an angulation greater than 45 degrees. One-part fractures involve no displacement of any parts of the humerus, two-part fractures have one part displaced relative to the other three; three-part fractures have two displaced fragments, and four-part fractures have all fragments displaced from each other. Fractures of the humerus shaft are subdivided into transverse fractures, spiral fractures, "butterfly" fractures, which are a combination of transverse and spiral fractures, and pathological fractures, which are fractures caused by medical conditions. Distal fractures are split between

text: supracondylar fractures

text: , which are transverse fractures above the two

text: condyles

text: at the bottom of the humerus, and intercondylar fractures, which involve a T- or Y-shaped fracture that splits the condyles.

text: A high ankle sprain, also known as a syndesmotic sprain, is a sprain of the syndesmotic ligaments that connect the tibia and fibula in the lower leg, thereby creating a mortise and tenon joint for the ankle. High ankle sprains are described as high because they are located above the ankle. They comprise approximately 15% of all ankle sprains. Unlike the common lateral ankle sprains, when ligaments around the ankle are injured through an inward twisting, high ankle sprains are caused when the lower leg and foot externally rotates (twists out).

text: A high ankle sprain, also known as a syndesmotic sprain, is a

text: sprain

text: of the

text: syndesmotic ligaments

text: that connect the

text: tibia

text: and

text: fibula

text: in the lower leg, thereby creating a

text: mortise and tenon

text: joint for the ankle. High ankle sprains are described as high because they are located above the ankle. They comprise approximately 15% of all ankle sprains. Unlike the common lateral

text: ankle sprain

text: s, when ligaments around the ankle are injured through an inward twisting, high ankle sprains are caused when the lower leg and foot externally rotates (twists out).

text: In 1992, alleged cut marks on the skeletal remains were published, particularly those at the edges of the skull, which might suggest a specific burial rite. Given the rudimentary state of conservation of the skeleton (16 of 203 bones) the likelihood of tooth scratches caused by carnivores is also conceivable. Yet taking the superficial and non-scientific recovery of the bones into account, the question of disarticulation (dispersion of skeletal structure by predators) remains difficult to clarify.

text: Primary bone or the primary ossification center is the beginning of the bone building process during the first trimester. Calcificed cartilage is basophilic and new bone being made is more acidophilic. The primary ossification occurs in the diaphysis. In contrast, secondary ossification centers appear later at the epiphyses of the cartilage and develop similarly to the diaphysis.

text: Aloxiprin (or aluminium acetylsalicylate) is a medical drug used for the treatment of pain and inflammation associated with muscular skeletal and joint disorders.It is used for its properties as an anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic drug.It is a chemical compound of aluminium hydroxide and aspirin.

text: Aloxiprin (or aluminium acetylsalicylate) is a medical drug used for the treatment of pain and inflammation associated with muscular skeletal and joint disorders.It is used for its properties as an

text: anti-inflammatory

text: antipyretic

text: and

text: analgesic

text: drug.It is a chemical compound of aluminium hydroxide and

text: aspirin

text: The quadrangle contains Alba Patera, the largest volcano (by area and volume) in the solar system and Tempe Terra, a highly fractured block of ancient crust about the size of Alaska.

text: The quadrangle contains

text: Alba Patera

text: , the largest

text: volcano

text: (by area and volume) in the

text: solar system

text: and

text: Tempe Terra

text: , a highly fractured block of ancient crust about the size of Alaska.

text: Gantacurium chloride (formerly recognized as GW280430A and as AV430A) is a new experimental neuromuscular blocking drug or skeletal muscle relaxant in the category of non-depolarizing neuromuscular-blocking drugs, used adjunctively in surgical anesthesia to facilitate endotracheal intubation and to provide skeletal muscle relaxation during surgery or mechanical ventilation.Gantacurium is not yet available for widespread clinical use: it is currently undergoing Phase III clinical development.

text: Gantacurium chloride (formerly recognized as GW280430A and as AV430A) is a new experimental

text: neuromuscular blocking drug

text: or

text: skeletal muscle relaxant

text: in the category of non-depolarizing

text: neuromuscular-blocking drugs

text: , used adjunctively in surgical

text: anesthesia

text: to facilitate endotracheal

text: intubation

text: and to provide

text: skeletal muscle

text: relaxation during

text: surgery

text: or

text: mechanical ventilation

text: .Gantacurium is not yet available for widespread clinical use: it is currently undergoing Phase III clinical development.

text: Skeletal components involved in the unhappy triad include:

text: Bensel undertakes the analysis of the two states in a framework which distinguishes between the structural design of the state and the substantive content of its policies. Structural design refers to the skeletal form of organization of the state apparatuses themselves, while substantive content refers to the actions of the state. In total, Bensel investigates forty-two different policy areas under this framework.

text: OCP has been shown to be a precursor of hydroxylapatite (HAP), an inorganic biomineral that is very important in bone growth. Determinations of the crystal structures of OCP and acidic apatite thus appear to be a pre-requisite to an understanding of the formation and chemical properties of skeletal tissues. OCP could one day replace HAP in bone grafts and implants because of the similar apatite structure. OCP is an intermediate complex before the synthesis of HAP. When mixed with boiling water the crystal structure morphs to one that is very similar to apatitic structure of HAP. OCP has similar domains to HAP and has an apatite crystal structure. This makes it ideal to fill in calcium pores in teeth and bones. The morphology of tooth and bone crystallites, as seen in their micrographs, strongly indicates that OCP is involved in the formation of these tissues. There have been studies that have shown the advantages of using OCP in tooth enamel repair to stimulate the regrowth of the enamel because the crystal structure fits into the pores of tooth enamel. Studies have been done with titanium plates and bone implants with a coating of OCP. The implants and plates with coatings of OCP were accepted and integrated more quickly and fully than those without OCP because of the apatite crystal structure of OCP that is similar to the crystal structure of bone. OCP shows very promising signs of replacing HAP in bone and tooth repair and growth in grafts and implants and will likely be used more widespread in the healthcare fields.

text: OCP has been shown to be a precursor of

text: hydroxylapatite

text: (HAP), an inorganic biomineral that is very important in bone growth. Determinations of the crystal structures of OCP and acidic

text: apatite

text: thus appear to be a pre-requisite to an understanding of the formation and chemical properties of

text: skeletal tissues

text: . OCP could one day replace

text: HAP

text: in

text: bone grafts

text: and implants because of the similar apatite structure. OCP is an

text: intermediate complex

text: before the synthesis of

text: HAP

text: . When mixed with boiling water the crystal structure morphs to one that is very similar to

text: apatitic

text: structure of

text: HAP

text: . OCP has similar domains to

text: HAP

text: and has an apatite crystal structure. This makes it ideal to fill in

text: calcium pores

text: in teeth and bones. The morphology of tooth and bone crystallites, as seen in their

text: micrograph

text: s, strongly indicates that OCP is involved in the formation of these tissues. There have been studies that have shown the advantages of using OCP in

text: tooth enamel

text: repair to stimulate the regrowth of the enamel because the crystal structure fits into the pores of

text: tooth enamel

text: . Studies have been done with titanium plates and bone implants with a coating of OCP. The implants and plates with coatings of OCP were accepted and integrated more quickly and fully than those without OCP because of the apatite crystal structure of OCP that is similar to the crystal structure of bone. OCP shows very promising signs of replacing HAP in bone and tooth repair and growth in grafts and implants and will likely be used more widespread in the healthcare fields.

text: Azumolene has also been shown to be as effective as dantrolene at preventing and reversing contracture in in vitro experiments with human skeletal muscle.

text: Oxidized proteins increase in skeletal muscle with age and leads to a buildup of lipofuscin and cross-linked proteins that are normally removed via the proteolysis system. These proteins compile in the skeletal muscle tissue, but are dysfunctional. This leads to an accumulation of non-contractile material in the skeletal muscle. This helps explain why muscle strength decreases severely, as well as muscle mass, in sarcopenia.

text: Oxidized proteins increase in skeletal muscle with age and leads to a buildup of

text: lipofuscin

text: and cross-linked proteins that are normally removed via the

text: proteolysis

text: system. These proteins compile in the skeletal muscle tissue, but are dysfunctional. This leads to an accumulation of non-contractile material in the skeletal muscle. This helps explain why muscle strength decreases severely, as well as muscle mass, in sarcopenia.

text: Short stature or stunted growth during youth is usually what brings the condition to medical attention. Skeletal dysplasia is usually suspected because of obvious physical features (e.g., unusual configuration of face or shape of skull), because of an obviously affected parent, or because body measurements (arm span, upper to lower segment ratio) indicate disproportion. Bone X-rays are often key to diagnosing a specific skeletal dysplasia, but are not the sole diagnostic tool. Most children with suspected skeletal dysplasias are referred to a genetics clinic for diagnostic confirmation and genetic counseling. Since about the year 2000, genetic tests for some of the specific disorders have become available.

text: Short stature or stunted growth during youth is usually what brings the condition to medical attention. Skeletal

text: dysplasia

text: is usually suspected because of obvious physical features (e.g., unusual configuration of face or shape of skull), because of an obviously affected parent, or because body measurements (arm span, upper to lower segment ratio) indicate disproportion. Bone X-rays are often key to diagnosing a specific skeletal dysplasia, but are not the sole diagnostic tool. Most children with suspected skeletal dysplasias are referred to a genetics clinic for diagnostic confirmation and

text: genetic counseling

text: . Since about the year 2000, genetic tests for some of the specific disorders have become available.

text: In 1733 he published Osteographia or the Anatomy of Bones, the first full and accurate description of the anatomy of the human skeletal system.

text: In 1733 he published Osteographia or the Anatomy of Bones, the first full and accurate description of the anatomy of the human

text: skeletal system

text: Ca1.1 is a voltage-dependent calcium channel found in the transverse tubule of muscles. In skeletal muscle it associates with the ryanodine receptor RyR1 of the sarcoplasmic reticulum via a mechanical linkage. It senses the voltage change caused by the end-plate potential from nervous stimulation and propagated by sodium channels as action potentials to the T-tubules. It was previously thought that when the muscle depolarises, the calcium channel opens, allowing calcium in and activating RyR1, which mediates much greater calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This is the first part of the process of excitation-contraction coupling, which ultimately causes the muscle to contract. Recent findings suggest that in skeletal muscle (but not heart muscle), calcium entry through Cav1.1 is not required; Cav1.1 undergoes a conformational change which allosterically activates RyR1.

text: Ca1.1 is a

text: voltage-dependent calcium channel

text: found in the

text: transverse tubule

text: of muscles. In

text: skeletal muscle

text: it associates with the

text: ryanodine receptor

text: RyR1 of the

text: sarcoplasmic reticulum

text: via a mechanical linkage. It senses the

text: voltage

text: change caused by the

text: end-plate potential

text: from nervous stimulation and propagated by sodium channels as

text: action potential

text: s to the T-tubules. It was previously thought that when the muscle depolarises, the calcium channel opens, allowing calcium in and activating RyR1, which mediates much greater calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This is the first part of the process of

text: excitation-contraction coupling

text: , which ultimately causes the muscle to contract. Recent findings suggest that in skeletal muscle (but not heart muscle), calcium entry through Cav1.1 is not required; Cav1.1 undergoes a conformational change which allosterically activates RyR1.

text: Examination of Iufaa's skeleton revealed that he was 25–35 years old at his death. He had very serious tooth decay and "advanced fusion of cranial sutures". His skeleton also showed severe biparietal thinning, a rare condition that today occurs in Europe in only 0.4–1.3% of people. Iufaa also had slight arthritis and suffered from severe osteoporosis. The team speculated that Iufaa "suffered from some unknown long-lasting disease" which caused the osteoporosis and led directly to his death.

text: Examination of Iufaa's skeleton revealed that he was 25–35 years old at his death. He had very serious tooth decay and "advanced fusion of cranial sutures". His skeleton also showed severe

text: biparietal

text: thinning, a rare condition that today occurs in

text: Europe

text: in only 0.4–1.3% of people. Iufaa also had slight arthritis and suffered from severe

text: osteoporosis

text: . The team speculated that Iufaa "suffered from some unknown long-lasting disease" which caused the osteoporosis and led directly to his death.

text: The vestibular system works with other sensorimotor systems in the body, such as the visual system (eyes) and skeletal system (bones and joints), to check and maintain the position of our body at rest or in motion. The vestibular apparatus functions by detecting forces that act upon bodies including gravity. There are two sections in the labyrinth that are helpful for accomplishing those tasks: the semicircular canals and the otolithic organs.

text: The

text: vestibular system

text: works with other sensorimotor systems in the body, such as the visual system (eyes) and skeletal system (bones and joints), to check and maintain the position of our body at rest or in motion. The vestibular apparatus functions by detecting forces that act upon bodies including gravity. There are two sections in the labyrinth that are helpful for accomplishing those tasks: the semicircular canals and the otolithic organs.

text: Skeletal muscle weakness and motor control deficits

text: Mongoloid features had been originally acknowledged in the skeletal remains of a child found at the site of Malta. Alexeev (1998, 323) in his later publication was more cautious, stating that this area was“inhabited by a population of Mongoloid appearance".Mal'ta consists of semi-subterranean houses that were built using large animal bones to assemble the walls, and reindeer antlers covered with animal skins to construct a roof that would protect the inhabitants from the harsh elements of the Siberian weather. Much of what is known about Mal'ta comes from Russian archaeologist Mikhail Gerasimov. Known in the anthropological community primarily for his contributions to a process called forensic sculpture (the recreation of the face of an individual from skeletal remains), Gerasimov first achieved fame for his excavation of Mal'ta in 1927. At the time, the discoveries he made were revolutionary in the field of anthropology. Until his findings, scientists had not imagined that Upper Paleolithic societies of Northern and Central Asia were capable of the same level of culture as those of Europe. Over the course of his career Gerasimov would twice more visit Mal'ta for excavation and research, each time completing findings that were just as remarkable.

text: Mongoloid

text: features had been originally acknowledged in the skeletal remains of a child found at the site of Malta. Alexeev (1998, 323) in his later publication was more cautious, stating that this area was“inhabited by a population of Mongoloid appearance".Mal'ta consists of semi-subterranean houses that were built using large animal bones to assemble the walls, and reindeer antlers covered with animal skins to construct a roof that would protect the inhabitants from the harsh elements of the Siberian weather. Much of what is known about Mal'ta comes from Russian archaeologist

text: Mikhail Gerasimov

text: . Known in the anthropological community primarily for his contributions to a process called

text: forensic sculpture

text: (the recreation of the face of an individual from skeletal remains), Gerasimov first achieved fame for his excavation of Mal'ta in 1927. At the time, the discoveries he made were revolutionary in the field of anthropology. Until his findings, scientists had not imagined that Upper Paleolithic societies of Northern and Central Asia were capable of the same level of culture as those of Europe. Over the course of his career Gerasimov would twice more visit Mal'ta for excavation and research, each time completing findings that were just as remarkable.

text: Prior to its production by recombinant DNA technology, growth hormone used to treat deficiencies was extracted from the pituitary glands of cadavers.  Attempts to create a wholly synthetic HGH failed.  Limited supplies of HGH resulted in the restriction of HGH therapy to the treatment of idiopathic short stature.  Very limited clinical studies of growth hormone derived from an Old World monkey, the rhesus macaque, were conducted by John C. Beck and colleagues in Montreal, in the late 1950s. The study published in 1957, which was conducted on "a 13-year-old male with well-documented hypopituitarism secondary to a crainiophyaryngioma," found that: "Human and monkey growth hormone resulted in a significant enhancement of nitrogen storage ... (and) there was a retention of potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and sodium. ... There was a gain in body weight during both periods. ... There was a significant increase in urinary excretion of aldosterone during both periods of administration of growth hormone. This was most marked with the human growth hormone. ... Impairment of the glucose tolerance curve was evident after 10 days of administration of the human growth hormone. No change in glucose tolerance was demonstrable on the fifth day of administration of monkey growth hormone."  The other study, published in 1958, was conducted on six people: the same subject as the Science paper; an 18-year-old male with statural and sexual retardation and a skeletal age of between 13 and 14 years; a 15-year-old female with well-documented hypopituitarism secondary to a craniopharyngioma; a 53-year-old female with carcinoma of the breast and widespread skeletal metastases;  a 68-year-old female with advanced postmenopausal osteoporosis; and a healthy 24-year-old medical student without any clinical or laboratory evidence of systemic disease.

text: Prior to its production by recombinant DNA technology, growth hormone used to treat deficiencies was extracted from the

text: pituitary gland

text: s of

text: cadaver

text: s.  Attempts to create a wholly synthetic HGH failed.  Limited supplies of HGH resulted in the restriction of HGH therapy to the treatment of idiopathic short stature.  Very limited clinical studies of growth hormone derived from an Old World monkey, the

text: rhesus macaque

text: Cisatracurium (formerly recognized as 51W89, and marketed as Nimbex) is a bisbenzyltetrahydroisoquinolinium that has effect as a neuromuscular-blocking drug or skeletal muscle relaxant in the category of non-depolarizing neuromuscular-blocking drugs, used adjunctively in anesthesia to facilitate endotracheal intubation and to provide skeletal muscle relaxation during surgery or mechanical ventilation. It shows intermediate duration of action. Cisatracurium is one of the ten isomers of the parent molecule, atracurium. Moreover, cisatracurium represents approximately 15% of the atracurium mixture.

text: Cisatracurium (formerly recognized as 51W89, and marketed as Nimbex) is a bisbenzyltetrahydroisoquinolinium that has effect as a

text: neuromuscular-blocking drug

text: or

text: skeletal muscle relaxant

text: in the category of non-depolarizing neuromuscular-blocking drugs, used adjunctively in

text: anesthesia

text: to facilitate endotracheal

text: intubation

text: and to provide

text: skeletal muscle

text: relaxation during

text: surgery

text: or

text: mechanical ventilation

text: . It shows intermediate duration of action. Cisatracurium is one of the ten

text: isomers

text: of the parent molecule,

text: atracurium

text: . Moreover, cisatracurium represents approximately 15% of the atracurium mixture.

text: Skeletal and structural anomalies can occur in approximately 14% of patients, including:

text: The Ideberg classification is a system of categorizing scapula fractures involving the glenoid fossa.

text: The Ideberg classification is a system of categorizing

text: scapula fracture

text: s involving the

text: glenoid fossa

text: The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.

text: The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by

text: skeletal muscle

text: s, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.

text: Symptomatic newborns, if not stillborn, are born premature, with hepatosplenomegaly, skeletal abnormalities, pneumonia and a bullous skin disease known as pemphigus syphiliticus.

text: Symptomatic newborns, if not

text: stillborn

text: , are born premature, with

text: hepatosplenomegaly

text: , skeletal abnormalities,

text: pneumonia

text: and a bullous skin disease known as pemphigus syphiliticus.

text: Joint stability refers to the resistance offered by various musculoskeletal tissues that surround a skeletal joint. Several subsystems ensure the stability of a joint. These are the passive, active and neural subsystems. It is believed that one or more of the subsystems must have failed if joint instability occurs, usually a torn or overstretched ligament. Instability of joints can cause unhealthy ranges of movement in your joints which can result in the joints fracturing.

text: Joint stability refers to the resistance offered by various

text: musculoskeletal

text: tissues that surround a skeletal

text: joint

text: . Several subsystems ensure the stability of a joint. These are the passive, active and neural subsystems. It is believed that one or more of the subsystems must have failed if joint instability occurs, usually a torn or overstretched ligament. Instability of joints can cause unhealthy ranges of movement in your joints which can result in the joints fracturing.

text: For most situations the game uses 1d20 + skill versus a set difficulty though it is not a D20 system game. There are also rules for percentile based "proficiency checks" in certain situations. The system uses "skeletal" classes which determines only the most basic bonuses also allowing for zero level characters. Character creation uses the random-roll of 10 base attributes with choice of class and to a lesser extent race, and point-bought skills. These 10 base attributes are further evenly subdivided into spiritual and physical attributes. The spiritual attributes which define a player character's mental/emotional abilities are Intelligence Quotient, Mental Endurance, Charisma, Wisdom and Aura. The physical attributes which define a player character's raw physical ability and health are Constitution, Dexterity, Strength, Beauty and Perception.

text: For most situations the game uses 1d20 + skill versus a set difficulty though it is not a

text: D20 system

text: game. There are also rules for percentile based "proficiency checks" in certain situations. The system uses "skeletal" classes which determines only the most basic bonuses also allowing for zero level characters. Character creation uses the random-roll of 10 base

text: attribute

text: s with choice of class and to a lesser extent

text: race

text: , and point-bought

text: skills

text: . These 10 base attributes are further evenly subdivided into spiritual and physical attributes. The spiritual attributes which define a player character's mental/emotional abilities are

text: Intelligence Quotient

text: , Mental Endurance,

text: Charisma

text: Wisdom

text: and

text: Aura

text: . The physical attributes which define a player character's raw physical ability and health are Constitution, Dexterity, Strength, Beauty and

text: Perception

text: An important differential diagnosis of OI is child abuse, as both may present with multiple fractures in various stages of healing. Differentiating them can be difficult, especially when no other characteristic features of OI are present. Other differential diagnoses include rickets, osteomalacia, and other rare skeletal syndromes.

text: An important differential diagnosis of OI is

text: child abuse

text: , as both may present with multiple fractures in various stages of healing. Differentiating them can be difficult, especially when no other characteristic features of OI are present. Other differential diagnoses include

text: rickets

text: osteomalacia

text: , and other rare skeletal syndromes.

text: Ankle sprains are classified grade 1, 2, and 3.Depending on the amount of damage or the number of ligaments that are damaged, each sprain is classified from mild to severe. A grade 1 sprain is defined as mild damage to a ligament or ligaments without instability of the affected joint. A grade 2 sprain is considered a partial tear to the ligament, in which it is stretched to the point that it becomes loose. A grade 3 sprain is a complete tear of a ligament, causing instability in the affected joint. Bruising may occur around the ankle.

text: Usually viewed as a precursor to osteoporosis, osteopenia is when bone density is lower than normal levels. Bone mass is affected by muscles forces and their loads to the bone structure. The strength and density of the bone is directly influenced by local strain. Due to the high strain on muscles during eccentric training, coupled with low energy output, eccentric training becomes a cornerstone of the rehabilitative process.

text: Usually viewed as a precursor to

text: osteoporosis

text: osteopenia

text: is when

text: bone density

text: is lower than normal levels. Bone mass is affected by muscles forces and their loads to the bone structure. The strength and density of the bone is directly influenced by local strain. Due to the high strain on muscles during eccentric training, coupled with low energy output, eccentric training becomes a cornerstone of the rehabilitative process.

text: Many tracking systems are based on a model focused on a problem of sequence estimation, where a sequence of images is given and a model of changing, we estimate the 3D configuration for each photo.All the possible hand configurations are represented by vectors on a state space, which codes theposition of the hand and the angles of the finger’s joint. Each hand configuration generates a set ofimages through the detection of the borders of the occlusion of the finger’s joint. The estimation of eachimage is calculated by finding the state vector that better fits to the measured characteristics.The finger joints have the added 21 states more than the rigid body movement of the palms; this meansthat the cost computational of the estimation is increased. The technique consists of label each finger joint links is modeled as a cylinder. We do the axes at each joint and bisector of this axis is the projection of the joint. Hence we use 3 DOF, because there are only 3 degrees of movement.

text: Many tracking systems are based on a model focused on a problem of sequence estimation, where a sequence of images is given and a model of changing, we estimate the 3D configuration for each photo.All the possible hand configurations are represented by

text: vector

text: s on a

text: state space

text: , which codes theposition of the hand and the angles of the finger’s joint. Each hand configuration generates a set ofimages through the detection of the borders of the occlusion of the finger’s joint. The estimation of eachimage is calculated by finding the state vector that better fits to the measured characteristics.The finger joints have the added 21 states more than the rigid body movement of the palms; this meansthat the cost computational of the estimation is increased. The technique consists of label each finger joint links is modeled as a cylinder. We do the axes at each joint and

text: bisector

text: of this axis is the projection of the joint. Hence we use 3 DOF, because there are only 3 degrees of movement.

text: DXL Calscan is a medical device for measuring bone mineral density (BMD) for assisting in the diagnosis and early detection of osteoporosis. DXL Calscan uses Dual X-ray Absorptiometry and Laser (DXL) technology.

text: DXL Calscan is a medical device for measuring

text: bone mineral density

text: (BMD) for assisting in the diagnosis and early detection of

text: osteoporosis

text: . DXL Calscan uses

text: Dual X-ray Absorptiometry and Laser

text: (DXL) technology.

text: Candidates for non-operative treatment are limited to skeletally immature teenagers with a relatively small, intact lesion and the absence of loose bodies. Non-operative management may include activity modification, protected weight bearing (partial or non-weight bearing), and immobilization. The goal of non-operative intervention is to promote healing in the subchondral bone and prevent potential chondral collapse, subsequent fracture, and crater formation.

text: Dr. Pedersen continues (in the same article): "Patients with diabetes have a high protein expression of TNF-α in skeletal muscle and increased TNF-α levels in plasma, and it is likely that adipose tissue, which produces TNF-α, is the main source of the circulating TNF-α. In vitro studies demonstrate that TNF-α has direct inhibitory effects on insulin signaling. In addition, TNF-α infusion in healthy humans induces insulin resistance in skeletal muscle, without an effect on EGP [endogenous glucose production]. It has also been proposed that TNF-α causes insulin resistance indirectly in vivo by increasing the release of FFAs from adipose tissue. TNF-α increases lipolysis in human and 3T3-L1 adipocytes. However, TNF-α has no effect on muscle fatty acid oxidation, but increases fatty acid incorporation into diacylglycerol, which may be involved in the development of the TNF-α-induced insulin resistance in skeletal muscle. In addition, evidence suggests that TNF-α plays a direct role in linking insulin resistance to vascular disease. Moreover, in CVDs, activated immune cells also play major roles, particularly in the etiology of atherosclerosis. Importantly, also tumor initiation, promotion, and progression is stimulated by systemic elevation of proinflammatory cytokines."

text: Dr. Pedersen continues (in the same article): "Patients with diabetes have a high protein expression of TNF-α in skeletal muscle and increased TNF-α levels in plasma, and it is likely that adipose tissue, which produces TNF-α, is the main source of the circulating TNF-α. In vitro studies demonstrate that TNF-α has direct inhibitory effects on insulin signaling. In addition, TNF-α infusion in healthy humans induces insulin resistance in skeletal muscle, without an effect on EGP [endogenous glucose production]. It has also been proposed that TNF-α causes insulin resistance indirectly in vivo by increasing the release of

text: FFAs

text: from adipose tissue. TNF-α increases lipolysis in human and 3T3-L1 adipocytes. However, TNF-α has no effect on muscle fatty acid oxidation, but increases fatty acid incorporation into diacylglycerol, which may be involved in the development of the TNF-α-induced insulin resistance in skeletal muscle. In addition, evidence suggests that TNF-α plays a direct role in linking insulin resistance to vascular disease. Moreover, in CVDs, activated immune cells also play major roles, particularly in the etiology of atherosclerosis. Importantly, also tumor initiation, promotion, and progression is stimulated by systemic elevation of proinflammatory cytokines."

text: Bone is not a uniformly solid material, but is mostly a matrix. The primary tissue of bone, bone tissue (osseous tissue), is relatively hard and lightweight. Its matrix is mostly made up of a composite material incorporating the inorganic mineral calcium phosphate in the chemical arrangement termed calcium hydroxylapatite (this is the bone mineral that gives bones their rigidity) and  collagen, an elastic protein which improves fracture resistance. Bone is formed by the hardening of this matrix around entrapped cells. When these cells become entrapped from osteoblasts they become osteocytes.

text: Bone is not a uniformly solid material, but is mostly a

text: matrix

text: . The primary tissue of bone,

text: bone tissue

text: (osseous tissue), is relatively

text: hard

text: and lightweight. Its matrix is mostly made up of a composite material incorporating the inorganic mineral

text: calcium phosphate

text: in the chemical arrangement termed calcium

text: hydroxylapatite

text: (this is the

text: bone mineral

text: that gives bones their rigidity) and

text: collagen

text: , an elastic protein which improves fracture resistance. Bone is formed by the hardening of this matrix around entrapped cells. When these cells become entrapped from osteoblasts they become osteocytes.

text: Knowing the symptoms that can be experienced with a sprain is important in determining that the injury is not really a break in the bone. When a sprain occurs, blood vessels will leak fluid into the tissue that surrounds the joint. White blood cells responsible for inflammation migrate to the area, and blood flow increases as well. Along with this inflammation, swelling from the fluid and pain is experienced. The nerves in the area become more sensitive when the injury is suffered, so pain is felt as throbbing and will worsen if there is pressure placed on the area. Warmth and redness are also seen as blood flow is increased. Also present is a decreased ability to move the joint, and difficulty using the affected leg.

text: Knowing the symptoms that can be experienced with a sprain is important in determining that the injury is not really a break in the bone. When a sprain occurs, blood vessels will leak fluid into the tissue that surrounds the joint.

text: White blood cells

text: responsible for inflammation migrate to the area, and blood flow increases as well. Along with this inflammation, swelling from the fluid and pain is experienced. The nerves in the area become more sensitive when the injury is suffered, so pain is felt as throbbing and will worsen if there is pressure placed on the area. Warmth and redness are also seen as blood flow is increased. Also present is a decreased ability to move the joint, and difficulty using the affected leg.

text: Sense of balance or equilibrioception is one of the physiological senses related to balance. It helps prevent humans and animals from falling over when standing or moving. Balance is the result of a number of body systems working together: the eyes (visual system), ears (vestibular system) and the body's sense of where it is in space (proprioception) ideally need to be intact. The vestibular system, the region of the inner ear where three semicircular canals converge, works with the visual system to keep objects in focus when the head is moving. This is called the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR). The balance system works with the visual and skeletal systems (the muscles and joints and their sensors) to maintain orientation or balance. Visual signals sent to the brain about the body's position in relation to its surroundings are processed by the brain and compared to information from the vestibular, visual and skeletal systems.

text: Sense of balance or equilibrioception is one of the physiological

text: sense

text: s related to

text: balance

text: . It helps prevent humans and animals from falling over when standing or moving. Balance is the result of a number of body systems working together: the eyes (visual system), ears (

text: vestibular system

text: ) and the body's sense of where it is in space (

text: proprioception

text: ) ideally need to be intact. The vestibular system, the region of the inner ear where three semicircular canals converge, works with the visual system to keep objects in focus when the head is moving. This is called the

text: vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR)

text: . The balance system works with the visual and skeletal systems (the muscles and joints and their sensors) to maintain orientation or balance. Visual signals sent to the brain about the body's position in relation to its surroundings are processed by the brain and compared to information from the vestibular, visual and skeletal systems.

text: Adipocytes secrete various adipokines that may be involved in the negative cross-talk between adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. CCL2 impairs insulin signaling in skeletal muscle cells via ERK1/2 activation at doses similar to its physiological plasma concentrations (200 pg/mL), but does not involve activation of the NF-κB pathway. CCL2 significantly reduced insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in myocytes. CCL2 may represent a molecular link in the negative cross-talk between adipose tissue and skeletal muscle assigning a completely novel important role to CCL2 besides inflammation.

text: Adipocyte

text: s secrete various

text: adipokine

text: s that may be involved in the negative cross-talk between adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. CCL2 impairs insulin signaling in skeletal muscle cells via ERK1/2 activation at doses similar to its physiological plasma concentrations (200 pg/mL), but does not involve activation of the NF-κB pathway. CCL2 significantly reduced insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in

text: myocyte

text: s. CCL2 may represent a molecular link in the negative cross-talk between adipose tissue and skeletal muscle assigning a completely novel important role to CCL2 besides inflammation.

text: Because of the high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency, conditions such as osteoporosis alongside Australia's aging population have now seen many Australians over 60 suffering this now wide spread condition amongst our elderly. Osteoporosis can be defined as very fragile and brittle bones, in which serious fractures can occur with just the slightest bump or fall. Osteoporosis Australia have predicted that half of all women and one third of men all men over the age of 60 years will suffer the depilating effects of osteoporosis.

text: The skeletal remains of the villagers also showed evidence of earlier wounds. According to the 1982 dissertation entitled Osteology of the Crow Creek Massacre by P. Willey, evidence of previous warfare is present in the skeletal remains of victims found in the mass burial. Two individuals had survived previous scalping incidents, and were in the process of healing, which was indicated by the bony re-growth of their skulls; a third individual had survived a head injury as indicated by "a healed depressed fracture in the frontal". Others showed evidence of being wounded by arrows, the points of which remained in the legs and were overgrown by bone.

text: On the other hand, the food and the drink the man had with him were intact, and both were as fresh as it when he had left them, showing that God has power over all things and controls time for all things. The man's donkey, however, was not only dead but was reduced to pure skeletal form. And then, by God's power, the bones joined right in front of his eyes, and the body clothed itself in muscles, flesh and blood, resulting in the donkey coming back to life.

text: On the other hand, the food and the drink the man had with him were intact, and both were as fresh as it when he had left them, showing that God has power over all things and controls time for all things. The man's

text: donkey

text: , however, was not only dead but was reduced to pure skeletal form. And then, by God's power, the bones joined right in front of his eyes, and the body clothed itself in muscles, flesh and blood, resulting in the donkey coming back to life.

text: Eshkol-Wachman movement notation treats the body as a sort of stick figure. The body is divided at its skeletal joints, and each pair of joints defines a line segment (a "limb"). For example, the foot is a limb bounded by the ankle and the end of the toe.

text: Skeletal fluorosis is a bone disease caused by excessive accumulation of fluoride in the bones. In advanced cases, skeletal fluorosis causes pain and damage to bones and joints.

text: Skeletal fluorosis is a

text: bone

text: disease caused by excessive accumulation of

text: fluoride

text: in the bones. In advanced cases, skeletal fluorosis causes pain and damage to bones and joints.

text: Stimulation of β receptors by epinephrine and norepinephrine induces a positive chronotropic and inotropic effect on the heart and increases cardiac conduction velocity and automaticity.Stimulation of β receptors on the kidney causes renin release. Stimulation of β receptors induces smooth muscle relaxation, induces tremor in skeletal muscle, and increases glycogenolysis in the liver and skeletal muscle. Stimulation of β receptors induces lipolysis.

text: Stimulation of β receptors by epinephrine and norepinephrine induces a positive

text: chronotropic

text: and

text: inotropic

text: effect on the heart and increases cardiac conduction velocity and automaticity.Stimulation of β receptors on the kidney causes

text: renin

text: release. Stimulation of β receptors induces

text: smooth muscle

text: relaxation, induces tremor in

text: skeletal muscle

text: , and increases

text: glycogenolysis

text: in the

text: liver

text: and

text: skeletal muscle

text: . Stimulation of β receptors induces

text: lipolysis

text: Jaccoud arthropathy (JA), Jaccoud deformity or Jaccoud's arthopathy is a chronic non-erosive reversible joint disorder that may occur after repeated bouts of arthritis. It is caused by inflammation of the joint capsule and subsequent fibrotic retraction, causing ulnar deviation of the fingers, through metacarpophalageal joint (MCP) subluxation, primarily of the ring and little-finger. Joints in the feet, knees and shoulders may also get affected. It is commonly associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and occurs in roughly 5% of all cases.

text: Jaccoud arthropathy (JA), Jaccoud deformity or Jaccoud's arthopathy is a chronic non-erosive reversible joint disorder that may occur after repeated bouts of arthritis. It is caused by inflammation of the

text: joint capsule

text: and subsequent fibrotic retraction, causing ulnar deviation of the fingers, through

text: metacarpophalageal joint

text: (MCP) subluxation, primarily of the ring and little-finger. Joints in the feet, knees and shoulders may also get affected. It is commonly associated with

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: (SLE), and occurs in roughly 5% of all cases.

text: Legg believed the cause was impairment of blood supply to the femoral epiphysis, Calve believed rickets, and Perthes deduced an infection possibly causing degenerative arthritis leads to LCP disease. Currently, a number of factors have been implicated, including heredity, trauma, endocrine dysfunction, inflammation, nutrition, and altered circulatory hemodynamics.Risk factors are not limited to impaired and disproportionate growth, low birth weight, delayed skeletal maturity, short stature, systemic hormonal changes, and low economic index. Although no one has identified the cause of Perthes disease,  a reduction in blood flow to the joint is known.

text: The obstetrical dilemma hypothesizes that when hominids began to develop bipedal locomotion, the conflict between these two opposing evolutionary pressures became greatly exacerbated. Because humans are currently the only recognized extant obligately bipedal primates, meaning our body shape requires to only use two legs, major evolutionary developments had to occur in order to alter to the shape of the female pelvis. Human males evolved narrower hips optimized for locomotion, whereas female hips evolved to be a wider optimization because of childbirthing needs. Human pelvises have no distinguishing skeletal markers for sex before puberty, where horomones alter the shape of the pelvis in females. Overall, through evolution of the species, a number of structures in the body have changed size, proportion, or location in order to accommodate bipedal locomotion and allow a person to stand upright and face forward. To help support the upper body, a number of structural changes were made to the pelvis. The ilial pelvic bone shifted forward and broadened, while the ischial pelvic bone shrank, narrowing the pelvic canal. These changes were occurring at the same time as humans were developing larger craniums.

text: The Schipperke has no particular health problems. The UK Kennel Club survey puts the median lifespan of the breed at 13 years old, with about 20% living to 15 years or more. Of the 36 deceased dogs in the survey, the oldest dog was  years old.  Nonetheless, inactivity, lack of exercise and over-feeding are very harmful, and can lead to joint and skeletal problems and tooth, heart, lung or digestive conditions. Schipperke's primary orthopedic problem tends to be luxating patella and Legg-Perthes syndrome.  Some Schipperkes have demonstrated tendencies to epilepsy, although there are no tests: these seem to be related to genetic transmission...

text: The Schipperke has no particular health problems. The UK Kennel Club survey puts the median lifespan of the breed at 13 years old, with about 20% living to 15 years or more. Of the 36 deceased dogs in the survey, the oldest dog was  years old.  Nonetheless, inactivity, lack of exercise and over-feeding are very harmful, and can lead to joint and skeletal problems and tooth, heart, lung or digestive conditions. Schipperke's primary orthopedic problem tends to be

text: luxating patella

text: and

text: Legg-Perthes

text: syndrome.  Some Schipperkes have demonstrated tendencies to epilepsy, although there are no tests: these seem to be related to genetic transmission...

text: In a study comparing the prevalence of ankle sprains between age, race, and sex, individuals who were aged 10–19 years old had highest incidences of ankle sprains. It can be suggested that adolescents are more physically active, which leads to higher chances of ankle sprains.  Since sports deal with high utilization of the ankle, over 50% of ankle sprains are due to sport related injuries.

text: In a study comparing the

text: prevalence

text: of ankle sprains between age, race, and sex, individuals who were aged 10–19 years old had highest incidences of ankle sprains. It can be suggested that

text: adolescents

text: are more physically active, which leads to higher chances of ankle sprains.  Since sports deal with high utilization of the ankle, over 50% of ankle sprains are due to sport related injuries.

text: Instead of using intensive processing of the 3D models and dealing with a lot of parameters, one can just use a simplified version of joint angle parameters along with segment lengths. This is known as a skeletal representation of the body, where a virtual skeleton of the person is computed and parts of the body are mapped to certain segments. The analysis here is done using the position and orientation of these segments and the relation between each one of them( for example the angle between the joints and the relative position or orientation)

text: Nerves and muscles may be trapped by broken bones; in these cases the bones need to be put back into their proper places quickly.  For example, fractures of the orbital floor or medial orbital wall of the eye can entrap the medial rectus or inferior rectus muscles.  In facial wounds, tear ducts and nerves of the face may be damaged.  Fractures of the frontal bone can interfere with the drainage of the frontal sinus and can cause sinusitis.

text: Nerves and muscles may be trapped by broken bones; in these cases the bones need to be put back into their proper places quickly.  For example, fractures of the orbital floor or medial orbital wall of the eye can entrap the

text: medial rectus

text: or

text: inferior rectus muscle

text: s.  In facial wounds,

text: tear duct

text: s and nerves of the face may be damaged.  Fractures of the frontal bone can interfere with the drainage of the

text: frontal sinus

text: and can cause

text: sinusitis

text: Osteoporosis is most common in women after menopause, when it is called postmenopausal osteoporosis, but may also develop in men, and may occur in anyone in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of medications, specifically glucocorticoids, when the disease is called steroid- or glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP or GIOP). Given its influence in the risk of fragility fracture, osteoporosis may significantly affect life expectancy and quality of life.

text: Osteoporosis is most common in women after

text: menopause

text: , when it is called postmenopausal osteoporosis, but may also develop in men, and may occur in anyone in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other

text: chronic

text: diseases or as a result of medications, specifically

text: glucocorticoid

text: s, when the disease is called steroid- or

text: glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis

text: (SIOP or GIOP). Given its influence in the risk of fragility fracture, osteoporosis may significantly affect

text: life expectancy

text: and

text: quality of life

text: Swallowing is a complex mechanism using both skeletal muscle (tongue) and smooth muscles of the pharynx and esophagus. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) coordinates this process in the pharyngeal and esophageal phases.

text: Swallowing is a complex mechanism using both skeletal muscle (

text: tongue

text: ) and smooth muscles of the pharynx and

text: esophagus

text: . The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: (ANS) coordinates this process in the pharyngeal and esophageal phases.

text: Cardiac muscle bears some similarities to skeletal muscle, as well as important differences. Like skeletal myocytes (and axons for that matter), in the resting state a given cardiac myocyte has a negative membrane potential. Within the cell K(potassium) is the principal cation, and phosphate and the conjugate bases of organic acids are the dominant anions.  Outside the cell Na (sodium) is the principal cation and Cl (chloride) is the dominant anion. A notable difference between skeletal and cardiac myocytes is how each elevates the myoplasmic Ca to induce contraction. When skeletal muscle is stimulated by somatic motor axons, influx of Na quickly depolarizes the skeletal myocyte and triggers calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.  However, in cardiac myocytes the release of Ca from the sarcoplasmic reticulum is induced by Ca influx into the cell through voltage-gated calcium channels on the sarcolemma.  This phenomenon is called calcium-induced calcium release and increases the myoplasmic free Ca concentration causing muscle contraction. In both muscle types, after a delay (the absolute refractory period), potassium channels reopen and the resulting flow of K out of the cell causes repolarization.  The voltage-gated calcium channels in the cardiac sarcolemma are generally triggered by an influx in sodium during the "0" phase of the action potential (see below). Cardiac muscle is a syncytium in which the cardiac muscle cells are so tightly bound that when one of these cells is excited the action potential spreads to all of them and allows succinct coordinated contraction of the heart. Cardiac pacemaker cells (autorhythmic cells) are connected to adjoining contractile cells (non-pacemaker cells) via gap junctions. Gap junctions allow the spontaneous depolarization and action potential generated by pacemaker cells to be transferred to contractile cells. Of all the cells in the body, only heart cells are able to contract on their own without stimulation from the nervous system.

text: Cardiac muscle bears some similarities to

text: skeletal muscle

text: , as well as important differences. Like skeletal myocytes (and axons for that matter), in the resting state a given cardiac myocyte has a negative

text: membrane potential

text: . Within the cell K(potassium) is the principal

text: cation

text: , and

text: phosphate

text: and the

text: conjugate base

text: s of

text: organic acid

text: s are the dominant

text: anion

text: s.  Outside the cell

text: (sodium) is the principal cation and

text: Cl

text: (chloride) is the dominant anion. A notable difference between skeletal and cardiac myocytes is how each elevates the myoplasmic Ca to induce contraction. When skeletal muscle is stimulated by somatic motor axons, influx of Na quickly depolarizes the skeletal myocyte and triggers calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.  However, in cardiac myocytes the release of Ca from the

text: sarcoplasmic reticulum

text: is induced by Ca influx into the cell through

text: voltage-gated calcium channels

text: on the sarcolemma.  This phenomenon is called

text: calcium-induced calcium release

text: and increases the myoplasmic free Ca concentration causing

text: muscle contraction

text: . In both muscle types, after a delay (the

text: absolute refractory period

text: potassium channels

text: reopen and the resulting flow of K out of the cell causes

text: repolarization

text: .  The voltage-gated calcium channels in the cardiac sarcolemma are generally triggered by an influx in sodium during the "0" phase of the action potential (see below). Cardiac muscle is a

text: syncytium

text: in which the cardiac muscle cells are so tightly bound that when one of these cells is excited the action potential spreads to all of them and allows succinct coordinated contraction of the heart.

text: Cardiac pacemaker

text: cells (autorhythmic cells) are connected to adjoining contractile cells (non-pacemaker cells) via

text: gap junction

text: s. Gap junctions allow the spontaneous depolarization and action potential generated by pacemaker cells to be transferred to contractile cells. Of all the cells in the body, only heart cells are able to contract on their own without stimulation from the nervous system.

text: Fosamax (alendronate) is a bisphosphonate used for the treatment of post-menopausal osteoporosis and for the prevention of skeletal problems in certain cancers.  The American College of Clinical Endocrinology, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the North American Menopause Society and the UK National Osteoporosis Guideline Group recommend alendronate and certain other bisphosphonates as first line treatments for post-menopausal osteopotosis.Long-term treatment with bisphosponates produces anti-fracture and bone mineral density effects that persist for 3–5 years after an initial 3–5 years of treatment.  Alendronate  reduces the risk of hip, vertebral, and wrist fractures by 35-39%.

text: Fosamax (

text: alendronate

text: ) is a

text: bisphosphonate

text: used for the treatment of post-menopausal osteoporosis and for the prevention of skeletal problems in certain cancers.  The American College of Clinical Endocrinology, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the North American Menopause Society and the UK National Osteoporosis Guideline Group recommend alendronate and certain other bisphosphonates as first line treatments for post-menopausal osteopotosis.Long-term treatment with bisphosponates produces anti-fracture and bone mineral density effects that persist for 3–5 years after an initial 3–5 years of treatment.  Alendronate  reduces the risk of hip, vertebral, and wrist fractures by 35-39%.

text: A soft collar is fairly flexible and is the least limiting but can carry a high risk of further breakage, especially in people with osteoporosis. It can be used for minor injuries or after healing has allowed the neck to become more stable.

text: A soft collar is fairly flexible and is the least limiting but can carry a high risk of further breakage, especially in people with

text: osteoporosis

text: . It can be used for minor injuries or after healing has allowed the neck to become more stable.

text: The greater trochanter (great trochanter) of the femur is a large, irregular, quadrilateral eminence and a part of the skeletal system.

text: The greater trochanter (great trochanter) of the

text: femur

text: is a large, irregular, quadrilateral eminence and a part of the skeletal system.

text: Muscular activity accounts for much of the body's energy consumption. All muscle cells produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules which are used to power the movement of the myosin heads. Muscles have a short-term store of energy in the form of creatine phosphate which is generated from ATP and can regenerate ATP when needed with creatine kinase. Muscles also keep a storage form of glucose in the form of glycogen. Glycogen can be rapidly converted to glucose when energy is required for sustained, powerful contractions. Within the voluntary skeletal muscles, the glucose molecule can be metabolized anaerobically in a process called glycolysis which produces two ATP and two lactic acid molecules in the process (note that in aerobic conditions, lactate is not formed; instead pyruvate is formed and transmitted through the citric acid cycle). Muscle cells also contain globules of fat, which are used for energy during aerobic exercise. The aerobic energy systems take longer to produce the ATP and reach peak efficiency, and requires many more biochemical steps, but produces significantly more ATP than anaerobic glycolysis. Cardiac muscle on the other hand, can readily consume any of the three macronutrients (protein, glucose and fat) aerobically without a 'warm up' period and always extracts the maximum ATP yield from any molecule involved. The heart, liver and red blood cells will also consume lactic acid produced and excreted by skeletal muscles during exercise.

text: Muscular activity accounts for much of the body's

text: energy

text: consumption. All muscle cells produce

text: adenosine triphosphate

text: (ATP) molecules which are used to power the movement of the

text: myosin

text: heads. Muscles have a short-term store of energy in the form of

text: creatine phosphate

text: which is generated from ATP and can regenerate ATP when needed with

text: creatine kinase

text: . Muscles also keep a storage form of glucose in the form of

text: glycogen

text: . Glycogen can be rapidly converted to

text: glucose

text: when energy is required for sustained, powerful contractions. Within the voluntary skeletal muscles, the glucose molecule can be metabolized anaerobically in a process called glycolysis which produces two ATP and two

text: lactic acid

text: molecules in the process (note that in aerobic conditions, lactate is not formed; instead

text: pyruvate

text: is formed and transmitted through the

text: citric acid cycle

text: ). Muscle cells also contain globules of fat, which are used for energy during

text: aerobic exercise

text: . The aerobic energy systems take longer to produce the ATP and reach peak efficiency, and requires many more biochemical steps, but produces significantly more ATP than anaerobic glycolysis. Cardiac muscle on the other hand, can readily consume any of the three macronutrients (protein, glucose and fat) aerobically without a 'warm up' period and always extracts the maximum ATP yield from any molecule involved. The heart, liver and red blood cells will also consume lactic acid produced and excreted by skeletal muscles during exercise.

text: The risk of a sprain is greatest during activities that involve explosive side-to-side motion, such as squash, tennis or basketball. Sprained ankles can also occur during normal daily activities such as stepping off a curb or slipping on ice.Returning to activity before the ligaments have fully healed may cause them to heal in a stretched position, resulting in less stability at the ankle joint.  This can lead to a condition known as Chronic Ankle Instability (CAI), and an increased risk of ankle sprains.

text: The hyphal system is dimitic, meaning it contains both generative and skeletal hyphae. The generative hyphae have clamp connections; the skeletal hyphae are brownish, and thick-walled to solid. There are no cystidia in the hymenium. The spores are mostly small, with their longest dimension typically less than 5 µm. They are smooth and thin-walled, hyaline (translucent), with an allantoid (long with rounded ends) to broadly ellipsoid shape.

text: The

text: hypha

text: l system is dimitic, meaning it contains both generative and skeletal hyphae. The generative hyphae have

text: clamp connection

text: s; the skeletal hyphae are brownish, and thick-walled to solid. There are no

text: cystidia

text: in the

text: hymenium

text: . The

text: spores

text: are mostly small, with their longest dimension typically less than 5

text: µm

text: . They are smooth and thin-walled,

text: hyaline

text: (translucent), with an allantoid (long with rounded ends) to broadly

text: ellipsoid

text: shape.

text: ACL sprains – The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is a ligament involved in knee stabilization. An ACL rupture can occur when the foot is planted and the knee twists to change direction.

text: Myosin essential light chain (ELC), ventricular/cardiac isoform is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MYL3 gene. This cardiac ventricular/slow skeletal ELC isoform is distinct from that expressed in fast skeletal muscle (MYL1) and cardiac atrial muscle (MYL4). Ventricular ELC is part of the myosin molecule and is important in modulating cardiac muscle contraction.

text: Myosin essential light chain (ELC), ventricular/cardiac isoform is a

text: protein

text: that in humans is encoded by the MYL3

text: gene

text: . This cardiac ventricular/slow skeletal ELC isoform is distinct from that expressed in fast skeletal muscle (

text: ) and cardiac atrial muscle (

text: ). Ventricular ELC is part of the

text: myosin

text: molecule and is important in modulating cardiac

text: muscle contraction

text: Skeletal pneumaticity is the presence of air spaces within bones. It is generally produced during development by excavation of bone by pneumatic diverticula (air sacs) from an air-filled space such as the lungs or nasal cavity. Pneumatization is highly variable between individuals, and bones not normally pneumatized can become pneumatized in pathological development.

text: Skeletal pneumaticity is the presence of air spaces within bones. It is generally produced during development by excavation of bone by pneumatic

text: diverticula

text: (air sacs) from an air-filled space such as the lungs or nasal cavity. Pneumatization is highly variable between individuals, and bones not normally pneumatized can become pneumatized in pathological development.

text: The vast and disjunct distribution of W. attu has led to the assumption that it might in fact not be a single species. A preliminary bone-by-bone comparison of W. attu specimens from Southeast Asia and South Asia showed significant differences in their skeletal structure. It is thus assumed that pending further research W. attu may possibly be split into two or more species within the Wallago genus in the future.

text: At this stage, some of the fibroblasts begin to lay down bone matrix in the form of collagen monomers. These monomers spontaneously assemble to form the bone matrix, for which bone crystals (calcium hydroxyapatite) are deposited in amongst, in the form of insoluble crystals. This mineralization of the collagen matrix stiffens it and transforms it into bone. In fact, bone is a mineralized collagen matrix; if the mineral is dissolved out of bone, it becomes rubbery. Healing bone callus is on average sufficiently mineralized to show up on X-ray within 6 weeks in adults and less in children. This initial "woven" bone does not have the strong mechanical properties of mature bone. By a process of remodeling, the woven bone is replaced by mature "lamellar" bone. The whole process can take up to 18 months, but in adults the strength of the healing bone is usually 80% of normal by 3 months after the injury.

text: At this stage, some of the fibroblasts begin to lay down

text: bone matrix

text: in the form of collagen monomers. These monomers spontaneously assemble to form the bone matrix, for which bone crystals (

text: calcium hydroxyapatite

text: ) are deposited in amongst, in the form of insoluble

text: crystal

text: s. This mineralization of the collagen matrix stiffens it and transforms it into bone. In fact, bone is a mineralized collagen matrix; if the mineral is dissolved out of bone, it becomes rubbery. Healing bone

text: callus

text: is on average sufficiently mineralized to show up on

text: X-ray

text: within 6 weeks in adults and less in children. This initial "woven" bone does not have the strong mechanical properties of mature bone. By a process of remodeling, the woven bone is replaced by mature "lamellar" bone. The whole process can take up to 18 months, but in adults the strength of the healing bone is usually 80% of normal by 3 months after the injury.

text: Anorexia nervosa causes alterations in the female reproductive system; significant weight loss, as well as psychological stress and intense exercise, typically results in a cessation of menstruation in women who are past puberty. In patients with anorexia nervosa, there is a reduction of the secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone in the central nervous system, preventing ovulation. Anorexia nervosa can also result in pubertal delay or arrest. Both height gain and pubertal development are dependent on the release of growth hormone and gonadotrophins (LH and FSH) from the pituitary gland. Suppression of gonadotrophins in people with anorexia nervosa has been documented. Typically, growth hormone (GH) levels are high, but levels of IGF-1, the downstream hormone that should be released in response to GH are low; this indicates a state of “resistance” to GH due to chronic starvation. IGF-1 is necessary for bone formation, and decreased levels in anorexia nervosa contribute to a loss of bone density and potentially contribute to osteopenia or osteoporosis. Anorexia nervosa can also result in reduction of peak bone mass. Buildup of bone is greatest during adolescence, and if onset of anorexia nervosa occurs during this time and stalls puberty, low bone mass may be permanent.Hepatic steatosis, or fatty infiltration of the liver, can also occur, and is an indicator of malnutrition in children. Neurological disorders that may occur as complications include seizures and tremors. Wernicke encephalopathy, which results from vitamin B1 deficiency, has been reported in patients who are extremely malnourished; symptoms include confusion, oculomotor dysfunction, and abnormalities in walking gait.

text: Anorexia nervosa causes alterations in the female reproductive system; significant weight loss, as well as psychological stress and intense exercise, typically results in a

text: cessation of menstruation

text: in women who are past puberty. In patients with anorexia nervosa, there is a reduction of the secretion of

text: gonadotropin releasing hormone

text: in the central nervous system, preventing ovulation. Anorexia nervosa can also result in pubertal delay or arrest. Both height gain and pubertal development are dependent on the release of growth hormone and gonadotrophins (LH and FSH) from the pituitary gland. Suppression of gonadotrophins in people with anorexia nervosa has been documented. Typically,

text: growth hormone

text: (GH) levels are high, but levels of

text: , the downstream hormone that should be released in response to GH are low; this indicates a state of “resistance” to GH due to chronic starvation. IGF-1 is necessary for bone formation, and decreased levels in anorexia nervosa contribute to a loss of

text: bone density

text: and potentially contribute to

text: osteopenia

text: or

text: osteoporosis

text: . Anorexia nervosa can also result in reduction of peak bone mass. Buildup of bone is greatest during adolescence, and if onset of anorexia nervosa occurs during this time and stalls puberty, low bone mass may be permanent.Hepatic steatosis, or fatty infiltration of the liver, can also occur, and is an indicator of malnutrition in children. Neurological disorders that may occur as complications include

text: seizure

text: s and

text: tremors

text: Wernicke encephalopathy

text: , which results from

text: vitamin B1 deficiency

text: , has been reported in patients who are extremely malnourished; symptoms include confusion,

text: oculomotor

text: dysfunction, and

text: abnormalities in walking gait

text: There are approximately 639 skeletal muscles in the human body.

text: Active  System - In August 2010, the company introduced the OrthoCor Active System, a Class III medical device, following approval from the FDA. The OrthoCor Active System is indicated for adjunctive use in the palliative treatment of post-operative pain and edema in superficial soft tissue.The product uses a combination of electromagnetic therapy and heat, for temporary relief of minor muscular and joint aches and pains associated with over-exertion, strains, sprains, and arthritis. The patented technology behind OrthoCor’s Active System is the combination of Pulsed Electromagnetic Field Therapy (PEMF) and heat therapies. The PEMF is activated when single-use OrthoPods are inserted into the device.  The OrthoCor Active System was a featured product on The Dr. Oz Show.

text: Active  System - In August 2010, the company introduced the OrthoCor Active System, a Class III

text: medical device

text: , following approval from the FDA. The OrthoCor Active System is indicated for adjunctive use in the

text: palliative

text: treatment of post-operative pain and

text: edema

text: in superficial soft tissue.The product uses a combination of electromagnetic therapy and heat, for temporary relief of minor muscular and joint aches and pains associated with over-exertion,

text: strains

text: sprains

text: , and

text: arthritis

text: . The patented technology behind OrthoCor’s Active System is the combination of

text: Pulsed Electromagnetic Field Therapy

text: (PEMF) and heat therapies. The PEMF is activated when single-use OrthoPods are inserted into the device.  The OrthoCor Active System was a featured product on

text: The Dr. Oz Show

text: During Operation Restore Order, the Joint Services cleared a section of the backlands of Buxton to prevent the criminals from escaping into the fields. They discovered the skeletal remains of one man who had been missing since 2007. The Joint Services also recovered several AK-47 rifles, hundreds of rounds of ammunition for various weapons, and military fatigues, among other items, during raids in Buxton.

text: During Operation Restore Order, the Joint Services cleared a section of the backlands of Buxton to prevent the criminals from escaping into the fields. They discovered the skeletal remains of one man who had been missing since 2007. The Joint Services also recovered several AK-47 rifles, hundreds of rounds of ammunition for various weapons, and military fatigues, among other items, during raids in

text: Buxton

text: The extrapyramidal system regulates posture and skeletal muscle tone.  Extrapyramidal symptoms (also called extrapyramidal side effects) get their name because they are symptoms of disorders in this system.

text: The

text: extrapyramidal system

text: regulates posture and skeletal muscle tone.  Extrapyramidal symptoms (also called extrapyramidal side effects) get their name because they are symptoms of disorders in this system.

text: Individuals may have more or fewer bones than this owing to anatomical variations. The most common variations include sutural (wormian) bones, which are located along the sutural lines on the back of the skull, and sesamoid bones which develop within some tendons, mainly in the hands and feet.  Some individuals may also have additional (i.e. supernumerary) cervical ribs or lumbar vertebrae.

text: Individuals may have more or fewer bones than this owing to anatomical variations. The most common variations include sutural (wormian) bones, which are located along the sutural lines on the back of the skull, and sesamoid bones which develop within some tendons, mainly in the hands and feet.  Some individuals may also have additional (i.e. supernumerary)

text: cervical rib

text: s or

text: lumbar vertebrae

text: In many instances, the creation of rock art was itself a ritual act. Some rock art has been interpreted to represent presumed cultural behaviors. Common features in rock art that are related to portraying shamans were bones and other skeletal remains on their coats. One reason for the bones would be that they were used as a type of armor for protecting the shaman on his journeys through different worlds.  Devlet, the author of "Rock Art and the Material Culture of Siberian and Central Asian Shamanism" highlights, “Another interpretation of these skeletal costume elements explains them as representations of a shaman brought back to life after the dismemberment that occurs during the initiation process: the depicted bones thus refer to the wearer’s own skeleton” (43). The concept of death and revival is often associated with shamans and the way they are portrayed. The bones were usually on the back of the shaman's jacket or used on the breast-piece.  Another important aspect used to distinguish shamans in rock art depictions is that they are wearing fringed fabric. There are differences in the lengths of the fringe and where on the shaman the fringe is located. In the rock art, the fringe was usually long single strands attached to different parts of the shaman’s body. The symbolism of the fringe can be interpreted in several ways.  One example is, “The fringe on a shaman’s coat is an important element, which marks his or her ornithomorphic nature (i.e. the ability to transform into a bird or to gain its abilities such as the capacity for flight) ” (Devlet 44). The concept of fringe being correlated with flying was mainly used in rock art in the Altai, Tuva, and Mongolian regions.

text: In many instances, the creation of rock art was itself a ritual act. Some rock art has been interpreted to represent presumed cultural behaviors. Common features in rock art that are related to portraying

text: shaman

text: s were

text: bone

text: s and other skeletal remains on their coats. One reason for the bones would be that they were used as a type of

text: armor

text: for protecting the shaman on his journeys through different worlds.

text: Devlet

text: , the author of "Rock Art and the Material Culture of Siberian and Central Asian Shamanism" highlights, “Another interpretation of these skeletal costume elements explains them as representations of a shaman brought back to life after the

text: dismemberment

text: that occurs during the initiation process: the depicted bones thus refer to the wearer’s own

text: skeleton

text: ” (43). The concept of

text: death

text: and

text: revival

text: is often associated with shamans and the way they are portrayed. The bones were usually on the back of the shaman's jacket or used on the breast-piece.  Another important aspect used to distinguish shamans in rock art depictions is that they are wearing fringed

text: fabric

text: . There are differences in the lengths of the fringe and where on the shaman the fringe is located. In the rock art, the fringe was usually long single strands attached to different parts of the shaman’s body. The symbolism of the fringe can be interpreted in several ways.  One example is, “The fringe on a shaman’s coat is an important element, which marks his or her

text: ornithomorphic

text: nature (i.e. the ability to transform into a bird or to gain its abilities such as the capacity for flight) ” (Devlet 44). The concept of fringe being correlated with flying was mainly used in rock art in the

text: Altai

text: Tuva

text: , and

text: Mongolia

text: n regions.

text: Advantages of using skeletal models:

text: Advantages of using skeletal models:

text: By the end of high school, girls develop up to 90% of their bone mass. Therefore, it is critical that girls ages 9 to 18 build strong, healthy bones that will remain strong for life. Foods high in calcium and vitamin D and 60 minutes of daily bone-strengthening activity will help lower girls’ risk of developing fractures or osteoporosis later in life.

text: By the end of high school, girls develop up to 90% of their

text: bone mass

text: . Therefore, it is critical that girls ages 9 to 18 build strong, healthy bones that will remain strong for life. Foods high in

text: calcium

text: and

text: vitamin D

text: and 60 minutes of daily bone-strengthening activity will help lower girls’ risk of developing

text: fractures

text: or

text: osteoporosis

text: later in life.

text: Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called "primary ossification centers." They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth.  They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones.  Secondary ossification occurs after birth, and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones.  The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the epiphyseal plate). When the child reaches skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure). In the upper limbs, only the diaphyses of the long bones and scapula are ossified.  The epiphyses, carpal bones, coracoid process, medial border of the scapula, and acromion are still cartilaginous.

text: Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called "primary ossification centers." They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after

text: birth

text: .  They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones.  Secondary ossification occurs after birth, and forms the

text: epiphyses

text: of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones.  The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the

text: epiphyseal plate

text: ). When the child reaches skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure). In the upper limbs, only the diaphyses of the long bones and scapula are ossified.  The epiphyses, carpal bones, coracoid process, medial border of the scapula, and acromion are still cartilaginous.

text: In relation to bone, he studied skeletal development, bone mineral loss, odontogenesis and dysmorphogenesis.  His hypothesis was that dietary differences contribute to bone loss among individuals.<ref>University of Michigan.  The Center for Human Growth and Development.  "Stanley M. Garn. Ph.D."  August 23, 2006.

text: In relation to bone, he studied skeletal development, bone mineral loss,

text: odontogenesis

text: and

text: dysmorphogenesis

text: .  His hypothesis was that dietary differences contribute to bone loss among individuals.<ref>University of Michigan.  The Center for Human Growth and Development.  "Stanley M. Garn. Ph.D."  August 23, 2006.

text: An additional feature of Mechanisto 2.0 was its support for Skeletal animation.  Although unimplemented in the editing portion of the User interface, an example file was included with the software that allowed this feature to be deciphered with some effort.  Plans were made for the next major release to allow Mechanisto to fully edit and support Skeletal animation, but this was never addressed as the program became abandonware.

text: An additional feature of Mechanisto 2.0 was its support for

text: Skeletal animation

text: .  Although unimplemented in the editing portion of the

text: User interface

text: , an example file was included with the software that allowed this feature to be deciphered with some effort.  Plans were made for the next major release to allow Mechanisto to fully edit and support Skeletal animation, but this was never addressed as the program became abandonware.

text: Peroxisome biogenesis disorders are autosomal recessive disorders often characterized by impaired plasmalogen biosynthesis. In these cases, the peroxisomal enzyme GNPAT, necessary for the initial steps of plasmologen biosynthesis, is mislocalized to the cytoplasm where it is inactive. In addition, genetic mutations in the GNPAT or AGPS genes can result in plasmalogen deficiencies, which lead to the development of rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata (RCDP) type 2 or 3, respectively. In such cases, both copies of the GNPAT or AGPS gene must be mutated in order for disease to manifest. Unlike the peroxisome biogenesis disorders, other aspects of peroxisome assembly in RCDP2 and RCDP3 patients are normal as is their ability to metabolize very long chain fatty acids. Individuals with severe plasmalogen deficiencies frequently show abnormal neurological development, skeletal malformation, impaired respiration, and cataracts. Plasmalogen-knockout mice show similar alterations like arrest of spermatogenesis, development of cataract and defects in central nervous system myelination.

text: Peroxisome biogenesis disorders

text: are autosomal recessive disorders often characterized by impaired plasmalogen biosynthesis. In these cases, the peroxisomal enzyme GNPAT, necessary for the initial steps of plasmologen biosynthesis, is mislocalized to the cytoplasm where it is inactive. In addition, genetic mutations in the GNPAT or AGPS genes can result in plasmalogen deficiencies, which lead to the development of

text: rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata

text: (RCDP) type 2 or 3, respectively. In such cases, both copies of the GNPAT or AGPS gene must be mutated in order for disease to manifest. Unlike the peroxisome biogenesis disorders, other aspects of peroxisome assembly in RCDP2 and RCDP3 patients are normal as is their ability to metabolize very long chain fatty acids. Individuals with severe plasmalogen deficiencies frequently show abnormal neurological development, skeletal malformation, impaired respiration, and cataracts. Plasmalogen-

text: knockout mice

text: show similar alterations like arrest of

text: spermatogenesis

text: , development of

text: cataract

text: and defects in central nervous system

text: myelination

text: Males typically have more skeletal muscle mass than females. Androgens promote the enlargement of skeletal muscle cells and probably act in a coordinated manner to function by acting on several cell types in skeletal muscle tissue. One cell type conveys hormone signals to generating muscle, the myoblast. Higher androgen levels lead to increased expression of androgen receptor. Fusion of myoblasts generates myotubes, in a process linked to androgen receptor levels.

text: Males typically have more

text: skeletal muscle

text: mass than females. Androgens promote the enlargement of skeletal muscle cells and probably act in a coordinated manner to function by acting on several cell types in skeletal muscle tissue. One cell type conveys hormone signals to generating muscle, the

text: myoblast

text: . Higher androgen levels lead to increased expression of androgen receptor. Fusion of myoblasts generates

text: myotubes

text: , in a process linked to androgen receptor levels.

text: The water is rich in calcium bicarbonate, which strengthens the skeletal system and helps to stop the inflammatory process. Carbonated mineral water is used for restoring the function of the liver, urinary tract, kidney and gastrointestinal tract. It promotes the breakdown of harmful substances formed as a result of metabolism.

text: There are many classified skeletal disorders. One of the most common is osteoporosis. Also common is scoliosis, a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced "C" or "S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is most apparent during adolescence, and is most common with females.

text: There are many classified skeletal disorders. One of the most common is

text: osteoporosis

text: . Also common is

text: scoliosis

text: , a side-to-side curve in the back or spine, often creating a pronounced "C" or "S" shape when viewed on an x-ray of the spine. This condition is most apparent during adolescence, and is most common with females.

text: Hyaline cartilage caps the long bones and the spinal vertebrae. Most childhood limb growth takes place at the ends of the long bones, not in the shaft. Normally, as a child grows, the most interior portion of the joint cartilage converts into bone, and new cartilage forms on the surface to maintain smooth joints. The old joint margins (edges) reabsorb, so that the overall shape of the joint is maintained as growth continues. Failure of this process throughout the body results in skeletal dysplasia. It also leads to very early onset of osteoarthritis, because the defective cartilage is extremely fragile and vulnerable to normal wear and tear.

text: Hyaline cartilage caps the long

text: bone

text: s and the spinal vertebrae. Most childhood limb growth takes place at the ends of the long bones, not in the shaft. Normally, as a child grows, the most interior portion of the joint cartilage converts into bone, and new cartilage forms on the surface to maintain smooth joints. The old joint margins (edges) reabsorb, so that the overall shape of the joint is maintained as growth continues. Failure of this process throughout the body results in skeletal dysplasia. It also leads to very early onset of

text: osteoarthritis

text: , because the defective cartilage is extremely fragile and vulnerable to normal wear and tear.

text: In addition to direct treatment of the plasma cell proliferation, bisphosphonates (e.g., pamidronate or zoledronic acid) are routinely administered to prevent fractures; they have also been observed to have direct anti-tumor effect even in patients without known skeletal disease.  If needed, red blood cell transfusions or erythropoietin can be used for management of anemia. Bortezomib is the first therapeutic proteasome inhibitor approved by the U.S. FDA for treating relapsed multiple myeloma.

text: In addition to direct treatment of the plasma cell proliferation,

text: bisphosphonate

text: s (e.g.,

text: pamidronate

text: or

text: zoledronic acid

text: ) are routinely administered to prevent fractures; they have also been observed to have direct anti-tumor effect even in patients without known skeletal disease.  If needed,

text: red blood cell

text: transfusions or

text: erythropoietin

text: can be used for management of anemia.

text: Bortezomib

text: is the first therapeutic proteasome inhibitor approved by the U.S. FDA for treating relapsed multiple myeloma.

text: The college also offers joint degree programs in accounting, management information systems, medicine, nursing and public health; and,pharmacy.

text: Tarah Lynn Schaeffer (born 4 July 1984) is an American actor. She is known for such role on the long time children's television series, Sesame Street. The casting of Tarah Schaeffer was monumental because she became the first cast member with disabilities to be casted as a member of the Sesame Street family. Tarah Schaeffer was born with a disorder called Osteogenesis Imperfecta, for short “OI”. The genetic disorder is a form of dwarfism that causes brittle bones, subjecting Tarah to constant fractures in her skeletal system.

text: Tarah Lynn Schaeffer (born 4 July 1984) is an American

text: actor

text: . She is known for such role on the long time children's television series,

text: Sesame Street

text: . The casting of Tarah Schaeffer was monumental because she became the first cast member with disabilities to be casted as a member of the

text: Sesame Street

text: family. Tarah Schaeffer was born with a disorder called

text: Osteogenesis Imperfecta

text: , for short “OI”. The

text: genetic disorder

text: is a form of

text: dwarfism

text: that causes brittle bones, subjecting Tarah to constant fractures in her

text: skeletal system

text: A fully paralyzed patient is unable to move, speak, blink the eyes, or otherwise respond to the pain. It is incorrect to think that physiological signs such as increased heart rate (tachycardia), blood pressure (hypertension), dilation of the pupils (mydriasis), sweating (diaphoresis), and the formation of tears (lacrimation) will continue to occur normally in response to pain in the anesthetized state .  If neuromuscular blocking drugs are used this causes skeletal muscle paralysis and interferes with the functioning of the autonomic nervous system.  The patient cannot signal their distress and they may not exhibit the signs of awareness that would be expected to be detectable by clinical vigilance.

text: A fully paralyzed patient is unable to move, speak, blink the eyes, or otherwise respond to the pain. It is incorrect to think that physiological signs such as increased heart rate (

text: tachycardia

text: ), blood pressure (

text: hypertension

text: ), dilation of the pupils (

text: mydriasis

text: ), sweating (

text: diaphoresis

text: ), and the formation of tears (

text: lacrimation

text: ) will continue to occur normally in response to pain in the anesthetized state .  If neuromuscular blocking drugs are used this causes skeletal muscle paralysis and interferes with the functioning of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: .  The patient cannot signal their distress and they may not exhibit the signs of awareness that would be expected to be detectable by clinical vigilance.

text: After initial reports that warfarin could reduce bone mineral density, several studies have demonstrated a link between warfarin use and osteoporosis-related fracture. A 1999 study in 572 women taking warfarin for deep venous thrombosis, risk of vertebral fracture and rib fracture was increased; other fracture types did not occur more commonly. A 2002 study looking at a randomly selected selection of 1523 patients with osteoporotic fracture found no increased exposure to anticoagulants compared to controls, and neither did stratification of the duration of anticoagulation reveal a trend towards fracture.

text: After initial reports that warfarin could reduce

text: bone mineral density

text: , several studies have demonstrated a link between warfarin use and

text: osteoporosis

text: -related

text: fracture

text: . A 1999 study in 572 women taking warfarin for

text: deep venous thrombosis

text: , risk of

text: vertebral fracture

text: and

text: rib fracture

text: was increased; other fracture types did not occur more commonly. A 2002 study looking at a randomly selected selection of 1523 patients with osteoporotic fracture found no increased exposure to anticoagulants compared to controls, and neither did stratification of the duration of anticoagulation reveal a trend towards fracture.

text: Bactridines act specifically on sodium channels. Different subtypes of bactridines have affinity with different voltage-gated sodium channel (Na) isoforms. Bactridine 2 acts on skeletal  Na1.4 and neuronal Na1.6 and is most effective on Na1.4. Bactridine 3 and 4 act on skeletal Na1.4 and neuronal Na1.3 and Na1.6 and are most effective on Na1.4 and Na1.3 respectively. Bactridine 5 acts specifically on Na1.7. Finally, bactridine 6 acts on Na1.3, Na1.7 and DmNa1. The specific sodium channel isoforms on which bactridine 1 acts are not yet known.

text: Bactridines act specifically on sodium channels. Different subtypes of bactridines have affinity with different

text: voltage-gated sodium channel

text: (Na)

text: isoforms

text: . Bactridine 2 acts on skeletal  Na1.4 and neuronal Na1.6 and is most effective on Na1.4. Bactridine 3 and 4 act on skeletal Na1.4 and neuronal Na1.3 and Na1.6 and are most effective on Na1.4 and Na1.3 respectively. Bactridine 5 acts specifically on Na1.7. Finally, bactridine 6 acts on Na1.3, Na1.7 and DmNa1. The specific sodium channel isoforms on which bactridine 1 acts are not yet known.

text: Smooth and cardiac muscle contractions are myogenic and can be modulated by the autonomic nervous system. The mechanisms of contraction in these muscle tissues are similar to those in skeletal muscle tissues.

text: Smooth and cardiac muscle contractions are

text: myogenic

text: and can be modulated by the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . The mechanisms of contraction in these

text: muscle tissue

text: s are similar to those in skeletal muscle tissues.

text: Hip dysplasia is often cited as causing osteoarthritis of the hip at a comparatively young age.  Dislocated load bearing surfaces lead to increased and unusual wear.  Although there are studies that contradict these findings.  (see ) Peri-acetabular osteotomy (PAO) surgery can be used to realign the hip joint in some adolescents and adults. Subsequent treatment with total hip arthroplasty (hip replacement) is complicated by a need for revision surgery (replacing the artificial joint) owing to skeletal changes as the body matures, loosening/wear or bone resorption. Hip resurfacing is another option for correcting hip dysplasia in adults. It is a type of hip replacement that preserves more bone, and may work for younger hip dysplasia patients.

text: Hip dysplasia is often cited as causing

text: osteoarthritis

text: of the hip at a comparatively young age.  Dislocated load bearing surfaces lead to increased and unusual wear.  Although there are studies that contradict these findings.  (see ) Peri-acetabular osteotomy (PAO) surgery can be used to realign the hip joint in some adolescents and adults. Subsequent treatment with total hip

text: arthroplasty

text: hip replacement

text: ) is complicated by a need for revision surgery (replacing the artificial joint) owing to skeletal changes as the body matures, loosening/wear or bone resorption.

text: Hip resurfacing

text: is another option for correcting hip dysplasia in adults. It is a type of hip replacement that preserves more bone, and may work for younger hip dysplasia patients.

text: In most cases, 3-M syndrome is diagnosed shortly after birth, based upon a thorough clinical evaluation, identification of characteristic physical findings (e.g., low birth weight, short stature, characteristic craniofacial and skeletal malformations, etc.), and/or a variety of specialized tests, such as advanced imaging techniques. Specialized x-ray studies may detect, confirm, and/or characterize certain craniofacial malformations (e.g., dolicocephaly, maxillary hypoplasia) as well as other skeletal abnormalities often associated with the disorder such as distinctive malformations of the vertebrae, the long bones, the ribs, and/or the shoulder blades.  Identification of the gene that causes 3-M syndrome may eventually lead to molecular genetic testing to confirm a suspected diagnosis.  The treatment of 3-M syndrome is directed toward the specific symptoms that are apparent in each individual. Treatment may require the coordinated efforts of a team of specialists. Pediatricians, physicians who specialize in treating skeletal disorders (orthopedists), dental specialists, and/or other health care professionals may need to systematically and comprehensively plan an affected child's treatment.  In some cases, orthopedic techniques, surgery, and/or other supportive techniques may be used to help treat certain skeletal abnormalities associated with 3-M syndrome. Surgery and/or supportive measures may also be used to help treat or correct certain craniofacial, digital, and/or other abnormalities associated with the disorder. In addition, in affected individuals with dental abnormalities, braces, oral surgery, and/or other corrective techniques may be used to help treat or correct such malformations.  Genetic counseling will be of benefit for affected individuals and their families. Family members of affected individuals should also receive regular clinical evaluations to detect any symptoms and physical characteristics that may be potentially associated with 3-M syndrome or heterozygosity for the disorder. Other treatment for 3-M syndrome is symptomatic and supportive.

text: Newton's third law of motion is widely used in the study of animal locomotion: if at rest, to move forwards an animal must push something backwards.  Terrestrial animals must push the solid ground, swimming and flying animals must push against a fluid or gas (either water or air). The effect of forces during locomotion on the design of the skeletal system is also important, as is the interaction between locomotion and muscle physiology, in determining how the structures and effectors of locomotion enable or limit animal movement.

text: Newton's third law of motion

text: is widely used in the study of animal locomotion: if at rest, to move forwards an animal must push something backwards.  Terrestrial animals must push the solid ground, swimming and flying animals must push against a

text: fluid

text: or

text: gas

text: (either

text: water

text: or

text: air

text: ). The effect of forces during locomotion on the design of the skeletal system is also important, as is the interaction between locomotion and muscle physiology, in determining how the structures and effectors of locomotion enable or limit animal movement.

text: Godot contains an in-built animation system with a GUI for editing skeletal animation, blending, animation trees, morphing and realtime cutscenes. Due to a node-based design almost any variable defined or created on a game entity can be animated.

text: Godot contains an in-built

text: animation

text: system with a

text: GUI

text: for editing

text: skeletal animation

text: , blending, animation trees,

text: morphing

text: and realtime cutscenes. Due to a node-based design almost any variable defined or created on a game entity can be animated.

text: Comparative anatomy has long served as evidence for evolution; it indicates that various organisms share a common ancestor.Also, it assists scientists in classifying organisms based on similar characteristics of their anatomical structures. A common example of comparative anatomy is the similar bone structures in forelimbs of cats, whales, bats, and humans. All of these appendages consist of the same basic parts; yet, they serve completely different functions. The skeletal parts which form a structure used for swimming, such as a fin, would not be ideal to form a wing, which is better-suited for flight. One explanation for the forelimbs' similar composition is descent with modification. Through random mutations and natural selection, each organism's anatomical structures gradually adapted to suit their respective habitats. The rules for development of special characteristics which differ significantly from general homology were listed by Karl Ernst von Baer (the Baer laws).

text: Comparative anatomy has long served as

text: evidence for evolution

text: ; it indicates that various organisms share a common ancestor.Also, it assists scientists in classifying organisms based on similar characteristics of their anatomical structures. A common example of comparative anatomy is the similar bone structures in forelimbs of cats, whales, bats, and humans. All of these appendages consist of the same basic parts; yet, they serve completely different functions. The skeletal parts which form a structure used for swimming, such as a fin, would not be ideal to form a wing, which is better-suited for flight. One explanation for the forelimbs' similar composition is descent with modification. Through random mutations and natural selection, each organism's anatomical structures gradually adapted to suit their respective habitats. The rules for development of special characteristics which differ significantly from general homology were listed by

text: Karl Ernst von Baer

text: (the Baer laws).

text: There are ethical issues with bioarchaeology that revolve around treatment and respect for the dead.  Large-scale skeletal collections were first amassed in the US in the 19th century, largely from the remains of Native Americans.  No permission was ever granted from surviving family for study and display.  Recently, federal laws such as NAGPRA (Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act) have allowed Native Americans to regain control over the skeletal remains of their ancestors and associated artifacts in order to reassert their cultural identities.

text: There are ethical issues with bioarchaeology that revolve around treatment and respect for the dead.  Large-scale skeletal collections were first amassed in the US in the 19th century, largely from the remains of

text: Native Americans

text: .  No permission was ever granted from surviving family for study and display.  Recently, federal laws such as

text: NAGPRA

text: (Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act) have allowed Native Americans to regain control over the skeletal remains of their ancestors and associated artifacts in order to reassert their cultural identities.

text: There are generally two types of syndromes that cause short stature.  One is disproportionate limb size on a normal size torso.  The second is proportionate, where they are generally small for their average age.  There are a variety of causes including skeletal dysplasia, chondrodysrophy, and growth hormone deficiencies.  Short stature can cause a number of other disabilities including eye problems, joint defects, joint dislocation or limited range of movement.

text: In individuals affected by SMA, the SMN1 gene is mutated in such a way that it is unable to correctly code the SMN protein - due to either a deletion occurring at exon 7 or to other point mutations (frequently resulting in the functional conversion of the SMN1 sequence into SMN2). All patients, however, retain at least one copy of the SMN2 gene (with most having 2-4 of them) which still codes small amounts of SMN protein - around 10-20% of the normal level - allowing some neurons to survive. In the long run, however, reduced availability of the SMN protein results in gradual death of motor neuron cells in the anterior horn of spinal cord and the brain. Muscles that depend on these motor neurons for neural input now have decreased innervation (also called denervation), and therefore have decreased input from the central nervous system (CNS). Denervated skeletal muscle is more difficult for the body to control. Decreased impulse transmission through the motor neurons leads to decreased contractile activity of the denervated muscle. Consequently, denervated muscles undergo progressive atrophy.

text: In individuals affected by SMA, the SMN1 gene is

text: mutated

text: in such a way that it is unable to correctly code the SMN protein - due to either a

text: deletion

text: occurring at

text: exon

text: 7 or to other

text: point mutations

text: (frequently resulting in the functional conversion of the SMN1 sequence into SMN2). All patients, however, retain at least one copy of the SMN2 gene (with most having 2-4 of them) which still codes small amounts of SMN protein - around 10-20% of the normal level - allowing some neurons to survive. In the long run, however, reduced availability of the SMN protein results in gradual death of motor neuron cells in the

text: anterior horn of spinal cord

text: and the brain. Muscles that depend on these motor neurons for neural input now have decreased innervation (also called denervation), and therefore have decreased input from the central nervous system (CNS). Denervated skeletal muscle is more difficult for the body to control. Decreased impulse transmission through the motor neurons leads to decreased contractile activity of the denervated muscle. Consequently, denervated muscles undergo progressive

text: atrophy

text: A joint is a break (fracture) of natural origin in the continuity of either a layer or body of rock that lacks any visible or measurable movement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture. Although they can occur singly, they most frequently occur as joint sets and systems. A joint set is a family of parallel, evenly spaced joints that can be identified through mapping and analysis of the orientations, spacing, and physical properties. A joint system consists of two or more intersecting joint sets. The distinction between joints and faults hinges on the terms visible or measurable which depends on the scale of observation. Faults differ from joints in that they exhibit visible or measurable lateral movement between the opposite surfaces of the fracture. As a result, a joint may have been created by either strict movement of a rock layer or body perpendicular to the fracture or by varying degrees of lateral displacement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture that remains “invisible” at the scale of observation.

text: A joint is a break (

text: fracture

text: ) of natural origin in the continuity of either a layer or body of

text: rock

text: that lacks any visible or measurable movement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture. Although they can occur singly, they most frequently occur as joint sets and systems. A joint set is a family of parallel, evenly spaced joints that can be identified through mapping and analysis of the orientations, spacing, and physical properties. A joint system consists of two or more intersecting joint sets. The distinction between joints and

text: faults

text: hinges on the terms visible or measurable which depends on the scale of observation. Faults differ from joints in that they exhibit visible or measurable lateral movement between the opposite surfaces of the fracture. As a result, a joint may have been created by either strict movement of a rock layer or body perpendicular to the fracture or by varying degrees of lateral displacement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture that remains “invisible” at the scale of observation.

text: Skeletal system findings: Patients may have mandibular hypoplasia, osteoporosis, avascular necrosis, and scoliosis.

text: The stifle joint (often simply stifle) is a complex joint in the hind limbs of quadruped mammals such as the sheep, horse or dog. It is the equivalent of the human knee and is often the largest synovial joint in the animal's body. The stifle joint joins three bones: the femur, patella, and tibia. The joint consists of three smaller ones: the femoropatellar joint, medial femorotibial joint, and lateral femorotibial joint.

text: The stifle joint (often simply stifle) is a complex joint in the

text: hind limb

text: s of

text: quadruped

text: mammal

text: s such as the

text: sheep

text: horse

text: or

text: dog

text: . It is the equivalent of the human

text: knee

text: and is often the largest

text: synovial joint

text: in the animal's body. The stifle joint joins three bones: the

text: femur

text: patella

text: , and

text: tibia

text: . The joint consists of three smaller ones: the femoropatellar joint, medial femorotibial joint, and lateral femorotibial joint.

text: Zometa is used to prevent skeletal fractures in patients with cancers such as multiple myeloma and prostate cancer, as well as for treating osteoporosis. It can also be used to treat hypercalcemia of malignancy and can be helpful for treating pain from bone metastases.

text: Zometa is used to prevent

text: skeletal

text: fracture

text: s in patients with

text: cancer

text: s such as

text: multiple myeloma

text: and

text: prostate cancer

text: , as well as for treating

text: osteoporosis

text: . It can also be used to treat

text: hypercalcemia

text: of malignancy and can be helpful for treating pain from bone metastases.

text: The skeletal system serves as a framework for tissues and organs to attach themselves to. This system acts as a protective structure for vital organs. Major examples of this are the brain being protected by the skull and the lungs being protected by the rib cage.

text: The skeletal system serves as a framework for

text: tissues

text: and

text: organs

text: to attach themselves to. This system acts as a protective structure for vital organs. Major examples of this are the

text: brain

text: being protected by the

text: skull

text: and the

text: lungs

text: being protected by the

text: rib cage

text: miR-199, along with its cluster mate MiR-214, has been shown to be implicated in skeleton formation. In mice, miR-199 is expressed in perichondrial cells, periarticular chondrocytes, tracheal cartilage, limb mesenchyme, and most tissues in the upper and lower jaw. In zebrafish, miR-199 is expressed in the developing notochord and in all tissues surrounding developing skeletal elements. Comparative miRNA array led to the isolation of several Bone Morphogenic Protein 2 (BMP2)-responsive miRNAs. Among them, miR-199a* is of particular interest, because it was reported to be specifically expressed in the skeletal system and was shown to inhibit chondrogenesis by down-regulation of Smad1, a major regulator of bone and cartilage formation and development. Also, Twist-1, whichis a major actor in skeleton formation, regulates miR-199 and miR-214 cluster expression in mouse. Furthermore, miR199-214 cluster deletion in mouse lead to skeletal development abnormalities including craniofacial defects, neural arch and spinous processes malformations, and osteopenia.

text: miR-199, along with its cluster mate

text: , has been shown to be implicated in skeleton formation. In mice, miR-199 is expressed in perichondrial cells, periarticular chondrocytes, tracheal cartilage, limb mesenchyme, and most tissues in the upper and lower jaw. In zebrafish, miR-199 is expressed in the developing notochord and in all tissues surrounding developing skeletal elements. Comparative miRNA array led to the isolation of several

text: Bone Morphogenic Protein 2

text: (BMP2)-responsive miRNAs. Among them, miR-199a* is of particular interest, because it was reported to be specifically expressed in the skeletal system and was shown to inhibit chondrogenesis by

entity_name: Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 1

text: down-regulation of Smad1

text: , a major regulator of bone and cartilage formation and development. Also,

text: , whichis a major actor in skeleton formation, regulates miR-199 and miR-214 cluster expression in mouse. Furthermore, miR199-214 cluster deletion in mouse lead to skeletal development abnormalities including craniofacial defects, neural arch and spinous processes malformations, and osteopenia.

text: Skeletal muscle is one of three major muscle types, the others being cardiac muscle and smooth muscle. It is a form of striated muscle tissue which is under the voluntary control of the somatic nervous system. Most skeletal muscles are attached to bones by bundles of collagen fibers known as tendons.

text: Skeletal muscle is one of three major muscle types, the others being

text: cardiac muscle

text: and

text: smooth muscle

text: . It is a form of

text: striated muscle tissue

text: which is under the voluntary control of the

text: somatic nervous system

text: . Most skeletal muscles are attached to

text: bone

text: s by bundles of

text: collagen

text: fibers known as

text: tendons

text: Calcaneal fracture- Camurati–Engelmann disease- Cancellous bone- Cartilage- Cartilaginous joint- Catel–Manzke syndrome- Cenani–Lenz syndactylism- Cervical dislocation- Cervical fracture- Cervical rib- Chalkstick fracture- Chance fracture- Chandler's disease- Charnley prosthesis- Charnley Retractor- Chauffeur's fracture- Child bone fracture- Chondroblast- Chondroblastoma- Chondrocyte- Chondrogenesis- Chondromalacia patellae- Chondromyxoid fibroma- Chondrosarcoma- Chopart's fracture-dislocation- Clarke's test- Clavicle fracture- Clay-shoveler fracture- Cleidocranial dysostosis- Clinodactyly- Club foot- Clubbed thumb- Cobb angle- Codman triangle- Cole carpenter syndrome- Colles' fracture- Combined tibia and fibula fracture- Compartment syndrome- Complex regional pain syndrome- Compression fracture- Computer-assisted orthopedic surgery- Congenital knee dislocation- Congenital limb deformities- Congenital patellar dislocation- Conradi–Hünermann syndrome- Coopernail's sign- Cortical bone- Cotrel–Dubousset instrumentation- Coxa valga- Coxa vara- Cozen's test- Crus fracture- Crush injury- Crush syndrome- Cubitus valgus- Cubitus varus- Cunningham shoulder reduction- Currarino syndrome

text: Calcaneal fracture

text: Camurati–Engelmann disease

text: Cancellous bone

text: Cartilage

text: Cartilaginous joint

text: Catel–Manzke syndrome

text: Cenani–Lenz syndactylism

text: Cervical dislocation

text: Cervical fracture

text: Cervical rib

text: Chalkstick fracture

text: Chance fracture

text: Chandler's disease

text: Charnley prosthesis

text: Charnley Retractor

text: Chauffeur's fracture

text: Child bone fracture

text: Chondroblast

text: Chondroblastoma

text: Chondrocyte

text: Chondrogenesis

text: Chondromalacia patellae

text: Chondromyxoid fibroma

text: Chondrosarcoma

text: Chopart's fracture-dislocation

text: Clarke's test

text: Clavicle fracture

text: Clay-shoveler fracture

text: Cleidocranial dysostosis

text: Clinodactyly

text: Club foot

text: Clubbed thumb

text: Cobb angle

text: Codman triangle

text: Cole carpenter syndrome

text: Colles' fracture

text: Combined tibia and fibula fracture

text: Compartment syndrome

text: Complex regional pain syndrome

text: Compression fracture

text: Computer-assisted orthopedic surgery

text: Congenital knee dislocation

text: Congenital limb deformities

text: Congenital patellar dislocation

text: Conradi–Hünermann syndrome

text: Coopernail's sign

text: Cortical bone

text: Cotrel–Dubousset instrumentation

text: Coxa valga

text: Coxa vara

text: Cozen's test

text: Crus fracture

text: Crush injury

text: Crush syndrome

text: Cubitus valgus

text: Cubitus varus

text: Cunningham shoulder reduction

text: Currarino syndrome

text: In skeletal muscle fibers, a large transverse tubule system with a high surface-area to volume ratio exists. The onset of skeletal muscle activity is associated with the initiation and propagation of action potentials again associated with an efflux of K to the extracellular fluid and transverse tubule system. When many action potentials are elicited subsequently more K is expelled from the cell into the transverse tubular system. As K accumulates in the transverse tubular system the equilibrium potential for K (E) normally around -80 mV, becomes more depolarized (depolarization), according to the Nernst equation. In skeletal muscle fibers the equilibrium potential for Cl is around -80 mV, equal to that of K at rest. Cl moves towards its equilibrium potential around -80 mV, while potassium moves towards its equilibrium potential more depolarized than -80 mV during activity. This results in a slightly more depolarized membrane potential of the fiber during repeated action potentials, see Goldman equation. The Na conductance is only elevated shortly compared to the K conductance during each action potential, which is why K largely determines the membrane potential (Cl is passively distributed during rest).In the case of myotonia congenita, the chloride channels that allow Cl to move across the membrane towards its equilibrium potential are defective, thus K is the only ion determining the membrane potential, and as more and more K accumulates in the transverse tubular system with each subsequent action potential the fiber depolarizes until the membrane potential comes close enough to the action potential threshold for spontaneous activity to ensueSpontaneous action potentials can arise for several seconds, leading to the delayed relaxation that is the hallmark of myotonia. Cessation of spontaneous activity is associated with sodium channel  inactivation (Na1.4).

text: In

text: skeletal muscle

text: fibers, a large

text: transverse tubule

text: system with a high surface-area to volume ratio exists. The onset of skeletal muscle activity is associated with the initiation and propagation of

text: action potentials

text: again associated with an efflux of K to the extracellular fluid and transverse tubule system. When many action potentials are elicited subsequently more K is expelled from the cell into the transverse tubular system. As K accumulates in the transverse tubular system the

text: equilibrium potential

text: for K (E) normally around -80 mV, becomes more depolarized (

text: depolarization

text: ), according to the

text: Nernst equation

text: . In skeletal muscle fibers the equilibrium potential for Cl is around -80 mV, equal to that of K at rest. Cl moves towards its equilibrium potential around -80 mV, while potassium moves towards its equilibrium potential more depolarized than -80 mV during activity. This results in a slightly more depolarized

text: membrane potential

text: of the fiber during repeated action potentials, see

text: Goldman equation

text: . The Na conductance is only elevated shortly compared to the K conductance during each action potential, which is why K largely determines the membrane potential (Cl is passively distributed during rest).In the case of myotonia congenita, the chloride channels that allow Cl to move across the membrane towards its equilibrium potential are defective, thus K is the only ion determining the membrane potential, and as more and more K accumulates in the transverse tubular system with each subsequent action potential the fiber depolarizes until the membrane potential comes close enough to the

text: action potential threshold

text: for spontaneous activity to ensueSpontaneous action potentials can arise for several seconds, leading to the delayed relaxation that is the hallmark of myotonia. Cessation of spontaneous activity is associated with

text: sodium channel

text: inactivation (Na1.4).

text: Weight vests are becoming a very popular form of adding weight around the entire core to, for the most part, simulate the fat storage areas of the human body.  It is very useful for adding weight to limb-centric movements, and for handling great weights. Due to the large area available, it can also handle more weight. If well-affixed, it is the safest most natural means of mimicking added body mass without unbalancing the body's muscles. They can be used to add resistance to almost any whole-body movement. A study has shown that using a weighted vest can increase the metabolic costs, relative exercise intensity, and loading of the skeletal system during walking.

text: Researchers in support of this model have suggested that Archaeopteryx possessed skeletal features similar to those of modern birds. The first such feature to be noted was the supposed similarity between the foot of Archaeopteryx and that of modern perching birds. The hallux, or modified of the first digit of the foot, was long thought to have pointed posterior to the remaining digits, as in perching birds. Therefore, researchers once concluded that Archaeopteryx used the hallux as a balancing mechanism on tree limbs. However, study of the Thermopolis specimen of Archeopteryx, which has the most complete foot of any known, showed that the hallux was not in fact reversed, limiting the creature's ability to perch on branches and implying a terrestrial or trunk-climbing lifestyle. Another skeletal feature that is similar in Archaeopteryx and modern birds is the curvature of the claws. Archaeopteryx possessed the same claw curvature of the foot to that of perching birds.  However, the claw curvature of the hand in Archaeopteryx was similar to that in basal birds. Based upon the comparisons of modern birds to Archaeopteryx, perching characteristics were present, signifying an arboreal habitat. The ability for takeoff and flight was originally thought to require a supracoracoideus pulley system (SC). This system consists of a tendon joining the humerus and coracoid process of the scapula, allowing rotation of the humerus during the upstroke. However, this system is lacking in Archaeopteryx. Based on experiments performed by M. Sy in 1936,  it was proven that the SC pulley system was not required for flight from an elevated position but was necessary for cursorial takeoff.

text: Researchers in support of this model have suggested that Archaeopteryx possessed skeletal features similar to those of modern birds. The first such feature to be noted was the supposed similarity between the foot of Archaeopteryx and that of modern perching birds. The

text: hallux

text: , or modified of the first digit of the foot, was long thought to have pointed posterior to the remaining digits, as in perching birds. Therefore, researchers once concluded that Archaeopteryx used the hallux as a balancing mechanism on tree limbs. However, study of the Thermopolis specimen of Archeopteryx, which has the most complete foot of any known, showed that the hallux was not in fact reversed, limiting the creature's ability to perch on branches and implying a terrestrial or trunk-climbing lifestyle. Another skeletal feature that is similar in Archaeopteryx and modern birds is the curvature of the claws. Archaeopteryx possessed the same claw curvature of the foot to that of perching birds.  However, the claw curvature of the hand in Archaeopteryx was similar to that in basal birds. Based upon the comparisons of modern birds to Archaeopteryx, perching characteristics were present, signifying an arboreal habitat. The ability for takeoff and flight was originally thought to require a

text: supracoracoideus pulley system

text: (SC). This system consists of a tendon joining the

text: humerus

text: and

text: coracoid process

text: of the

text: scapula

text: , allowing rotation of the humerus during the upstroke. However, this system is lacking in Archaeopteryx. Based on experiments performed by M. Sy in 1936,  it was proven that the SC pulley system was not required for flight from an elevated position but was necessary for cursorial takeoff.

text: In humans undergoing exercise-induced muscle damage via 300 maximal eccentric contractions, skeletal muscle biopsies subjected to DNA microarrays showed that CapZ-alpha expression was upregulated, suggesting that CapZ-alpha may be involved in skeletal muscle growth and remodeling, and/or stress management.

text: In humans undergoing exercise-induced muscle damage via 300 maximal

text: eccentric contraction

text: s,

text: skeletal muscle

text: biopsies subjected to

text: DNA microarray

text: s showed that CapZ-alpha expression was upregulated, suggesting that CapZ-alpha may be involved in

text: skeletal muscle

text: growth and remodeling, and/or stress management.

text: Although any joint can experience a sprain, some of the more common include:

text: The first clinical report of the use of this type of system was by Watzinger et al in 1997 in the reposition of zygoma fractures using a mirrored image from the normal side as a target.  In 1998 the system was reported by Marmulla and Niederdellmann to track LeFort I osteotomy position as well as zygoma fracture repositioning.  In 1998 Cutting et al. reported use of the system to track multisegment midface osteotomies in major craniofacial malformations.

text: Development of osteoporosis can be prevented by increased intake of vitamin D and calcium, and can be treated by bisphosphonates, although adverse effects can be an issue. Poor growth may be avoided by insertion of a feeding tube for increasing food energy through supplemental feeds or by administration of injected growth hormone.

text: Development of osteoporosis can be prevented by increased intake of vitamin D and calcium, and can be treated by

text: bisphosphonate

text: s, although

text: adverse effects

text: can be an issue. Poor growth may be avoided by insertion of a

text: feeding tube

text: for increasing food energy through supplemental feeds or by administration of injected

text: growth hormone

text: Modern egg laying breeds often suffer from osteoporosis which results in the chicken's skeletal system being weakened. During egg production, large amounts of calcium are transferred from bones to create egg-shell. Although dietary calcium levels are adequate, absorption of dietary calcium is not always sufficient, given the intensity of production, to fully replenish bone calcium.  This can lead to increases in bone breakages, particularly when the hens are being removed from cages at the end of laying.

text: Modern egg laying breeds often suffer from

text: osteoporosis

text: which results in the chicken's skeletal system being weakened. During egg production, large amounts of calcium are transferred from bones to create egg-shell. Although dietary calcium levels are adequate, absorption of dietary calcium is not always sufficient, given the intensity of production, to fully replenish bone calcium.  This can lead to increases in bone breakages, particularly when the hens are being removed from cages at the end of laying.

text: One inmate of the cemetery, however, is pure of heart and is thus resurrected not with red (evil) skeletism, but with blue (good) skeletism. Because of this, he retains his free will. This fact is quickly noticed by DaGoulian, and he orders his newly created army to destroy this rebel, who calls himself simply "Mr. Bones."

text: Diacanthodes has a dimitic hyphal system, meaning it contains both generative hyphae and skeletal hyphae. The generative hyphae have clamp connections; the skeletal hyphae are thick-walled to solid, and have a weak dextrinoid reaction. The spores are broadly ellipsoid, ornamented, and dextrinoid.

text: Diacanthodes has a dimitic

text: hypha

text: l system, meaning it contains both generative hyphae and skeletal hyphae. The generative hyphae have

text: clamp connection

text: s; the skeletal hyphae are thick-walled to solid, and have a weak

text: dextrinoid

text: reaction. The

text: spores

text: are broadly

text: ellipsoid

text: , ornamented, and dextrinoid.

text: Bone Mineral Density (BMD) is a measure commonly used to quantify bone health. A lower BMD value indicates an increased risk of a osteoporosis or a fracture. There is a large range of factors influencing BMD. Protein consumption has shown to be beneficial for bone density by providing amino acid substrates necessary for bone matrix formation. It is also thought that blood concentration of the bone formation stimulant, Insulin-like Growth Factor-I (IGF-I), is increased from high protein consumption and parathyroid hormone (PTH), a bone resorption stimulant, is decreased. Although protein has shown to be beneficial for increasing bone mass, or bone mineral density, there is no significant association between protein intake and fracture incidence. In other words, a low BMD can be predictive of osteoporosis and increased fracture risk, but a higher BMD does not necessarily mean better bone health. High BMD is also correlated with other health issues. For example, a higher BMD has also been associated with increased risk of breast cancer.

text: Bone Mineral Density

text: (BMD) is a measure commonly used to quantify bone health. A lower BMD value indicates an increased risk of a

text: osteoporosis

text: or a fracture. There is a large range of factors influencing BMD. Protein consumption has shown to be beneficial for bone density by providing amino acid substrates necessary for bone matrix formation. It is also thought that blood concentration of the bone formation stimulant,

text: Insulin-like Growth Factor-I

text: (IGF-I), is increased from high protein consumption and

text: parathyroid hormone

text: (PTH), a bone resorption stimulant, is decreased. Although protein has shown to be beneficial for increasing bone mass, or bone mineral density, there is no significant association between protein intake and fracture incidence. In other words, a low BMD can be predictive of osteoporosis and increased fracture risk, but a higher BMD does not necessarily mean better bone health. High BMD is also correlated with other health issues. For example, a higher BMD has also been associated with increased risk of breast cancer.

text: The most important variable is a body's accessibility to insects, particularly flies. On the surface in tropical areas, invertebrates alone can easily reduce a fully fleshed corpse to clean bones in under two weeks. The skeleton itself is not permanent; acids in soils can reduce it to unrecognizable components. This is one reason given for the lack of human remains found in the wreckage of the Titanic, even in parts of the ship considered inaccessible to scavengers. Freshly skeletonized bone is often called "green" bone and has a characteristic greasy feel. Under certain conditions (normally cool, damp soil), bodies may undergo saponification and develop a waxy substance called adipocere, caused by the action of soil chemicals on the body's proteins and fats. The formation of adipocere slows decomposition by inhibiting the bacteria that cause putrefaction.

text: The most important variable is a body's accessibility to insects, particularly flies. On the surface in tropical areas, invertebrates alone can easily reduce a fully fleshed corpse to clean bones in under two weeks. The skeleton itself is not permanent;

text: acid

text: s in

text: soil

text: s can reduce it to unrecognizable components. This is one reason given for the lack of human remains found in the wreckage of the

text: Titanic

text: , even in parts of the ship considered inaccessible to scavengers. Freshly skeletonized bone is often called "green" bone and has a characteristic greasy feel. Under certain conditions (normally cool, damp soil), bodies may undergo

text: saponification

text: and develop a waxy substance called

text: adipocere

text: , caused by the action of soil chemicals on the body's

text: protein

text: s and

text: fat

text: s. The formation of adipocere slows decomposition by inhibiting the bacteria that cause putrefaction.

text: Biotensegrity, a term coined by Dr. Stephen Levin, is the application of tensegrity principles to biologic structures. Biological structures such as muscles, bones, fascia, ligaments and tendons, or rigid and elastic cell membranes, are made strong by the unison of tensioned and compressed parts. The muscular-skeletal system is a synergy of muscle and bone. The muscles and connective tissues provide continuous pull and the bones present the discontinuous compression.

text: Biotensegrity, a term coined by Dr. Stephen Levin, is the application of tensegrity principles to biologic structures. Biological structures such as

text: muscle

text: s,

text: bones

text: fascia

text: ligaments

text: and

text: tendons

text: , or rigid and elastic

text: cell membrane

text: s, are made strong by the unison of tensioned and compressed parts. The muscular-skeletal system is a synergy of muscle and bone. The muscles and connective tissues provide continuous pull and the bones present the discontinuous compression.

text: Rehabilitation is important. A significant percentage of these sprains also involve medial and/or lateral ankle ligament injury and slow recovery and continuing symptoms are common.  However, limiting external rotation to protect healing ligaments is a primary concern and can usually be achieved by short leg casts, walking boots, and custom orthoses. The degree of permitted weight bearing can be individualized dependent on tolerance and those with less injury are able to ambulate with full weight-bearing. Nevertheless, most use crutches to reduce the burden to some extent and those with more discomfort may be limited to "toe touch" on the affected side for one to two weeks. Some advocate the ability to climb and descend stairs with minimal discomfort as an indication to permit full, or at least progressive, weight-bearing.Early resistance exercise minimizes muscle atrophy and weakness and a variety of exercises - elastic bands, ankle weights, heel raise exercises - may be used in conjunction with a calf stretch. In the early stages, isometric strengthening and electrical stimulation will combat muscle atrophy and developing weakness.

text: The build-up of glycogen causes progressive muscle weakness (myopathy) throughout the body and affects various body tissues, particularly in the heart, skeletal muscles, liver and the nervous system.

text: The build-up of glycogen causes progressive muscle weakness (

text: myopathy

text: ) throughout the body and affects various body tissues, particularly in the

text: heart

text: skeletal muscle

text: s,

text: liver

text: and the

text: nervous system

text: Eldecalcitol can be used for the treatment of hypocalcaemia or osteoporosis. Calcium absorption increases with the presence of eldecalcitol by the body, occurring in the intestines, which is useful for those who have low calcium levels. Eldecalcitol is more often used due to its effects to treat osteoporosis. In the aging population, the bone matrix becomes weakened through untreated osteoporosis. This leads to an increased risk of severe fractures that include spinal and hip fractures in addition to vertebral and wrist fractures. This creates a burden on the health care system due to a decline in the quality of life for the individuals that suffer from this condition. Some risk factors leading to the predisposition of developing osteoporosis are previous incidents of bone fractures and a reduction in bone mineral density. These factors expectantly increase as age increases.Bone health is reliant on maintaining physiologically needed levels of calcium, where the body constantly maintains this calcium homeostasis through osteoblast and osteoclast activity. Osteoblast activity serves this function of maintaining appropriate calcium levels by depositing calcium in bones when blood calcium levels are above normal. In contrast, osteoclasts break down bone tissue to increase blood calcium levels if they are low. This activity is performed after absorption of calcium by the body, which requires the actions of vitamin D. The active metabolite of vitamin D, calcitriol, performs its function through interactions with the calcitriol receptor. This nuclear hormone receptor is responsible for calcium absorption which, in turn, is involving in bone depletion and formation.The new analogs of vitamin D, such as eldecalcitol, are observed to have stronger effects in preventing bone loss, fractures, and falls in comparison to calcitriol. Eldecalcitol is even more effective than its counterpart alfacalcidol, another vitamin D analog. Studies have shown eldecalcitol is more effective than alfacalcidol in preventing vertebral and wrist fractures, and even falls, with osteoporotic patients with vitamin D insufficiencies. Eldecalcitol is also more effective at preventing fractures than vitamin D and calcium supplements. Eldecalcitol increases calcium absorption for vitamin D deficient patients, and therefore could be used for osteoporosis treatment for all age groups.

text: Of these animal models, the ovariectomised rat model remains the most popular choice as it has been validated to represent the most important clinical features of estrogen deficiency-induced (or postmenopausal) bone loss in the adult human, particularly during the early stages of osteoporosis. These include: increased rate of bone turnover with resorption exceeding formation; an initial rapid phase of bone loss followed by a much slower phase; greater loss of cancellous bone than cortical bone; reduced intestinal calcium absorption; some protection against bone loss by obesity; and similar skeletal response to therapy with estrogen, tamoxifen, bisphosphonates, parathyroid hormone, calcitonin and exercise.

text: Of these animal models, the ovariectomised rat model remains the most popular choice as it has been validated to represent the most important clinical features of

text: estrogen

text: deficiency-induced (or

text: postmenopausal

text: ) bone loss in the adult human, particularly during the early stages of osteoporosis. These include: increased rate of bone turnover with resorption exceeding formation; an initial rapid phase of bone loss followed by a much slower phase; greater loss of

text: cancellous bone

text: than

text: cortical bone

text: ; reduced intestinal

text: calcium

text: absorption; some protection against bone loss by

text: obesity

text: ; and similar skeletal response to therapy with estrogen,

text: tamoxifen

text: bisphosphonates

text: parathyroid hormone

text: calcitonin

text: and

text: exercise

text: Currently, there are no treatments for any of the congenital myopathies. Depending on the severity, there are different therapies available to help alleviate any pain and aid patients in performing varying activities. For example, many congenital myopathy patients are involved in physical or occupational therapy in an attempt to strengthen their skeletal muscles. Orthopedic surgery is usually necessary to correct skeletal deformities secondary to muscle weakness, such as scoliosis. Survival is typically determined by the level of respiratory muscle insufficiency.

text: A bridged compound  is a chemical compound, generally an organic compound, but also possibly inorganic, that has two or more rings (a ring system) that contains a bridge—a single atom or an unbranched chain of atoms (or even just a valence bond) that connect two "bridgehead" atoms. The bridgehead atoms are defined as any atom that is not a hydrogen, and that is part of the skeletal framework of the molecule that is bonded to three or more other skeletal atoms.<ref name=IUPACbridged> Note, the article co-authors, the Working Party of the IUPAC (1992-1998), were P. M. Giles, Jr., E. W. Godly, K.-H. Hellwich, A. K. Ikizler, M. V. Kisakürek, A. D. McNaught, G. P. Moss, J. Nyitrai, W. H. Powell, O. Weissbach, and A. Yerin. Also available online at  Also available in German, with et al. indicating the same working party, at {{cite journal | authors = Hellwich, Karl-Heinz | title = Erweiterung und Revision des von-Baeyer-Systems zur Benennung polycyclischer Verbindungen (einschließlich bicyclischer Verbindungen) | journal = Angewandte Chemie | volume = 114 | issue = 17, September 2 | pages = 3423–3432 | year = 2002 | pmid =  | doi =  10.1002/1521-3757(20020902)114:17

text: A bridged compound  is a

text: chemical compound

text: , generally an

text: organic compound

text: , but also possibly

text: inorganic

text: , that has two or more rings (a ring system) that contains a bridge—a single atom or an unbranched chain of atoms (or even just a valence bond) that connect two "bridgehead" atoms. The bridgehead atoms are defined as any atom that is not a hydrogen, and that is part of the skeletal framework of the molecule that is bonded to three or more other skeletal atoms.<ref name=IUPACbridged> Note, the article co-authors, the Working Party of the IUPAC (1992-1998), were P. M. Giles, Jr., E. W. Godly, K.-H. Hellwich, A. K. Ikizler, M. V. Kisakürek, A. D. McNaught, G. P. Moss, J. Nyitrai, W. H. Powell, O. Weissbach, and A. Yerin. Also available online at  Also available in German, with et al. indicating the same working party, at {{cite journal | authors = Hellwich, Karl-Heinz | title = Erweiterung und Revision des von-Baeyer-Systems zur Benennung polycyclischer Verbindungen (einschließlich bicyclischer Verbindungen) | journal =

text: Angewandte Chemie

text: | volume = 114 | issue = 17, September 2 | pages = 3423–3432 | year = 2002 | pmid =  | doi =  10.1002/1521-3757(20020902)114:17

text: Also tests for S/I joint sprain / strain.

text: The paired fins of the early sarcopterygians were smaller than tetrapod limbs, but the skeletal structure was very similar in that the early sarcopterygians had a single proximal bone (analogous to the humerus or femur), two bones in the next segment (forearm or lower leg), and an irregular subdivision of the fin, roughly comparable to the structure of the carpus / tarsus and phalanges of a hand.

text: The paired fins of the early sarcopterygians were smaller than tetrapod limbs, but the skeletal structure was very similar in that the early sarcopterygians had a single proximal bone (analogous to the

text: humerus

text: or

text: femur

text: ), two bones in the next segment (forearm or lower leg), and an irregular subdivision of the fin, roughly comparable to the structure of the

text: carpus

text: tarsus

text: and

text: phalanges

text: of a hand.

text: The musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton (which includes bones, ligaments, tendons, and cartilage) and attached muscles. It gives the body basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural role, the larger bones in the body contain bone marrow, the site of production of blood cells. Also, all bones are major storage sites for calcium and phosphate. This system can be split up into the muscular system and the skeletal system.

text: The

text: musculoskeletal system

text: consists of the

text: human skeleton

text: (which includes

text: bone

text: s,

text: ligament

text: s,

text: tendon

text: s, and

text: cartilage

text: ) and attached

text: muscle

text: s. It gives the body basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural role, the larger bones in the body contain

text: bone marrow

text: , the site of production of blood cells. Also, all bones are major storage sites for

text: calcium

text: and

text: phosphate

text: . This system can be split up into the

text: muscular system

text: and the

text: skeletal system

text: Structural continuity between extracellular, cyst skeletal and nuclear components was discussed by Hay, Berezny et al. and Oschman. Historically, these elements have been referred to as ground substances, and because of their continuity, they act to form a complex, interlaced system that reaches into and contacts every part of the body. Even as early as 1851 it was recognized that the nerve and blood systems do not directly connect to the cell, but are mediated by and through an extracellular matrix.

text: Muscle strength, and stamina for sustained physical effort, decline in function with age in humans and other species. Skeletal muscle is a tissue composed largely of multinucleated myofibers, elements that arise from the fusion of mononucleated myoblasts. Accumulation of DNA damage with age in mammalian muscle has been reported in at least 18 studies since 1971. We will mention here only two of the more recent studies in rodents plus one in humans. Hamilton et al. reported that the oxidative DNA damage 8-OHdG accumulates in heart and skeletal muscle (as well as in brain, kidney and liver) of both mouse and rat with age. In humans, increases in 8-OHdG with age were reported for skeletal muscle. Catalase is an enzyme that removes hydrogen peroxide, a reactive oxygen species, and thus limits oxidative DNA damage. In mice, when catalase expression is increased specifically in mitochondria, oxidative DNA damage (8-OHdG) in skeletal muscle is decreased and lifespan is increased by about 20%. These findings suggest that mitochondria are a significant source of the oxidative damages contributing to aging.

text: Muscle strength, and stamina for sustained physical effort, decline in function with age in humans and other species.

text: Skeletal muscle

text: is a tissue composed largely of multinucleated myofibers, elements that arise from the fusion of mononucleated myoblasts. Accumulation of DNA damage with age in mammalian muscle has been reported in at least 18 studies since 1971. We will mention here only two of the more recent studies in rodents plus one in humans. Hamilton et al. reported that the oxidative DNA damage 8-OHdG accumulates in heart and skeletal muscle (as well as in brain, kidney and liver) of both mouse and rat with age. In humans, increases in 8-OHdG with age were reported for skeletal muscle. Catalase is an enzyme that removes hydrogen peroxide, a reactive oxygen species, and thus limits oxidative DNA damage. In mice, when catalase expression is increased specifically in mitochondria, oxidative DNA damage (8-OHdG) in skeletal muscle is decreased and lifespan is increased by about 20%. These findings suggest that mitochondria are a significant source of the oxidative damages contributing to aging.

text: Mycorrhaphium is a genus of fungi in the family Steccherinaceae. The genus was circumscribed by Dutch mycologist Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus in 1962. The type species is Mycorrhaphium adustum (formerly referred to Hydnum). Fruit bodies of species in the genus have caps, stipes, and a hydnoid (tooth-like) hymenophore. There is a dimitic hyphal system, where the skeletal hyphae are found only in the tissue of the "teeth", and a lack of cystidia. The spores are smooth, hyaline (translucent), and inamyloid.

text: Mycorrhaphium is a

text: genus

text: of

text: fungi

text: in the family

text: Steccherinaceae

text: . The genus was

text: circumscribed

text: by Dutch mycologist

text: Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus

text: in 1962. The

text: type species

text: is Mycorrhaphium adustum (formerly referred to

text: Hydnum

text: Fruit bodies

text: of species in the genus have

text: caps

text: stipes

text: , and a

text: hydnoid

text: (tooth-like)

text: hymenophore

text: . There is a dimitic

text: hypha

text: l system, where the skeletal hyphae are found only in the tissue of the "teeth", and a lack of

text: cystidia

text: . The

text: spores

text: are smooth,

text: hyaline

text: (translucent), and

text: inamyloid

text: Mivacurium chloride (formerly recognized as BW1090U81, BW B1090U or BW1090U) is a short-duration non-depolarizing neuromuscular-blocking drug or skeletal muscle relaxant in the category of non-depolarizing neuromuscular-blocking drugs, used adjunctively in anesthesia to facilitate endotracheal intubation and to provide skeletal muscle relaxation during surgery or mechanical ventilation.

text: Mivacurium chloride (formerly recognized as BW1090U81, BW B1090U or BW1090U) is a short-duration non-depolarizing

text: neuromuscular-blocking drug

text: or

text: skeletal muscle relaxant

text: in the category of non-depolarizing

text: neuromuscular-blocking drugs

text: , used adjunctively in

text: anesthesia

text: to facilitate endotracheal

text: intubation

text: and to provide

text: skeletal muscle

text: relaxation during

text: surgery

text: or

text: mechanical ventilation

text: In partial response to Gill's statement, Professor of Biological Anthropology C. Loring Brace argues that the reason laymen and biological anthropologists can determine the geographic ancestry of an individual can be explained by the fact that biological characteristics are clinally distributed across the planet, and that does not translate into the concept of race. He states: "Race" is still sometimes used within forensic anthropology (when analyzing skeletal remains), biomedical research, and race-based medicine. Brace has criticized this, the practice of forensic anthropologists for using the controversial concept "race" out of convention when they in fact should be talking about regional ancestry. He argues that while forensic anthropologists can determine that a skeletal remain comes from a person with ancestors in a specific region of Africa, categorizing that skeletal as being "black" is a socially constructed category that is only meaningful in the particular context of the United States, and which is not itself scientifically valid.

text: In partial response to Gill's statement, Professor of Biological Anthropology

text: C. Loring Brace

text: argues that the reason laymen and biological anthropologists can determine the geographic ancestry of an individual can be explained by the fact that biological characteristics are

text: clinally

text: distributed across the planet, and that does not translate into the concept of race. He states: "Race" is still sometimes used within

text: forensic anthropology

text: (when analyzing skeletal remains),

text: biomedical research

text: , and

text: race-based medicine

text: . Brace has criticized this, the practice of forensic anthropologists for using the controversial concept "race" out of convention when they in fact should be talking about regional ancestry. He argues that while forensic anthropologists can determine that a skeletal remain comes from a person with ancestors in a specific region of Africa, categorizing that skeletal as being "black" is a socially constructed category that is only meaningful in the particular context of the United States, and which is not itself scientifically valid.

text: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) interfere with mRNA that is present and render it unusable and therefore decrease the product of that mRNA. MiRNAs regulate many physiological processes, such as inflammation, angiogenesis (the creation of blood vessels), as well as ischemia (the restriction of blood flow within the vessels) prevention. Aerobic exercise reduces the overall number of various miRNAs within the skeletal muscle that produce negative effects. Stimuli that cause the body to enter an anabolic, or constructive, phase, such as resistance training as well as the correct diet, has also shown a reduction of miRNAs. This reduction may actually play a role in the growth of the muscle cell.

text: Paget's disease is not associated with osteoporosis. Although Paget's disease and osteoporosis can occur in the same patient, they are different disorders. Despite their marked differences, several treatments for Paget's disease are also used to treat osteoporosis.

text: Paget's disease is not associated with

text: osteoporosis

text: . Although Paget's disease and osteoporosis can occur in the same patient, they are different disorders. Despite their marked differences, several treatments for Paget's disease are also used to treat osteoporosis.

text: The skeletal muscle accounts for more than 80 percent of the postprandial whole body glucose uptake and therefore plays an important role in glucose homeostasis. Skeletal muscle lipid levels – intramyocellular lipids (IMCL) – correlate negatively with insulin sensitivity in a sedentary population and hence were considered predictive for insulin resistance and causative in obesity-associated insulin resistance. However, endurance athletes also have high IMCL levels despite being highly insulin sensitive, which indicates that not the level of IMCL accumulation per se, but rather the characteristics of this intramyocellular fat determine whether it negatively affects insulin signaling. Intramyocellular lipids are mainly stored in lipid droplets, the organelles for fat storage. Recent research indicates that creating intramyocellular neutral lipid storage capacity for example by increasing the abundance of lipid droplet coat proteins  protects against obesity-associated insulin resistance in skeletal muscle.

text: The skeletal muscle accounts for more than 80 percent of the postprandial whole body glucose uptake and therefore plays an important role in glucose homeostasis. Skeletal muscle lipid levels – intramyocellular lipids (IMCL) – correlate negatively with insulin sensitivity in a sedentary population and hence were considered predictive for insulin resistance and causative in obesity-associated insulin resistance. However, endurance athletes also have high IMCL levels despite being highly insulin sensitive, which indicates that not the level of IMCL accumulation per se, but rather the characteristics of this intramyocellular fat determine whether it negatively affects insulin signaling. Intramyocellular lipids are mainly stored in

text: lipid droplets

text: , the organelles for fat storage. Recent research indicates that creating intramyocellular neutral lipid storage capacity for example by increasing the abundance of lipid droplet coat proteins  protects against obesity-associated insulin resistance in skeletal muscle.

text:
Angeline is handsome, Angeline is tall,
They say she sprained her ankle a-dancing at the ball.
Chorus:

text: Handigodu joint disease (HJD) is a familial skeletal disorder. Handigodu, near Sagara is one of only two places in the world where this disorder is to be found – the other being northern Zululand, South Africa. Severe precocious, progressive degenerative osteoarthropathy causes marked physical handicap by adulthood. The clinical and radiological manifestations are very similar to MJD (Mseleni joint disease) and they are sometimes believed to be the same entity.

text: Handigodu joint disease

text: (HJD) is a familial skeletal disorder. Handigodu, near Sagara is one of only two places in the world where this disorder is to be found – the other being northern Zululand, South Africa. Severe precocious, progressive degenerative osteoarthropathy causes marked physical handicap by adulthood. The clinical and radiological manifestations are very similar to MJD (Mseleni joint disease) and they are sometimes believed to be the same entity.

text: Ponies have grazed in the area of the New Forest for many thousands of years, predating the last Ice Age. Spear damage on a horse shoulder bone discovered at Eartham Pit, Boxgrove (about  from the heart of the modern New Forest), dated 500,000 BC, demonstrates that early humans were hunting horses in the area at that time, and the remains of a large Ice Age hunting camp have been found close to Ringwood (on the western border of the modern New Forest). Evidence from the skeletal remains of ponies from the Bronze Age suggests that they resembled the modern Exmoor pony. Horse bones excavated from Iron Age ritual burial sites at Danebury (about  from the heart of the modern New Forest), indicate that the animals were approximately  – a height similar to that of some of the smaller New Forest ponies of today.

text: Ponies have grazed in the area of the New Forest for many thousands of years, predating the last Ice Age. Spear damage on a horse shoulder bone discovered at

text: Eartham Pit, Boxgrove

text: (about  from the heart of the modern New Forest), dated 500,000 BC, demonstrates that early humans were hunting horses in the area at that time, and the remains of a large Ice Age hunting camp have been found close to

text: Ringwood

text: (on the western border of the modern New Forest). Evidence from the skeletal remains of ponies from the

text: Bronze Age

text: suggests that they resembled the modern

text: Exmoor pony

text: . Horse bones excavated from

text: Iron Age

text: ritual burial sites at

text: Danebury

text: (about  from the heart of the modern New Forest), indicate that the animals were approximately  – a height similar to that of some of the smaller New Forest ponies of today.

text: Some nutritionists claim that osteoporosis may occur from excessive protein intake because protein can put pressure on the kidneys and lead to bone loss due to calcium leaching. However, some have suggested that higher calcium excretion may be due to a corresponding increase in protein-induced calcium absorption in the intestines.

text: Some nutritionists claim that

text: osteoporosis

text: may occur from excessive protein intake because protein can put pressure on the kidneys and lead to bone loss due to calcium leaching. However, some have suggested that higher calcium excretion may be due to a corresponding increase in protein-induced calcium absorption in the intestines.

text: Prior to and after the mandate, all Xbox One consoles initially shipped with the Kinect sensor included. On June 9, 2014, cheaper Xbox One bundles were introduced, which did not include the Kinect sensor. Microsoft stated the decision to offer Xbox One bundles without Kinect was to "[offer] a choice to people that would allow people to buy an Xbox One and then ramp up to Kinect when they can afford to", while also allowing games to use processing power that was previously reserved for Kinect. An updated Xbox Development Kit issued in June 2014 allows developers to explicitly disable motion tracking functionality in games, allowing access to additional system resources that represent about 10% of the GPU processing power. These resources were previously reserved for Kinect skeletal tracking, regardless of whether the Kinect sensor was attached or in use.

text: Humerus fractures usually occur after physical trauma, falls, excess physical stress, or pathological conditions. Proximal humerus fractures most often occur among elderly patients with osteoporosis who fall on an outstretched arm. Less frequently, proximal fractures occur from motor vehicle accidents, gunshots, and violent muscle contractions from an electric shock or seizure. Other risk factors for proximal fractures include having a low bone mineral density, having impaired vision and balance, and tobacco smoking. A stress fracture of the proximal and shaft regions can occur after an excessive amount of throwing, such as pitching in baseball. Middle fractures are usually caused by either physical trauma or falls. Physical trauma to the humerus shaft tends to produce transverse fractures whereas falls tend to produce spiral fractures. Metastatic breast cancer may also cause fractures in the humerus shaft. Long spiral fractures of the shaft that are present in children may indicate physical abuse. Distal fractures usually occur as a result of physical trauma to the elbow region. If the elbow is bent during the trauma, then the olecranon is driven upward, producing a T- or Y-shaped fracture or displacing one of the condyles. Falls that produce humerus fractures among the elderly are usually accompanied by a preexisting risk factor for bone fracture, such as osteoporosis, a low bone density, or vitamin B deficiency.

text: Humerus fractures usually occur after physical trauma, falls, excess physical stress, or pathological conditions. Proximal humerus fractures most often occur among elderly patients with osteoporosis who fall on an outstretched arm. Less frequently, proximal fractures occur from

text: motor vehicle accidents

text: gunshots

text: , and violent muscle contractions from an

text: electric shock

text: or

text: seizure

text: . Other risk factors for proximal fractures include having a low

text: bone mineral density

text: , having impaired vision and balance, and

text: tobacco smoking

text: . A

text: stress fracture

text: of the proximal and shaft regions can occur after an excessive amount of

text: throwing

text: , such as

text: pitching in baseball

text: . Middle fractures are usually caused by either physical trauma or falls. Physical trauma to the humerus shaft tends to produce transverse fractures whereas falls tend to produce spiral fractures.

text: Metastatic breast cancer

text: may also cause fractures in the humerus shaft. Long spiral fractures of the shaft that are present in children may indicate physical abuse. Distal fractures usually occur as a result of physical trauma to the elbow region. If the elbow is bent during the trauma, then the

text: olecranon

text: is driven upward, producing a T- or Y-shaped fracture or displacing one of the condyles. Falls that produce humerus fractures among the elderly are usually accompanied by a preexisting risk factor for bone fracture, such as

text: osteoporosis

text: , a low bone density, or

text: vitamin B deficiency

text: Most of the readily visible signs are associated with the skeletal system. Many individuals with Marfan syndrome grow to above-average height, and some have disproportionately long, slender limbs with thin, weak wrists and long fingers and toes. Besides affecting height and limb proportions, people with Marfan syndrome may have abnormal lateral curvature of the spine (scoliosis), thoracic lordosis, abnormal indentation (pectus excavatum) or protrusion (pectus carinatum) of the sternum, abnormal joint flexibility, a high-arched palate with crowded teeth and an overbite, flat feet, hammer toes, stooped shoulders, and unexplained stretch marks on the skin. It can also cause pain in the joints, bones and muscles. Some people with Marfan have speech disorders resulting from symptomatic high palates and small jaws. Early osteoarthritis may occur. Other signs include limited range of motion in the hips due to the femoral head protruding into abnormally deep hip sockets.

text: Most of the readily visible signs are associated with the

text: skeletal system

text: . Many individuals with Marfan syndrome grow to above-average height, and some have

text: disproportionately long, slender limbs

text: with thin, weak wrists and

text: long fingers and toes

text: . Besides affecting height and limb proportions, people with Marfan syndrome may have

text: abnormal lateral curvature of the spine

text: (scoliosis),

text: thoracic lordosis

text: abnormal indentation

text: (pectus excavatum) or

text: protrusion

text: (pectus carinatum) of the

text: sternum

text: abnormal joint flexibility

text: , a

text: high-arched palate

text: with crowded teeth and an overbite,

text: flat feet

text: hammer toe

text: s, stooped shoulders, and unexplained

text: stretch marks

text: on the skin. It can also cause pain in the joints, bones and muscles. Some people with Marfan have

text: speech disorder

text: s resulting from symptomatic high palates and small jaws. Early

text: osteoarthritis

text: may occur. Other signs include limited range of motion in the hips due to the

text: femoral head

text: protruding into

text: abnormally deep hip sockets

text: In the U.S. human space program, the only in-flight countermeasure to skeletal muscle functional deficits that has been utilized thus far is physical exercise.  In-flight exercise hardware and protocols have varied from mission to mission, somewhat dependent on mission duration and the volume of the spacecraft available for performing countermeasures.  Collective knowledge gained from these mission has aided in the evolution of exercise hardware and protocols in attempts to refine the approach to prevention of spaceflight-induced muscle atrophy and the concomitant deficits in skeletal muscle function.

text: Osteitis fibrosa cystica , abbreviated OFC, also known as osteitis fibrosa, osteodystrophia fibrosa, and Von Recklinghausen's disease of bone (not to be confused with Von Recklinghausen's disease, neurofibromatosis type I), is a skeletal disorder caused by hyperparathyroidism, which is a surplus of parathyroid hormone from over-active parathyroid glands. This surplus stimulates the activity of osteoclasts, cells that break down bone, in a process known as osteoclastic bone resorption. The hyperparathyroidism can be triggered by a parathyroid adenoma, hereditary factors, parathyroid carcinoma, or renal osteodystrophy.Osteoclastic bone resorption releases minerals, including calcium, from the bone into the bloodstream. In addition to elevated blood calcium levels, over-activity of this process results in a loss of bone mass, a weakening of the bones as their calcified supporting structures are replaced with fibrous tissue (peritrabecular fibrosis), and the formation of cyst-like brown tumors in and around the bone. The symptoms of the disease are the consequences of both the general softening of the bones and the excess calcium in the blood, and include bone fractures, kidney stones, nausea, moth-eaten appearance in the bones, appetite loss, and weight loss.

text: Osteitis fibrosa cystica , abbreviated OFC, also known as osteitis fibrosa, osteodystrophia fibrosa, and Von Recklinghausen's disease of bone (not to be confused with Von Recklinghausen's disease,

text: neurofibromatosis type I

text: ), is a

text: skeletal disorder

text: caused by

text: hyperparathyroidism

text: , which is a surplus of

text: parathyroid hormone

text: from over-active

text: parathyroid glands

text: . This surplus stimulates the activity of

text: osteoclast

text: s, cells that break down bone, in a process known as osteoclastic

text: bone resorption

text: . The hyperparathyroidism can be triggered by a

text: parathyroid adenoma

text: hereditary

text: factors,

text: parathyroid carcinoma

text: , or

text: renal osteodystrophy

text: .Osteoclastic bone resorption releases minerals, including

text: calcium

text: , from the bone into the bloodstream. In addition to elevated blood calcium levels, over-activity of this process results in a loss of bone mass, a weakening of the bones as their calcified supporting structures are replaced with fibrous tissue (

text: peritrabecular

text: fibrosis

text: ), and the formation of

text: cyst

text: -like

text: brown tumor

text: s in and around the bone. The symptoms of the disease are the consequences of both the general softening of the bones and the excess calcium in the blood, and include

text: bone fractures

text: kidney stones

text: nausea

text: , moth-eaten appearance in the bones, appetite loss, and weight loss.

text: A bone fracture  (sometimes abbreviated FRX or Fx, F, or #) is a medical condition in which there is a damage in the continuity of the bone. A bone fracture can be the result of high force impact or stress, or a minimal trauma injury as a result of certain medical conditions that weaken the bones, such as osteoporosis, bone cancer, or osteogenesis imperfecta, where the fracture is then properly termed a pathologic fracture.

text: A bone fracture  (sometimes abbreviated FRX or Fx, F, or #) is a medical condition in which there is a damage in the continuity of the

text: bone

text: . A bone fracture can be the result of high force

text: impact

text: or

text: stress

text: , or a minimal trauma injury as a result of certain medical conditions that weaken the bones, such as

text: osteoporosis

text: bone cancer

text: , or

text: osteogenesis imperfecta

text: , where the fracture is then properly termed a

text: pathologic fracture

text: The International Osteoporosis Foundation was established in 1998 with the merger of the European Foundation for Osteoporosis (EFFO) and the International Federation of Societies on Skeletal Diseases (IFSSD). In 2008 IOF was granted Roster Consultative Status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council.

text: The International Osteoporosis Foundation was established in 1998 with the merger of the European Foundation for Osteoporosis (EFFO) and the International Federation of Societies on Skeletal Diseases (IFSSD). In 2008 IOF was granted Roster

text: Consultative Status

text: with the

entity_name: United Nations Economic and Social Council

text: United Nations Economic and Social Council

text: The IOF World Congress on Osteoporosis is organized by the IOF secretariat and held every two years, in even numbered years. The first was held in 2000 at Chicago, Illinois. The 2008 congress was cancelled because of political unrest in Bangkok, Thailand. It is the world's largest conference devoted solely to the topic of osteoporosis. The Pierre Delmas Prize, named after the late president of the IOF, is presented at the conference.

text: Fracture debuted in the episode 12, entitled "Hunting Season". He traveled to Earth to collect the bounty the Cybertron High Council put on Bumblebee, but when Drift steps in to defend Bumblebee and his ship is hijacked by the Autobots, Fracture stayed on Earth and joined Steeljaw's gang. In his following appearances, he would join Steeljaw's pack in attempting to break out the Decepticons that the Autobots had already captured, only to fail repeatedly. In the first season finale, Fracture attacks the Autobot base when only Fixit, Denny and Russel are there. The three prepare to fight Fracture and his Mini-Cons, only to find that a newly resurrected Optimus Prime has already defeated them. Despite not being an Alchemor prisoner, the defeated Fracture (and his Mini-Cons) was presumably placed in a stasis cell before Optimus when off to fight Megatronus.

text: Fracture debuted in the episode 12, entitled "Hunting Season". He traveled to Earth to collect the bounty the Cybertron High Council put on Bumblebee, but when Drift steps in to defend Bumblebee and his ship is hijacked by the Autobots, Fracture stayed on Earth and joined

text: Steeljaw

text: 's gang. In his following appearances, he would join Steeljaw's pack in attempting to break out the Decepticons that the Autobots had already captured, only to fail repeatedly. In the first season finale, Fracture attacks the Autobot base when only Fixit, Denny and Russel are there. The three prepare to fight Fracture and his Mini-Cons, only to find that a newly resurrected

text: Optimus Prime

text: has already defeated them. Despite not being an Alchemor prisoner, the defeated Fracture (and his Mini-Cons) was presumably placed in a stasis cell before Optimus when off to fight

text: Megatronus

text: Skeletal abnormalities

text: Skeletal abnormalities

text: One of the most important roles of vitamin D is to maintain skeletal calcium balance by promoting calcium absorption in the intestines, promoting bone resorption by increasing osteoclast number, maintaining calcium and phosphate levels for bone formation, and allowing proper functioning of parathyroid hormone to maintain serum calcium levels. Vitamin D deficiency can result in lower bone mineral density and an increased risk of reduced bone density (osteoporosis) or bone fracture because a lack of vitamin D alters mineral metabolism in the body.  Thus, although this may initially appear paradoxical, vitamin D is also critical for bone remodeling through its role as a potent stimulator of bone resorption.

text: One of the most important roles of vitamin D is to maintain skeletal calcium balance by promoting

text: calcium absorption

text: in the intestines, promoting

text: bone resorption

text: by increasing

text: osteoclast

text: number, maintaining calcium and phosphate levels for

text: bone formation

text: , and allowing proper functioning of parathyroid hormone to maintain serum calcium levels.

text: Vitamin D deficiency

text: can result in lower

text: bone mineral density

text: and an increased risk of reduced bone density (

text: osteoporosis

text: ) or

text: bone fracture

text: because a lack of vitamin D alters mineral metabolism in the body.  Thus, although this may initially appear paradoxical, vitamin D is also critical for

text: bone remodeling

text: through its role as a potent stimulator of

text: bone resorption

text: In the developing vertebrate embryo, somites split to form dermatomes, skeletal muscle (myotomes), tendons and cartilage (syndetomes) and bone (sclerotomes).

text: In the developing vertebrate

text: embryo

text: , somites split to form dermatomes, skeletal muscle (myotomes),

text: tendon

text: s and cartilage (syndetomes) and

text: bone

text: (sclerotomes).

text: As with the Madeleine Cemetery, the bodies decomposed to a state where they could no longer be identified, this to the dismay of Louis XVIII, who came looking for the remains of his sister in 1815. The skeletal remains were moved to the Catacombs of Paris between 1844 and 1859 (probably around 1848) when the Boulevard de Courcelles was constructed.  Unlike the other major revolutionary cemetery -- the Madeleine Cemetery -- there is no plaque in the Catacombs to indicate the location of the transferred bones.

text: As with the Madeleine Cemetery, the bodies decomposed to a state where they could no longer be identified, this to the dismay of Louis XVIII, who came looking for the remains of his sister in 1815. The skeletal remains were moved to the

text: Catacombs of Paris

text: between 1844 and 1859 (probably around 1848) when the Boulevard de Courcelles was constructed.  Unlike the other major revolutionary cemetery -- the

text: Madeleine Cemetery

text: -- there is no plaque in the Catacombs to indicate the location of the transferred bones.

text: The development of children’s feet begins in-utero, being mainly derived from basic embryological tissue called mesenchyme. In simple terms, the mesenchyme differentiates to form a cartilage foot template, which is largely complete by the end of the embryonic period (8 weeks after conception). The lower limb buds appear around the 4th embryonic  week, slightly later than the upper limb buds, and the developing nervous system is already evident. The blood supply of the foot then begins to infiltrate the tarsal bones, whilst the process of endochondral ossification sees cartilage become bone. Not all of the foot bones are formed at birth. The navicular is the last bone to ossify, occurring between 2 and 5 years of age. The ossification of the cuboid occurs reliably at 37 weeks gestation and its appearance is often used as a marker of foetal maturity. At birth of a ‘full-term’ baby the average foot length is 7.6 centimetres (range 7.1  – 8.7 cm). Foot growth continues to be very rapid in the first 5 years of life; slower development continues until skeletal maturity of the feet, which occurs on average at 13 years in girls and 15 years in boys. Final foot length is achieved before maximum height is reached in both genders.

text: The development of children’s feet begins in-utero, being mainly derived from basic embryological tissue called

text: mesenchyme

text: . In simple terms, the mesenchyme differentiates to form a

text: cartilage

text: foot template, which is largely complete by the end of the embryonic period (8 weeks after conception). The lower limb buds appear around the 4th embryonic  week, slightly later than the upper limb buds, and the developing

text: nervous system

text: is already evident. The

text: blood

text: supply of the foot then begins to infiltrate the

text: tarsal bones

text: , whilst the process of endochondral ossification sees cartilage become bone. Not all of the foot bones are formed at birth. The

text: navicular

text: is the last bone to ossify, occurring between 2 and 5 years of age. The

text: ossification

text: of the

text: cuboid

text: occurs reliably at 37 weeks gestation and its appearance is often used as a marker of foetal maturity. At birth of a ‘full-term’ baby the average foot length is 7.6 centimetres (range 7.1  – 8.7 cm). Foot growth continues to be very rapid in the first 5 years of life; slower development continues until skeletal maturity of the feet, which occurs on average at 13 years in girls and 15 years in boys. Final foot length is achieved before maximum height is reached in both genders.

text: Mechanical loading increases osteocyte viability in vitro, and contributes to solute transport through the lacuno-canalicular system in bone, which enhances oxygen and nutrient exchange and diffusion to osteocytes. Skeletal unloading has been shown to induce osteocyte hypoxia in vivo, this is when osteocytes undergo apoptosis and recruit osteoclasts to resorb bone.  Microdamage in bone occurs as the result of repetitive events of cycling loading, and appears to be associated with osteocyte death by apoptosis, which appear to secrete a signal to target osteoclasts to perform remodeling at a damaged site. Under normal conditions, osteocytes express high amounts of TGF-β and thus repress bone resorption, but when bone grows old, the expression levels of TGF-β decrease, and the expression of osteoclast-stimulatory factors, such as RANKL and M-CSF increases, bone resorption is then enhanced, leading to net bone loss.

text: Mechanical loading increases osteocyte viability in vitro, and contributes to solute transport through the lacuno-canalicular system in bone, which enhances oxygen and nutrient exchange and diffusion to osteocytes. Skeletal unloading has been shown to induce osteocyte

text: hypoxia

text: in vivo, this is when osteocytes undergo apoptosis and recruit osteoclasts to resorb bone.  Microdamage in bone occurs as the result of repetitive events of cycling loading, and appears to be associated with osteocyte death by apoptosis, which appear to secrete a signal to target osteoclasts to perform remodeling at a damaged site. Under normal conditions, osteocytes express high amounts of TGF-β and thus repress bone resorption, but when bone grows old, the expression levels of TGF-β decrease, and the expression of osteoclast-stimulatory factors, such as

text: RANKL

text: and

text: M-CSF

text: increases, bone resorption is then enhanced, leading to net bone loss.

text: One possible side effect of having KS/HH is the increased risk of developing secondary osteoporosis or osteopenia.  Oestrogen (females) or testosterone (males) is essential for maintaining bone density. Deficiency in either testosterone or oestrogen can increase the rate of bone resorption while at the same time slowing down the rate of bone formation. Overall this can lead to weakened, fragile bones which have a higher tendency to fracture.

text: One possible side effect of having KS/HH is the increased risk of developing secondary

text: osteoporosis

text: or

text: osteopenia

text: .  Oestrogen (females) or testosterone (males) is essential for maintaining

text: bone density

text: . Deficiency in either testosterone or oestrogen can increase the rate of

text: bone resorption

text: while at the same time slowing down the rate of

text: bone formation

text: . Overall this can lead to weakened, fragile bones which have a higher tendency to fracture.

text: Most authorities agree that fetiform teratomas are highly developed mature teratomas;  the natural history of fetus in fetu is controversial.  There also may be a cultural difference, with fetiform teratoma being reported more often in ovarian teratomas (by gynecologists) and fetus in fetu being reported more often in retroperitoneal teratomas (by general surgeons).  Fetus in fetu has often been interpreted as a fetus growing within its twin.  As such, this interpretation assumes a special complication of twinning, one of several grouped under the term parasitic twin.  In this regard, it is noteworthy that in many cases the fetus in fetu is reported to occupy a fluid-filled cyst within a mature teratoma.  Cysts within mature teratoma may have partially developed organ systems; reports include cases of partial cranial bones, long bones and a rudimentary beating heart.

text: Most authorities agree that fetiform teratomas are highly developed mature teratomas;  the natural history of fetus in fetu is controversial.  There also may be a cultural difference, with fetiform teratoma being reported more often in ovarian teratomas (by gynecologists) and fetus in fetu being reported more often in retroperitoneal teratomas (by general surgeons).

text: Fetus in fetu

text: has often been interpreted as a

text: fetus

text: growing within its

text: twin

text: .  As such, this interpretation assumes a special complication of

text: twin

text: ning, one of several grouped under the term

text: parasitic twin

text: .  In this regard, it is noteworthy that in many cases the fetus in fetu is reported to occupy a fluid-filled cyst within a mature teratoma.  Cysts within mature teratoma may have partially developed organ systems; reports include cases of partial

text: cranial bones

text: long bones

text: and a rudimentary beating heart.

text: The remaining skeletal structure owes its excellent state of preservation to the fact that Altamura Man obviously had fallen into this remote spot, got stuck, probably badly injured where he must have starved to death or died from lack of water intake. Unaffected by weather and disarticulation (dispersion of skeletal structure by predators) the calcite preserved the bones but it also covers them to a great extent. It was thought that excavating the remains would cause irreparable damage and thus, the bones have remained in situ for over twenty years.

text: In another study, researchers discovered that perinatal nutrient restriction resulting in intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) contributes to diabetes mellitus type 2 (DM2).  IUGR refers to the poor growth of the baby in utero.  In the pancreas, IUGR caused a reduction in the expression of the promoter of the gene encoding a critical transcription factor for beta cell function and development.  Pancreatic beta cells are responsible for making insulin; decreased beta cell activity is associated with DM2 in adulthood.  In skeletal muscle, IUGR caused a decrease in expression of the Glut-4 gene.  The Glut-4 gene controls the production of the Glut-4 transporter; this transporter is specifically sensitive to insulin.  Thus, when insulin levels rise, more glut-4 transporters are brought to the cell membrane to increase the uptake of glucose into the cell.  This change is caused by histone modifications in the cells of skeletal muscle that decrease the effectiveness of the glucose transport system into the muscle.   Because the main glucose transporters are not operating at optimal capacity, these individuals are more likely to develop insulin resistance with energy rich diets later in life, contributing to DM2.

text: In another study, researchers discovered that perinatal nutrient restriction resulting in

text: intrauterine growth restriction

text: (IUGR) contributes to

text: diabetes mellitus type 2

text: (DM2).  IUGR refers to the poor growth of the baby in utero.  In the pancreas, IUGR caused a reduction in the expression of the promoter of the gene encoding a critical transcription factor for beta cell function and development.  Pancreatic beta cells are responsible for making insulin; decreased beta cell activity is associated with DM2 in adulthood.  In skeletal muscle, IUGR caused a decrease in expression of the Glut-4 gene.  The Glut-4 gene controls the production of the Glut-4 transporter; this transporter is specifically sensitive to insulin.  Thus, when insulin levels rise, more glut-4 transporters are brought to the cell membrane to increase the uptake of glucose into the cell.  This change is caused by histone modifications in the cells of skeletal muscle that decrease the effectiveness of the glucose transport system into the muscle.   Because the main glucose transporters are not operating at optimal capacity, these individuals are more likely to develop

text: insulin resistance

text: with energy rich diets later in life, contributing to DM2.

text: On the sides are skeletal figures that may represent deities.

text: Sprains and strains

text: Sprains and strains

text: Cauley has been involved in women's health for over 25 years and is the Principal Investigator (PI) of cohort studies such as the Study of Osteoporotic Fracture (SOF) and the Osteoporotic Fracture Risk in Older Men (MrOS). She has made improvements for understanding osteoporosis in older men and women. She was the Co-PI for the Women's Health Initiative (WHI), study wide Chair of the Osteoporosis, and for almost throughout the whole trial she also was the Calcium and Vitamin D Committee. She is currently a Co-investigator for the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) for women transition-midlife to elder status-particular emphases on skeletal health, physical function and body composition changes, and a PI of a SWAN which examines novel measures of hip strength.

text: Cauley has been involved in women's health for over 25 years and is the Principal Investigator (PI) of cohort studies such as the Study of Osteoporotic Fracture (SOF) and the Osteoporotic Fracture Risk in Older Men (MrOS). She has made improvements for understanding osteoporosis in older men and women. She was the Co-PI for the Women's Health Initiative (WHI), study wide Chair of the

text: Osteoporosis

text: , and for almost throughout the whole trial she also was the

text: Calcium

text: and

text: Vitamin D

text: Committee. She is currently a Co-investigator for the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) for women transition-midlife to elder status-particular emphases on skeletal health, physical function and body composition changes, and a PI of a SWAN which examines novel measures of hip strength.

text: The "lipid hypothesis of osteoporosis" postulates that lipids involved in causing heart disease also contribute to causing osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is characterized by a decrease of bone marrow cells, or osteoblasts, and an increase of fat cells, or adipocytes. The formation of osteoblasts from pre-osteoblasts is reduced by oxidized lipids and in mice fed with a high fat diet. Observations from this model suggest that LDL oxidation products can cause osteoporosis through changing the developmental fate of bone cells leading to a reduced number of osteoblasts and increased numbers of fat cells.

text: The "lipid hypothesis of

text: osteoporosis

text: " postulates that lipids involved in causing heart disease also contribute to causing osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is characterized by a decrease of

text: bone marrow

text: cells, or

text: osteoblast

text: s, and an increase of fat cells, or

text: adipocyte

text: s. The formation of osteoblasts from pre-osteoblasts is reduced by oxidized lipids and in mice fed with a high fat diet. Observations from this model suggest that

text: LDL

text: oxidation products can cause osteoporosis through changing the developmental fate of bone cells leading to a reduced number of osteoblasts and increased numbers of fat cells.

text: The income of the charity was about £3.5 million in 2010. Three million Britons are affected by osteoporosis.

text: Several ground-based paradigms have been used to emulate the effects of microgravity unloading on human skeletal muscle, including complete horizontal or 6° head-down-tilt bed rest, dry immersion, and unilateral upper- and lower-limb unloading with or without joint immobilization. In general, skeletal muscle responses to unloading have been similar in all of these models. Although no perfect simulation of crew activities and the microgravity environment can be adequately achieved, Adams and colleagues have suggested that bed rest is an appropriate model of spaceflight for studying skeletal muscle physiologic adaptations and countermeasures.

text: While the Robert J. Terry Anatomical Collection has proven to be an excellent source for research in the field of anthropology, specifically forensic anthropology and bioarchaeology, the collection is now over 100 years old and no modern remains have been added. This has raised questions about the collection's applicability to modern populations when compared to collections such as the William Bass Donated Skeletal Collection where modern skeletal remains are still being added to the collection. This is thought to raise problems due to the secular changes that are taking place in American populations. It has been demonstrated that clear secular changes have taken place in North America over the last 100–125 years. This has implications for the applicability of studies utilizing the Terry Collection because these changes could impede the ability to make generalizations that are applicable to modern society from these remains since population statistics are not the same today as they were when the collection was being amassed. It was found, however, that the Robert J. Terry Collection and the William Bass Donated Skeletal Collection only have significant differences between age-at-death and year of birth for individuals in the collection, therefore indicating that the more modern remains in the Terry Collection are still applicable to modern research. There were potential secular differences noted in the males of the Terry collection, however. Females had less significant secular differences when compared to males, and while none of these changes were found to be present in large quantities it does indicate that secular change could be beginning to affect skeletal morphology, specifically that of males. Further research utilizing the Terry Collection, specifically utilizing those individuals born before 1890, is required to determine if these changes are significant and what may be causing them.

text: Bones are organs that are made up of bone tissue as well as bone marrow, small blood vessels, epithelium and nerves. Bone tissue refers specifically to the bone mineral matrix that forms the rigid sections of the organ, and the bone cells within it. The two types of bone tissue are cortical bone and cancellous bone.

text: Bones are organs that are made up of bone tissue as well as

text: bone marrow

text: small blood vessels

text: epithelium

text: and

text: nerve

text: s. Bone tissue refers specifically to the

text: bone mineral

text: matrix that forms the rigid sections of the organ, and the

text: bone cell

text: s within it. The two types of bone tissue are

text: cortical bone

text: and

text: cancellous bone

text: The risk of injuring the ACL is very high for an athlete, as most professionals say it is worrying how common the injury is becoming. As there is no real way to stop an ACL injury from occurring, there can be ways to lower the risk. Once an athlete does an ACL injury it is extremely difficult to be able to come back to football, it even creates a higher risk of a second ACL injury after having the first reconstructed. This is why it is vitally important for an AFL player to build strong muscles and bones to benefit them in their career. Small doses of training can help prevent ACL injuries, as athletes will not over train leaving their body fatigued and sore. The small doses of training only have to include, strength, balance, plyo- metric or agility to gain some prevention from the injury. It is also important to talk to the coach or training staff to inform them of what you can and cannot do. Some things in life are preventable, but injuries such as ACL injuries are just too hard to prevent.

text: The use of artificial gravity to counteract simulated microgravity (e.g. bed rest) on Earth has been shown to have conflicting results for the maintenance of bone, muscle, and cardiovascular systems. Short arm centrifuges can be used to generate loading conditions greater than gravity that could help prevent the skeletal muscle and bone loss associated with prolonged spaceflight and bedrest. A pilot study done by Caiozzo and Haddad in 2008 compared two groups of subjects: one that had been on bed rest of 21 days (in order to simulate the effects of prolonged space travel), and another that had been on bed rest as well as being exposed to artificial gravity for one hour a day. They used a short arm centrifuge to artificially induce the gravitational force. After taking muscle biopsy samples, they determined that the group that had been exposed to artificial gravity did not show as severe a deficit in terms of muscle fiber cross-sectional area.

text: It is believed that expansion therapy should be started in patients either before or during their peak growth spurt. For obtaining maximal skeletal changes, the therapy is initiated at a very early age. Expansion therapy performed after the peak growth spurt will lead to more dental changes than skeletal which leads to tipping of buccal teeth. There are different types of expansion techniques that can be used in patients such as Rapid maxillary expansion, slow maxillary expansion, implant-based maxillary expansion and SARPE.

text: The Seinsheimer classification is a system of categorizing subtrochanteric hip fractures based on the fracture pattern of the proximal femoral shaft. The classification was developed by Frank Seinsheimer III in 1978. In the published work, fifty-six patients were treated for subtrochanteric fractures, and their fractures were "classified according to the number of major fragments and the locations and shapes of the fracture lines." This system of classification was used to assess the correlation between type of fracture and success of treatment.

text: The Seinsheimer classification is a system of categorizing

text: subtrochanteric

text: hip fracture

text: s based on the

text: fracture

text: pattern of the proximal

text: femoral

text: shaft. The classification was developed by

text: Frank Seinsheimer III

text: in 1978. In the published work, fifty-six patients were treated for subtrochanteric fractures, and their fractures were "classified according to the number of major fragments and the locations and shapes of the fracture lines." This system of classification was used to assess the correlation between type of fracture and success of treatment.

text: The physical dimension focuses on three sub-categories: healthy eating, exercise, and the human body (digestive system, skeletal system and circulatory systems).

text: Several hypotheses have been proposed for how bone evolved as a structural element in vertebrates. One hypothesis is that bone developed from tissues that evolved to store minerals. Specifically, calcium-based minerals were stored in cartilage and bone was an exaptation development from this calcified cartilage. However, other possibilities include bony tissue evolving as an osmotic barrier, or as a protective structure.

text: Several hypotheses have been proposed for how bone evolved as a structural element in

text: vertebrates

text: . One hypothesis is that bone developed from tissues that evolved to store

text: mineral

text: s. Specifically, calcium-based minerals were stored in cartilage and bone was an

text: exaptation

text: development from this calcified cartilage. However, other possibilities include bony tissue evolving as an

text: osmotic barrier

text: , or as a protective structure.

text: Rheumatologists treat arthritis, autoimmune diseases, pain disorders affecting joints, and osteoporosis. There are more than 200 types of these diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, gout, lupus, back pain, osteoporosis, and tendinitis. Some of these are very serious diseases that can be difficult to diagnose and treat. They treat soft tissue problems related to musculoskeletal system sports related soft tissue disorders.

text: Rheumatologists treat

text: arthritis

text: autoimmune

text: diseases, pain disorders affecting joints, and

text: osteoporosis

text: . There are more than 200 types of these diseases, including

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: osteoarthritis

text: gout

text: lupus

text: , back pain,

text: osteoporosis

text: , and

text: tendinitis

text: . Some of these are very serious diseases that can be difficult to diagnose and treat. They treat soft tissue problems related to musculoskeletal system sports related soft tissue disorders.

text: Paget's disease of bone- Panner disease- Patella alta- Patella baja- Patella fracture- Patellar dislocation- Patellar tendon rupture- Pathologic fracture- Patrick's test- Patrick's test- Pauwel's angle- Pauwel's classification- Pectus carinatum- Pectus excavatum- Pediatric trauma- Pelvic fracture- Penetrating trauma- Perichondrium- Periosteal reaction- Periosteum- Periostitis- Perkin's line- Perthes Lesion- Pes cavus- Phalen maneuver- Phocomelia- Physical therapy- Pigeon toe- Pigmented villonodular synovitis- Pilon fracture- Pipkin classification- Pipkin fracture-dislocation- Pivot-shift test- Plafond fracture- Polydactyly- Polyostotic fibrous dysplasia- Polytrauma- Ponseti method- Porotic hyperostosis- Pott's fracture- Preiser disease- Proteus syndrome- Protrusio acetabuli- Pseudarthrosis- Pulled hamstring- Pycnodysostosis- Pyogenic osteomyelitis

text: Paget's disease of bone

text: Panner disease

text: Patella alta

text: Patella baja

text: Patella fracture

text: Patellar dislocation

text: Patellar tendon rupture

text: Pathologic fracture

text: Patrick's test

text: Patrick's test

text: Pauwel's angle

text: Pauwel's classification

text: Pectus carinatum

text: Pectus excavatum

text: Pediatric trauma

text: Pelvic fracture

text: Penetrating trauma

text: Perichondrium

text: Periosteal reaction

text: Periosteum

text: Periostitis

text: Perkin's line

text: Perthes Lesion

text: Pes cavus

text: Phalen maneuver

text: Phocomelia

text: Physical therapy

text: Pigeon toe

text: Pigmented villonodular synovitis

text: Pilon fracture

text: Pipkin classification

text: Pipkin fracture-dislocation

text: Pivot-shift test

text: Plafond fracture

text: Polydactyly

text: Polyostotic fibrous dysplasia

text: Polytrauma

text: Ponseti method

text: Porotic hyperostosis

text: Pott's fracture

text: Preiser disease

text: Proteus syndrome

text: Protrusio acetabuli

text: Pseudarthrosis

text: Pulled hamstring

text: Pycnodysostosis

text: Pyogenic osteomyelitis

text: In January 1995, after 21 years of marriage, Camilla and her husband decided to divorce. The previous year her mother, Rosalind, had died from osteoporosis, and her father later described this as a "difficult time for her". A joint statement was released by their lawyers on 11 January 1995, stating their divorce was amicable and claiming it was due to different interests, which eventually led to separate lives. The divorce was finalised in March 1995.

text: In January 1995, after 21 years of marriage, Camilla and her husband decided to divorce. The previous year her mother, Rosalind, had died from

text: osteoporosis

text: , and her father later described this as a "difficult time for her". A joint statement was released by their lawyers on 11 January 1995, stating their divorce was amicable and claiming it was due to different interests, which eventually led to separate lives. The divorce was finalised in March 1995.

text: After leaving the television industry in the 1980s, Philipp worked voluntarily for The Salvation Army. In later life he suffered from osteoporosis.

text: The above protocols can be used independently. Manual palpation is used in clinical activities for various aims: - identification of painful areas; - positioning of particular pieces of equipment (electromyography electrodes, auscultation, external landmarks used in clinical motion analysis or body surface scanning); or - measurements of morphological parameters (e.g., limb length). Virtual palpation alone is useful to quantify individual morphological parameters from medical imaging: - limb length; - limb orientation; - joint angle; or - distance between various skeletal locations.

text: The above protocols can be used independently. Manual palpation is used in clinical activities for various aims: - identification of painful areas; - positioning of particular pieces of equipment (

text: electromyography

text: electrodes, auscultation, external landmarks used in clinical

text: motion analysis

text: or body surface scanning); or - measurements of morphological parameters (e.g., limb length). Virtual palpation alone is useful to quantify individual morphological parameters from

text: medical imaging

text: : - limb length; - limb orientation; - joint angle; or - distance between various skeletal locations.

text: Joint replacements are available for other joints on a limited basis, most notably the knee, shoulder, elbow, wrist, ankle, spine, and finger joints.

text: Atelosteogenesis, type 2 is one of a spectrum of skeletal disorders caused by mutations in the SLC26A2 gene. The protein made by this gene is essential for the normal development of cartilage and for its conversion to bone. Mutations in the SLC26A2 gene disrupt the structure of developing cartilage, preventing bones from forming properly and resulting in the skeletal problems characteristic of atelosteogenesis, type 2.

text: Atelosteogenesis, type 2 is one of a spectrum of skeletal disorders caused by mutations in the

text: gene. The

text: protein

text: made by this gene is essential for the normal development of cartilage and for its conversion to bone. Mutations in the SLC26A2 gene disrupt the structure of developing cartilage, preventing bones from forming properly and resulting in the skeletal problems characteristic of atelosteogenesis, type 2.

text: The somatosensory system is a complex sensory system made up of a number of different receptors, including thermoreceptors, nociceptors, mechanoreceptors and chemoreceptors. It also comprises essential processing centres, or sensory modalities, such as proprioception, touch, temperature, and nociception. The sensory receptors cover the skin and epithelia, skeletal muscles, bones and joints, internal organs, and the cardiovascular system.

text: The

text: somatosensory system

text: is a complex sensory system made up of a number of different receptors, including thermoreceptors, nociceptors, mechanoreceptors and chemoreceptors. It also comprises essential processing centres, or sensory modalities, such as proprioception, touch, temperature, and nociception. The sensory receptors cover the skin and epithelia, skeletal muscles, bones and joints, internal organs, and the cardiovascular system.

text: P2X receptors are expressed in cells from a wide variety of animal tissues. On presynaptic and postsynaptic nerve terminals and glial cells throughout the central, peripheral and autonomic nervous systems, P2X receptors have been shown to modulate synaptic transmission. Furthermore, P2X receptors are able to initiate contraction in cells of the heart muscle, skeletal muscle, and various smooth muscle tissues, including that of the vasculature, vas deferens and urinary bladder. P2X receptors are also expressed on leukocytes, including lymphocytes and macrophages, and are present on blood platelets. There is some degree of subtype specificity as to which P2X receptor subtypes are expressed on specific cell types, with P2X receptors being particularly prominent in smooth muscle cells, and P2X being widespread throughout the autonomic nervous system. However, such trends are very general and there is considerable overlap in subunit distribution, with most cell types expressing more than one subunits. For example, P2X and P2X subunits are commonly found co-expressed in sensory neurons, where they often co-assemble into functional P2X receptors.

text: P2X receptors are expressed in cells from a wide variety of animal

text: tissues

text: . On presynaptic and postsynaptic

text: nerve terminals

text: and

text: glial

text: cells throughout the

text: central

text: peripheral

text: and

text: autonomic

text: nervous systems, P2X receptors have been shown to modulate

text: synaptic transmission

text: . Furthermore, P2X receptors are able to initiate

text: contraction

text: in cells of the

text: heart muscle

text: skeletal muscle

text: , and various

text: smooth muscle

text: tissues, including that of the

text: vasculature

text: vas deferens

text: and

text: urinary bladder

text: . P2X receptors are also expressed on

text: leukocytes

text: , including lymphocytes and macrophages, and are present on blood

text: platelet

text: s. There is some degree of subtype specificity as to which P2X receptor subtypes are expressed on specific cell types, with P2X receptors being particularly prominent in smooth muscle cells, and P2X being widespread throughout the autonomic nervous system. However, such trends are very general and there is considerable overlap in subunit distribution, with most cell types expressing more than one subunits. For example, P2X and P2X subunits are commonly found co-expressed in

text: sensory neuron

text: s, where they often co-assemble into functional P2X receptors.

text: Fluorine gas is extremely toxic; breathing fluorine gas at a concentration of 0.1% for several minutes is lethal. Hydrofluoric acid is also toxic, being able to penetrate skin and cause highly painful burns. In addition, fluoride anions are toxic, but not as toxic as pure fluorine. Fluoride can be lethal in amounts of 5 to 10 grams. Prolonged consumption of fluoride above concentrations of 1.5 mg/L is associated with a risk of dental fluorosis, an aesthetic condition of the teeth. At concentrations above 4 mg/L, there is an increased risk of developing skeletal fluorosis, a condition in which bone fractures become more common due to the hardening of bones. Current recommended levels in water fluoridation, a way to prevent dental caries, range from 0.7 to 1.2 mg/L to avoid the detrimental effects of fluoride while at the same time reaping the benefits. People with levels between normal levels and those required for skeletal fluorosis tend to have symptoms similar to arthritis.

text: Fluorine gas is extremely toxic; breathing fluorine gas at a concentration of 0.1% for several minutes is lethal. Hydrofluoric acid is also toxic, being able to penetrate skin and cause highly painful

text: burns

text: . In addition, fluoride anions are toxic, but not as toxic as pure fluorine. Fluoride can be lethal in amounts of 5 to 10 grams. Prolonged consumption of fluoride above concentrations of 1.5 mg/L is associated with a risk of

text: dental fluorosis

text: , an aesthetic condition of the teeth. At concentrations above 4 mg/L, there is an increased risk of developing

text: skeletal fluorosis

text: , a condition in which bone fractures become more common due to the hardening of bones. Current recommended levels in

text: water fluoridation

text: , a way to prevent

text: dental caries

text: , range from 0.7 to 1.2 mg/L to avoid the detrimental effects of fluoride while at the same time reaping the benefits. People with levels between normal levels and those required for skeletal fluorosis tend to have symptoms similar to

text: arthritis

text: In osteoporosis and Paget's, the most popular first-line bisphosphonate drugs are alendronate and risedronate. If these are ineffective or if the person develops digestive tract problems, intravenous pamidronate may be used. Strontium ranelate or teriparatide are used for refractory disease. The use of strontium ranelate is restricted  because of increased risk of venous thromboembolism, pulmonary embolism and serious cardiovascular disorders, including myocardial infarction. In postmenopausal women, the selective estrogen receptor modulator raloxifene is occasionally administered instead of bisphosphonates.  Bisphosphonates are beneficial in reducing the risk of vertebral fracture in steroid induced osteoporosis.

text: In osteoporosis and Paget's, the most popular first-line bisphosphonate drugs are

text: alendronate

text: and

text: risedronate

text: . If these are ineffective or if the person develops digestive tract problems, intravenous

text: pamidronate

text: may be used.

text: Strontium ranelate

text: or

text: teriparatide

text: are used for refractory disease. The use of strontium ranelate is restricted  because of increased risk of

text: venous thromboembolism

text: pulmonary embolism

text: and serious cardiovascular disorders, including

text: myocardial infarction

text: . In postmenopausal women, the

text: selective estrogen receptor modulator

text: raloxifene

text: is occasionally administered instead of bisphosphonates.  Bisphosphonates are beneficial in reducing the risk of

text: vertebral fracture

text: in

text: steroid induced osteoporosis

text: A localized disease is an infectious or neoplastic process that originates in and is confined to one organ system or general area in the body, such as a sprained ankle, a boil on the hand, an abscess of finger.

text: A localized disease is an

text: infectious

text: or

text: neoplastic

text: process that originates in and is confined to one

text: organ system

text: or general area in the body, such as a

text: sprain

text: ed ankle, a

text: boil

text: on the hand, an

text: abscess

text: of finger.

text: Orphenadrine is used to relieve pain caused by muscle injuries like strains and sprains in combination with rest and physical therapy.  A 2004 review found little clinical evidence for the safety or efficacy of orphenadrine for this use.

text: Orphenadrine is used to relieve pain caused by muscle injuries like

text: strains

text: and

text: sprains

text: in combination with rest and physical therapy.  A 2004 review found little clinical evidence for the safety or efficacy of orphenadrine for this use.

text: Tattoos are less commonly found than skeletal modifications because of the lessened likelihood of preservation, there is documentary evidence to suggest that tattooing occurred with the Aztec. Ceramic seals have been found that may have been used to make an imprint on the skin before the tattoo was indelibly marked into the skin by the way of bone awls, maguey thorns, or other items. Guerrero, a Spanish explorer, also states that he received tattoos on his face after being acclimated to native life in Mexico.

text: Tattoo

text: s are less commonly found than skeletal modifications because of the lessened likelihood of preservation, there is documentary evidence to suggest that tattooing occurred with the Aztec. Ceramic seals have been found that may have been used to make an imprint on the skin before the tattoo was indelibly marked into the skin by the way of bone awls, maguey thorns, or other items. Guerrero, a Spanish explorer, also states that he received tattoos on his face after being acclimated to native life in Mexico.

text: These snakes can go for up to two years without food in the wild. A 5½-month starvation study showed the snakes reduced energy expenditures by an average of 80% over the length of the study. The snakes also feed from within on energy-rich lipid stores. The most interesting finding was the snakes grew during the study, indicating while the snake's mass was shrinking, it was putting its resources into skeletal muscles and bone.

text: Some fractures that look like joints are actually shear fractures, which in effect are microfaults, instead of joints. Shear fractures do not form as the result of the perpendicular opening of a fracture due to tensile stress, but through the shearing of fractures that causes lateral movement of its faces. Shear fractures can be confused with joints, because the lateral offset of the fracture faces is not visible at the scale of outcrop or hand specimen. Because of the absence of diagnostic ornamentation or the lack of any discernible movement or offset, they can be indistinguishable from joints. Shear fractures occur in sets of planar parallel fractures at an angle of 60 degrees and can be of the same size and scale as joints. As a result, some conjugate joint sets may actually be shear fractures. In case of such joint sets, it might be possible to distinguish joints from shear fractures by looking for the presence of slickensides, which are products of shearing movement parallel to the fracture surface. The slickensides are fine-scale, delicate ridge-in-groove lineations that are found on the surface of fracture surfaces.

text: Some fractures that look like joints are actually shear fractures, which in effect are microfaults, instead of joints. Shear fractures do not form as the result of the perpendicular opening of a fracture due to tensile stress, but through the shearing of fractures that causes lateral movement of its faces. Shear fractures can be confused with joints, because the lateral offset of the fracture faces is not visible at the scale of outcrop or hand specimen. Because of the absence of diagnostic ornamentation or the lack of any discernible movement or offset, they can be indistinguishable from joints. Shear fractures occur in sets of planar parallel fractures at an angle of 60 degrees and can be of the same size and scale as joints. As a result, some conjugate joint sets may actually be shear fractures. In case of such joint sets, it might be possible to distinguish joints from shear fractures by looking for the presence of

text: slickenside

text: s, which are products of shearing movement parallel to the fracture surface. The slickensides are fine-scale, delicate ridge-in-groove lineations that are found on the surface of fracture surfaces.

text: Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue. Bones have a variety of shapes with a complex internal and external structure they are also lightweight, yet strong and hard. One of the types of tissue that makes up bone tissue is mineralized tissue and this gives it rigidity and a honeycomb-like three-dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue found in bones include marrow, endosteum and periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and cartilage. There are 206 bones in the adult human body and 270 in an infant.

text: Bones are rigid

text: organs

text: that form part of the

text: endoskeleton

text: of

text: vertebrate

text: s. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce

text: red

text: and

text: white blood cell

text: s and store

text: mineral

text: s. Bone tissue is a type of dense

text: connective tissue

text: . Bones have a variety of shapes with a complex internal and external

text: structure

text: they are also lightweight, yet strong and hard. One of the types of tissue that makes up bone tissue is

text: mineralized tissue

text: and this gives it rigidity and a

text: honeycomb-like

text: three-dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue found in bones include

text: marrow

text: endosteum

text: and

text: periosteum

text: nerve

text: s,

text: blood vessel

text: s and

text: cartilage

text: . There are 206 bones in the adult human body and 270 in an

text: infant

text: The Evans-Jensen classification is a system of categorizing intertrochanteric hip fractures based on the fracture pattern of the proximal femur.

text: The Evans-Jensen classification is a system of categorizing

text: intertrochanteric

text: hip fracture

text: s based on the

text: fracture

text: pattern of the proximal

text: femur

text: Foals and young growing horses through their first three to four years have special nutritional needs and require feeds that are balanced with a proper calcium:phosphorus ratio and other trace minerals. A number of skeletal problems may occur in young animals with an unbalanced diet. Hard work increases the need for minerals; sweating depletes sodium, potassium, and chloride from the horse’s system.  Therefore, supplementation with electrolytes may be required for horses in intense training, especially in hot weather.

text: Foal

text: s and young growing horses through their first three to four years have special nutritional needs and require feeds that are balanced with a proper calcium:phosphorus ratio and other trace minerals. A number of

text: skeletal

text: problems may occur in young animals with an unbalanced diet. Hard work increases the need for minerals; sweating depletes sodium, potassium, and chloride from the horse’s system.  Therefore, supplementation with

text: electrolyte

text: s may be required for horses in intense training, especially in hot weather.

text: Villena Hernández makes most of the traditional cartonería objects such as piñatas, Lupita dolls, Judas figures, but he has become known for monumental works commissioned by government and cultural institutions in Puebla and Mexico City related to Holy Week, Christmas, Corpus Christi and Day of the Dead. Of these, his altars related to Day of the Dead are of particular note, especially the skeletal figures that adorn them. He has created altars in honor of Juan de Palafox y Mendoza (2009) for the Puebla city hall, the Mexican Revolution for the Complejo Cultural Universitaria of the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (2010), the China Poblana with various students for the Puebla city hall (2012) and one for José Guadalupe Posada for the National Museum of Mexican Art in Chicago (2013) . The artisan represents death as something happy, fun and irreverent, with the skeletal figures in movement. His works also show influence from José Guadalupe Posada in their sense of irony.

text: Villena Hernández makes most of the traditional cartonería objects such as piñatas,

text: Lupita dolls

text: , Judas figures, but he has become known for monumental works commissioned by government and cultural institutions in Puebla and Mexico City related to

text: Holy Week

text: Christmas

text: Corpus Christi

text: and Day of the Dead. Of these, his altars related to Day of the Dead are of particular note, especially the skeletal figures that adorn them. He has created altars in honor of

text: Juan de Palafox y Mendoza

text: (2009) for the Puebla city hall, the

text: Mexican Revolution

text: for the Complejo Cultural Universitaria of the

entity_name: Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla

text: Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla

text: (2010), the

text: China Poblana

text: with various students for the Puebla city hall (2012) and one for

text: José Guadalupe Posada

text: for the

text: National Museum of Mexican Art

text: in Chicago (2013) . The artisan represents death as something happy, fun and irreverent, with the skeletal figures in movement. His works also show influence from José Guadalupe Posada in their sense of irony.

text: Other stimuli are possible. Insulin can act as a stimulus for vascular recruitment in skeletal muscle. This process may also improve glucose delivery to skeletal muscle by increasing the surface area for diffusion. That insulin can act in this way has been proposed based on increases in limb blood flow and skeletal muscle blood volume which occurred after hyperinsulinemia.

text: Other stimuli are possible.

text: Insulin

text: can act as a stimulus for vascular recruitment in skeletal muscle. This process may also improve glucose delivery to skeletal muscle by increasing the surface area for diffusion. That insulin can act in this way has been proposed based on increases in limb blood flow and skeletal muscle blood volume which occurred after

text: hyperinsulinemia

text: The major symptoms of OFC are bone pain or tenderness, bone fractures, and skeletal deformities such as bowing of the bones.  The underlying hyperparathyroidism may cause kidney stones, nausea, constipation, fatigue and weakness. X-rays may indicate thin bones, fractures, bowing, and cysts. Fractures are most commonly localized in the arms, legs, or spine.

text: The major symptoms of OFC are bone pain or tenderness,

text: bone fracture

text: s, and skeletal deformities such as bowing of the bones.  The underlying

text: hyperparathyroidism

text: may cause

text: kidney stone

text: s,

text: nausea

text: constipation

text: , fatigue and weakness.

text: X-ray

text: s may indicate thin bones, fractures, bowing, and cysts. Fractures are most commonly localized in the arms, legs, or spine.

text: Skeletal alpha actin expression is induced by stimuli and conditions known to cause muscle formation. Such conditions result in fusion of committed cells (satellite cells) into myotubes, to form muscle fibers. Skeletal actin itself, when expressed, causes expression of several other "myogenic genes", which are essential to muscle formation. One key transcription factor that activates skeletal actin gene expression is Serum Response Factor ("SRF"), a protein that binds to specific sites on the promoter DNA of the actin gene. SRF may bring a number of other proteins to the promoter of skeletal actin, such as andogen receptor, and thereby contribute to induction of skeletal actin gene expression by androgenic (often termed "anabolic") steroids.

text: Admissions are done based on the merit of the students as per West Bengal Joint Entrance Examination(WBJEE) ranking system, JEE mains ranking and JELET (Joint Entrance Lateral Entry Test for Second year third semester admission) ranking system and JECA for MCA candidates.

text: Admissions are done based on the merit of the students as per

text: West Bengal Joint Entrance Examination

text: (WBJEE) ranking system, JEE mains ranking and JELET (Joint Entrance Lateral Entry Test for Second year third semester admission) ranking system and JECA for MCA candidates.

text: Various theories have been proposed to explain the short stature of pygmies. Some studies suggest that it could be related to adaptation to low ultraviolet light levels in rainforests. This might mean that relatively little vitamin D can be made in human skin, thereby limiting calcium uptake from the diet for bone growth and maintenance, and leading to the evolution of the small skeletal size.

text: Various theories have been proposed to explain the short stature of pygmies. Some studies suggest that it could be related to adaptation to low

text: ultraviolet light

text: levels in

text: rainforest

text: s. This might mean that relatively little

text: vitamin D

text: can be made in human skin, thereby limiting

text: calcium

text: uptake from the diet for bone growth and maintenance, and leading to the evolution of the small skeletal size.

text: A fracture in conjunction with an overlying laceration that tears the epidermis and the meninges, or runs through the paranasal sinuses and the middle ear structures, bringing the outside environment into contact with the cranial cavity is called a compound fracture. Compound fractures can either be clean or contaminated.

text: A fracture in conjunction with an overlying

text: laceration

text: that tears the

text: epidermis

text: and the

text: meninges

text: , or runs through the

text: paranasal sinuses

text: and the

text: middle ear

text: structures, bringing the outside environment into contact with the cranial cavity is called a compound fracture. Compound fractures can either be clean or contaminated.

text: The first pharyngeal arch forms maxillary and mandibular processes. It is innervated by the trigeminal nerve and molds muscles related to mastication such as temporal, masseter, medial, lateral, pterygoid bones, tensor palatine, and tensor tympani. This arch originates maxillar and mandibular prominences, part of the temporal bone and Meckel's cartilage (malleus and incus) as skeletal structures. The second pharyngeal arch is innervated by the facial cranial nerve. Muscles that arise from the arch are those involved with facial expression and the posterior digastric muscle. Skeletal structures that originate here are the cervical sinus, Reichert cartilage (stape) the styloid process of the temporal bone, the lesser cornu and the hyoid bone. The third pharyngeal arch is innervated by glossopharyngeal nerve. It molds the stylopharyngeus muscle and forms the skeletal structures of the greater horn and lower portion of body hyoid bone. The fourth and sixth arches are innervated by the vagus cranial nerve. Both arches will fuse to form the laryngeal cartilages. The fifth cartilage does not appear to have any contribution to adult anatomy and disappears.

text: The first pharyngeal arch forms

text: maxilla

text: ry and

text: mandibular

text: processes. It is innervated by the

text: trigeminal nerve

text: and molds muscles related to mastication such as temporal,

text: masseter

text: , medial, lateral,

text: pterygoid bones

text: , tensor palatine, and tensor tympani. This arch originates

text: maxillar

text: and

text: mandibular

text: prominences, part of the temporal bone and

text: Meckel's cartilage

text: (malleus and incus) as skeletal structures. The second pharyngeal arch is innervated by the facial cranial nerve. Muscles that arise from the arch are those involved with facial expression and the posterior

text: digastric muscle

text: . Skeletal structures that originate here are the

text: cervical sinus

text: , Reichert cartilage (stape) the

text: styloid process of the temporal bone

text: , the lesser cornu and the

text: hyoid bone

text: . The third pharyngeal arch is innervated by

text: glossopharyngeal nerve

text: . It molds the

text: stylopharyngeus muscle

text: and forms the skeletal structures of the greater horn and lower portion of body hyoid bone. The fourth and sixth arches are innervated by the vagus cranial nerve. Both arches will fuse to form the laryngeal cartilages. The fifth cartilage does not appear to have any contribution to adult anatomy and disappears.

text: Majewski's polydactyly syndrome, also known as polydactyly with neonatal chondrodystrophy type I, short rib-polydactyly syndrome type II, and short rib-polydactyly syndrome, is a lethal form of neonatal dwarfism characterized by osteochondrodysplasia (skeletal abnormalities in the development of bone and cartilage) with a narrow thorax, polysyndactyly, disproportionately short tibiae, thorax dysplasia, hypoplastic lungs and respiratory insufficiency. Associated anomalies include protruding abdomen, brachydactyly, peculiar faces, hypoplastic epiglottis, cardiovascular defects, renal cysts, and also genital anomalies. Death occurs before or at birth.

text: Majewski's polydactyly syndrome, also known as polydactyly with neonatal chondrodystrophy type I, short rib-polydactyly syndrome type II, and short rib-polydactyly syndrome, is a lethal form of

text: neonatal

text: dwarfism

text: characterized by

text: osteochondrodysplasia

text: skeletal

text: abnormalities in the development of

text: bone

text: and

text: cartilage

text: ) with a narrow

text: thorax

text: polysyndactyly

text: , disproportionately short

text: tibia

text: e, thorax dysplasia, hypoplastic

text: lungs

text: and respiratory insufficiency. Associated anomalies include protruding abdomen,

text: brachydactyly

text: , peculiar faces, hypoplastic

text: epiglottis

text: , cardiovascular defects, renal cysts, and also genital anomalies. Death occurs before or at birth.

text: The most common causes of myalgia by injury are: sprains and strains.

text: The most common causes of myalgia by

text: injury

text: are:

text: sprains

text: and

text: strains

text: As it functions to innervate the external urethral sphincter it is responsible for the tone of the sphincter mediated via acetylcholine release. This means that during periods of increased acetylcholine release the skeletal muscle in the external urethral sphincter contracts, causing urinary retention. Whereas in periods of decreased acetylcholine release the skeletal muscle in the external urethral sphincter relaxes, allowing voiding of the bladder to occur. (Clarification: Unlike the internal sphincter muscle, the external sphincter is made of skeletal muscle, therefore it is under voluntary control of the somatic nervous system.)

text: In the histology of skeletal muscle, a triad is the structure formed by a T tubule with a sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) known as the terminal cisterna on either side. Each skeletal muscle fiber has many thousands of triads, visible in muscle fibers that have been sectioned longitudinally. (This property holds because T tubules run perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the muscle fiber.) In mammals, triads are typically located at the A-I junction; that is, the junction between the A and I bands of the sarcomere, which is the smallest unit of a muscle fiber.

text: In the

text: histology

text: of

text: skeletal muscle

text: , a triad is the structure formed by a

text: T tubule

text: with a

text: sarcoplasmic reticulum

text: (SR) known as the

text: terminal cisterna

text: on either side. Each

text: skeletal muscle fiber

text: has many thousands of triads, visible in muscle fibers that have been sectioned longitudinally. (This property holds because T tubules run perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the muscle fiber.) In mammals, triads are typically located at the

text: A-I junction

text: ; that is, the junction between the

text: A

text: and

text: I bands

text: of the

text: sarcomere

text: , which is the smallest unit of a muscle fiber.

text: Like nacre and the other mineralized tissues, bone has a hierarchical structure that is also formed by the self-assembly of smaller components. The mineral in bone (known as bone mineral) is hydroxyapatite with a lot of carbonate ions, while the organic portion is made mostly of collagen and some other proteins. The hierarchical structural of bone spans across to a three tiered hierarchy of the collagen molecule itself.  Different sources report different numbers of hierarchical level in bone, which is a complex biological material. The types of mechanisms that operate at different structural length scales are yet to be properly defined. Five hierarchical structures of bone are presented below.

text: Like nacre and the other mineralized tissues,

text: bone

text: has a hierarchical structure that is also formed by the self-assembly of smaller components. The mineral in bone (known as

text: bone mineral

text: ) is

text: hydroxyapatite

text: with a lot of carbonate ions, while the organic portion is made mostly of

text: collagen

text: and some other proteins. The hierarchical structural of bone spans across to a three tiered hierarchy of the collagen molecule itself.  Different sources report different numbers of hierarchical level in bone, which is a complex biological material. The types of mechanisms that operate at different structural length scales are yet to be properly defined. Five hierarchical structures of bone are presented below.

text: Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, also called a biological system or body system. The functions of organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via a shared organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system. The same is true for the musculoskeletal system because of the relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems.

text: Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, also called a

text: biological system

text: or body system. The functions of organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the

text: nervous

text: and

text: endocrine system

text: both operate via a shared organ, the

text: hypothalamus

text: . For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the

text: neuroendocrine system

text: . The same is true for the

text: musculoskeletal system

text: because of the relationship between the

text: muscular

text: and

text: skeletal

text: systems.

text: Skeletal radiography may reveal osteopenia.

text: Skeletal radiography may reveal

text: osteopenia

text: Bones serve a variety of mechanical functions. Together the bones in the body form the skeleton. They provide a frame to keep the body supported, and an attachment point for skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints, which function together to generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole body can be manipulated in three-dimensional space (the interaction between bone and muscle is studied in biomechanics).

text: Bones serve a variety of mechanical functions. Together the bones in the body form the

text: skeleton

text: . They provide a frame to keep the body supported, and an attachment point for

text: skeletal muscle

text: s,

text: tendons

text: ligament

text: s and

text: joint

text: s, which function together to generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole body can be manipulated in three-dimensional space (the interaction between bone and muscle is studied in

text: biomechanics

text: Muscles signals stimulated by neurological impulses are collected using electromyography (EMG).  These muscle signals are indicative of neural activity.  In certain instances, EMG data can be indicative of neuroplasticity and learning of motor tasks.   The muscular system, specifically skeletal muscle, creates movement around bone joints, and the central nervous system is imperative in directing skeletal muscles in motor movements.

text: Muscles signals stimulated by neurological impulses are collected using

text: electromyography

text: (EMG).  These muscle signals are indicative of neural activity.  In certain instances, EMG data can be indicative of

text: neuroplasticity

text: and learning of motor tasks.   The muscular system, specifically skeletal muscle, creates movement around bone joints, and the

text: central nervous system

text: is imperative in directing skeletal muscles in motor movements.

text: Teachers also show students how to achieve the correct posture for most efficient playing results. For all instruments, the best way to move the fingers and arms to achieve a desired effect is to learn to play with the least tension in your hands and body.  This also prevents forming habits that can injure the skeletal frame and muscles.  For example, when playing the piano, fingering—which fingers to put on which keys—is a skill slowly learned as the student advances, and there are many standard techniques a teacher can pass on.

text: Teachers also show students how to achieve the correct posture for most efficient playing results. For all instruments, the best way to move the fingers and arms to achieve a desired effect is to learn to play with the least tension in your hands and body.  This also prevents forming habits that can injure the skeletal frame and muscles.  For example, when playing the

text: piano

text: , fingering—which fingers to put on which keys—is a skill slowly learned as the student advances, and there are many standard techniques a teacher can pass on.

text: It’s part of the mesomelic and rhizomelic skeletal dysplasias, primary bone diseases in which the short stature is due to a lack of complete bone development of the limb’s long bones.It’s strictly related to another disease, the Léri–Weill dyschondrosteosis, of which it seems to be the homozygothic variant, clinically more severe (it differs from this disorder for the absence, in some cases, of the Madelung deformity too).

text: It’s part of the

text: mesomelic

text: and

text: rhizomelic

text: skeletal dysplasias

text: , primary bone diseases in which the short stature is due to a lack of complete bone development of the limb’s long bones.It’s strictly related to another disease, the

text: Léri–Weill dyschondrosteosis

text: , of which it seems to be the homozygothic variant, clinically more severe (it differs from this disorder for the absence, in some cases, of the Madelung deformity too).

text: A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebral skeleton. Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals and also enable mobility as well as support for the body.  Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have a complex internal and external structure. They are lightweight yet strong and hard, and serve multiple functions. Mineralized osseous tissue, or bone tissue, is of two types, cortical and cancellous, and gives a bone rigidity and a coral-like three-dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue found in bones include marrow, endosteum, periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and cartilage.

text: A bone is a

text: rigid

text: organ

text: that constitutes part of the

text: vertebral

text: skeleton

text: red

text: and

text: white blood cell

text: s, store

text: mineral

text: s and also enable mobility as well as support for the body.

text: Bone tissue

text: is a type of dense

text: connective tissue

text: structure

text: functions

text: Mineralized

text: osseous tissue, or bone tissue, is of two types,

text: cortical

text: and

text: cancellous

text: , and gives a bone rigidity and a

text: coral

text: marrow

text: endosteum

text: periosteum

text: nerve

text: s,

text: blood vessel

text: s and

text: cartilage

text: Ca has many important roles as an intracellular messenger. The release of a large amount of free Ca can trigger a fertilized egg to develop, skeletal muscle cells to contract, secretion by secretory cells and interactions with Ca -responsive proteins like calmodulin. To maintain low concentrations of free Ca in the cytosol, cells use membrane pumps like calcium ATPase found in the membranes of sarcoplasmic reticulum of skeletal muscle. These pumps are needed to provide the steep electrochemical gradient that allows Ca to rush into the cytosol when a stimulus signal opens the Ca channels in the membrane. The pumps are also necessary to actively pump the Ca back out of the cytoplasm and return the cell to its pre-signal state.

text: Symptoms are mainly promoted in the bone structure. Due to a high fluorine concentration in the body, the bone is hardened and thus less elastic, resulting in an increased frequency of fractures. Other symptoms include thickening of the bone structure and accumulation of bone tissue, which both contribute to impaired joint mobility. Ligaments and cartilage can become ossified. Most patients suffering from skeletal fluorosis show side effects from the high fluorine dose such as ruptures of the stomach lining and nausea.Fluorine can also damage the parathyroid glands, leading to hyperparathyroidism, the uncontrolled secretion of parathyroid hormones. These hormones regulate calcium concentration in the body. An elevated parathyroid hormone concentration results in a depletion of calcium in bone structures and thus a higher calcium concentration in the blood. As a result, bone flexibility decreases making the bone more amenable to fractures.

text: Symptoms are mainly promoted in the bone structure. Due to a high fluorine concentration in the body, the bone is hardened and thus less elastic, resulting in an increased frequency of fractures. Other symptoms include thickening of the bone structure and accumulation of bone tissue, which both contribute to impaired joint mobility. Ligaments and cartilage can become ossified. Most patients suffering from skeletal fluorosis show side effects from the high fluorine dose such as ruptures of the stomach lining and nausea.Fluorine can also damage the

text: parathyroid gland

text: s, leading to hyperparathyroidism, the uncontrolled secretion of parathyroid hormones. These hormones regulate calcium concentration in the body. An elevated parathyroid hormone concentration results in a depletion of calcium in bone structures and thus a higher calcium concentration in the blood. As a result, bone flexibility decreases making the bone more amenable to fractures.

text: India is considered the point of origin of leprosy with skeletal evidence of the disease dating to 2000 B.C. The disease is thought to have spread through trade and war to other parts of Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, and later Europe and the Americas. In ancient Indian society, individuals suffering from leprosy were alienated because the disease was chronic, contagious, resulted in disfigurement, had no cure at the time, and was associated with sin. In colonial India, the government enacted the Leprosy Act of 1898, which institutionalised leprosy victims and separated them based on gender to prevent reproduction. These laws mainly affected the poor because those who were self-sufficient were not obligated to be isolated or seek medical treatment. In the 20th century, even when drugs to treat leprosy became available and more knowledge was gained about the disease, the scourge of leprosy remains a persistent and widespread health problem throughout all regions of the country.

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, René Le Fort mapped typical locations for facial fractures; these are now known as Le Fort I, II, and III fractures (right). Le Fort I fractures, also called Guérin or horizontal maxillary fractures, involve the maxilla, separating it from the palate.  Le Fort II fractures, also called pyramidal fractures of the maxilla, cross the nasal bones and the orbital rim.  Le Fort III fractures, also called craniofacial disjunction and transverse facial fractures, cross the front of the maxilla and involve the lacrimal bone, the lamina papyracea, and the orbital floor, and often involve the ethmoid bone. are the most serious.  Le Fort fractures, which account for 10–20% of facial fractures, are often associated with other serious injuries.  Le Fort made his classifications based on work with cadaver skulls, and the classification system has been criticized as imprecise and simplistic since most midface fractures involve a combination of Le Fort fractures.  Although most facial fractures do not follow the patterns described by Le Fort precisely, the system is still used to categorize injuries.

text: At the beginning of the 20th century,

text: René Le Fort

text: mapped typical locations for facial fractures; these are now known as

text: Le Fort I, II, and III fractures

text: (right). Le Fort I fractures, also called Guérin or horizontal maxillary fractures, involve the maxilla, separating it from the palate.  Le Fort II fractures, also called pyramidal fractures of the maxilla, cross the nasal bones and the orbital rim.  Le Fort III fractures, also called craniofacial disjunction and transverse facial fractures, cross the front of the maxilla and involve the

text: lacrimal bone

text: , the

text: lamina papyracea

text: , and the

text: orbital floor

text: , and often involve the

text: ethmoid bone

text: . are the most serious.  Le Fort fractures, which account for 10–20% of facial fractures, are often associated with other serious injuries.  Le Fort made his classifications based on work with cadaver skulls, and the classification system has been criticized as imprecise and simplistic since most midface fractures involve a combination of Le Fort fractures.  Although most facial fractures do not follow the patterns described by Le Fort precisely, the system is still used to categorize injuries.

text: The skeletal remains of 5 individuals were found:

text: Joints are often simple syndesmosis joints, but in some organisms, some joints may be synovial, permitting a greater range of movement.

text: Joints are often simple

text: syndesmosis

text: joints, but in some organisms, some joints may be

text: synovial

text: , permitting a greater range of movement.

text: From Site 26Ch1046, one of the scattered burial pits found within the Stillwater Marsh locality, the skeletons of two young males were analyzed. Their bones demonstrate the effects of poor nutrition, as evidenced by unusual depressions at muscle attachment sites. One of the skeletons showed signs of anemia, as denoted by the presence of cribra orbitalia, which could have developed as a result of a nutrient poor diet. Further evidence of cribra orbitalia was found by the Human Skeletal Field Survey in the summer of 1987. A juvenile skeleton was excavated that displayed anemia in this same pattern. While not exactly a sample of the population, these three young skeletons seem to indicate that appropriate nutrition may not have always been available for children, whose immune systems were still developing, leaving them more susceptible to infection.

text: Joint is a slang term for a cigarette filled with cannabis, instead of tobacco. Alternatively, mainly in Europe, joints may contain tobacco (commonly dubbed "a spliff" in Jamaica) or various non-addictive herbs. Sometimes a joint will contain Kief or hashish; hashish can be heated and made to crumble before placement within the joint. Specially manufactured rolling papers are most often used in industrialized countries; however, recycled brown paper and newspaper are commonly used in the developing world. Modern papers are now made from a wide variety of materials including rice, hemp, and flax. A joint typically contains 250–750 mg net weight of cannabis and/or fillers.

text: Joint is a

text: slang term

text: for a

text: cigarette

text: filled with cannabis, instead of tobacco. Alternatively, mainly in Europe, joints may contain tobacco (commonly dubbed "a

text: spliff

text: " in Jamaica) or various non-addictive herbs. Sometimes a joint will contain

text: Kief

text: or

text: hashish

text: ; hashish can be heated and made to crumble before placement within the joint. Specially manufactured

text: rolling paper

text: s are most often used in industrialized countries; however, recycled brown paper and newspaper are commonly used in the

text: developing world

text: . Modern papers are now made from a wide variety of materials including rice, hemp, and flax. A joint typically contains 250–750

text: mg

text: net weight of cannabis and/or fillers.

text: Joint surface: Humans have evolved to absorb great shock and force on the skeletal structure while running. The impact force on the body can reach up to 3-4 times body weight in endurance running, putting the skeletal structure under great stress. To reduce this stress humans have increased joint surfaces relative to body mass to spread force over larger surface areas, particularly in the lower body. This adaptation, which allows humans to absorb great shock and force applied to the skeleton, is not seen in Australopithecine skeletal structures.

text: Filling the interior of the bone is the cancellous bone also known as trabecular or spongy bone tissue. It is an open cell porous network. Thin formations of osteoblasts covered in endosteum create an irregular network of spaces. Within these spaces are bone marrow and hematopoietic stem cells that give rise to platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. Trabecular marrow is composed of a network of rod- and plate-like elements that make the overall organ lighter and allow room for blood vessels and marrow.  Trabecular bone accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass but has nearly ten times the surface area of compact bone.

text: Filling the interior of the bone is the

text: cancellous bone

text: also known as trabecular or spongy bone tissue. It is an open cell

text: porous

text: network. Thin formations of

text: osteoblast

text: s covered in endosteum create an irregular network of spaces. Within these spaces are

text: bone marrow

text: and

text: hematopoietic stem cell

text: s that give rise to

text: platelet

text: s,

text: red blood cell

text: s and

text: white blood cell

text: s. Trabecular marrow is composed of a network of rod- and plate-like elements that make the overall organ lighter and allow room for blood vessels and marrow.  Trabecular bone accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass but has nearly ten times the surface area of compact bone.

text: If strength exercises are not used effectively, there will be a disparity between the functional levels of the skeletal muscle system and the capabilities of the neuromuscular system. Specialized strength work produces a strong training effect on the intramuscular system.

text: If strength exercises are not used effectively, there will be a disparity between the functional levels of the

text: skeletal muscle

text: system and the capabilities of the neuromuscular system. Specialized strength work produces a strong training effect on the intramuscular system.

text: Mutations in this gene are associated with hypophosphatemia nephrolithiasis/osteoporosis 1.

text: Residual complications of paralytic polio often occur following the initial recovery process. Muscle paresis and paralysis can sometimes result in skeletal deformities, tightening of the joints and movement disability. Once the muscles in the limb become flaccid, they may interfere with the function of other muscles. A typical manifestation of this problem is equinus foot (similar to club foot). This deformity develops when the muscles that pull the toes downward are working, but those that pull it upward are not, and the foot naturally tends to drop toward the ground. If the problem is left untreated, the Achilles tendons at the back of the foot retract and the foot cannot take on a normal position. Polio victims that develop equinus foot cannot walk properly because they cannot put their heel on the ground. A similar situation can develop if the arms become paralyzed. In some cases the growth of an affected leg is slowed by polio, while the other leg continues to grow normally. The result is that one leg is shorter than the other and the person limps and leans to one side, in turn leading to deformities of the spine (such as scoliosis). Osteoporosis and increased likelihood of bone fractures may occur. An intervention to prevent or lessen length disparity can be to perform an epiphysiodesis on the distal femoral and proximal tibial/fibular condyles, so that limb's growth is artificially stunted, and by the time of epiphyseal (growth) plate closure, the legs are more equal in length. Alternatively, a person can be fitted with custom made footwear which corrects the difference in leg lengths. Other surgery to re-balance muscular agonist/antagonist imbalances may also be helpful.  Extended use of braces or wheelchairs may cause compression neuropathy, as well as a loss of proper function of the veins in the legs, due to pooling of blood in paralyzed lower limbs. Complications from prolonged immobility involving the lungs, kidneys and heart include pulmonary edema, aspiration pneumonia, urinary tract infections, kidney stones, paralytic ileus, myocarditis and cor pulmonale.

text: Residual complications of paralytic polio often occur following the initial recovery process. Muscle

text: paresis

text: and paralysis can sometimes result in

text: skeletal

text: deformities, tightening of the joints and movement disability. Once the muscles in the limb become flaccid, they may interfere with the function of other muscles. A typical manifestation of this problem is

text: equinus foot

text: (similar to

text: club foot

text: ). This deformity develops when the muscles that pull the toes downward are working, but those that pull it upward are not, and the foot naturally tends to drop toward the ground. If the problem is left untreated, the

text: Achilles tendon

text: s at the back of the foot retract and the foot cannot take on a normal position. Polio victims that develop equinus foot cannot walk properly because they cannot put their heel on the ground. A similar situation can develop if the arms become paralyzed. In some cases the growth of an affected leg is slowed by polio, while the other leg continues to grow normally. The result is that one leg is shorter than the other and the person limps and leans to one side, in turn leading to deformities of the spine (such as

text: scoliosis

text: Osteoporosis

text: and increased likelihood of

text: bone fracture

text: s may occur. An intervention to prevent or lessen length disparity can be to perform an

text: epiphysiodesis

text: on the distal femoral and proximal tibial/fibular condyles, so that limb's growth is artificially stunted, and by the time of

text: epiphyseal (growth) plate

text: closure, the legs are more equal in length. Alternatively, a person can be fitted with custom made footwear which corrects the difference in leg lengths. Other surgery to re-balance muscular agonist/antagonist imbalances may also be helpful.  Extended use of braces or wheelchairs may cause compression

text: neuropathy

text: , as well as a loss of proper function of the

text: vein

text: s in the legs, due to pooling of blood in paralyzed lower limbs. Complications from prolonged immobility involving the

text: lungs

text: kidney

text: s and

text: heart

text: include

text: pulmonary edema

text: aspiration pneumonia

text: urinary tract infection

text: s,

text: kidney stone

text: s,

text: paralytic ileus

text: myocarditis

text: and

text: cor pulmonale

text: Turbinellus floccosus is poisonous to some people who eat it, but has been consumed without incident by others. Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea may occur, though are sometimes delayed by up to 8–14 hours. A tricarboxylic acid known as α-tetradecylcitric- or norcaperatic acid may be responsible for the extreme gastrointestinal symptoms. Laboratory experiments showed it increased tone of guinea pig smooth muscle of the small bowel (ileum), and that when given to rats, it led to mydriasis, skeletal muscle weakness, and central nervous system depression. The concentration (4.4%) of the presumed active ingredient—norcaperatic acid—extracted from fruit bodies of Turbinellus floccosus was more than double that extracted from the related T. kauffmanii.

text: Turbinellus floccosus is poisonous to some people who eat it, but has been consumed without incident by others. Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea may occur, though are sometimes delayed by up to 8–14 hours. A

text: tricarboxylic acid

text: known as α-tetradecylcitric- or norcaperatic acid may be responsible for the extreme gastrointestinal symptoms. Laboratory experiments showed it increased

text: tone

text: of guinea pig smooth muscle of the small bowel (ileum), and that when given to rats, it led to

text: mydriasis

text: , skeletal muscle weakness, and central nervous system depression. The concentration (4.4%) of the presumed active ingredient—norcaperatic acid—extracted from fruit bodies of Turbinellus floccosus was more than double that extracted from the related T. kauffmanii.

text: The bony architecture of the ankle joint is most stable in dorsiflexion. Thus, a sprained ankle is more likely to occur when the ankle is plantar-flexed, as ligamentous support is more important in this position. The classic ankle sprain involves the anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL), which is also the most commonly injured ligament during inversion sprains. Another ligament that can be injured in a severe ankle sprain is the calcaneofibular ligament.

text: The bony architecture of the ankle joint is most stable in

text: dorsiflexion

text: . Thus, a

text: sprained ankle

text: is more likely to occur when the ankle is plantar-flexed, as ligamentous support is more important in this position. The classic ankle sprain involves the

text: anterior talofibular ligament

text: (ATFL), which is also the most commonly injured ligament during

text: inversion

text: sprains. Another ligament that can be injured in a severe ankle sprain is the

text: calcaneofibular ligament

text: Historical craniometric studies found that the Beaker people appeared to be of a different physical type than those earlier populations in the same geographic areas. They were described as tall, heavy boned and brachycephalic. The early studies on the Beakers which were based on the analysis of their skeletal remains, were craniometric. This apparent evidence of migration was in line with archaeological discoveries linking Beaker culture to new farming techniques, mortuary practices, copper-working skills, and other cultural innovations. However, such evidence from skeletal remains was brushed aside as a new movement developed in archaeology from the 1960s, which stressed cultural continuity. Anti-migrationist authors either paid little attention to skeletal evidence or argued that differences could be explained by environmental and cultural influences. Margaret Cox and Simon Mays sum up the position: "Although it can hardly be said that craniometric data provide an unequivocal answer to the problem of the Beaker folk, the balance of the evidence would at present seem to favour a migration hypothesis."

text: Historical

text: craniometric

text: studies found that the Beaker people appeared to be of a different physical type than those earlier populations in the same geographic areas. They were described as tall, heavy boned and

text: brachycephalic

text: . The early studies on the Beakers which were based on the analysis of their skeletal remains, were craniometric. This apparent evidence of migration was in line with archaeological discoveries linking Beaker culture to new farming techniques, mortuary practices, copper-working skills, and other cultural innovations. However, such evidence from skeletal remains was brushed aside as a new movement developed in archaeology from the 1960s, which stressed cultural continuity. Anti-migrationist authors either paid little attention to skeletal evidence or argued that differences could be explained by environmental and cultural influences. Margaret Cox and Simon Mays sum up the position: "Although it can hardly be said that craniometric data provide an unequivocal answer to the problem of the Beaker folk, the balance of the evidence would at present seem to favour a migration hypothesis."

text: A later study of 50 subtrochanteric fractures, which were assessed using the Seinsheimer classification, criticized the classification system for having poor inter-rater reliability. They noted that "Earlier studies of pertrochanteric [sic] and femoral neck fractures show that the use of classification systems is often difficult, with low agreement (Frandsen et al. 1988, Andersen et al. 1990, Gehrchen et al. 1993). The results of these studies accord with the low level of interobserver agreement in our study. A total agreement of 26% or at the best 60% is not acceptable."  A further study published in 2014 assessed four subtrochanteric fracture classification systems, including the Seinsheimer system, and concluded that "the four subtrochanteric classification systems which we assessed were not found to be sufficiently reproducible to be of any significant value in clinical practice."

text: A later study of 50 subtrochanteric fractures, which were assessed using the Seinsheimer classification, criticized the classification system for having poor

text: inter-rater reliability

text: . They noted that "Earlier studies of pertrochanteric [sic] and femoral neck fractures show that the use of classification systems is often difficult, with low agreement (Frandsen et al. 1988, Andersen et al. 1990, Gehrchen et al. 1993). The results of these studies accord with the low level of interobserver agreement in our study. A total agreement of 26% or at the best 60% is not acceptable."  A further study published in 2014 assessed four subtrochanteric fracture classification systems, including the Seinsheimer system, and concluded that "the four subtrochanteric classification systems which we assessed were not found to be sufficiently reproducible to be of any significant value in clinical practice."

text: The list below describes such skeletal movements as normally are possible in particular joints of the human body. Other animals have different degrees of movement at their respective joints; this is because of differences in positions of muscles and because structures peculiar to the bodies of humans and other species block motions unsuited to their anatomies.

text: Marx saw the origin of fictitious capital in the development of the credit system and the joint-stock system.

text: Marx saw the origin of fictitious capital in the development of the

text: credit

text: system and the

text: joint-stock

text: system.

text: Bone is an active tissue composed of different cells. Osteoblasts are involved in the creation and mineralisation of bone; osteocytes and osteoclasts are involved in the reabsorption of bone tissue. The mineralised matrix of bone tissue has an organic component mainly of collagen and an inorganic component of bone mineral made up of various salts.

text: Bone is an active tissue composed of different cells.

text: Osteoblast

text: osteocyte

text: s and

text: osteoclast

text: s are involved in the reabsorption of bone tissue. The mineralised matrix of bone tissue has an organic component mainly of

text: collagen

text: and an inorganic component of

text: bone mineral

text: made up of various salts.

text: Another potential health problem is spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), another genetically inherited disease which causes the loss of the spinal-cord neurons which activate the skeletal muscles of the trunk and limbs. Symptoms are normally seen within 3–4 months of age and result in muscle atrophy, muscle weakness, and a shortened life span. A test is offered to detect the genes responsible for SMA.

text: Another potential health problem is

text: spinal muscular atrophy

text: (SMA), another genetically inherited disease which causes the loss of the spinal-cord neurons which activate the skeletal muscles of the trunk and limbs. Symptoms are normally seen within 3–4 months of age and result in

text: muscle atrophy

text: muscle weakness

text: , and a shortened life span. A test is offered to detect the genes responsible for SMA.

text: Fractures and their underlying causes can be investigated by X-rays, CT scans and MRIs. Fractures are described by their location and shape, and several classification systems exist, depending on the location of the fracture. A common long bone fracture in children is a Salter–Harris fracture. When fractures are managed, pain relief is often given, and the fractured area is often immobilised. This is to promote bone healing. In addition, surgical measures such as internal fixation may be used. Because of the immobilisation, people with fractures are often advised to undergo rehabilitation.

text: Fractures and their underlying causes can be investigated by

text: X-ray

text: s,

text: CT scans

text: and

text: MRI

text: s. Fractures are described by their location and shape, and several classification systems exist, depending on the location of the fracture. A common long bone fracture in children is a

text: Salter–Harris fracture

text: . When fractures are managed, pain relief is often given, and the fractured area is often immobilised. This is to promote

text: bone healing

text: . In addition, surgical measures such as

text: internal fixation

text: may be used. Because of the immobilisation, people with fractures are often advised to undergo

text: rehabilitation

text: The term was coined by Doyle, Kennedy and Riedel (1974) to denote 'fish skeletal debris'.

text: Low back pain is not a specific disease but rather a complaint that may be caused by a large number of underlying problems of varying levels of seriousness. The majority of LBP does not have a clear cause but is believed to be the result of non-serious muscle or skeletal issues such as sprains or strains. Obesity, smoking, weight gain during pregnancy, stress, poor physical condition, poor posture and poor sleeping position may also contribute to low back pain. A full list of possible causes includes many less common conditions. Physical causes may include osteoarthritis, degeneration of the discs between the vertebrae or a spinal disc herniation, broken vertebra(e) (such as from osteoporosis) or, rarely, an infection or tumor of the spine.

text: Low back pain is not a specific disease but rather a complaint that may be caused by a large number of underlying problems of varying levels of seriousness. The majority of LBP does not have a clear cause but is believed to be the result of non-serious muscle or skeletal issues such as

text: sprain

text: s or

text: strain

text: s. Obesity, smoking, weight gain during pregnancy, stress, poor physical condition, poor posture and poor sleeping position may also contribute to low back pain. A full

text: list of possible causes

text: includes many less common conditions. Physical causes may include

text: osteoarthritis

text: degeneration of the discs

text: between the

text: vertebrae

text: or a

text: spinal disc herniation

text: broken vertebra(e)

text: (such as from

text: osteoporosis

text: ) or, rarely, an infection or tumor of the spine.

text: During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass, known as sarcopenia. The exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, but it may be due to a combination of the gradual failure in the "satellite cells" that help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors that are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival. Sarcopenia is a normal aspect of aging, and is not actually a disease state yet can be linked to many injuries in the elderly population as well as decreasing quality of life.

text: During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass, known as

text: sarcopenia

text: . The exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, but it may be due to a combination of the gradual failure in the "satellite cells" that help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors that are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival. Sarcopenia is a normal aspect of aging, and is not actually a disease state yet can be linked to many injuries in the elderly population as well as decreasing quality of life.

text: An unscrupulous land developer, Big Jim Burns, ignores the protests of Native Americans as he violates their ancestral burial grounds.  The local sheriff, Steve Evans, is caught in the middle of the conflict, as he is half Native American and half Caucasian.  When one of Burns' construction crews unearths an ancient relic, they unleash a giant skeletal monster that proceeds to kill everyone in its path.  Evans must deal with his rebellious daughter, unhelpful bureaucrats, and Johnny Black Hawk, a Native American who agitates for violence.  After consulting with the local chief, Storm Cloud, Evans learns he must locate the relic and use it in ritual combat against the monster.  Once Sheriff Evans acquires the relic, Johnny Black Hawk attempts to take it from him and use it to get vengeance on the town; Evans is forced to kill him in self-defense.  After donning war paint, Evans goes on to fight and ultimately defeat the Bone Eater.

text: There are various classification systems of mandibular fractures in use.

text: The Micronutrient Initiative (MI) is an international not for profit agency based in Canada that works to eliminate vitamin and mineral deficiencies in developing countries. Although often only required by the body in very small amounts, vitamin and minerals – also known as micronutrients – support an array of critical biological functions including growth, immune function and eye function, as well as foetal development of the brain, the nervous system, and the skeletal system. Micronutrient deficiency is a form of malnutrition and is a recognized health problem in many developing countries. Globally, more than two billion people live with vitamin and mineral deficiencies.

text: The Micronutrient Initiative (MI) is an international

text: not for profit

text: agency based in

text: Canada

text: that works to eliminate vitamin and mineral deficiencies in developing countries. Although often only required by the body in very small amounts, vitamin and minerals – also known as

text: micronutrients

text: – support an array of critical biological functions including growth, immune function and eye function, as well as foetal development of the brain, the nervous system, and the skeletal system.

text: Micronutrient deficiency

text: is a form of

text: malnutrition

text: and is a recognized health problem in many developing countries. Globally, more than two billion people live with vitamin and mineral deficiencies.

text: Madelung's deformity- Maffucci syndrome- Maisonneuve fracture- Major trauma- Malgaigne's fracture- Malunion- March fracture- Marfan syndrome- Marie-Strümpell disease- Marshall syndrome- Marshall–Smith syndrome- Martin-Gruber Anastomosis- Mayfield classification- McCune–Albright syndrome- McMurray test- Medullary cavity- Melnick–Needles syndrome- Melorheostosis- Mesenchymal chondrosarcoma- Metaphysis- Metatarsophalangeal joint sprain- Microfracture surgery- Milch classification- Mirel's Score- Monostotic fibrous dysplasia- Monteggia fracture- Moore or Southern posterior approach to the hip- Moore's fracture- Moore's pin- Morton's neuroma- Morton's toe- Mulder's sign- Müller AO Classification of fractures- Multiple epiphyseal dysplasia- Mumford procedure- Musculoskeletal injury- Myxoid chondrosarcoma

text: Madelung's deformity

text: Maffucci syndrome

text: Maisonneuve fracture

text: Major trauma

text: Malgaigne's fracture

text: Malunion

text: March fracture

text: Marfan syndrome

text: Marie-Strümpell disease

text: Marshall syndrome

text: Marshall–Smith syndrome

text: Martin-Gruber Anastomosis

text: Mayfield classification

text: McCune–Albright syndrome

text: McMurray test

text: Medullary cavity

text: Melnick–Needles syndrome

text: Melorheostosis

text: Mesenchymal chondrosarcoma

text: Metaphysis

text: Metatarsophalangeal joint sprain

text: Microfracture surgery

text: Milch classification

text: Mirel's Score

text: Monostotic fibrous dysplasia

text: Monteggia fracture

text: Moore or Southern posterior approach to the hip

text: Moore's fracture

text: Moore's pin

text: Morton's neuroma

text: Morton's toe

text: Mulder's sign

text: Müller AO Classification of fractures

text: Multiple epiphyseal dysplasia

text: Mumford procedure

text: Musculoskeletal injury

text: Myxoid chondrosarcoma

text: Skeletal muscle is further divided into several subtypes:

text: Osteoporosis means "porous bones", from Greek: οστούν/ostoun meaning "bone" and πόρος/poros meaning "pore".

text: Functional insights into AARP function have come from transgenic studies. In mice lacking all three muscle ankyrin repeat proteins (MARPs), AARP, CARP, and DARP), skeletal muscles tended towards a more slower fiber type distribution, with longer resting sarcomere length, decreased fiber stiffness, expression of a longer titin isoform, greater degree of torque loss following eccentric contraction-related injury, and enhanced expression of MyoD and MLP. These findings suggest that AARP and related MARP proteins may play a role in the passive stiffness and gene regulatory roles in skeletal muscle. A study investigating AARP function in cardiac muscle in which AARP was knocked out alone or in combination with the other MARPs showed that mice displayed normal cardiac function at baseline and in response to pressure overload-induced cardiac hypertrophy, suggesting that these proteins are not essential for normal cardiac development or in response to a hypertrophic stimulus.

text: Functional insights into AARP function have come from transgenic studies. In mice lacking all three muscle ankyrin repeat proteins (MARPs), AARP,

text: CARP

text: , and

text: DARP

text: skeletal muscle

text: s tended towards a more

text: slower fiber type

text: distribution, with longer resting

text: sarcomere

text: length, decreased fiber stiffness, expression of a longer

text: titin

text: isoform, greater degree of torque loss following

text: eccentric contraction

text: -related injury, and enhanced expression of

text: MyoD

text: and

text: MLP

text: . These findings suggest that AARP and related MARP proteins may play a role in the passive stiffness and gene regulatory roles in

text: skeletal muscle

text: . A study investigating AARP function in

text: cardiac muscle

text: in which AARP was knocked out alone or in combination with the other MARPs showed that mice displayed normal cardiac function at baseline and in response to pressure overload-induced

text: cardiac hypertrophy

text: , suggesting that these proteins are not essential for normal cardiac development or in response to a

text: hypertrophic

text: stimulus.

text: A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones in the body which link the skeletal system into a functional whole. They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. Some joints, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder, are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements. Other joints such as sutures between the bones of the skull permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the sense organs. The connection between a tooth and the jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a gomphosis. Joints are classified both structurally and functionally.

text: A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between

text: bone

text: s in the body which link the skeletal system into a functional whole. They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. Some joints, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder, are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements. Other joints such as

text: sutures

text: between the bones of the

text: skull

text: permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the sense organs. The connection between a tooth and the jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a

text: gomphosis

text: . Joints are classified both structurally and functionally.

text: Osteopenia is a condition in which bone mineral density is lower than normal. It is considered by many doctors to be a precursor to osteoporosis. However, not every person diagnosed with osteopenia will develop osteoporosis. More specifically, osteopenia is defined as a bone mineral density T-score between −1.0 and −2.5.

text: Osteopenia is a condition in which

text: bone mineral density

text: is lower than normal. It is considered by many doctors to be a precursor to

text: osteoporosis

text: . However, not every person diagnosed with osteopenia will develop osteoporosis. More specifically, osteopenia is defined as a

text: bone mineral density T-score

text: between −1.0 and −2.5.

text: Spurs can also appear on the feet, either along toes or the heel, as well as on the hands. In extreme cases, bone spurs have grown along a person's entire skeletal structure: along the knees, hips, shoulders, ribs, arms and ankles. Such cases are only exhibited with multiple exostoses.

text: Spurs can also appear on the feet, either along

text: toes

text: or the

text: heel

text: , as well as on the hands. In extreme cases, bone spurs have grown along a person's entire skeletal structure: along the knees, hips, shoulders, ribs, arms and ankles. Such cases are only exhibited with multiple

text: exostoses

text: AnimatLab allows users to develop models of varied levels of detail due to the types of models available. Neurons may be simple firing rate models, integrate-and-fire models, or Hodgkin–Huxley models. Plugins for other neuron models can be written and used. Hill-type muscles, motors, or servos can be used to actuate joints. Adapters between neurons and actuators are used to generate forces. Adapters between mechanical components (joints, body segments, muscles, etc.) provide feedback to the control system. Stimuli, such as voltage clamps, current clamps, and velocity clamps (for joints) can be added to design experiments. Data can be recorded from virtually every component of the system, and viewed in graphs or exported as a comma separated values file, making analysis easy. In addition, the user interface is entirely graphical, making it easy for beginners to use.

text: AnimatLab allows users to develop models of varied levels of detail due to the types of models available. Neurons may be simple firing rate models,

text: integrate-and-fire model

text: s, or

text: Hodgkin–Huxley model

text: s. Plugins for other neuron models can be written and used.

text: Hill-type muscles

text: , motors, or

text: servos

text: can be used to actuate joints. Adapters between neurons and actuators are used to generate forces. Adapters between mechanical components (joints, body segments, muscles, etc.) provide feedback to the control system. Stimuli, such as

text: voltage clamp

text: s,

text: current clamp

text: s, and velocity clamps (for joints) can be added to design experiments. Data can be recorded from virtually every component of the system, and viewed in graphs or exported as a

text: comma separated values

text: file, making analysis easy. In addition, the user interface is entirely graphical, making it easy for beginners to use.

text: In long bones, bone tissue first appears in the diaphysis (middle of shaft). Chondrocytes multiply and form trebeculae. Cartilage is progressively eroded and replaced by hardened bone, extending towards the epiphysis. A perichondrium layer surrounding the cartilage forms the periosteum, which generates osteogenic cells that then go on to make a collar that encircles the outside of the bone and remodels the medullary cavity on the inside.

text: In long bones, bone tissue first appears in the

text: diaphysis

text: (middle of shaft).

text: Chondrocyte

text: s multiply and form trebeculae. Cartilage is progressively eroded and replaced by hardened bone, extending towards the

text: epiphysis

text: . A

text: perichondrium

text: layer surrounding the cartilage forms the

text: periosteum

text: , which generates osteogenic cells that then go on to make a collar that encircles the outside of the bone and remodels the medullary cavity on the inside.

text: SVI’s work on skeletal complications of cancer has been important in establishing what is now a major interest in this area – that the bone microenvironment profoundly influences the ability of cancers to establish and grow in bone as secondary deposits. This came from SVI work showing that cancer cells, in order to be able to establish in bone, needed to be able to control its growth and breakdown. These are now key concepts in thinking about this common complication of cancer, and how it can be prevented and treated.

text: Being underweight is an established risk factor for osteoporosis, even for young people. This is seen in individuals suffering from the female athlete triad, when disordered eating or excessive exercise cause amenorrhea, hormone changes during anovulation leads to loss of bone mineral density. After the occurrence of first spontaneous fractures the damage is often already irreversible.

text: Being underweight is an established risk factor for

text: osteoporosis

text: , even for young people. This is seen in individuals suffering from the female athlete triad, when disordered eating or excessive exercise cause amenorrhea, hormone changes during anovulation leads to loss of bone mineral density. After the occurrence of first spontaneous fractures the damage is often already irreversible.

text: The requirement to transplant multiple nerves into a muscle region originated from a hypothesis that hyper-reinnervation, by which an excessive amount of motor neurons transferred to a muscle, can increase the reinnervation of muscle fibers hence improving the recovery of paralyzed muscles. The hypothesis was tested on rat skeletal muscles and the result indicated that hyper-reinnervated muscles recovered more muscle mass and strength and more number of motor units were formed.

text: The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. It permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body. The muscular system in vertebrates is controlled through the nervous system, although some muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be completely autonomous. Together with the skeletal system it forms the musculoskeletal system, which is responsible for movement of the human body.

text: The muscular system is an

text: organ system

text: consisting of

text: skeletal

text: smooth

text: and

text: cardiac

text: muscle

text: s. It permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body. The muscular system in

text: vertebrate

text: s is controlled through the

text: nervous system

text: , although some muscles (such as the

text: cardiac muscle

text: ) can be completely autonomous. Together with the

text: skeletal system

text: it forms the

text: musculoskeletal system

text: , which is responsible for movement of the

text: human body

text: In this section, only the historical highlights of some highly relevant skeletal muscle investigations have been included and discussed. A complete treatment of all data would cover several volumes. However, from this brief historical overview it is possible to see how initial indications of losses in skeletal muscle function led to attempts to provide exercise countermeasures. Such countermeasures were utilized during spaceflight, crewmembers were tested upon return, and exercise regimens and equipment were modified for use in future missions. In the subsequent sections, human spaceflight and ground-based analog studies and experimental animal studies are reviewed that contribute to the evidence base on the alterations in skeletal muscle form and function that occur with the muscle unloading associated with the microgravity environment. It is this knowledge base on which future operational countermeasures and investigations into the fundamental changes in muscle physiology will be based.

text: Bone, which has a very similar chemical make-up to ivory, consists of inorganic materials which provide strength and rigidity and organic components that provide the capacity for growth and repair. Unlike ivory which has no marrow or blood vessel system, bone has a spongy central portion of marrow from which extends tiny blood vessels. Bone is also made of both mineral and carbon-based materials; mineral being calcium, phosphorus, and fluoride while the carbon-based being the protein, ossein.  Bone comes from many different animals, including mammals, birds, and fish and can come in all shapes and sizes. It can be used in its natural form, be polished with sand and other abrasives to create a smooth and glossy surface, or can be treated with a burning process which leaves it a blue black to whitish gray color. Bones have been used to create numerous objects throughout history. From tools such as hammers and fishhooks to weapons such spear, arrow, and harpoon points to pendants, hairpins, gaming pieces, musical instruments and ceremonial objects.

text: Bone, which has a very similar chemical make-up to

text: ivory

text: , consists of inorganic materials which provide strength and rigidity and organic components that provide the capacity for growth and repair. Unlike

text: ivory

text: which has no marrow or blood vessel system, bone has a spongy central portion of marrow from which extends tiny blood vessels. Bone is also made of both mineral and carbon-based materials; mineral being

text: calcium

text: phosphorus

text: , and

text: fluoride

text: while the carbon-based being the

text: protein

text: , ossein.  Bone comes from many different animals, including mammals, birds, and fish and can come in all shapes and sizes. It can be used in its natural form, be polished with sand and other abrasives to create a smooth and glossy surface, or can be treated with a burning process which leaves it a blue black to whitish gray color. Bones have been used to create numerous objects throughout history. From tools such as hammers and fishhooks to weapons such spear, arrow, and harpoon points to pendants, hairpins, gaming pieces, musical instruments and ceremonial objects.

text: Because channels underlie the nerve impulse and because "transmitter-activated" channels mediate conduction across the synapses, channels are especially prominent components of the nervous system. Indeed, numerous toxins that organisms have evolved for shutting down the nervous systems of predators and prey (e.g., the venoms produced by spiders, scorpions, snakes, fish, bees, sea snails, and others) work by modulating ion channel conductance and/or kinetics. In addition, ion channels are key components in a wide variety of biological processes that involve rapid changes in cells, such as cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle contraction, epithelial transport of nutrients and ions, T-cell activation and pancreatic beta-cell insulin release. In the search for new drugs, ion channels are a frequent target.

text: Because channels underlie the

text: nerve impulse

text: and because "transmitter-activated" channels mediate conduction across the

text: synapse

text: s, channels are especially prominent components of the

text: nervous system

text: . Indeed,

text: numerous toxins

text: that organisms have evolved for shutting down the nervous systems of predators and prey (e.g., the venoms produced by spiders, scorpions, snakes, fish, bees, sea snails, and others) work by modulating ion channel conductance and/or kinetics. In addition, ion channels are key components in a wide variety of biological processes that involve rapid changes in cells, such as

text: cardiac

text: skeletal

text: , and

text: smooth muscle

text: contraction

text: epithelial

text: transport of nutrients and ions,

text: T-cell

text: activation and

text: pancreatic

text: beta-cell

text: insulin

text: release. In the search for new drugs, ion channels are a frequent target.

text: The Ruedi-Allgower classification is a system of categorizing pilon fractures of the distal tibia.

text: The Ruedi-Allgower classification is a system of categorizing

text: pilon fracture

text: s of the

text: distal

text: tibia

text: Sprengel's deformity (also known as high scapula or congenital high scapula) is a rare congenital skeletal abnormality where a person has one shoulder blade that sits higher on the back than the other. The deformity is due to a failure in early fetal development where the shoulder fails to descend properly from the neck to its final position. The deformity is commonly associated  with other conditions, most notably Klippel-Feil syndrome, congenital scoliosis including cervical scoliosis, fused ribs, the presence of an omovertebral bone and spina bifida. The left shoulder is the most commonly affected shoulder but the condition can be bilateral, meaning that both shoulders are affected. About 75% of all observed cases are girls. Treatment includes surgery in early childhood and physical therapy. Surgical treatment in adulthood is complicated by the risk of nerve damage when removing the omovertebral bone and when stretching the muscle tissue during relocation of the shoulder.

text: Sprengel's deformity (also known as high scapula or congenital high scapula) is a rare

text: congenital

text: skeletal abnormality where a person has one

text: shoulder blade

text: that sits higher on the back than the other. The deformity is due to a failure in early fetal development where the shoulder fails to descend properly from the neck to its final position. The deformity is commonly associated  with other conditions, most notably

text: Klippel-Feil syndrome

text: , congenital

text: scoliosis

text: including cervical scoliosis, fused

text: rib

text: s, the presence of an omovertebral bone and

text: spina bifida

text: . The left shoulder is the most commonly affected shoulder but the condition can be bilateral, meaning that both shoulders are affected. About 75% of all observed cases are girls. Treatment includes

text: surgery

text: in early childhood and

text: physical therapy

text: . Surgical treatment in adulthood is complicated by the risk of nerve damage when removing the omovertebral bone and when stretching the muscle tissue during relocation of the shoulder.

text: One of the most notable characteristics found in the Stillwater Marsh skeletal series is the occurrence of osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis is characterized by pitting on joint surfaces and bony outgrowths around the outer surfaces of joints. Of the approximately 67 cases of osteoarthritis found in the remains, a multitude of those cases had the disorder to the point of eburnation. The amount of effort required to remove the soft tissues in joints, leaving just bone-to-bone contact, such as in the hips or knees, is immense. Osteoarthritis that extreme indicated a highly mobile lifestyle. With the exception of the amount of osteoarthritis represented in the skeletal remains, the Stillwater Marsh people fit the definition of a hunter-gatherer society; the males ventured away from camping sites to hunt game, while the females remained close to the campsites gathering nuts, plants, and other foodstuffs  It is evident, though, from the bones that they had to work more to meet their nutritional requirements than many other hunter-gatherer societies.

text: One of the most notable characteristics found in the Stillwater Marsh skeletal series is the occurrence of

text: osteoarthritis

text: Osteoarthritis

text: is characterized by pitting on joint surfaces and bony outgrowths around the outer surfaces of joints. Of the approximately 67 cases of

text: osteoarthritis

text: found in the remains, a multitude of those cases had the disorder to the point of

text: eburnation

text: . The amount of effort required to remove the soft tissues in joints, leaving just bone-to-bone contact, such as in the hips or knees, is immense.

text: Osteoarthritis

text: that extreme indicated a highly mobile lifestyle. With the exception of the amount of

text: osteoarthritis

text: represented in the skeletal remains, the Stillwater Marsh people fit the definition of a hunter-gatherer society; the males ventured away from camping sites to hunt game, while the females remained close to the campsites gathering nuts, plants, and other foodstuffs  It is evident, though, from the bones that they had to work more to meet their nutritional requirements than many other hunter-gatherer societies.

text: Heavy metals such as lead and cadmium have been implicated in osteoporosis. Cadmium and lead promotes the synthesis of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) which is the major inhibitor of fibrinolysis (the mechanism by which the body breaks down clots) and shown to be a cause of hypofibrinolysis. Persistent blot clots can lead to congestive blood flow (hyperemia) in bone marrow, impaired blood flow and ischaemia in bone tissue resulting in lack of oxygen (hypoxia), bone cell damage and eventual cell death (apoptosis). Of significance is the fact that the average concentration of cadmium in human bones in the 20th century has increased to about 10 times above the pre-industrial level.

text: Heavy metals

text: such as

text: lead

text: and

text: cadmium

text: have been implicated in osteoporosis. Cadmium and lead promotes the synthesis of

text: plasminogen activator inhibitor-1

text: (PAI-1) which is the major inhibitor of

text: fibrinolysis

text: (the mechanism by which the body breaks down clots) and shown to be a cause of hypofibrinolysis. Persistent blot clots can lead to congestive blood flow (

text: hyperemia

text: ) in bone marrow, impaired blood flow and ischaemia in bone tissue resulting in lack of oxygen (

text: hypoxia

text: ), bone cell damage and eventual cell death (

text: apoptosis

text: ). Of significance is the fact that the average concentration of cadmium in human bones in the 20th century has increased to about 10 times above the pre-industrial level.

text: Grigsby left the game after just one rushing attempt with what was discovered to be a sprained AC joint in his right shoulder. He was never fully healthy the rest of the season.

text: For unknown reasons, children born with FOP have deformed big toes, possibly missing a joint or simply presenting with a notable lump at the minor joint. The first "flare-up" that leads to the formation of FOP bones usually occurs before the age of 10. The bone growth progresses from the top downward, just as bones grow in fetuses. A child with FOP will typically develop bones starting at the neck, then on the shoulders, arms, chest area and finally on the feet.

text: For unknown reasons, children born with FOP have deformed

text: big toes

text: , possibly missing a joint or simply presenting with a notable lump at the minor joint. The first "flare-up" that leads to the formation of FOP bones usually occurs before the age of 10. The bone growth progresses from the top downward, just as bones grow in fetuses. A child with FOP will typically develop bones starting at the neck, then on the shoulders, arms, chest area and finally on the feet.

text: Korr (1978) described manual therapy as the "Application of an accurately determined and specifically directed manual force to the body, in order to improve mobility in areas that are restricted; in joints, in connective tissues or in skeletal muscles."

text: The Food Standards Agency states that an average adult should not consume more than 1500 micrograms (5000 IU) per day, because this increases the chance of osteoporosis.

text: The

text: Food Standards Agency

text: states that an average adult should not consume more than 1500 micrograms (5000 IU) per day, because this increases the chance of

text: osteoporosis

text: Erosion acting upon different types of uplift-created joint and fracture systems is responsible for creating the valleys, canyons, domes, and other features we see today. These joints and fracture systems do not move, and are therefore not faults. Spacing between joints is controlled by the amount of silica in the granite and granodiorite rocks; more silica tends to create a more resistant rock, resulting in larger spaces between joints and fractures.

text: Erosion

text: acting upon different types of uplift-created joint and fracture systems is responsible for creating the valleys, canyons,

text: domes

text: , and other features we see today. These joints and fracture systems do not move, and are therefore not

text: faults

text: . Spacing between joints is controlled by the amount of

text: silica

text: in the granite and

text: granodiorite

text: rocks; more silica tends to create a more resistant rock, resulting in larger spaces between joints and fractures.

text: Beside the buttons for adding individuals and for commingled inventories, one can use the database tracking system for commingled skeletal elements. This system is useful for keeping track of commingled remains during data collection and for future efforts at reassociation. The type of method and the time to use it when documenting commingled remains is not decided by the software, but by the individual entering the data. It is therefore difficult to discern when to identify which feature to use. Osteoware also does not provide an option for 'Unknown' for the siding of a bone and it also does not incorporate provenience. Cargill, Grant, Oubre, and Danforth suggest that these two options would be beneficial additions to Osteoware. The Smithsonian has created a forum where users can offer criticisms and potential suggestions to improve Osteoware as a data collection tool. Currently, Osteoware is expanding its Taphonomy module to include the documentation of peri- and postmortem cut marks as well as partial versus complete cremation. Osteoware is also expanding beyond framework of Buikstra and Ubelaker's Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains to include Postcranial Nonmetric Traits.

text: Beside the buttons for adding individuals and for commingled inventories, one can use the database tracking system for commingled skeletal elements. This system is useful for keeping track of commingled remains during data collection and for future efforts at reassociation. The type of method and the time to use it when documenting commingled remains is not decided by the software, but by the individual entering the data. It is therefore difficult to discern when to identify which feature to use. Osteoware also does not provide an option for 'Unknown' for the siding of a bone and it also does not incorporate

text: provenience

text: . Cargill, Grant, Oubre, and Danforth suggest that these two options would be beneficial additions to Osteoware. The Smithsonian has created a forum where users can offer criticisms and potential suggestions to improve Osteoware as a data collection tool. Currently, Osteoware is expanding its Taphonomy module to include the documentation of peri- and postmortem cut marks as well as partial versus complete cremation. Osteoware is also expanding beyond framework of Buikstra and Ubelaker's Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains to include Postcranial

text: Nonmetric Traits

text: The skeleton is a large organ that is formed and degraded throughout life in the air breathing vertebrates, and that the skeleton is important both as a supporting structure and for maintenance of calcium, phosphate, and acid-base status in the whole organism. The functional part of bone, the bone matrix, is entirely extracellular. The bone matrix consists of protein and mineral. The protein forms the organic matrix. It is synthesized and then the mineral is added. The vast majority of the organic matrix is collagen, which provides tensile strength. The matrix is mineralized by deposition of hydroxyapatite (alternative name, hydroxylapatite). This mineral is hard, and provides compressive strength. Thus, the collagen and mineral together are a composite material with excellent tensile and compressive strength, which can bend under a strain and recover its shape without damage. This is called elastic deformation. Forces that exceed the capacity of bone to behave elastically may cause failure, typically bone fractures.

text: The skeleton is a large organ that is formed and degraded throughout life in the air breathing vertebrates, and that the skeleton is important both as a supporting structure and for maintenance of calcium, phosphate, and acid-base status in the whole organism. The functional part of bone, the bone matrix, is entirely extracellular. The bone matrix consists of

text: protein

text: and

text: mineral

text: . The protein forms the organic matrix. It is synthesized and then the mineral is added. The vast majority of the organic matrix is

text: collagen

text: , which provides

text: tensile strength

text: . The matrix is mineralized by deposition of hydroxyapatite (alternative name, hydroxylapatite). This mineral is hard, and provides

text: compressive strength

text: . Thus, the collagen and mineral together are a

text: composite material

text: with excellent tensile and compressive strength, which can bend under a strain and recover its shape without damage. This is called

text: elastic deformation

text: . Forces that exceed the capacity of bone to behave elastically may cause failure, typically

text: bone fracture

text: s.

text: Taurine is essential for cardiovascular function, and development and function of skeletal muscle, the retina, and the central nervous system.

text: Cardiac muscle has some similarities to neurons and skeletal muscle, as well as important unique properties. Like a neuron, a given myocardial cell has a negative membrane potential when at rest. Stimulation above a threshold value induces the opening of voltage-gated ion channels and a flood of cations into the cell. The positively charged ions entering the cell cause the depolarization characteristic of an action potential. Like skeletal muscle, depolarization causes the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels  and release of Ca from the t-tubules. This influx of calcium causes calcium-induced calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and free Ca causes muscle contraction. After a delay, potassium channels reopen, and the resulting flow of K out of the cell causes repolarization to the resting state.

text: Cardiac muscle has some similarities to neurons and skeletal muscle, as well as important unique properties. Like a neuron, a given myocardial cell has a negative

text: membrane potential

text: when at rest. Stimulation above a threshold value induces the opening of

text: voltage-gated ion channel

text: s and a flood of

text: cations

text: into the cell. The positively charged ions entering the cell cause the

text: depolarization

text: characteristic of an action potential. Like skeletal muscle, depolarization causes the opening of

text: voltage-gated calcium channels

text: and release of Ca from the

text: t-tubule

text: s. This influx of calcium causes

text: calcium-induced calcium release

text: from the

text: sarcoplasmic reticulum

text: , and free Ca causes

text: muscle contraction

text: . After a delay,

text: potassium channel

text: s reopen, and the resulting flow of K out of the cell causes

text: repolarization

text: to the resting state.

text: The avian skeletal system has evolved to be extremely lightweight with hollow air spaces that are highly integrated with the respiratory system. The decreased body weight resulting from these adaptations is highly beneficial for reducing the effects of gravity, thus making lift easier to achieve. Birds that swim, however, must contend with the increased buoyancy effects of having lighter bones and a reduced body mass. Instead, diving birds increase their muscle mass, resulting in an overall increase in body mass that reduces the effects of buoyancy and makes submersion easier. This effect is predominantly seen in shallow diving birds as buoyancy effects are strongest. Higher masses in diving birds appear to be correlated with higher wing loading and consequently larger wings. Faster flying speeds also result from higher wing loading which would be potentially detrimental for small flying birds that must land precisely on small branches. Diving birds, however, do not have this constraint because open water can accommodate harder landings.

text: The avian

text: skeletal system

text: has evolved to be extremely lightweight with hollow air spaces that are highly integrated with the respiratory system. The decreased body weight resulting from these adaptations is highly beneficial for reducing the effects of gravity, thus making lift easier to achieve. Birds that swim, however, must contend with the increased buoyancy effects of having lighter bones and a reduced body mass. Instead, diving birds increase their muscle mass, resulting in an overall increase in body mass that reduces the effects of buoyancy and makes submersion easier. This effect is predominantly seen in shallow diving birds as buoyancy effects are strongest. Higher masses in diving birds appear to be correlated with higher wing loading and consequently larger wings. Faster flying speeds also result from higher wing loading which would be potentially detrimental for small flying birds that must land precisely on small branches. Diving birds, however, do not have this constraint because open water can accommodate harder landings.

text: Shinbone Ridge was named after the shinbone in the skeletal system of the horse.

text: Shinbone Ridge was named after the shinbone in the

text: skeletal system of the horse

text: As of now, there are no established treatments for skeletal fluorosis patients. However, it is reversible in some cases, depending on the progression of the disease. If fluorine intake is stopped, the fluorine existing in bone structures will deplete and be excreted via urine. However, it is a very slow process to eliminate the fluorine from the body completely. Minimal results are seen in patients.Treatment of side effects is also very difficult. For example, a patient with a bone fracture cannot be treated according to standard procedures, because the bone is very brittle. In this case, recovery will take a very long time and a pristine healing cannot be guaranteed.

text: The geometry of joints refers to the orientation of joints as either plotted on stereonets and rose-diagrams or observed in rock exposures. In terms of geometry, three major types of joints, nonsystematic joints, systematic joints, and columnar jointing are recognized.

text: The geometry of joints refers to the orientation of joints as either plotted on

text: stereonet

text: s and

text: rose-diagrams

text: or observed in rock exposures. In terms of geometry, three major types of joints, nonsystematic joints, systematic joints, and

text: columnar jointing

text: are recognized.

text: Problems in the skeletal or visual systems, such as arthritis or eye muscle imbalance, may also cause balance problems.

text: Endochondral ossification is one of the two essential processes during fetal development of the mammalian skeletal system by which bone tissue is created. Unlike intramembranous ossification, which is the other process by which bone tissue is created, cartilage is present during endochondral ossification. Endochondral ossification is also an essential process during the rudimentary formation of long bones, the growth of the length of long bones, and the natural healing of bone fractures.

text: Endochondral ossification is one of the two essential processes during

text: fetal

text: development of the

text: mammal

text: ian

text: skeletal system

text: by which

text: bone tissue

text: is created. Unlike

text: intramembranous ossification

text: , which is the other process by which bone tissue is created,

text: cartilage

text: is present during endochondral ossification. Endochondral ossification is also an essential process during the rudimentary formation of

text: long bones

text: , the growth of the

text: length

text: of long bones, and the

text: natural healing of bone fractures

text: The International Osteoporosis Foundation (IOF), headquartered in Nyon, Switzerland, is a non-governmental organization founded in 1998. It was formed from the merger of the European Foundation for Osteoporosis, founded in 1987, and the International Federation of Societies on Skeletal Diseases. The foundation functions as a global alliance of individuals and organizations concerned with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis and musculoskeletal diseases bone disease. The goal of the foundation is to increase the early detection of osteoporosis and related musculoskeletal diseases, as well as to improve the treatment of these conditions through international collaboration among national healthcare systems and governments.

text: The International Osteoporosis Foundation (IOF), headquartered in

text: Nyon

text: Switzerland

text: , is a

text: non-governmental organization

text: founded in 1998. It was formed from the merger of the European Foundation for Osteoporosis, founded in 1987, and the International Federation of Societies on Skeletal Diseases. The foundation functions as a global alliance of individuals and organizations concerned with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of

text: osteoporosis

text: and musculoskeletal diseases

text: bone disease

text: . The goal of the foundation is to increase the early detection of osteoporosis and related musculoskeletal diseases, as well as to improve the treatment of these conditions through international collaboration among national healthcare systems and governments.

text: Hutchins's  major accomplishments during the Nautilus Osteoporosis Project were:

text: Estrogen prevents the activity of osteoclasts, and improves bone mineral density. Hip fracture is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in older females, and usually does not occur in the setting of osteoporosis. Estrogen is the only medical therapy that has been shown to prevent hip fractures in women that are not osteoporotic, with efficacy superior to bisphosphonates or calcium and vitamin D supplementation.

text: Estrogen prevents the activity of

text: osteoclasts

text: , and improves

text: bone mineral density

text: . Hip fracture is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in older females, and usually does not occur in the setting of

text: osteoporosis

text: . Estrogen is the only medical therapy that has been shown to prevent hip fractures in women that are not osteoporotic, with efficacy superior to

text: bisphosphonates

text: or

text: calcium

text: and

text: vitamin D

text: supplementation.

text: The site contained 3 distinct layers of bison remains: 1) the bottom layer held skeletons of 13 untouched bison, 2) the middle contained nearly complete, or only partially butchered, skeletal remains and 3) the top layer had butchered single bones and articulated bison skeletal segments.  The top layer illustrated that as the Paleo-Indians methodically removed the meat from the bones they placed them in separate piles or units that contained the skeletal remains from a number of animals. The butchering process was similar, but much more methodical, to that of modern Plains Indians. Positioning the Bison occidentalis bones for butchering would have required a great deal of manual effort.  The Olsen-Chubbuck hunters ate the tongues of the bison as they worked, given the isolated occurrences of tongue bone in the piles.  It would have likely taken 1/2 a day for 100 people to butcher the bison.

text: The site contained 3 distinct layers of bison remains: 1) the bottom layer held skeletons of 13 untouched bison, 2) the middle contained nearly complete, or only partially butchered, skeletal remains and 3) the top layer had butchered single bones and articulated bison skeletal segments.  The top layer illustrated that as the Paleo-Indians methodically removed the meat from the bones they placed them in separate piles or units that contained the skeletal remains from a number of animals. The butchering process was similar, but much more methodical, to that of modern

text: Plains Indians

text: . Positioning the Bison occidentalis bones for butchering would have required a great deal of manual effort.  The Olsen-Chubbuck hunters ate the tongues of the bison as they worked, given the isolated occurrences of tongue bone in the piles.  It would have likely taken 1/2 a day for 100 people to butcher the bison.

text: In April 1999, when "much of the foundation work had already been set," the work on the game was then taken over by MicroProse's Chapel Hill studio (creators of Klingon Honor Guard) after Hasbro had acquired MicroProse and decided to close the British studio. Chris Clark became the new lead designer and Chris Coon was lead programmer on the project; artists included Bob Kathman. The game was redesigned, including a complete overhaul of the game graphics and HUD. Dave Ellis provided game design advice, helping to coordinate elements such as the featured weapons and alien races for canon compatibility between Alliance and the other X-COM title in development, X-COM: Genesis. The game was supposed to use the heavily modified Unreal Engine, featuring skeletal animation, motion capture, a completely different AI, a new sound system able to store and playback large amounts of speech, and a DirectMusic-based dynamic music system. The 1999 E3 conference by MicroProse featured people dressed up as aliens and other items from the game's universe, but the display did not include a playable demo. Julian Gollop, main designer of UFO: Enemy Unknown and X-COM: Apocalypse, said MicroProse Chapel Hill had problems to make the game's engine to work properly.

text: In April 1999, when "much of the foundation work had already been set," the work on the game was then taken over by MicroProse's

text: Chapel Hill

text: studio (creators of

entity_name: Star Trek: The Next Generation: Klingon Honor Guard

text: Klingon Honor Guard

text: ) after

text: Hasbro

text: had acquired MicroProse and decided to close the British studio. Chris Clark became the new lead designer and Chris Coon was lead programmer on the project; artists included Bob Kathman. The game was redesigned, including a complete overhaul of the game graphics and

text: HUD

text: Dave Ellis

text: provided game design advice, helping to coordinate elements such as the featured weapons and alien races for

text: canon

text: compatibility between Alliance and the other X-COM title in development,

text: X-COM: Genesis

text: . The game was supposed to use the heavily modified Unreal Engine, featuring

text: skeletal animation

text: motion capture

text: , a completely different

text: AI

text: , a new sound system able to store and playback large amounts of speech, and a

text: DirectMusic

text: -based dynamic music system. The 1999

text: conference by MicroProse featured people dressed up as aliens and other items from the game's universe, but the display did not include a playable

text: demo

text: Julian Gollop

text: , main designer of UFO: Enemy Unknown and X-COM: Apocalypse, said MicroProse Chapel Hill had problems to make the game's engine to work properly.

text: The hyphal system is dimitic to trimitic. The generative hyphae have clamps, and are often encrusted with spiny crystals, particularly in the dissepiments (tissue that is found between the pores). The skeletal hyphae are hyaline (translucent). Although typically only the generative hyphae of Skeletocutis fungi have incrustations, three species are reported to have apical incrustations on the skeletal hyphae: S. alutacea and S. percandida, and S. novae-zelandiae. Ţura and colleagues suggest that the "taxonomy of these species is poorly worked-out."

text: The

text: hypha

text: l system is dimitic to trimitic. The generative hyphae have

text: clamps

text: , and are often encrusted with spiny crystals, particularly in the dissepiments (tissue that is found between the pores). The skeletal hyphae are

text: hyaline

text: (translucent). Although typically only the generative hyphae of Skeletocutis fungi have incrustations, three species are reported to have apical incrustations on the skeletal hyphae: S. alutacea and S. percandida, and S. novae-zelandiae. Ţura and colleagues suggest that the "taxonomy of these species is poorly worked-out."

text: Joints can also be classified according to their origin. On the basis of their origin, joints have been divided into a number of different types that include tectonic, hydraulic, exfoliation, unloading (release), and cooling joints depending on the specific author and publication. Also, the origin of many joint sets often can be unclear and quite ambiguous. Often, different authors have proposed multiple and contradictory hypotheses for specific joint sets and types. Finally, it should be kept in mind that different joints in the same outcrop may have formed at different times and for different reasons.

text: The generalized structure of the Weberian apparatus is akin to a skeletal complex of bones and ossicles that are physically connected to the labyrinth auditory complex anteriorly and the anteriormost region of the swim bladder posteriorly. The entire structure is derived from skeletal elements of the first four vertebrae. The involved elements include: the supraneural bones of the skull; modified neural arch bones, specifically the paired claustra and the scaphia; the intercalarium and the lateral processes; the tripus; the os suspensorium from the fourth vertebra; the parapophysis of vertebra number five including the vertebra itself, plus the vertebra's corresponding pleural rib. In addition, a structure composed of fused neural spines form the dorsalmost part of the Weberian apparatus. Together, the structure interacts anteriorly with the lagenar otolith set within the skull and posteriorly with the swim bladder via the pleural rib. Postero-ventrally, it is the tripus, the os suspensorium and the third rib that interact directly with the anterior chamber of the swim bladder.

text: The generalized structure of the Weberian apparatus is akin to a skeletal complex of bones and ossicles that are physically connected to the

text: labyrinth

text: auditory complex anteriorly and the anteriormost region of the swim bladder posteriorly. The entire structure is derived from skeletal elements of the first four

text: vertebrae

text: . The involved elements include: the

text: supraneural

text: bones of the skull; modified

text: neural arch

text: bones, specifically the paired

text: claustra

text: and the

text: scaphia

text: ; the

text: intercalarium

text: and the

text: lateral process

text: es; the

text: tripus

text: ; the os suspensorium from the fourth vertebra; the

text: parapophysis

text: of vertebra number five including the vertebra itself, plus the vertebra's corresponding

text: pleural rib

text: . In addition, a structure composed of fused

text: neural spine

text: s form the dorsalmost part of the Weberian apparatus. Together, the structure interacts anteriorly with the

text: lagenar otolith

text: set within the skull and posteriorly with the swim bladder via the pleural rib. Postero-ventrally, it is the tripus, the os suspensorium and the third rib that interact directly with the anterior chamber of the

text: swim bladder

text: Yoplait is a partner and supporter of the National Osteoporosis Society.

text: Yoplait

text: is a partner and supporter of the National Osteoporosis Society.

text: The estimation of age in bioarchaeology and osteology actually refers to an approximation of skeletal or biological age-at-death. The primary assumption in age estimation is that an individual's skeletal age is closely associated with their chronological age. Age estimation can be based on patterns of growth and development or degenerative changes in the skeleton. Many methods tracking these types of changes have been developed using a variety of skeletal series. For instance, in children age is typically estimated by assessing their dental development, ossification and fusion of specific skeletal elements, or long bone length. In adults, degenerative changes to the pubic symphysis, the auricular surface of the ilium, the sternal end of the 4th rib, and dental attrition are commonly used to estimate skeletal age.

text: The estimation of age in bioarchaeology and

text: osteology

text: actually refers to an approximation of skeletal or biological age-at-death. The primary assumption in age estimation is that an individual's skeletal age is closely associated with their chronological age. Age estimation can be based on patterns of growth and development or degenerative changes in the skeleton. Many methods tracking these types of changes have been developed using a variety of skeletal series. For instance, in children age is typically estimated by assessing their dental development, ossification and fusion of specific skeletal elements, or long bone length. In adults, degenerative changes to the

text: pubic symphysis

text: , the auricular surface of the

text: ilium

text: , the sternal end of the 4th rib, and

text: dental attrition

text: are commonly used to estimate skeletal age.

text: The nasal concha, or turbinates, is composed of little bones and soft tissue that provide structure to the nose and aid in the perception of smell. Paleontological work on other protomammals has identified specialized ridges lined between the orbital fissures, superior to the maxillary plate. Research has yet to define a correlation between these ridges and the evidence of turbinates, mostly based on the assumption that they were probably cartilaginous and difficult to preserve. The lack of intact skulls in these early mammals also serves as an impediment to study. The skull of Brasilitherium held more promising results, as it contained a secondary palate separating the nose from the mouth, thereby enhancing skeletal durability and preservation of the turbinate structure. Researchers identified small shards of bone inside the skull’s nasal cavity that were assumed to be parts of the turbinates. It was inferred that these structures found in Brasilitherium performed the same roles in modern mammals; specifically, the anterior overlying tissue warmed incoming odorants and the posterior portion was responsible for picking up scent. The complex latter section of the nasal structure suggests that Brasilitherium had a well-developed sense of smell. The same studies also found a hollow across the secondary plate, implicating the presence of the Jacobson’s organ. These observations suggest that this organism possessed features that connect both its tetrapod ancestors and later mammalians. Particularly, the Brasilitherium nose had transitional features that help elucidate the emergence of protruding mammalian noses.

text: The nasal concha, or turbinates, is composed of little bones and soft tissue that provide structure to the nose and aid in the perception of smell.

text: Paleontological

text: work on other protomammals has identified specialized ridges lined between the orbital fissures, superior to the maxillary plate. Research has yet to define a correlation between these ridges and the evidence of turbinates, mostly based on the assumption that they were probably

text: cartilaginous

text: and difficult to preserve. The lack of intact skulls in these early mammals also serves as an impediment to study. The skull of Brasilitherium held more promising results, as it contained a secondary

text: palate

text: separating the nose from the mouth, thereby enhancing skeletal durability and preservation of the turbinate structure. Researchers identified small shards of bone inside the skull’s nasal cavity that were assumed to be parts of the turbinates. It was inferred that these structures found in Brasilitherium performed the same roles in modern mammals; specifically, the anterior overlying tissue warmed incoming odorants and the posterior portion was responsible for picking up scent. The complex latter section of the nasal structure suggests that Brasilitherium had a well-developed sense of smell. The same studies also found a hollow across the secondary plate, implicating the presence of the

text: Jacobson’s organ

text: . These observations suggest that this organism possessed features that connect both its

text: tetrapod

text: ancestors and later mammalians. Particularly, the Brasilitherium nose had transitional features that help elucidate the emergence of protruding mammalian noses.

text: The primary function of the cardiovascular system is transport of oxygen: blood is the vehicle, oxygen is the cargo. The task of the healthy cardiovascular system is to provide adequate perfusion to all organs and to maintain a dynamic equilibrium between oxygen demand and oxygen delivery. In a healthy patient, his or her cardiovascular system always increases blood flow in response to increased oxygen demand. However, in a hemodynamically compromised patient, when the system is unable to satisfy increased oxygen demand, the blood flow to organs lower on the oxygen delivery priority list is reduced and these organs may, eventually, fail. Digestive disorders, male impotence, tiredness, sleepwalking, environmental temperature intolerance, etc. are classical examples of a low-flow-state, resulting in reduced blood flow to the gut, sexual organs, skeletal muscles, skin, etc.

text: There is evidence that under certain conditions of heating, human bones can form crystalline structures. In one chemical analysis, śarīras were found to be composed of the constituent elements of both bones and stones.

text: Although The Wolf Age was built using Soulblighter source code, the developers made significant changes to improve the game's visual aesthetics. Mike Donges explains, "We started off with the Myth II engine, but we gutted almost everything out of it except for the AI. And the graphical engine is completely redone." The single biggest change made to the game engine was that everything in The Wolf Age is rendered in OpenGL 3D, including the characters and all environmental objects; unlike the previous games, The Wolf Age did not include a software rendering option. It was the first Myth game to feature fully 3D characters; the previous games had featured a 3D environment, but the characters and some environmental objects were 2D sprites. In The Wolf Age, each 3D character is composed of 512x512 textures, with human sized units made up of between 350 and 450 polygons, whilst the Trow are made up of almost 1000, with the engine capable of supporting up to 10,000 polygons on-screen at any one time. All units have at least thirteen different animations. The characters were animated using Ritual's "Tiki" character-animation system, a skeletal animation system used on Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.² and later used by Rogue Entertainment for American McGee's Alice.

text: Although The Wolf Age was built using Soulblighter source code, the developers made significant changes to improve the game's visual aesthetics. Mike Donges explains, "We started off with the Myth II engine, but we gutted almost everything out of it except for the

text: AI

text: . And the graphical engine is completely redone." The single biggest change made to the game engine was that everything in The Wolf Age is

text: rendered

text: in

text: OpenGL

text: 3D, including the characters and all environmental objects; unlike the previous games, The Wolf Age did not include a

text: software rendering

text: option. It was the first Myth game to feature fully

text: characters; the previous games had featured a 3D environment, but the characters and some environmental objects were

text: sprites

text: . In The Wolf Age, each 3D character is composed of 512x512 textures, with human sized units made up of between 350 and 450

text: polygon

text: s, whilst the Trow are made up of almost 1000, with the engine capable of supporting up to 10,000 polygons on-screen at any one time. All units have at least thirteen different

text: animations

text: . The characters were animated using Ritual's "Tiki" character-animation system, a

text: skeletal animation

text: system used on Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.² and later used by

text: Rogue Entertainment

text: for

text: American McGee's Alice

text: Dichomitus features a dimitic hyphal system (containing both generative and skeletal hyphae).

text: Dichomitus features a dimitic

text: hypha

text: l system (containing both generative and skeletal hyphae).

text: The Haruguchi classification is a system of categorizing posterior malleolus fractures

text: The Haruguchi classification is a system of categorizing

text: posterior malleolus

text: fracture

text: s

text: However, in April 2003, the Air Force and the Navy efforts were formally combined under the joint DARPA/United StatesF/Navy J-UCAV program, later renamed J-UCAS (Joint Unmanned Combat Air Systems), and the X-46 program was terminated as redundant.

text: However, in April 2003, the Air Force and the Navy efforts were formally combined under the joint DARPA/United StatesF/Navy J-UCAV program, later renamed J-UCAS (

text: Joint Unmanned Combat Air Systems

text: ), and the X-46 program was terminated as redundant.

text: Osteoporosis is an age-related disease of bone that leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of proteins in bone is altered. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass (20-year-old healthy female average) as measured by DXA; the term "established osteoporosis" includes the presence of a fragility fracture.

text: Osteoporosis

text: is an age-related disease of

text: bone

text: that leads to an increased risk of

text: fracture

text: . In osteoporosis the

text: bone mineral density

text: (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of proteins in bone is altered. Osteoporosis is defined by the

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) in women as a bone mineral density 2.5

text: standard deviation

text: s below peak bone mass (20-year-old healthy female average) as measured by

text: DXA

text: ; the term "established osteoporosis" includes the presence of a

text: fragility fracture

text: Amidst the growing contention surrounding the validity of the ODK hypothesis, a young Southern Rhodesian (now Zimbabwe) researcher, Dr. Charles Kimberlin Brain ("Bob" Brain) became fascinated with Dart's work describing prehistory's "predatory ape-men", and conducted research upon the bone breakage and skeletal element representation patterns expounded in Dart's writings (see above). Brain (1967) examined the remains of goat bones within Hottentot villages in Namibia, finding that the skeletal element representation patterns, which formed the crux of Dart's support for the ODK culture, were more simply explained by the durability and resistance of certain bone elements to soil-chemical weathering and the consumption habits of carnivores. This stimulated Brain's interest in how such patterns within cave systems might be affected by the weight, density, cortical thickness and size of bones in relation to weathering and erosion processes.

text: Amidst the growing contention surrounding the validity of the ODK hypothesis, a young Southern Rhodesian (now Zimbabwe) researcher, Dr.

text: Charles Kimberlin Brain

text: ("Bob" Brain) became fascinated with Dart's work describing prehistory's "predatory ape-men", and conducted research upon the bone breakage and skeletal element representation patterns expounded in Dart's writings (see above). Brain (1967) examined the remains of goat bones within Hottentot villages in Namibia, finding that the skeletal element representation patterns, which formed the crux of Dart's support for the ODK culture, were more simply explained by the durability and resistance of certain bone elements to soil-chemical weathering and the consumption habits of carnivores. This stimulated Brain's interest in how such patterns within cave systems might be affected by the weight, density, cortical thickness and size of bones in relation to weathering and erosion processes.

text: The skeletal abnormalities include:

text: The skeletal abnormalities include:

text: The general principles used in martial arts breaking training is similar to the same principles used for most athletics. The body adapts to stress. There are generally three areas a martial arts breaker wishes to force their body to adapt to: the bones, the skin (calluses), and muscles (for both mass and speed). The general principle here — for instance, for the bones — is found in Wolff's law, which states that the skeletal system will, after healing, be stronger if injury is put to it.Craig Edmunds demonstrates this theory after breaking hand in seminar measuring bone density then measuring bone density after healing. In this manner the breaking practitioner operates not unlike a bodybuilder who works out with weights, then takes a period of rest to heal and allow the muscles to come back stronger.

text: The general principles used in martial arts breaking training is similar to the same principles used for most athletics. The body adapts to stress. There are generally three areas a martial arts breaker wishes to force their body to adapt to: the bones, the skin (

text: callus

text: es), and muscles (for both mass and speed). The general principle here — for instance, for the bones — is found in

text: Wolff's law

text: , which states that the skeletal system will, after healing, be stronger if injury is put to it.Craig Edmunds demonstrates this theory after breaking hand in seminar measuring bone density then measuring bone density after healing. In this manner the breaking practitioner operates not unlike a bodybuilder who works out with weights, then takes a period of rest to heal and allow the muscles to come back stronger.

text: Spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia, Strudwick type is an inherited disorder of bone growth that results in dwarfism, characteristic skeletal abnormalities, and problems with vision. The name of the condition indicates that it affects the bones of the spine (spondylo-) and two regions near the ends of bones (epiphyses and metaphyses). This type was named after the first reported patient with the disorder. Spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia, Strudwick type is a subtype of collagenopathy, types II and XI.

text: Spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia, Strudwick type is an inherited disorder of

text: bone

text: growth that results in

text: dwarfism

text: , characteristic skeletal abnormalities, and problems with

text: vision

text: spine

text: (spondylo-) and two regions near the ends of bones (

text: epiphyses

text: and

text: metaphyses

text: ). This type was named after the first reported patient with the disorder. Spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia, Strudwick type is a subtype of

text: collagenopathy, types II and XI

text: nAChR are found in the neuromuscular junction on skeletal muscles.  Two different receptors have been found, one of which has primarily been found in adults contains two α1 subunits, one β1, one ε and one δ, the other one has been found in fetuses and contains γ subunit instead of the ε subunit.  The nAChRs take part in the depolarization of the muscular endplate by increasing cation permeability leading to contraction of skeletal muscles. The nAChRs found in the skeletal muscle system have two ACh binding sites, one of which is found at the interface between α1 and δ subunits while the other one is found at the interface between α1 and γ or ε subunits.  Among nAChR antagonists designed specifically for the neuromuscular system are nerve gases and other poisons designed for quick kill either of humans and other animals or insects.

text: nAChR are found in the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: on skeletal muscles.  Two different receptors have been found, one of which has primarily been found in adults contains two α1 subunits, one β1, one ε and one δ, the other one has been found in fetuses and contains γ subunit instead of the ε subunit.  The nAChRs take part in the

text: depolarization

text: of the muscular endplate by increasing cation permeability leading to contraction of skeletal muscles. The nAChRs found in the skeletal muscle system have two ACh binding sites, one of which is found at the interface between α1 and δ subunits while the other one is found at the interface between α1 and γ or ε subunits.  Among nAChR antagonists designed specifically for the neuromuscular system are nerve gases and other poisons designed for quick kill either of humans and other animals or insects.

text: Skeletal Research Center

text: Skeletal Research Center

text: The International Osteoporosis Foundation organises the annual World Osteoporosis Day, observed internationally on 20 October. The day is dedicated to raising global awareness of the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis and related diseases of bones, muscles and joints.

text: The International Osteoporosis Foundation organises the annual

text: World Osteoporosis Day

text: , observed internationally on 20 October. The day is dedicated to raising global awareness of the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis and related diseases of bones, muscles and joints.

text: In more severe cases, medications that modulate the immune system (primarily corticosteroids and immunosuppressants) are used to control the disease and prevent recurrence of symptoms (known as flares). Depending on the dosage, people who require steroids may develop Cushing's syndrome, symptoms of which may include obesity, puffy round face, diabetes mellitus, increased appetite, difficulty sleeping and osteoporosis. These may subside if and when the large initial dosage is reduced, but long-term use of even low doses can cause elevated blood pressure and cataracts.

text: In more severe cases, medications that modulate the immune system (primarily corticosteroids and

text: immunosuppressants

text: ) are used to control the disease and prevent recurrence of symptoms (known as flares). Depending on the dosage, people who require steroids may develop

text: Cushing's syndrome

text: , symptoms of which may include

text: obesity

text: , puffy round face,

text: diabetes mellitus

text: , increased appetite, difficulty sleeping and

text: osteoporosis

text: . These may subside if and when the large initial dosage is reduced, but long-term use of even low doses can cause elevated

text: blood pressure

text: and

text: cataracts

text: In order for bones to attain their normal shape and size, they require the stresses from normal musculature. Osseous findings will, therefore, mirror the specific muscular deficits in a given person with CP. The shafts of the bones are often thin (gracile) and become thinner during growth. When compared to these thin shafts (diaphyses), the centres (metaphyses) often appear quite enlarged (ballooning). With a lack of use, articular cartilage may atrophy, leading to narrowed joint spaces. Depending on the degree of spasticity, a person with CP may exhibit a variety of angular joint deformities. Because vertebral bodies need vertical gravitational loading forces to develop properly, spasticity and an abnormal gait can hinder proper and/or full bone and skeletal development. People with CP tend to be shorter in height than the average person because their bones are not allowed to grow to their full potential. Sometimes bones grow to different lengths, so the person may have one leg longer than the other.

text: In order for bones to attain their normal shape and size, they require the stresses from normal musculature. Osseous findings will, therefore, mirror the specific muscular deficits in a given person with CP. The shafts of the bones are often thin (gracile) and become thinner during growth. When compared to these thin shafts (

text: diaphyses

text: ), the centres (

text: metaphyses

text: ) often appear quite enlarged (ballooning). With a lack of use, articular cartilage may atrophy, leading to narrowed joint spaces. Depending on the degree of spasticity, a person with CP may exhibit a variety of angular joint deformities. Because vertebral bodies need vertical gravitational loading forces to develop properly, spasticity and an abnormal gait can hinder proper and/or full bone and skeletal development. People with CP tend to be shorter in height than the average person because their bones are not allowed to grow to their full potential. Sometimes bones grow to different lengths, so the person may have one leg longer than the other.

text: Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced bone mineral density, increasing the likelihood of fractures.  Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass, relative to the age and sex-matched average, as measured by Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, with the term "established osteoporosis" including the presence of a fragility fracture. Osteoporosis is most common in women after menopause, when it is called "postmenopausal osteoporosis", but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids. Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs. For this reason, DEXA scans are often done in people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and be at risk of fracture.

text: Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced

text: bone mineral density

text: , increasing the likelihood of

text: fractures

text: .  Osteoporosis is defined by the

text: World Health Organization

text: in women as a bone mineral density 2.5

text: standard deviation

text: s below peak bone mass, relative to the age and sex-matched average, as measured by

text: Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry

text: , with the term "established osteoporosis" including the presence of a

text: fragility fracture

text: . Osteoporosis is most common in women after

text: menopause

text: , when it is called "postmenopausal osteoporosis", but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other

text: chronic

text: diseases or as a result of

text: smoking

text: and

text: medications

text: , specifically

text: glucocorticoid

text: s. Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs. For this reason, DEXA scans are often done in people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and be at risk of fracture.

text: In his study, Jacobsen mentioned that average jaw relationship is -1mm in Males (AO is behind BO by 1mm) and 0mm in Females (AO and BO coincide). It's clinical significance is that in a Class 2 skeletal patient, AO is located ahead of BO. In skeletal Class 3 patient, BO is located ahead of AO. Therefore, the greater the wits reading, the greater the jaw discrepancy.

text: Fractures are forms of brittle deformation. There are two types of primary brittle deformation processes. Tensile fracturing results in joints. Shear fractures are the first initial breaks resulting from shear forces exceeding the cohesive strength in that plane.

text: One commonly used instance of an MIDS is the MIDS Low Volume Terminal (MIDS-LVT) which has been funded by the United States, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain and developed by MIDSCO, a joint venture by Thomson CSF, GEC, Siemens, Italtel, and Enosa. Another such terminal is the MIDS-JTRS (MIDS Joint Tactical Radio System), which is currently under development by the United States. An older MIDS is the JTIDS (Joint Tactical Information Distribution System).  Currently, there are three production lines, which are competitors: ViaSat, Inc (USA), Data Link Solutions LLC (USA), and EuroMIDS (Europe).

text: One commonly used instance of an MIDS is the MIDS Low Volume Terminal (MIDS-LVT) which has been funded by the

text: United States

text: France

text: Germany

text: Italy

text: , and

text: Spain

text: and developed by MIDSCO, a joint venture by

text: Thomson CSF

text: GEC

text: Siemens

text: , Italtel, and Enosa. Another such terminal is the MIDS-JTRS (MIDS

text: Joint Tactical Radio System

text: ), which is currently under development by the United States. An older MIDS is the

entity_name: Joint Tactical Information Distribution System

text: JTIDS

text: (Joint Tactical Information Distribution System).  Currently, there are three production lines, which are competitors:

text: ViaSat, Inc

text: (USA),

text: Data Link Solutions LLC

text: (USA), and EuroMIDS (Europe).

text: Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita is one of a spectrum of skeletal disorders caused by mutations in the COL2A1 gene. The protein made by this gene forms type II collagen, a molecule found mostly in cartilage and in the clear gel that fills the eyeball (the vitreous). Type II collagen is essential for the normal development of bones and other connective tissues. Mutations in the COL2A1 gene interfere with the assembly of type II collagen molecules, which prevents bones from developing properly and causes the signs and symptoms of this condition.

text: Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita is one of a spectrum of skeletal disorders caused by mutations in the

text: gene. The protein made by this gene forms type II

text: collagen

text: , a molecule found mostly in

text: cartilage

text: and in the clear gel that fills the eyeball (the

text: vitreous

text: ). Type II collagen is essential for the normal development of bones and other

text: connective tissue

text: s. Mutations in the COL2A1 gene interfere with the assembly of type II collagen molecules, which prevents bones from developing properly and causes the signs and symptoms of this condition.

text: This Ca dependent enzyme is found in skeletal muscles.

text: This Ca dependent enzyme is found in

text: skeletal muscle

text: s.

text: Cardiac muscle (heart muscle) is an involuntary, striated muscle that is found in the walls and histological foundation of the heart, specifically the myocardium. Cardiac muscle is one of three major types of muscle, the others being skeletal and smooth muscle. These three types of muscle all form in the process of myogenesis.  The cells that constitute cardiac muscle, called cardiomyocytes or myocardiocytes, predominantly contain only one nucleus, although populations with two to four nuclei do exist. The myocardium is the muscle tissue of the heart, and forms a thick middle layer between the outer epicardium layer and the inner endocardium layer.

text: Cardiac muscle (heart muscle) is an involuntary,

text: striated muscle

text: that is found in the walls and histological foundation of the

text: heart

text: , specifically the myocardium. Cardiac muscle is one of three major types of muscle, the others being

text: skeletal

text: and

text: smooth muscle

text: . These three types of muscle all form in the process of

text: myogenesis

text: .  The cells that constitute cardiac muscle, called

text: cardiomyocyte

text: s or myocardiocytes, predominantly contain only one nucleus, although populations with two to four nuclei do exist. The myocardium is the muscle tissue of the heart, and forms a thick middle layer between the outer

text: epicardium

text: layer and the inner

text: endocardium

text: layer.

text: In the field of mineralogy, fracture is the texture and shape of a rock's surface formed when a mineral is fractured.  Minerals often have a highly distinctive fracture, making it a principal feature used in their identification.

text: In the field of

text: mineralogy

text: , fracture is the texture and shape of a rock's surface formed when a

text: mineral

text: is

text: fracture

text: d.  Minerals often have a highly distinctive fracture, making it a principal feature used in their identification.

text: Joints are important not only in understanding the local and regional geology and geomorphology, but also are important in development of natural resources, the safe design of structures, and environmental protection. Joints have a profound control on weathering and erosion of bedrock. As a result, they exert a strong control on how topography and morphology of landscapes develop. Understanding the local and regional distribution, physical character, and origin of joints is a significant part of understanding the geology and geomorphology of an area. Joints often impart a well-develop fracture-induced permeability to bedrock. As a result, joints strongly influence, even control, the natural circulation (geohydrology) of fluids, e.g. groundwater and pollutants within aquifers, petroleum in reservoirs, and hydrothermal circulation at depth, within bedrock. Thus, joints are important to the economic and safe development of petroleum, hydrothermal, and groundwater resources and the subject of intensive research relative to the development of these resources. Also, regional and local joint systems exert a very strong control on how ore-forming (hydrothermal) fluids, consisting largely of , , and NaCl, that formed most of Earth's ore deposits circulated within the Earth crust. As a result, understanding their genesis, structure, chronology, and distribution is an important part of finding and profitably developing ore deposits of various types. Finally, joints often form discontinuities that may have a large influence on the mechanical behavior (strength, deformation, etc.) of soil and rock masses in, for example, tunnel, foundation, or slope construction. As a result, joints are an important part of geotechnical engineering in practice and research.

text: Joints are important not only in understanding the local and regional

text: geology

text: and

text: geomorphology

text: , but also are important in development of natural resources, the safe design of structures, and environmental protection. Joints have a profound control on weathering and erosion of bedrock. As a result, they exert a strong control on how topography and morphology of landscapes develop. Understanding the local and regional distribution, physical character, and origin of joints is a significant part of understanding the geology and geomorphology of an area. Joints often impart a well-develop fracture-induced permeability to bedrock. As a result, joints strongly influence, even control, the natural circulation (

text: geohydrology

text: ) of fluids, e.g.

text: groundwater

text: and

text: pollutants

text: within

text: aquifer

text: s,

text: petroleum

text: in

text: reservoir

text: s, and

text: hydrothermal circulation

text: at depth, within bedrock. Thus, joints are important to the economic and safe development of petroleum, hydrothermal, and groundwater resources and the subject of intensive research relative to the development of these resources. Also, regional and local joint systems exert a very strong control on how ore-forming (hydrothermal) fluids, consisting largely of , , and NaCl, that formed most of Earth's

text: ore deposits

text: circulated within the Earth crust. As a result, understanding their genesis, structure, chronology, and distribution is an important part of finding and profitably developing ore deposits of various types. Finally, joints often form

text: discontinuities

text: that may have a large influence on the mechanical behavior (strength, deformation, etc.) of soil and rock masses in, for example,

text: tunnel

text: foundation

text: , or

text: slope

text: construction. As a result, joints are an important part of

text: geotechnical engineering

text: in practice and research.

text: Children who are healthy but have a slower rate of physical development than average have constitutional delay of growth and puberty. These children have a history of stature shorter than their age-matched peers throughout childhood, but their height is appropriate for bone age, and skeletal development is delayed more than 2.5 SD. They usually are thin and often have a family history of delayed puberty. Children with a combination of a family tendency toward short stature and constitutional delay of growth and puberty are the most likely to seek evaluation. They quite often seek evaluation when classmates or friends undergo pubertal development and growth, thereby accentuating their delay.

text: The term ragdoll comes from the problem that the articulated systems, due to the limits of the solvers used, tend to have little or zero joint/skeletal muscle stiffness, leading to a character collapsing much like a toy rag doll, often into comically improbable or compromising positions.

text: The term ragdoll comes from the problem that the articulated systems, due to the limits of the solvers used, tend to have little or zero joint/

text: skeletal muscle

text: stiffness, leading to a character collapsing much like a toy

text: rag doll

text: , often into comically improbable or compromising positions.

text: All of the trolamine salicylate-containing products listed in the two cited references are 10% solutions. These products are sold under various brand names, e.g. Aspercreme, and are marketed as topical analgesics for temporary relief of arthritis, simple backache, muscle strains, and sprains.

text: All of the trolamine salicylate-containing products listed in the two cited references are 10% solutions. These products are sold under various brand names, e.g. Aspercreme, and are marketed as topical analgesics for temporary relief of arthritis, simple backache,

text: muscle strain

text: s, and

text: sprain

text: s.

text: Diseases of skeletal muscle are termed Myopathies, while diseases of nerves are called Neuropathies. Both can affect muscle function and/or cause muscle pain, and fall under the umbrella of Neuromuscular disease. Myopathies have been modeled with cell culture systems of muscle from healthy or diseased tissue biopsies. Another source of skeletal muscle and progenitors is provided by the directed differentiation of pluripotent stem cells.

text: Diseases of skeletal muscle are termed

text: Myopathies

text: , while diseases of nerves are called

text: Neuropathies

text: . Both can affect muscle function and/or cause muscle pain, and fall under the umbrella of

text: Neuromuscular disease

text: . Myopathies have been modeled with cell culture systems of muscle from healthy or diseased tissue

text: biopsies

text: . Another source of skeletal muscle and progenitors is provided by the

text: directed differentiation

text: of

text: pluripotent stem cells

text: Tropicoporus tropicalis is part of the Hymenochaetaceae family, and was recently renamed to Tropicoporus tropicalis from Inonotus tropicalis, which is part of the Inonotus clade B. Tropicoporus tropicalis is a wood-decaying basidiomycetes that rarely causes disease in animals and human, and is commonly found in humid climate such as Brazil. In its natural environment, the fungus is associated with white rot woody angiosperms, and has its annual fruiting body on tree trunks and branches. Tropicoporus tropicalis has two kinds of hyphae (a dimitic hyphal system), generative and skeletal, that lack clamp connections.

text: Tropicoporus

text: tropicalis is part of the

text: Hymenochaetaceae

text: family, and was recently renamed to

text: Tropicoporus

text: tropicalis from

text: Inonotus

text: tropicalis, which is part of the

text: Inonotus

text: clade B. Tropicoporus tropicalis is a wood-decaying

text: basidiomycetes

text: that rarely causes disease in animals and human, and is commonly found in humid climate such as Brazil. In its natural environment, the fungus is associated with

text: white rot

text: woody

text: angiosperms

text: , and has its annual

text: fruiting body

text: on tree trunks and branches. Tropicoporus tropicalis has two kinds of

text: hypha

text: e (a

text: dimitic hyphal

text: system), generative and skeletal, that lack

text: clamp connections

text: NASA contracted for the CRS-4 mission and therefore determined the primary payload, date/time of launch, and target orbital parameters.  The payload consisted of 4,885 pounds of cargo, including 1,380 pounds of crew supplies. The cargo included the ISS-RapidScat, a Scatterometer designed to support weather forecasting by bouncing microwaves off the ocean’s surface to measure wind speed, which was launched as an external payload to be attached on the end of the station's Columbus laboratory. CRS-4 also includes the Space Station Integrated Kinetic Launcher for Orbital Payload Systems (SSIKLOPS), which will provide still another means to release other small satellites from the ISS.In addition, CRS-4 carried a new permanent life science research facility to the station: the Bone Densitometer (BD) payload, developed by Techshot, which provides a bone density scanning capability on ISS for utilization by NASA and the Center for the Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS). The system measures bone mineral density (and lean and fat tissue) in mice using Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA).

text: NASA contracted for the CRS-4 mission and therefore determined the primary payload, date/time of launch, and target

text: orbital parameters

text: .  The payload consisted of 4,885 pounds of cargo, including 1,380 pounds of crew supplies. The cargo included the ISS-RapidScat, a

text: Scatterometer

text: designed to support weather forecasting by bouncing microwaves off the ocean’s surface to measure wind speed, which was launched as an external payload to be attached on the end of the station's Columbus laboratory. CRS-4 also includes the Space Station Integrated Kinetic Launcher for Orbital Payload Systems (SSIKLOPS), which will provide still another means to release other small satellites from the ISS.In addition, CRS-4 carried a new permanent life science research facility to the station: the Bone Densitometer (BD) payload, developed by Techshot, which provides a bone density scanning capability on ISS for utilization by NASA and the

entity_name: Center for the Advancement of Science in Space

text: Center for the Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS)

text: . The system measures bone mineral density (and lean and fat tissue) in mice using

text: Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA)

text: 11) The skeletal records of mesolithic populations.

text: Achondrogenesis, type 2 and hypochondrogenesis (a similar skeletal disorder) together affect 1 in 40,000 to 60,000 births. Achondrogenesis, type 2 is one of several skeletal disorders caused by mutations in the COL2A1 gene. This gene provides instructions for making a protein that forms type II collagen. This type of collagen is found mostly in cartilage and in the clear gel that fills the eyeball (the vitreous). It is essential for the normal development of bones and other tissues that form the body's supportive framework (connective tissues). Mutations in the COL2A1 gene interfere with the assembly of type II collagen molecules, which prevents bones and other connective tissues from developing properly.

text: Achondrogenesis, type 2 and

text: hypochondrogenesis

text: (a similar skeletal disorder) together affect 1 in 40,000 to 60,000 births. Achondrogenesis, type 2 is one of several skeletal disorders caused by mutations in the

text: gene. This gene provides instructions for making a protein that forms type II

text: collagen

text: . This type of collagen is found mostly in cartilage and in the clear gel that fills the

text: eyeball

text: (the vitreous). It is essential for the normal development of bones and other tissues that form the body's supportive framework (connective tissues). Mutations in the COL2A1 gene interfere with the assembly of type II collagen molecules, which prevents bones and other connective tissues from developing properly.

text: The irregular bones are bones which, from their peculiar form, cannot be grouped as long bone, short bone, flat bone or sesamoid bone. Irregular bones serve various purposes in the body, such as protection of nervous tissue (such as the vertebrae protect the spinal cord), affording multiple anchor points for skeletal muscle attachment (as with the sacrum), and maintaining pharynx and trachea support, and tongue attachment (such as the hyoid bone). They consist of cancellous tissue enclosed within a thin layer of compact bone. Irregular bones can also be used for joining all parts of the spinal column together. The spine is the place in the human body where the most irregular bones can be found. There are, in all, 33 irregular bones found here.

text: The irregular bones are bones which, from their peculiar form, cannot be grouped as

text: long bone

text: short bone

text: flat bone

text: or

text: sesamoid bone

text: . Irregular bones serve various purposes in the body, such as protection of nervous tissue (such as the

text: vertebrae

text: protect the

text: spinal cord

text: ), affording multiple anchor points for

text: skeletal muscle

text: attachment (as with the

text: sacrum

text: ), and maintaining

text: pharynx

text: and

text: trachea

text: support, and

text: tongue

text: attachment (such as the

text: hyoid

text: bone). They consist of

text: cancellous tissue

text: enclosed within a thin layer of

text: compact bone

text: . Irregular bones can also be used for joining all parts of the spinal column together. The spine is the place in the human body where the most irregular bones can be found. There are, in all, 33 irregular bones found here.

text: Marfan syndrome (MFS) is an autosomal dominant disorder which affects 1 in 5-10,000 people. MFS arises from a mutation in the FBN1 gene, which encodes for the glycoprotein fibrillin-1, a major constituent of extracellular microfibrils which form connective tissues.  Over 1,000 different mutations in FBN1 have been found to result in abnormal function of fribillin, which consequently relates to connective tissues elongating progressively and weakening. Because these fibers are found in tissues throughout the body, mutations in this gene can have a widespread effect on certain systems, including the skeletal, cardiovascular, and nervous system, as well as the eyes and lungs.

text: Marfan syndrome (MFS) is an

text: autosomal

text: dominant disorder

text: which affects 1 in 5-10,000 people. MFS arises from a mutation in the

text: gene, which encodes for the

text: glycoprotein

text: fibrillin-1, a major constituent of extracellular

text: microfibril

text: s which form connective tissues.  Over 1,000 different mutations in FBN1 have been found to result in abnormal function of fribillin, which consequently relates to connective tissues elongating progressively and weakening. Because these fibers are found in tissues throughout the body, mutations in this gene can have a widespread effect on certain systems, including the

text: skeletal

text: cardiovascular

text: , and

text: nervous system

text: , as well as the eyes and lungs.

text: Cardiorespiratory refers to the ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to supply oxygen to skeletal muscles during sustained physical activity. Regular exercise makes these systems more efficient by enlarging the heart muscle, enabling more blood to be pumped with each stroke, and increasing the number of small arteries in trained skeletal muscles, which supply more blood to working muscles. Exercise improves the respiratory system by increasing the amount of oxygen that is inhaled and distributed to body tissue.

text: Cardiorespiratory refers to the ability of the

text: circulatory

text: and

text: respiratory system

text: s to supply

text: oxygen

text: to

text: skeletal muscle

text: s during sustained physical activity. Regular exercise makes these systems more efficient by enlarging the

text: heart

text: muscle, enabling more

text: blood

text: to be pumped with each stroke, and increasing the number of small

text: arteries

text: in trained skeletal muscles, which supply more blood to working muscles. Exercise improves the respiratory system by increasing the amount of oxygen that is inhaled and distributed to body tissue.

text: Joints can also be classified based on their anatomy or on their biomechanical properties. According to the anatomic classification, joints are subdivided into simple and compound, depending on the number of bones involved, and into complex and combination joints:

text: Radiographs are useful in the detection of pathology of the skeletal system as well as for detecting some disease processes in soft tissue. Some notable examples are the very common chest X-ray, which can be used to identify lung diseases such as pneumonia, lung cancer, or pulmonary edema, and the abdominal x-ray, which can detect bowel (or intestinal) obstruction, free air (from visceral perforations) and free fluid (in ascites). X-rays may also be used to detect pathology such as gallstones (which are rarely radiopaque) or kidney stones which are often (but not always) visible. Traditional plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the brain or muscle.

text: Radiographs are useful in the detection of

text: pathology

text: of the

text: skeletal system

text: as well as for detecting some disease processes in

text: soft tissue

text: . Some notable examples are the very common

text: chest X-ray

text: , which can be used to identify lung diseases such as

text: pneumonia

text: lung cancer

text: , or

text: pulmonary edema

text: , and the

text: abdominal x-ray

text: , which can detect

text: bowel (or intestinal) obstruction

text: , free air (from visceral perforations) and free fluid (in

text: ascites

text: ). X-rays may also be used to detect pathology such as

text: gallstone

text: s (which are rarely

text: radiopaque

text: ) or

text: kidney stone

text: s which are often (but not always) visible. Traditional plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the

text: brain

text: or

text: muscle

text: Primates also exhibit sexual dimorphism in skeletal structures. In general, skeletal dimorphism in primates is primarily known as a product of body mass dimorphism. Hence, males have proportionally larger skeletons compared to females due to their larger body masses. Larger and more robust skeletal structures in males is also attributable to better developed muscle scarring, and more intense cresting of bones compared to those of females. Male gorillas, for example, possess large sagittal and nuchal crests, which correspond to their large temporalis muscles and nuchal musculature. Also, an unusual skeletal dimorphism includes enlarged, hollow hyoid bones found in males of gibbons and howler monkeys, which contribute to the resonation of their voices.

text: Primates also exhibit sexual dimorphism in skeletal structures. In general, skeletal dimorphism in primates is primarily known as a product of body mass dimorphism. Hence, males have proportionally larger skeletons compared to females due to their larger body masses. Larger and more robust skeletal structures in males is also attributable to better developed muscle scarring, and more intense cresting of bones compared to those of females. Male gorillas, for example, possess large sagittal and nuchal crests, which correspond to their large

text: temporalis muscle

text: s and nuchal musculature. Also, an unusual skeletal dimorphism includes enlarged, hollow

text: hyoid bones

text: found in males of gibbons and

text: howler monkeys

text: , which contribute to the resonation of their voices.

text: To prevent this problem, in one implementation of destination control, every user gets an RFID card to identify himself, so the system knows every user call and can cancel the first call if the passenger decides to travel to another destination to prevent empty calls. The newest invention knows even where people are located and how many on which floor because of their identification, either for the purposes of evacuating the building or for security reasons. Another way to prevent this issue is to treat everyone traveling from one floor to another as one group and to allocate only one car for that group.

text: To prevent this problem, in one implementation of destination control, every user gets an

text: RFID

text: card to identify himself, so the system knows every user call and can cancel the first call if the passenger decides to travel to another destination to prevent empty calls. The newest invention knows even where people are located and how many on which floor because of their identification, either for the purposes of evacuating the building or for security reasons. Another way to prevent this issue is to treat everyone traveling from one floor to another as one group and to allocate only one car for that group.

text: World Osteoporosis Day was launched on 20 October 1996 by the United Kingdom’s National Osteoporosis Society and supported by the European Commission. Since 1997, the day has been organised by the International Osteoporosis Foundation. In 1998 and 1999, the World Health Organization acted as co-sponsor of World Osteoporosis Day. The day also marks the launch of a year-long campaign to raise awareness of osteoporosis and metabolic bone disease. Since 1999 these campaigns have featured a specific theme.

text: World Osteoporosis Day was launched on 20 October 1996 by the United Kingdom’s National Osteoporosis Society and supported by the

text: European Commission

text: . Since 1997, the day has been organised by the International Osteoporosis Foundation. In 1998 and 1999, the

text: World Health Organization

text: acted as co-sponsor of World Osteoporosis Day. The day also marks the launch of a year-long campaign to raise awareness of osteoporosis and metabolic bone disease. Since 1999 these campaigns have featured a specific theme.

text: The hyphal structure is dimitic, meaning that there are both generative and skeletal hyphae. The generative hyphae have clamp connections. The thick-walled, cylindrical spores typically measure 10–11.5 by 4.5–5 μm.

text: The

text: hypha

text: l structure is dimitic, meaning that there are both generative and skeletal hyphae. The generative hyphae have

text: clamp connection

text: s. The thick-walled, cylindrical

text: spores

text: typically measure 10–11.5 by 4.5–5 μm.

text: Gerodermia osteodysplastica is characterized by symptoms and features which affect the connective tissues, skin and skeletal system.

text: Gerodermia osteodysplastica is characterized by symptoms and features which affect the

text: connective tissue

text: s,

text: skin

text: and

text: skeletal system

text: The term «vascular recruitment» or «capillary recruitment» usually refers to the increase in the number perfused capillaries in skeletal muscle in response to a stimulus. The most important stimulus in humans is regular exercise. Vascular recruitment in skeletal muscle is thought to enhance the capillary surface area for oxygen exchange and decrease the oxygen diffusion distance.

text: The term «vascular recruitment» or «capillary recruitment» usually refers to the increase in the number perfused capillaries in

text: skeletal muscle

text: in response to a stimulus. The most important stimulus in humans is regular

text: exercise

text: . Vascular recruitment in skeletal muscle is thought to enhance the capillary surface area for oxygen exchange and decrease the oxygen diffusion distance.

text: Adrenocorticotropic hormones bind to ACTH receptors on the cells within the adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex, causing a signal cascade within the adrenomedullary cell, ultimately releasing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine causes the excitation of the nerves that innervate the skeletal muscles along with the muscles surrounding certain bodily systems such as the cardiovascular system and respiratory system, causing an increase in force production by the skeletal muscles along with accelerated heart rate and breathing rate, respectively. Glucocorticoids also are in affect during times of stress for the sympathoadrenal system, but provide an inhibitory function for the protection of the body from its own immune system. The glucocorticoids work to inhibit reactions produced from the immune system during times of stress that could cause damage within the body. Glucocorticoids work to inhibit the uptake of catecholamines, like norepinephrine and epinephrine, by the nerves. The increase in activity of synthesis of norepinephrine and epinephrine within the medulla is done from glucocorticoids through the increase in reaction rate of certain enzymes, such as: tyrosine hydroxylase, aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase, dopamine-β-hydroxylase, and phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase.

text: Adrenocorticotropic hormones bind to ACTH receptors on the cells within the

text: adrenal medulla

text: and

text: adrenal cortex

text: , causing a signal cascade within the adrenomedullary cell, ultimately releasing the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: . The neurotransmitter acetylcholine causes the excitation of the nerves that innervate the skeletal muscles along with the muscles surrounding certain bodily systems such as the

text: cardiovascular system

text: and

text: respiratory system

text: , causing an increase in force production by the skeletal muscles along with accelerated heart rate and breathing rate, respectively.

text: Glucocorticoid

text: s also are in affect during times of stress for the sympathoadrenal system, but provide an inhibitory function for the protection of the body from its own immune system. The glucocorticoids work to inhibit reactions produced from the

text: immune system

text: during times of stress that could cause damage within the body. Glucocorticoids work to inhibit the uptake of catecholamines, like

text: norepinephrine

text: and

text: epinephrine

text: , by the nerves. The increase in activity of synthesis of norepinephrine and epinephrine within the medulla is done from glucocorticoids through the increase in reaction rate of certain enzymes, such as:

text: tyrosine hydroxylase

text: aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase

text: dopamine-β-hydroxylase

text: , and

text: phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase

text: Humans are born with separate plates which later fuse to allow flexibility as the skull passes through the pelvis and birth canal during birth. During development the eight separate plates of the immature bones fuse together into one single structure known as the Skull. The only bone that remains separate from the rest of the skull is the mandible.

text: The gene that causes ossification is normally deactivated after a fetus's bones are formed in the womb, but in patients with FOP, the gene keeps working. Aberrant bone formation in patients with FOP occurs when injured connective tissue or muscle cells at the sites of injury or growth incorrectly express an enzyme for bone repair during apoptosis (self-regulated cell death), resulting in lymphocytes containing excess bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) provided during the immune system response. The bone that results occurs independently of the normal skeleton, forming its own discrete skeletal elements.  These elements, however, can fuse with normal skeletal bone. Interestingly, the diaphragm, tongue, and extra-ocular muscles are spared in this process, as well as cardiac and smooth muscle. Since the incorrect enzyme remains unresolved within the immune response, the body continues providing the incorrect BMP4-containing lymphocytes. BMP4 is a product that contributes to the development of the skeleton in the normal embryo.

text: The gene that causes ossification is normally deactivated after a fetus's bones are formed in the womb, but in patients with FOP, the gene keeps working. Aberrant bone formation in patients with FOP occurs when injured connective tissue or muscle cells at the sites of injury or growth incorrectly express an enzyme for bone repair during

text: apoptosis

text: (self-regulated cell death), resulting in lymphocytes containing excess

text: bone morphogenetic protein 4

text: (BMP4) provided during the immune system response. The bone that results occurs independently of the normal skeleton, forming its own discrete skeletal elements.  These elements, however, can fuse with normal skeletal bone. Interestingly, the diaphragm, tongue, and extra-ocular muscles are spared in this process, as well as cardiac and

text: smooth muscle

text: . Since the incorrect enzyme remains unresolved within the immune response, the body continues providing the incorrect BMP4-containing lymphocytes. BMP4 is a product that contributes to the development of the skeleton in the normal embryo.

text: The fracture may be classed as 'open', which occurs when the bone fragments protrude through the skin, or there is an overlying wound which penetrates to the bone. These types of fracture cause more damage to the surrounding tissue, are less likely to heal properly, and are at much greater risk of infection.

text: The fruitbody is in the form of a crust with the edges sticking out to form small caps up to 4 mm wide. It has a smooth, pale brown surface. The pore surface, or hymenium, comprises tiny angular pores that number 6–7 per mm. Skeletocutis bicolor has a dimitic hyphal system, meaning it has both generative hyphae and skeletal hyphae. The skeletal hyphae are covered with spiny crystals, especially in the dissepiments (the tissue between the pores)—a characteristic feature of the genus Skeletocutis. The spores are spherical, hyaline (translucent), and measure 2.5–3 μm in diameter.

text: The

text: fruitbody

text: is in the form of a crust with the edges sticking out to form small

text: caps

text: up to 4 mm wide. It has a smooth, pale brown surface. The pore surface, or

text: hymenium

text: , comprises tiny angular pores that number 6–7 per mm. Skeletocutis bicolor has a dimitic

text: hypha

text: l system, meaning it has both generative hyphae and skeletal hyphae. The skeletal hyphae are covered with spiny crystals, especially in the dissepiments (the tissue between the pores)—a characteristic feature of the genus Skeletocutis. The

text: spores

text: are spherical,

text: hyaline

text: (translucent), and measure 2.5–3 μm in diameter.

text: Skeletal animation is the standard way to animate characters or mechanical objects for a prolonged period of time (usually over 100 frames). It is commonly used by video game artists and in the movie industry, and can also be applied to mechanical objects and any other object made up of rigid elements and joints.

text: Skeletal animation is the standard way to animate characters or mechanical objects for a prolonged period of time (usually over 100 frames). It is commonly used by

text: video game artists

text: and in the

text: movie industry

text: , and can also be applied to mechanical objects and any other object made up of rigid elements and joints.

text: On the one hand, proponents such as Jeanne Dopbrak, a sports medicine physician at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, contend that "[a child athlete's] immature skeleton just isn't ready to handle the day-to-day stresses that will occur." and that the stresses imposed on only partly developed muscular/skeletal system by gymnastics are almost certain to cause damage that would persist into adulthood. Proponents also point to a 16-year American study of gymnastics injuries which concluded that gymnastics is the most dangerous sport for girls, with injury rates comparable to those found in boys who play soccer, basketball and hockey. An athlete whose bones are still growing is more likely than an adult to suffer skeletal injury, because the bones are more porous and the joints not yet fully formed. Lesions, which are precursors to stress fractures, occur in 11 percent of young female gymnasts, compared to 2.3 percent of girls and women in general. The International Gymnastics Federation says that intense physical activity, such as that engaged in by gymnasts training at the elite level, affects the functioning of growth hormones, possibly causing delayed bone growth and the onset of puberty – although the body is able to recover and catch up later if given rest periods.

text: On the one hand, proponents such as

text: Jeanne Dopbrak

text: , a sports medicine physician at the

text: University of Pittsburgh Medical Center

text: , contend that "[a child athlete's] immature skeleton just isn't ready to handle the day-to-day stresses that will occur." and that the stresses imposed on only partly developed muscular/skeletal system by gymnastics are almost certain to cause damage that would persist into adulthood. Proponents also point to a 16-year American study of gymnastics injuries which concluded that gymnastics is the most dangerous sport for girls, with injury rates comparable to those found in boys who play soccer, basketball and hockey. An athlete whose bones are still growing is more likely than an adult to suffer skeletal injury, because the bones are more porous and the joints not yet fully formed. Lesions, which are precursors to stress fractures, occur in 11 percent of young female gymnasts, compared to 2.3 percent of girls and women in general. The International Gymnastics Federation says that intense physical activity, such as that engaged in by gymnasts training at the elite level, affects the functioning of growth hormones, possibly causing delayed bone growth and the onset of puberty – although the body is able to recover and catch up later if given rest periods.

text: Seldin, Peterson, Byerly, Wei and Wong clarify that most myokines are also secreted by non-muscle cells. In 2012, they reported: "The expression of all myokines described to date is not restricted to skeletal muscle; they are generally expressed by a variety of cell types, and most are, in fact, expressed at much higher levels by nonmuscle tissues. Prior to (our) study, no myokine has been discovered to be preferentially expressed by skeletal muscle. While characterizing the metabolic function of the C1q/TNF-related protein (CTRP) family of proteins we recently uncovered, we identified myonectin (CTRP15) as a novel member of the family on the basis of sequence homology in the shared C1q domain, the signature that defines this protein family.... (Myonectin) is a novel nutrient-responsive myokine secreted by skeletal muscle to regulate whole-body fatty acid metabolism.... Circulating levels of myonectin were tightly regulated by the metabolic state; fasting suppressed, but refeeding dramatically increased, its mRNA and serum levels. Although mRNA and circulating levels of myonectin were reduced in a diet-induced obese state, voluntary exercise increased its expression and circulating levels. Accordingly, myonectin transcript was up-regulated by compounds (forskolin, epinephrine, ionomycin) that raise cellular cAMP or calcium levels.... In vitro results of myonectin expression in myotubes suggest that exercise-induced rises in intracellular calcium levels may also up-regulate myonectin expression in intact skeletal muscle.... Consistent with enhanced mRNA expression in skeletal muscle of mice subjected to voluntary exercise, circulating levels of myonectin also increased, suggesting a potential role of myonectin in exercise-induced physiology.

text: Seldin, Peterson, Byerly, Wei and Wong clarify that most myokines are also secreted by non-muscle cells. In 2012, they reported: "The expression of all myokines described to date is not restricted to skeletal muscle; they are generally expressed by a variety of cell types, and most are, in fact, expressed at much higher levels by nonmuscle tissues. Prior to (our) study, no myokine has been discovered to be preferentially expressed by skeletal muscle. While characterizing the metabolic function of the C1q/TNF-related protein (CTRP) family of proteins we recently uncovered, we identified

text: myonectin

text: (CTRP15) as a novel member of the family on the basis of sequence homology in the shared C1q domain, the signature that defines this protein family.... (Myonectin) is a novel nutrient-responsive myokine secreted by skeletal muscle to regulate whole-body fatty acid metabolism.... Circulating levels of myonectin were tightly regulated by the metabolic state; fasting suppressed, but refeeding dramatically increased, its mRNA and serum levels. Although mRNA and circulating levels of myonectin were reduced in a diet-induced obese state, voluntary exercise increased its expression and circulating levels. Accordingly, myonectin transcript was up-regulated by compounds (forskolin, epinephrine, ionomycin) that raise cellular cAMP or calcium levels.... In vitro results of myonectin expression in myotubes suggest that exercise-induced rises in intracellular calcium levels may also up-regulate myonectin expression in intact skeletal muscle.... Consistent with enhanced mRNA expression in skeletal muscle of mice subjected to voluntary exercise, circulating levels of myonectin also increased, suggesting a potential role of myonectin in exercise-induced physiology.

text: KCNE3 is most prominently expressed in the colon, small intestine, and specific cell types in the stomach.  It is also detectable in the kidney and trachea, and depending on the species is also reportedly expressed at lower levels in the brain, heart and skeletal muscle. Specifically, KCNE3 was detected in rat, horse and human heart, but not in mouse heart. Some have observed KCNE3 expression in rat brain, rat and human skeletal muscle, and the mouse C2C12 skeletal muscle cell line, others have not detected it in these tissues in the mouse.

text: The sophistication and self-awareness demonstrated in the work led archaeologists to consider the makers of Aurignacian artifacts the first modern humans in Europe. Human remains and Late Aurignacian artifacts found in juxtaposition support this inference. Although finds of human skeletal remains in direct association with Proto-Aurignacian technologies are scarce in Europe, the few available are also probably modern human. The best dated association between Aurignacian industries and human remains are those of at least five individuals from the Mladeč caves in the Czech Republic, dated by direct radiocarbon measurements of the skeletal remains to at least 31,000–32,000 years old. At least three robust, but typically anatomically-modern individuals from the Peștera cu Oase cave in Romania, were dated directly from the bones to ca. 35,000–36,000 BP. Although not associated directly with archaeological material, these finds are within the chronological and geographical range of the Early Aurignacian in southeastern Europe.  On genetic evidence it has been argued that both Aurignacian and the Dabba culture of North Africa came from an earlier big game hunting Aurignacian culture of the Levant

text: The sophistication and self-awareness demonstrated in the work led archaeologists to consider the makers of Aurignacian

text: artifacts

text: the first

text: modern humans

text: in Europe. Human remains and Late Aurignacian artifacts found in juxtaposition support this inference. Although finds of human skeletal remains in direct association with Proto-Aurignacian technologies are scarce in Europe, the few available are also probably modern human. The best dated association between Aurignacian industries and human remains are those of at least five individuals from the

text: Mladeč caves

text: in the

text: Czech Republic

text: , dated by direct radiocarbon measurements of the skeletal remains to at least 31,000–32,000 years old. At least three robust, but typically anatomically-modern individuals from the

text: Peștera cu Oase

text: cave in

text: Romania

text: , were dated directly from the bones to ca. 35,000–36,000

text: BP

text: . Although not associated directly with archaeological material, these finds are within the chronological and geographical range of the Early Aurignacian in southeastern Europe.  On genetic evidence it has been argued that both Aurignacian and the Dabba culture of North Africa came from an earlier

text: big game hunting

text: Aurignacian culture of the Levant

text: The three main mechanisms by which osteoporosis develops are an inadequate peak bone mass (the skeleton develops insufficient mass and strength during growth), excessive bone resorption, and inadequate formation of new bone during remodeling. An interplay of these three mechanisms underlies the development of fragile bone tissue. Hormonal factors strongly determine the rate of bone resorption; lack of estrogen (e.g. as a result of menopause) increases bone resorption, as well as decreasing the deposition of new bone that normally takes place in weight-bearing bones. The amount of estrogen needed to suppress this process is lower than that normally needed to stimulate the uterus and breast gland. The α-form of the estrogen receptor appears to be the most important in regulating bone turnover. In addition to estrogen, calcium metabolism plays a significant role in bone turnover, and deficiency of calcium and vitamin D leads to impaired bone deposition; in addition, the parathyroid glands react to low calcium levels by secreting parathyroid hormone (parathormone, PTH), which increases bone resorption to ensure sufficient calcium in the blood. The role of calcitonin, a hormone generated by the thyroid that increases bone deposition, is less clear and probably not as significant as that of PTH.

text: The three main mechanisms by which osteoporosis develops are an inadequate peak bone mass (the skeleton develops insufficient mass and strength during growth), excessive bone resorption, and inadequate formation of new bone during remodeling. An interplay of these three mechanisms underlies the development of fragile bone tissue. Hormonal factors strongly determine the rate of bone resorption; lack of estrogen (e.g. as a result of menopause) increases bone resorption, as well as decreasing the deposition of new bone that normally takes place in weight-bearing bones. The amount of estrogen needed to suppress this process is lower than that normally needed to stimulate the

text: uterus

text: and

text: breast gland

text: . The α-form of the

text: estrogen receptor

text: appears to be the most important in regulating bone turnover. In addition to estrogen,

text: calcium metabolism

text: plays a significant role in bone turnover, and deficiency of calcium and vitamin D leads to impaired bone deposition; in addition, the

text: parathyroid gland

text: s react to low calcium levels by secreting parathyroid hormone (parathormone, PTH), which increases bone resorption to ensure sufficient calcium in the blood. The role of

text: calcitonin

text: , a hormone generated by the

text: thyroid

text: that increases bone deposition, is less clear and probably not as significant as that of PTH.

text: Sprains typically occur when the joint is taken beyond its functional range of motion.

text: Complex fractures like pelvis fractures, calcaneus or tibia head fractures, etc. need an exact placement of screws and other surgical implants to allow quickest possible treatment of the patients. Minimally invasive surgical approaches result in less trauma for the patient and quicker recovery. However, the risk of malpositionins, revisions and nerval damage cannot be underestimated (Malposition and revision rates of different imaging modalities for percutaneous iliosacral screw fixation following pelvic fractures: a systematic review and meta-analysis). The possibility of the use of an angio system with a spatial resolution of 0.1 mm, the large field of view to image the entire pelvis in one image and the high kW rate allows the surgeon high precision images while not impairing hygiene (floor mounted systems) or access to the patient (CT).Degenerative spine surgery, traumatic spinal fractures, oncologic fractures or scoliosis surgery are other types of surgery that can be optimized in a hybrid OR. The large field of view and the high kW rate allow to optimally image even obese patients. Navigations systems or the use of integrated laser guidance can support and improve the workflow.

text: This change in bone turnover is likely to be the reason for numerous effects seen in hypervitaminosis A, such as hypercalcemia and numerous bone changes such as bone loss that potentially leads to osteoporosis, spontaneous bone fractures, altered skeletal development in children, skeletal pain, radiographic changes, and bone lesions.

text: This change in bone turnover is likely to be the reason for numerous effects seen in hypervitaminosis A, such as

text: hypercalcemia

text: and numerous bone changes such as bone loss that potentially leads to

text: osteoporosis

text: , spontaneous bone fractures, altered skeletal development in children, skeletal pain,

text: radiographic

text: changes, and bone lesions.

text: Mutations in the SCN4A gene cause potassium-aggravated myotonia. The SCN4A gene provides instructions for making a protein that is critical for the normal function of skeletal muscle cells. For the body to move normally, skeletal muscles contract and relax in a coordinated way. Muscle contractions are triggered by the flow of positively charged ions, including sodium, into skeletal muscle cells. The SCN4A protein forms channels that control the flow of sodium ions into these cells. Mutations in the SCN4A gene alter the usual structure and function of sodium channels. The altered channels cannot properly regulate ion flow, increasing the movement of sodium ions into skeletal muscle cells. The influx of extra sodium ions triggers prolonged muscle contractions, which are the hallmark of myotonia.

text: Mutations in the SCN4A gene cause potassium-aggravated myotonia. The SCN4A gene provides instructions for making a protein that is critical for the normal function of skeletal muscle cells. For the body to move normally, skeletal muscles contract and relax in a coordinated way. Muscle contractions are triggered by the flow of positively charged ions, including

text: sodium

text: , into skeletal muscle cells. The SCN4A protein forms channels that control the flow of sodium ions into these cells. Mutations in the SCN4A gene alter the usual structure and function of sodium channels. The altered channels cannot properly regulate ion flow, increasing the movement of sodium ions into skeletal muscle cells. The influx of extra sodium ions triggers prolonged muscle contractions, which are the hallmark of myotonia.

text: Case in tiers is a model for assigning surface case to noun phrases (NPs) in a sentence. Introduced in Yip, Maling, and Jackendoff 1987, it has received at least 88 scholarly citations according to Google Scholar. The model takes its inspiration from the seminal and at that time already successful model of prosodic morphology (McCarthy 1981), which posits that the structure of a phonological word is a stack of types of elements (e.g., vowels, consonants, syllabic pitches), with each element type being provided with its own tier of the stack. Yip et al. decompose the structure of an individual sentence into a tier of structural cases, a tier of lexical cases, and a skeletal tier of the NPs in the sentence. The structural case tier is homologous to the consonant matrix lexical root of a Semitic verb, while the lexical case tier is homologous to the set of vowels in a Semitic verb word form. The lexical cases are assigned to specific NPs in the skeletal tier. The structural cases are assigned sequentially, with the direction of assignment depending on which case alignment is the characteristic one for the language in question. For nominative–accusative alignment, the structural cases are assigned from left to right, with nominative case preceding accusative. For ergative–absolutive alignment, the direction of assignment is right to left, with absolutive preceding ergative. For instance:

text: Case in tiers is a model for assigning

text: surface case

text: to

text: noun phrase

text: s (NPs) in a sentence. Introduced in Yip, Maling, and

text: Jackendoff

text: 1987, it has received at least 88 scholarly citations according to Google Scholar. The model takes its inspiration from the seminal and at that time already successful model of

text: prosodic morphology

text: (McCarthy 1981), which posits that the structure of a phonological word is a stack of types of elements (e.g., vowels, consonants, syllabic pitches), with each element type being provided with its own tier of the stack. Yip et al. decompose the structure of an individual sentence into a tier of structural cases, a tier of lexical cases, and a skeletal tier of the NPs in the sentence. The structural case tier is homologous to the consonant matrix lexical root of a Semitic verb, while the

text: lexical case

text: tier is homologous to the set of vowels in a Semitic verb word form. The lexical cases are assigned to specific NPs in the skeletal tier. The structural cases are assigned sequentially, with the direction of assignment depending on which

text: case alignment

text: is the characteristic one for the language in question. For

text: nominative–accusative

text: alignment, the structural cases are assigned from left to right, with

text: nominative

text: case preceding

text: accusative

text: . For

text: ergative–absolutive

text: alignment, the direction of assignment is right to left, with

text: absolutive

text: preceding

text: ergative

text: . For instance:

text: Under normal conditions, bone undergoes a continuous remodeling through osteoclast-mediated bone resorption and osteoblast-mediated bone deposition.  These processes are normally tightly regulated within bone to maintain bone structure and calcium homeostasis in the body.  Disregulation of these processes by tumor cells leads to either osteoblastic or osteolytic phenotypes, reflective of the underlying mechanism of development.  Typically, osteolytic metastases are more aggressive than osteoblastic metastases, which have a slower course.  Regardless of the phenotype, though, bone metastases show osteoclast proliferation and hypertrophy.

text: Under normal conditions, bone undergoes a continuous remodeling through

text: osteoclast

text: -mediated bone

text: resorption

text: and

text: osteoblast

text: -mediated bone deposition.  These processes are normally tightly regulated within bone to maintain bone structure and calcium

text: homeostasis

text: in the body.  Disregulation of these processes by tumor cells leads to either

text: osteoblastic

text: or

text: osteolytic

text: phenotypes, reflective of the underlying mechanism of development.  Typically, osteolytic metastases are more aggressive than osteoblastic metastases, which have a slower course.  Regardless of the phenotype, though, bone metastases show osteoclast proliferation and

text: hypertrophy

text: Sprains result from forcing a joint to perform against its normal range of motion. Finger sprains occur when the ligaments which are attached to the bone are overstretched and this results in pain, swelling, and difficulty for moving the finger. Common examples of a sprain are jammed or twisted fingers. These injuries are common among ball players but can also occur in laborers and handy men. When finger sprains are not treated on time, prolonged disability can result.

text: Sprains result from forcing a

text: joint

text: to perform against its normal range of motion. Finger sprains occur when the ligaments which are attached to the bone are overstretched and this results in pain, swelling, and difficulty for moving the finger. Common examples of a

text: sprain

text: are jammed or twisted fingers. These injuries are common among ball players but can also occur in laborers and handy men. When finger sprains are not treated on time, prolonged disability can result.

text: Baastrup's sign- Baker's cyst- Baksi's prosthesis- Ballottement- Bankart lesion- Bankart's fracture- Barlow maneuver- Barré–Liéou syndrome- Barton's fracture- Baumann's angle- Beals syndrome- Bechterew's- Bennett's fracture- Bifid rib- Bimalleolar fracture- Blount's disease- Blumensaat's line- Blunt trauma- Bohler's angle- Bone cutter- Bone cyst- Bone density- Bone disease- Bone fracture- Bone fracture healing- Bone grafting- Bone healing- Bone metastases- Bone mineral- Bone pathology- Bone remodeling- Bone resorption- Bone tumor- Bone- Bosworth fracture- Bouchard's nodes- Boutonniere deformity- Boxer's fracture- Brachydactyly- British Orthopaedic Association- Brodie abscess- Broström procedure- Brown tumor- Bruck syndrome- Brunelli procedure- Bryant's traction- Buddy wrapping- Bumper fracture- Bunion- Burst fracture

text: Baastrup's sign

text: Baker's cyst

text: Baksi's prosthesis

text: Ballottement

text: Bankart lesion

text: Bankart's fracture

text: Barlow maneuver

text: Barré–Liéou syndrome

text: Barton's fracture

text: Baumann's angle

text: Beals syndrome

text: Bechterew's

text: Bennett's fracture

text: Bifid rib

text: Bimalleolar fracture

text: Blount's disease

text: Blumensaat's line

text: Blunt trauma

text: Bohler's angle

text: Bone cutter

text: Bone cyst

text: Bone density

text: Bone disease

text: Bone fracture

text: Bone fracture healing

text: Bone grafting

text: Bone healing

text: Bone metastases

text: Bone mineral

text: Bone pathology

text: Bone remodeling

text: Bone resorption

text: Bone tumor

text: Bone

text: Bosworth fracture

text: Bouchard's nodes

text: Boutonniere deformity

text: Boxer's fracture

text: Brachydactyly

text: British Orthopaedic Association

text: Brodie abscess

text: Broström procedure

text: Brown tumor

text: Bruck syndrome

text: Brunelli procedure

text: Bryant's traction

text: Buddy wrapping

text: Bumper fracture

text: Bunion

text: Burst fracture

text: The responses of the human body to microgravity exposure during spaceflight involve adaptations at numerous levels. It is believed that skeletal muscle adaptations to microgravity, which affect both muscle mass and function, involve structural alterations in the neural as well as the myofibrillar components of skeletal muscle. It is well accepted that the muscles involved in the maintenance of an upright position in terrestrial gravity (the antigravity muscles) are the most susceptible to spaceflight-induced adaptations. This susceptibility may reflect the almost continuous levels of self-generated (active) and environmentally generated (reactive) mechanical loading to which these muscles are exposed under normal Earth gravity. Thus, effects related to the decrease in the level of mechanical loading that occurs during microgravity exposure logically would be reflected most acutely in these muscles. Changes at the structural level within skeletal muscle after spaceflight are paralleled by spaceflight-induced changes at the functional level such as decreased muscle strength and increased muscle fatigability. This summary addresses nearly exclusively those investigations in which the effects of mechanical unloading on antigravity muscles were examined, and the consequent tissue remodeling at the structural and biochemical levels. Additionally, the relative success of various countermeasures is examined.

text: Breeding for increased breast muscle means that the broilers’ centre of gravity has moved forward and their breasts are broader compared with their ancestors, which affects the way they walk and puts additional stresses on their hips and legs. There is a high frequency of skeletal problems in broilers, mainly in the locomotory system, including varus and valgus deformities, osteodystrophy, dyschondroplasia and femoral head necrosis. These leg abnormalities impair the locomotor abilities of the birds, and lame birds spend more time lying and sleeping.  The behavioural activities of broilers decrease rapidly from 14 days of age onwards. Reduced locomotion also decreases ossification of the bones and results in skeletal abnormalities; these are reduced when broilers have been exercised under experimental conditions.

text: Breeding for increased breast muscle means that the broilers’ centre of gravity has moved forward and their breasts are broader compared with their ancestors, which affects the way they walk and puts additional stresses on their hips and legs. There is a high frequency of skeletal problems in broilers, mainly in the locomotory system, including

text: varus

text: and

text: valgus

text: deformities,

text: osteodystrophy

text: dyschondroplasia

text: and femoral head

text: necrosis

text: . These leg abnormalities impair the locomotor abilities of the birds, and lame birds spend more time lying and sleeping.  The behavioural activities of broilers decrease rapidly from 14 days of age onwards. Reduced locomotion also decreases

text: ossification

text: of the bones and results in skeletal abnormalities; these are reduced when broilers have been exercised under experimental conditions.

text: Ultrasound has been used since the 1940s by physical and occupational therapists for treating connective tissue: ligaments, tendons, and fascia (and also scar tissue). Conditions for which ultrasound may be used for treatment include the follow examples: ligament sprains, muscle strains, tendonitis, joint inflammation, plantar fasciitis, metatarsalgia, facet irritation, impingement syndrome, bursitis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and scar tissue adhesion.

text: Ultrasound has been used since the 1940s by physical and occupational therapists for treating

text: connective tissue

text: ligament

text: s,

text: tendon

text: s, and

text: fascia

text: (and also

text: scar tissue

text: ). Conditions for which ultrasound may be used for treatment include the follow examples: ligament

text: sprain

text: s, muscle

text: strains

text: tendonitis

text: , joint inflammation,

text: plantar fasciitis

text: metatarsalgia

text: , facet irritation,

text: impingement syndrome

text: bursitis

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: osteoarthritis

text: , and scar tissue adhesion.

text: The arrangement of the connective tissue fibers and muscle fibers create the skeletal support of a soft bodied animal. The arrangement of the fibers around a hydrostatic body limits the range of movement of the hydrostatic body (the "body" of a soft bodied animal) and defines the way the hydrostatic body moves.

text: Special Interest Groups include Balance and Falls, Health Promotion and Wellness, and Osteoporosis.

text: Joint manipulation is a type of passive movement of a skeletal joint. It is usually aimed at one or more 'target' synovial joints with the aim of achieving a therapeutic effect.

text: Joint manipulation is a type of passive movement of a skeletal

text: joint

text: . It is usually aimed at one or more 'target'

text: synovial joint

text: s with the aim of achieving a therapeutic effect.

text: A cramp is a sudden, involuntary muscle contraction or over-shortening; while generally temporary and non-damaging, they can cause mild-to-excruciating pain, and a paralysis-like immobility of the affected muscle(s). Onset is usually sudden, and it resolves on its own over a period of several seconds, minutes, or hours. Cramps may occur in a skeletal muscle or smooth muscle.  Skeletal muscle cramps may be caused by muscle fatigue or a lack of electrolytes (e.g., low sodium, low potassium, or low magnesium, although the evidence has been mixed). Cramps of smooth muscle may be due to menstruation or gastroenteritis.

text: A cramp is a sudden, involuntary

text: muscle contraction

text: or over-shortening; while generally temporary and non-damaging, they can cause mild-to-excruciating

text: pain

text: , and a

text: paralysis

text: -like immobility of the affected muscle(s). Onset is usually sudden, and it resolves on its own over a period of several seconds, minutes, or hours. Cramps may occur in a

text: skeletal muscle

text: or

text: smooth muscle

text: .  Skeletal muscle cramps may be caused by

text: muscle fatigue

text: or a lack of

text: electrolyte

text: s (e.g.,

text: low sodium

text: low potassium

text: , or

text: low magnesium

text: , although the evidence has been mixed). Cramps of smooth muscle may be due to

text: menstruation

text: or

text: gastroenteritis

text: The human skeletal system is a complex organ in constant equilibrium with the rest of the body. In addition to support and structure of the body, bone is the major reservoir for many minerals and compounds essential for maintaining a healthy pH balance. The deterioration of the body with age renders the elderly particularly susceptible to and affected by poor bone health. Illnesses like osteoporosis, characterized by weakening of the bone’s structural matrix, increases the risk of hip-fractures and other life-changing secondary symptoms. In 2010, over 258,000 people aged 65 and older were admitted to the hospital for hip fractures. Incidence of hip fractures is expected to rise by 12% in America, with a projected 289,000 admissions in the year 2030. Other sources estimate up to 1.5 million Americans will have an osteoporotic-related fracture each year. The cost of treating these people is also enormous, in 1991 Medicare spent an estimated $2.9 billion for treatment and out-patient care of hip fractures, this number can only be expected to rise.

text: The

text: human skeletal system

text: is a complex organ in constant equilibrium with the rest of the body. In addition to support and structure of the body,

text: bone

text: is the major reservoir for many minerals and compounds essential for maintaining a healthy

text: pH

text: balance. The deterioration of the body with age renders the elderly particularly susceptible to and affected by poor bone health. Illnesses like

text: osteoporosis

text: , characterized by weakening of the bone’s structural matrix, increases the risk of

text: hip-fractures

text: and other life-changing secondary symptoms. In 2010, over 258,000 people aged 65 and older were admitted to the hospital for hip fractures. Incidence of hip fractures is expected to rise by 12% in America, with a projected 289,000 admissions in the year 2030. Other sources estimate up to 1.5 million Americans will have an osteoporotic-related fracture each year. The cost of treating these people is also enormous, in 1991

text: Medicare

text: spent an estimated $2.9 billion for treatment and out-patient care of hip fractures, this number can only be expected to rise.

text: Ankyrin-B has also been identified to associate at sarcomeric M-lines and costameres in cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle, respectively. Exon 43′ in ankyrin-B is specifically and predominantly expressed in cardiac muscle and harbors key residues for modulating the interaction between ankyrin-B and obscurin. This interaction is also key for targeting protein phosphatase 2A to cardiac M-lines to propagate phosphorylation signaling paradigms. In skeletal muscle, ankyrin-B interacts with dynactin-4 and with β2-spectrin, which is required for proper localization and functioning of the dystrophin complex and costamere structures, as well as protection from exercise-induced injury.

text: Ankyrin-B has also been identified to associate at

text: sarcomeric

text: M-lines

text: and

text: costamere

text: s in

text: cardiac muscle

text: and

text: skeletal muscle

text: , respectively. Exon 43′ in ankyrin-B is specifically and predominantly expressed in

text: cardiac muscle

text: and harbors key residues for modulating the

text: interaction

text: between ankyrin-B and

text: obscurin

text: . This

text: interaction

text: is also key for targeting

text: protein phosphatase 2A

text: to cardiac

text: M-lines

text: to propagate

text: phosphorylation

text: signaling paradigms. In

text: skeletal muscle

text: , ankyrin-B

text: interacts

text: with

text: and with

text: , which is required for proper localization and functioning of the

text: dystrophin

text: complex and

text: costamere

text: structures, as well as protection from exercise-induced injury.

text: The main drawbacks of this mechanical management of tremor are (1) the resulting bulky solutions, (2) the inefficiency in transmitting loads from the exoskeleton to the human musculo-skeletal system and (3) technological limitations in terms of actuator technologies. In this regard, current trends in this field are focused on the evaluation of the concept of biomechanical loading of tremor through selective Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) based on a (Brain-to-Computer Interaction) BCI-driven detection of involuntary (tremor) motor activity.

text: Osteochondrodysplasias are skeletal disorders that cause malformations of both bone and cartilage.

text: Osteochondrodysplasias are skeletal disorders that cause malformations of both bone and

text: cartilage

text: Analogs of vitamin D are being explored intensely for their regulatory effects on calcium metabolism with the purpose of treating osteoporosis, a skeletal disease associated with low bone mass and deterioration of bone tissue. Vitamin D is imperative for absorption of calcium to maintain bone strength.

text: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is also a myokine, though BDNF produced by contracting muscle is not released into circulation. Rather, BDNF produced in skeletal muscle appears to enhance the oxidation of fat. Skeletal muscle activation through exercise also contributes to an increase in BDNF secretion in the brain. A beneficial effect of BDNF on neuronal function has been noted in multiple studies. Dr. Pedersen writes, "Neurotrophins are a family of structurally related growth factors, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which exert many of their effects on neurons primarily through Trk receptor tyrosine kinases. Of these, BDNF and its receptor TrkB are most widely and abundantly expressed in the brain. However, recent studies show that BDNF is also expressed in non-neurogenic tissues, including skeletal muscle. BDNF has been shown to regulate neuronal development and to modulate synaptic plasticity. BDNF plays a key role in regulating survival, growth and maintenance of neurons, and BDNF has a bearing on learning and memory. However, BDNF has also been identified as a key component of the hypothalamic pathway that controls body mass and energy homeostasis.

text: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor

text: BDNF

text: ) is also a myokine, though BDNF produced by contracting muscle is not released into circulation. Rather, BDNF produced in skeletal muscle appears to enhance the oxidation of fat. Skeletal muscle activation through exercise also contributes to an increase in BDNF secretion in the brain. A beneficial effect of BDNF on neuronal function has been noted in multiple studies. Dr. Pedersen writes, "

text: Neurotrophins

text: are a family of structurally related growth factors, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which exert many of their effects on neurons primarily through Trk receptor tyrosine kinases. Of these, BDNF and its receptor TrkB are most widely and abundantly expressed in the brain. However, recent studies show that BDNF is also expressed in non-neurogenic tissues, including skeletal muscle. BDNF has been shown to regulate neuronal development and to modulate synaptic plasticity. BDNF plays a key role in regulating survival, growth and maintenance of neurons, and BDNF has a bearing on learning and memory. However, BDNF has also been identified as a key component of the hypothalamic pathway that controls body mass and energy homeostasis.

text: CapZ binds the barbed end of actin filaments and prevents addition or loss of actin monomers to filaments. It has also been observed that CapZ functions to organize myofilaments during myofibrillogenesis and is present at Z-discs in muscle prior to the striation of actin filaments, suggesting that CapZ may function to direct the polarity and organization of sarcomeric actin during I-band formation. The function of CapZ-alpha2 may be modulated by the calcium-binding protein S100A in skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues, as crosslinking studies have shown S100A to directly interaction with the C-terminal region of CapZ-alpha in the presence of calcium. CapZ appears to regulate intracellular signaling of contractile proteins in cardiac muscle. It has been demonstrated that the presence of CapZ at Z-discs modulates the ability of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) to dephosphorylate cardiac myofilament proteins, including myosin binding protein C, troponin T and myosin regulatory light chain; likely because extraction of CapZ decreased the amount of myofilament-associated PP1.

text: CapZ binds the barbed end of

text: actin

text: filaments and prevents addition or loss of

text: actin

text: monomers to filaments. It has also been observed that CapZ functions to organize

text: myofilament

text: s during myofibrillogenesis and is present at

text: Z-disc

text: s in muscle prior to the striation of

text: actin

text: filaments, suggesting that CapZ may function to direct the polarity and organization of

text: sarcomeric

text: actin

text: during

text: I-band

text: formation. The function of CapZ-alpha2 may be modulated by the

text: calcium

text: -binding protein

text: in

text: skeletal

text: and

text: cardiac muscle

text: tissues, as crosslinking studies have shown

text: to directly interaction with the

text: C-terminal

text: region of CapZ-alpha in the presence of

text: calcium

text: . CapZ appears to regulate intracellular signaling of

text: contractile proteins

text: in

text: cardiac muscle

text: . It has been demonstrated that the presence of CapZ at

text: Z-disc

text: s modulates the ability of

text: protein phosphatase 1

text: (PP1) to dephosphorylate

text: cardiac

text: myofilament

text: protein

text: s, including

text: myosin binding protein C

text: troponin T

text: and

text: myosin regulatory light chain

text: ; likely because extraction of CapZ decreased the amount of

text: myofilament

text: -associated

text: The final impact after a passenger's body hits the car interior, airbag or seat belts is that of the internal organs hitting the ribcage or skull due to their inertia. The force of this impact is the way by which many car crashes cause disabling or life-threatening injury. Other ways are skeletal damage and blood loss, because of torn blood vessels, or damage caused by sharp fractured bone to organs and/or blood vessels. The sequence of energy-dissipating and speed-reducing technologies—crumple zone — seat belt — airbags — padded interior—are designed to work together as a system to reduce the force of the impact on the outside of the passenger(s)'s body and the final impact of organs inside the body. In a collision, slowing down the deceleration of the human body by even a few tenths of a second drastically reduces the force involved. Force is a simple equation: Force = mass X acceleration. Cutting the deceleration in half also cuts the force in half. Therefore, changing the deceleration time from .2 seconds to .8 seconds will result in a 75 percent reduction in total force.

text: During embryogenesis the precursor to bone development is cartilage. Much of this substance is then replaced by bone during the second and third trimester, after the flesh such as muscle has formed around it; forming the skeleton. Cartilage is a stiff and inflexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the intervertebral discs. It is not as hard and rigid as bone but is stiffer and less flexible than muscle.

text: During

text: embryogenesis

text: the precursor to bone development is

text: cartilage

text: . Much of this substance is then replaced by bone during the second and third trimester, after the flesh such as muscle has formed around it; forming the skeleton. Cartilage is a stiff and inflexible

text: connective tissue

text: found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including the joints between

text: bone

text: s, the

text: rib cage

text: , the

text: ear

text: , the

text: nose

text: , the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the

text: bronchial tubes

text: and the

text: intervertebral disc

text: s. It is not as hard and rigid as

text: bone

text: but is stiffer and less flexible than

text: muscle

text: A search interface within the National Park Service's NPS Focus system provides access to a skeletal record of NRIS data, as well as to photographs and documents describing properties listed on the National Register. The skeletal record includes a simplified set of the information in NRIS about all sites listed through August 2012. The NPS Focus search screen allows searching by NRHP listing name or other property identifiers.

text: Shinnok is unlockable in Mortal Kombat X upon completion of the story mode. Like the game's other playable characters, his offense is split into three gameplay variations. He retains his ability of mimicry in "Impostor", which allows him to steal one of his opponent's special moves during battle, in addition to gaining an aerial teleport. "Bone Shaper" has Shinnok conjuring a scepter crafted from bone that he uses for combo attacks, and for "Necromancer", his signature skeletal hands are used as his primary weapon. Prima Games described him in the game as "a character that relies almost entirely on the attacks he gains from his variations."

text: Shinnok is unlockable in Mortal Kombat X upon completion of the story mode. Like the game's other playable characters, his offense is split into three gameplay variations. He retains his ability of mimicry in "Impostor", which allows him to steal one of his opponent's special moves during battle, in addition to gaining an aerial teleport. "Bone Shaper" has Shinnok conjuring a scepter crafted from bone that he uses for

text: combo

text: attacks, and for "Necromancer", his signature skeletal hands are used as his primary weapon.

text: Prima Games

text: described him in the game as "a character that relies almost entirely on the attacks he gains from his variations."

text: Consumption of fluoride at levels beyond those used in fluoridated water for a long period of time causes skeletal fluorosis. In some areas, particularly the Asian subcontinent, skeletal fluorosis is endemic. It is known to cause irritable-bowel symptoms and joint pain. Early stages are not clinically obvious, and may be misdiagnosed as (seronegative) rheumatoid arthritis or ankylosing spondylitis.

text: Consumption of fluoride at levels beyond those used in fluoridated water for a long period of time causes

text: skeletal fluorosis

text: . In some areas, particularly the Asian subcontinent, skeletal fluorosis is endemic. It is known to cause irritable-bowel symptoms and joint pain. Early stages are not clinically obvious, and may be misdiagnosed as (seronegative)

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: or

text: ankylosing spondylitis

text: There are advantages to using morph target animation over skeletal animation. The artist has more control over the movements because he or she can define the individual positions of the vertices within a keyframe, rather than being constrained by skeletons. This can be useful for animating cloth, skin, and facial expressions because it can be difficult to conform those things to the bones that are required for skeletal animation.

text: There are advantages to using morph target animation over

text: skeletal animation

text: . The artist has more control over the movements because he or she can define the individual positions of the vertices within a keyframe, rather than being constrained by skeletons. This can be useful for animating cloth, skin, and facial expressions because it can be difficult to conform those things to the bones that are required for skeletal animation.

text: As the skeleton forms the structure of the body, it is vital that it maintains its strength, even after breaks and injuries. Collagen is used in bone grafting as it has a triple helical structure, making it a very strong molecule. It is ideal for use in bones, as it does not compromise the structural integrity of the skeleton. The triple helical structure of collagen prevents it from being broken down by enzymes, it enables adhesiveness of cells and it is important for the proper assembly of the extracellular matrix.

text: Flector Patch, a minimally systemic topical patch formulation of diclofenac, is indicated for acute pain due to minor sprains, strains, and contusions. The patch has been approved in many other countries outside the US under different brand names.

text: Archives of Osteoporosis  is a peer-reviewed medical journal published by Springer Science+Business Media. It was established in 2006 and is an official journal of the International Osteoporosis Foundation and the United States' National Osteoporosis Foundation. The journal is published yearly and covers the specificities of regions around the world concerning epidemiology, including reference values for bone density and bone metabolism, as well as clinical aspects of osteoporosis and other bone diseases. The co-editors-in-chief are R. Lindsay and J.A. Kanis.

text: Archives of Osteoporosis  is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: medical journal

text: published by

text: Springer Science+Business Media

text: . It was established in 2006 and is an official journal of the

text: International Osteoporosis Foundation

text: and the United States'

text: National Osteoporosis Foundation

text: . The journal is published yearly and covers the specificities of regions around the world concerning

text: epidemiology

text: , including reference values for

text: bone density

text: and

text: bone metabolism

text: , as well as clinical aspects of

text: osteoporosis

text: and other bone diseases. The

text: co-editors-in-chief

text: are R. Lindsay and J.A. Kanis.

text: A hand wrap protects against several common types of injuries that are familiar to most boxers.  For instance, it supports the wrist joint, keeping it aligned when the impact of a punch is absorbed by the wrong part of the hand.  It also secures the base of the thumb to the hand, thereby reducing the chance of a sprain or fracture that can result from the thumb striking an opponent's elbow.  Most importantly, it significantly strengthens the metacarpus, reducing the likelihood of a fracture of one of the metacarpal bones.  Such a fracture is often called the "boxer's fracture" -- which is usually a fracture in the neck of the fourth or fifth metacarpal—because of its ubiquity among fighters.

text: A hand wrap protects against several common types of injuries that are familiar to most boxers.  For instance, it supports the wrist joint, keeping it aligned when the impact of a punch is absorbed by the wrong part of the hand.  It also secures the base of the thumb to the hand, thereby reducing the chance of a

text: sprain

text: or

text: fracture

text: that can result from the thumb striking an opponent's elbow.  Most importantly, it significantly strengthens the

text: metacarpus

text: , reducing the likelihood of a fracture of one of the metacarpal bones.  Such a fracture is often called the "

text: boxer's fracture

text: " -- which is usually a fracture in the neck of the fourth or fifth metacarpal—because of its ubiquity among fighters.

text: In most cases bone development is complex; it follows the formation of a first skeleton of cartilage made by chondrocytes, which is then removed and replaced by bone, made by osteoblasts.

text: In most cases bone development is complex; it follows the formation of a first skeleton of

text: cartilage

text: made by chondrocytes, which is then removed and replaced by bone, made by osteoblasts.

text: Zinc deficiency in humans results from reduced dietary intake, inadequate absorption, increased loss, or increased use. The most common cause is reduced dietary intake; as much as 25% of the world's population is at risk. Increasing the amount of zinc in the soil and thus in crops is an effective preventative measure. Zinc plays an essential role in numerous biochemical pathways. It affects many organ systems, including the skin, gastrointestinal tract, central nervous system, and immune, skeletal, and reproductive systems. A lack of zinc thus has numerous manifestations, the most common of which are an increased rates of diarrhea, pneumonia, and malaria.

text: Severe sprains accompanied by significant pain and swelling may need to be immobilized.

text: Severe

text: sprains

text: accompanied by significant pain and swelling may need to be

text: immobilized

text: Achondrogenesis, type 1B is a rare genetic disorder; its incidence is unknown. Achondrogenesis, type 1B is the most severe condition in a spectrum of skeletal disorders caused by mutations in the SLC26A2 gene. This gene provides instructions for making a protein that is essential for the normal development of cartilage and for its conversion to bone. Mutations in the SLC26A2 gene disrupt the structure of developing cartilage, preventing bones from forming properly and resulting in the skeletal problems characteristic of achondrogenesis, type 1B.

text: Achondrogenesis, type 1B is a rare genetic disorder; its incidence is unknown. Achondrogenesis, type 1B is the most severe condition in a spectrum of skeletal disorders caused by mutations in the

text: gene. This gene provides instructions for making a protein that is essential for the normal development of cartilage and for its conversion to bone. Mutations in the SLC26A2 gene disrupt the structure of developing cartilage, preventing bones from forming properly and resulting in the skeletal problems characteristic of achondrogenesis, type 1B.

text: The Animator is used to add loop animations and effects to models used with dim3.  The Animator is used to add bones, setup poses for the bones, and to combine those poses into animations.  The Animator uses a skeletal animation system. This makes character movement simplistic yet very realistic.

text: The Animator is used to add loop animations and effects to models used with dim3.  The Animator is used to add bones, setup poses for the bones, and to combine those poses into animations.  The Animator uses a

text: skeletal animation

text: system. This makes character movement simplistic yet very realistic.

text: The breakdown of the skeletal structure that holds the glass in place, such as damage to tracery and the corrosion of metal cames and fixing systems, often poses the greatest, imminent risk to stained glass work (Vogel et al. 2007, 7).  Although stone elements are not prone to excessive change due to environmental conditions, this is not the case with metals, which are much more likely to deteriorate from prolonged exposure to the elements.  For example, the cames that make up the matrix of a stained glass window, for which lead and zinc were most commonly used, undergo quite a bit of thermal expansion and contraction, eventually resulting in metal fatigue, which in turn weakens the joints between the plates, causing whole panels to deform or simply fall apart (Vogel et al. 2007, 8).  Additionally, metal matrixes and frames may weaken with stress, such as that which has occurred at Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon, UK, where years of wind buffeting the leaded clerestory windows has endangered the structural integrity of not only the glazing, but also, the upper portion of building itself (fig. 3) (Friends of Shakespeare’s Church 2009).

text: The symptoms of isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency, in males, include pseudohermaphroditism (i.e., feminized, ambiguous, or mildly underdeveloped (e.g., micropenis, perineal hypospadias, and/or cryptorchidism (undescended testes)) external genitalia), female gender identity, and, in non-complete cases of deficiency where partial virilization occurs, gynecomastia up to Tanner stage V (due to low androgen levels, which results in a lack of suppression of estrogen); in females, amenorrhoea or, in cases of only partial deficiency, merely irregular menses, and enlarged cystic ovaries (due to excessive stimulation by high levels of gonadotropins); and in both sexes, hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (hypogonadism despite high levels of gonadotropins), delayed, impaired, or fully absent adrenarche and puberty with an associated reduction in or complete lack of development of secondary sexual characteristics (sexual infantilism), impaired fertility or complete sterility, tall stature (due to delayed epiphyseal closure), eunuchoid skeletal proportions, delayed or absent bone maturation, and osteoporosis.

text: The

text: symptom

text: s of isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency, in males, include pseudohermaphroditism (i.e.,

text: feminized

text: ambiguous

text: , or mildly underdeveloped (e.g.,

text: micropenis

text: perineal hypospadias

text: , and/or

text: cryptorchidism

text: (undescended testes))

text: external genitalia

text: ), female

text: gender identity

text: , and, in non-complete cases of deficiency where partial

text: virilization

text: occurs,

text: gynecomastia

text: up to

text: Tanner stage V

text: (due to low androgen levels, which results in a lack of suppression of estrogen); in females,

text: amenorrhoea

text: or, in cases of only partial deficiency, merely

text: irregular menses

text: , and enlarged

text: cystic ovaries

text: (due to excessive stimulation by high levels of gonadotropins); and in both sexes,

text: hypergonadotropic hypogonadism

text: hypogonadism

text: adrenarche

text: and

text: puberty

text: sexual infantilism

text: ), impaired

text: fertility

text: or complete

text: sterility

text: tall stature

text: (due to delayed

text: epiphyseal closure

text: eunuch

text: oid

text: skeletal

text: proportions, delayed or absent

text: bone maturation

text: , and

text: osteoporosis

text: The joints in a human body are surrounded by synovial membranes and articular cartilage which cover, cushion and nourish the joint and surfaces of each . Increasing muscular elasticity of the joint's range of mobility increases flexibility.

text: The joints in a human body are surrounded by

text: synovial membranes

text: and

text: articular cartilage

text: which cover, cushion and nourish the joint and surfaces of each . Increasing muscular elasticity of the joint's range of mobility increases

text: flexibility

text: A sprain, also known as a torn ligament, is damage to one or more ligaments in a joint, often caused by trauma or the joint being taken beyond its functional range of motion.  The severity of sprain ranges from a minor injury which resolves in a few days to a major rupture of one or more ligaments requiring surgical fixation and a period of immobilisation. Sprains can occur in any joint but are most common in the ankle and wrist.

text: A sprain, also known as a torn ligament, is damage to one or more

text: ligament

text: s in a

text: joint

text: , often caused by trauma or the joint being taken beyond its functional range of motion.  The severity of sprain ranges from a minor injury which resolves in a few days to a major rupture of one or more ligaments requiring surgical fixation and a period of immobilisation. Sprains can occur in any joint but are most common in the ankle and wrist.

text: The severity of a sprain can also be classified:

text: Fractures of the tibia can be divided into those that only involve the tibia; bumper fracture, Segond fracture, Gosselin fracture, Toddler's fracture, and those including both the tibia and fibula; trimalleolar fracture, bimalleolar fracture, Pott's fracture.

text: Fracture

text: s

text: of the tibia

text: can be divided into those that only involve the tibia;

text: bumper fracture

text: Segond fracture

text: Gosselin fracture

text: Toddler's fracture

text: , and those including both the tibia and

text: fibula

text: trimalleolar fracture

text: bimalleolar fracture

text: Pott's fracture

text: Malocclusions may be coupled with skeletal disharmony of the face, where the relations between the upper and lower jaws are not appropriate. Such skeletal disharmonies often distort sufferer's face shape, severely affect aesthetics of the face and may be coupled with mastication or speech problems. Most skeletal malocclusions can only be treated by orthognathic surgery.

text: Malocclusions may be coupled with skeletal disharmony of the face, where the relations between the upper and lower jaws are not appropriate. Such skeletal disharmonies often distort sufferer's face shape, severely affect aesthetics of the face and may be coupled with

text: mastication

text: or speech problems. Most skeletal malocclusions can only be treated by orthognathic surgery.

text: By gathering data about errors made, then collating, grouping and analyzing them, it can be determined whether a disproportionate amount of similar errors are being made. If this is the case, a contributing factor may be disharmony between the respective systems/routines and human nature or propensities. The routines or systems can then be analyzed, potential problems identified, and amendments made if necessary, in order to prevent future errors, incidents or accidents.

text: By gathering data about errors made, then collating, grouping and analyzing them, it can be determined whether a disproportionate amount of similar errors are being made. If this is the case, a contributing factor may be disharmony between the respective systems/routines and human nature or

text: propensities

text: . The routines or systems can then be analyzed, potential problems identified, and amendments made if necessary, in order to prevent future errors, incidents or accidents.

text: The distinctive characteristics of OSMED include severe bone and joint problems and very severe hearing loss. This disorder affects the epiphyses, the parts of the bone where growth occurs. People with the condition are often shorter than average because the bones in their arms and legs are unusually short. Other skeletal signs include enlarged joints, short hands and fingers, and flat bones of the spine (vertebrae). People with the disorder often experience back and joint pain, limited joint movement, and arthritis that begins early in life. Severe high-tone hearing loss is common. Typical facial features include protruding eyes; a sunken nasal bridge; an upturned nose with a large, rounded tip; and a small lower jaw. Some affected infants are born with an opening in the roof of the mouth, which is called a cleft palate.

text: The distinctive characteristics of OSMED include severe bone and joint problems and very severe hearing loss. This disorder affects the

text: epiphyses

text: , the parts of the bone where growth occurs. People with the condition are often shorter than average because the bones in their arms and legs are unusually short. Other skeletal signs include enlarged joints, short hands and fingers, and flat bones of the spine (

text: vertebrae

text: ). People with the disorder often experience back and joint pain, limited joint movement, and

text: arthritis

text: that begins early in life. Severe high-tone hearing loss is common. Typical facial features include protruding eyes; a sunken nasal bridge; an upturned nose with a large, rounded tip; and a small lower jaw. Some affected infants are born with an opening in the roof of the mouth, which is called a

text: cleft palate

text: Diplodocus has been a famous and much-depicted dinosaur as it has been on display in more places than any other sauropod dinosaur. Much of this has probably been due to its wealth of skeletal remains and former status as the longest dinosaur. However, the donation of many mounted skeletal casts by industrialist Andrew Carnegie to potentates around the world at the beginning of the 20th century did much to familiarize it to people worldwide. Casts of Diplodocus skeletons are still displayed in many museums worldwide, including D. carnegii in a number of institutions.

text: Diplodocus has been a famous and much-depicted dinosaur as it has been on display in more places than any other

text: sauropod

text: dinosaur. Much of this has probably been due to its wealth of skeletal remains and former status as the longest dinosaur. However, the donation of many mounted skeletal casts by industrialist Andrew Carnegie to potentates around the world at the beginning of the 20th century did much to familiarize it to people worldwide. Casts of Diplodocus skeletons are still displayed in many museums worldwide, including D. carnegii in a number of institutions.

text: Key growth factors in skeletal differentiation include bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) that determine to a major extent where bone differentiation occurs and where spaces are left between bones. The system of cartilage replacement by bone has a complex regulatory system. BMP2 also regulates early skeletal patterning. transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), is part of a superfamily of proteins that include BMPs, which possess common signaling elements in the TGF beta signaling pathway. TGF-β is particularly important in cartilage differentiation, which generally precedes bone formation. An additional family of essential regulatory factors is the fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) that determine where skeletal elements occur in relation to the skin.

text: Key growth factors in skeletal differentiation include

text: bone morphogenetic protein

text: s (BMPs) that determine to a major extent where bone differentiation occurs and where spaces are left between bones. The system of cartilage replacement by bone has a complex regulatory system. BMP2 also regulates early skeletal patterning.

text: transforming growth factor beta

text: (TGF-β), is part of a superfamily of proteins that include BMPs, which possess common signaling elements in the

text: TGF beta signaling pathway

text: . TGF-β is particularly important in

text: cartilage

text: differentiation, which generally precedes bone formation. An additional family of essential regulatory factors is the

text: fibroblast growth factor

text: s (FGFs) that determine where skeletal elements occur in relation to the skin.

text: Joints are among the most universal geologic structures as they are found in most every exposure of rock. They vary greatly in appearance, dimensions, and arrangement, and occur in quite different tectonic environments. Often, the specific origin of the stresses that created certain joints and associated joint sets can be quite ambiguous, unclear, and sometimes controversial. The most prominent joints occur in the most well-consolidated, lithified, and highly competent rocks, such as sandstone, limestone, quartzite, and granite. Joints may be open fractures or filled by various materials. Joints, which are infilled by precipitated minerals are called veins and joints filled by solidified magma are called dikes.

text: Joints are among the most universal geologic structures as they are found in most every exposure of rock. They vary greatly in appearance, dimensions, and arrangement, and occur in quite different

text: tectonic

text: environments. Often, the specific origin of the stresses that created certain joints and associated joint sets can be quite ambiguous, unclear, and sometimes controversial. The most prominent joints occur in the most well-consolidated, lithified, and highly competent rocks, such as

text: sandstone

text: limestone

text: quartzite

text: , and

text: granite

text: . Joints may be open fractures or filled by various materials. Joints, which are infilled by precipitated

text: minerals

text: are called

text: veins

text: and joints filled by solidified

text: magma

text: are called

text: dikes

text: Bone cells, which are found within the bone tissue, make up the skeletons of vertebrates. There are different types of bone tissue in a bone, made up of various types of bone cells: there is the cortical bone, which is the compact tissue of the hard outer part (cortex) of the bone; the cancellous bone, which is the spongy tissue inside of the compact cortex; and the subchondral tissue, which is the smooth tissue at the end of each bone. Bone cells all work together inside of the bones to help keep up the skeletal system. The bone cells do many things for the skeletal system, such as the development of new bones and continual bone remodeling (the maintenance of bones and the homeostatic regulation of minerals in the body). Types of bone cell include osteoclasts, which break down bone tissue; osteoblasts, which build new bone tissue; osteocytes, which hold up the bone together; and lining cells, which protect the bone.

text: Bone cells, which are found within the

text: bone tissue

text: , make up the

text: skeleton

text: s of vertebrates. There are different types of bone tissue in a

text: bone

text: , made up of various types of bone cells: there is the

text: cortical bone

text: , which is the compact tissue of the hard outer part (cortex) of the bone; the

text: cancellous bone

text: , which is the spongy tissue inside of the compact cortex; and the subchondral tissue, which is the smooth tissue at the end of each bone. Bone cells all work together inside of the bones to help keep up the skeletal system. The bone cells do many things for the skeletal system, such as the development of new bones and continual

text: bone remodeling

text: (the maintenance of bones and the

text: homeostatic

text: regulation of minerals in the body). Types of bone cell include

text: osteoclast

text: s, which break down bone tissue;

text: osteoblast

text: s, which build new bone tissue;

text: osteocyte

text: s, which hold up the bone together; and lining cells, which protect the bone.

text: Chondrosarcoma is a more malignant type of tumor, but most are low grade tumors and often appear in the axial skeletal region.  It constitutes 20% of skeletal system tumors in the United States.

text: Chondrosarcoma is a more

text: malignant

text: type of tumor, but most are low grade tumors and often appear in the

text: axial skeletal

text: region.  It constitutes 20% of skeletal system tumors in the

text: United States

text: Osteoporosis ranks sixth amongst chronic diseases of women in the United States, with an overall prevalence of 18%, and a much higher rate involving the femur, neck or lumbar spine amongst women (16%) than men (4%), over the age of 50 (Gronowski and Schindler, Table IV).  Osteoporosis is a risk factor for bone fracture and about 20% of senior citizens who sustain a hip fracture die within a year.  The gender gap is largely the result of the reduction of estrogen levels in women following the menopause. Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) has been shown to reduce this risk by 25–30%, and was a common reason for prescribing it during the 1980s and 1990s. However the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) study that demonstrated that the risks of HRT outweighed the benefits has since led to a decline in HRT usage.

text: Osteoporosis

text: ranks sixth amongst chronic diseases of women in the United States, with an overall

text: prevalence

text: of 18%, and a much higher rate involving the

text: femur

text: neck

text: or

text: lumbar spine

text: amongst women (16%) than men (4%), over the age of 50 (Gronowski and Schindler, Table IV).  Osteoporosis is a risk factor for

text: bone fracture

text: and about 20% of senior citizens who sustain a

text: hip fracture

text: die within a year.  The gender gap is largely the result of the reduction of

text: estrogen

text: levels in women following the

text: menopause

text: Hormone Replacement Therapy

text: (HRT) has been shown to reduce this risk by 25–30%, and was a common reason for prescribing it during the 1980s and 1990s. However the

text: Women's Health Initiative

text: (WHI) study that demonstrated that the risks of HRT outweighed the benefits has since led to a decline in HRT usage.

text: Individuals with HGPS typically appear normal at birth, but their growth is severely retarded, resulting in short stature, a very low body weight and delayed tooth eruption. Their facial/cranial proportions and facial features are abnormal, characterized by larger-than-normal eyes, a thin, beaked nose, thin lips, small chin and jaw (micrognathia), protruding ears, scalp hair, eyebrows, and lashes, hair loss, large head, large fontanelle and generally appearing aged. Other features include skeletal alterations (osteolysis, osteoporosis), amyotrophy (wasting of muscle), lipodystrophy and skin atrophy (loss of subcutaneous tissue and fat) with sclerodermatous focal lesions, severe atherosclerosis and prominent scalp veins. However, the level of cognitive function, motor skills, and risk of developing cancer is not affected significantly.

text: Individuals with HGPS typically appear normal at birth, but their growth is severely retarded, resulting in short stature, a very low body weight and delayed tooth eruption. Their facial/cranial proportions and facial features are abnormal, characterized by larger-than-normal eyes, a thin, beaked nose, thin lips, small chin and jaw (

text: micrognathia

text: ), protruding ears, scalp hair, eyebrows, and lashes,

text: hair loss

text: large head

text: , large

text: fontanelle

text: and generally appearing aged. Other features include skeletal alterations (osteolysis, osteoporosis), amyotrophy (wasting of muscle), lipodystrophy and skin atrophy (loss of subcutaneous tissue and fat) with sclerodermatous focal lesions, severe atherosclerosis and prominent scalp veins. However, the level of cognitive function, motor skills, and risk of developing cancer is not affected significantly.

text: The main structure of the fruit body consists primarily of an agglutination (mass) of interwoven skeletal hyphae, which are golden- to rust-brown. The hyphae are unbranched, forming long tubes 2 to 3.6 μm in diameter, enveloping a lumen of variable thickness. There are also hyaline generative hyphae. These hyphae have thinner walls than the skeletal hyphae, and are also septate (possessing of septa), but are sometimes branched. They measure 2 to 3 μm in diameter. The flesh, again, is primarily made up of skeletal hyphae with some generative hyphae. The thick-walled skeletal hyphae are a yellow-brown to rust brown, and are slightly less agglutinate. The hyphae in the flesh are a little smaller; the skeletal hyphae measure 1.8 to 3.4 μm in diameter, while the generative hyphae measure 1.5 to 2.6 μm in diameter.

text: The main structure of the fruit body consists primarily of an

text: agglutination

text: (mass) of interwoven skeletal hyphae, which are golden- to rust-brown. The hyphae are unbranched, forming long tubes 2 to 3.6 μm in diameter, enveloping a

text: lumen

text: of variable thickness. There are also hyaline generative hyphae. These hyphae have thinner walls than the skeletal hyphae, and are also septate (possessing of septa), but are sometimes branched. They measure 2 to 3 μm in diameter. The flesh, again, is primarily made up of skeletal hyphae with some generative hyphae. The thick-walled skeletal hyphae are a yellow-brown to rust brown, and are slightly less agglutinate. The hyphae in the flesh are a little smaller; the skeletal hyphae measure 1.8 to 3.4 μm in diameter, while the generative hyphae measure 1.5 to 2.6 μm in diameter.

text: CHILD syndrome is not fatal unless there are problems with the internal organs. The most common causes of early death in people with the syndrome are cardiovascular malformations. However, central nervous system, skeletal, kidney, lung, and other visceral defects also contribute significantly.

text: CHILD syndrome is not fatal unless there are problems with the internal organs. The most common causes of early death in people with the syndrome are cardiovascular malformations. However,

text: central nervous system

text: , skeletal,

text: kidney

text: lung

text: , and other visceral defects also contribute significantly.

text: Due to the lack of gravity in space, astronauts and cosmonauts exhibited muscle atrophy (muscle impairment) and bone loss, which forces them to return to earth rather quickly. To prevent muscle and bone loss on long term mission the European Space Agency as well as the DLR are experimenting with various types of vibration systems as a supplement to other fitness training.

text: Due to the lack of gravity in space,

text: astronaut

text: s and

text: cosmonaut

text: s exhibited

text: muscle atrophy

text: (muscle impairment) and bone loss, which forces them to return to earth rather quickly. To prevent muscle and bone loss on long term mission the

text: European Space Agency

text: as well as the

text: DLR

text: are experimenting with various types of vibration systems as a supplement to other fitness training.

text: In normal bone, fractures occur when there is significant force applied, or repetitive trauma over a long time. Fractures can also occur when a bone is weakened, such as with osteoporosis, or when there is a structural problem, such as when the bone remodels excessively (such as Paget's disease) or is the site of the growth of cancer. Common fractures include wrist fractures and hip fractures, associated with osteoporosis, vertebral fractures associated with high-energy trauma and cancer, and fractures of long-bones. Not all fractures are painful. When serious, depending on the fractures type and location, complications may include flail chest, compartment syndromes or fat embolism.Compound fractures involve the bone's penetration through the skin.

text: In normal bone,

text: fractures

text: occur when there is significant force applied, or repetitive trauma over a long time. Fractures can also occur when a bone is weakened, such as with osteoporosis, or when there is a structural problem, such as when the bone remodels excessively (such as

text: Paget's disease

text: ) or is the site of the growth of cancer. Common fractures include

text: wrist fracture

text: s and

text: hip fracture

text: s, associated with

text: osteoporosis

text: vertebral fracture

text: s associated with high-energy trauma and cancer, and fractures of long-bones. Not all fractures are painful. When serious, depending on the fractures type and location, complications may include

text: flail chest

text: compartment syndrome

text: s or

text: fat embolism

text: Compound fracture

text: s involve the bone's penetration through the skin.

text: During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass.  This condition is called "sarcopenia".  The exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, but it may be due to a combination of the gradual failure in the "satellite cells" which help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors which are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival.

text: sarcopenia

text: ".  The exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, but it may be due to a combination of the gradual failure in the "

text: satellite cells

text: " which help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted

text: growth factors

text: which are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival.

text: Acetylcholine is the substance the nervous system uses to activate skeletal muscles, a kind of striated muscle.  These are the muscles used for all types of voluntary movement, in contrast to smooth muscle tissue, which is involved in a range of involuntary activities such as movement of food through the gastrointestinal tract and constriction of blood vessels.  Skeletal muscles are directly controlled by motor neurons located in the spinal cord or, in a few cases, the brainstem.  These motor neurons send their axons through motor nerves, from which they emerge to connect to muscle fibers at a special type of synapse called the neuromuscular junction.

text: Acetylcholine is the substance the nervous system uses to activate

text: skeletal muscle

text: s, a kind of striated muscle.  These are the muscles used for all types of voluntary movement, in contrast to

text: smooth muscle tissue

text: , which is involved in a range of involuntary activities such as movement of food through the gastrointestinal tract and constriction of blood vessels.  Skeletal muscles are directly controlled by

text: motor neuron

text: s located in the

text: spinal cord

text: or, in a few cases, the

text: brainstem

text: .  These motor neurons send their axons through

text: motor nerve

text: s, from which they emerge to connect to muscle fibers at a special type of

text: synapse

text: called the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: Because of hypoestrogenism and hypoandrogenism, hyperprolactinaemia can lead to osteoporosis.

text: Because of hypoestrogenism and

text: hypoandrogenism

text: , hyperprolactinaemia can lead to

text: osteoporosis

text: Mechanical stimulation of osteocytes results in opening of hemichannels to release PGE2 and ATP, among other biochemical signaling  molecules, which play a crucial role in maintaining the balance between bone formation and resorption.Osteocyte cell death can occur in association with pathologic conditions such as osteoporosis and osteoarthritis, which leads to increased skeletal fragility, linked to the loss of ability to sense microdamage and/or signal repair. Oxygen deprivation that occurs as the result of immobilization (bed rest), glucocorticoid treatment, and withdrawal of oxygen have all been shown to promote osteocyte apoptosis.

text: Mechanical stimulation of osteocytes results in opening of hemichannels to release PGE2 and ATP, among other biochemical signaling  molecules, which play a crucial role in maintaining the balance between bone formation and resorption.Osteocyte cell death can occur in association with pathologic conditions such as osteoporosis and

text: osteoarthritis

text: , which leads to increased skeletal fragility, linked to the loss of ability to sense microdamage and/or signal repair. Oxygen deprivation that occurs as the result of immobilization (bed rest), glucocorticoid treatment, and withdrawal of oxygen have all been shown to promote osteocyte apoptosis.

text: Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals.  Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue. Because bones come in a variety of shapes and have a complex internal and external structure they are lightweight, yet strong and hard, in addition to fulfilling their many other functions.

text: Bones are rigid

text: organs

text: that form part of the

text: endoskeleton

text: of

text: vertebrate

text: red

text: and

text: white blood cell

text: s and store

text: mineral

text: s.  Bone tissue is a type of dense

text: connective tissue

text: . Because bones come in a variety of shapes and have a complex internal and external

text: structure

text: they are lightweight, yet strong and hard, in addition to fulfilling their many other

text: functions

text: While the product of this gene is capable of directing cells towards the skeletal muscle lineage, it is not absolutely required for this process. Numerous studies have shown redundancy with two other MRFs, MyoD and MRF4. The absence of all 3 of these factors results in a phenotype with no skeletal muscle. These studies were performed after it was shown that Myf5 knockouts had no clear abnormality in their skeletal muscle. The high redundancy of this system shows how crucial the development of skeletal muscle is to the viability of the fetus. There has been some evidence to show that Myf5 and MyoD are responsible for the development of separate muscle lineages, and are not expressed concurrently in the same cell. Specifically, while Myf5 plays a large role in the initiation of epaxial development, MyoD directs the initiation of hypaxial development, and these separate lineages can compensate for the absence of one or the other. This has led some to claim that they are not indeed redundant, though this depends on the definition of the word. Still, the existence of these separate “MyoD-dependent” and “Myf5-dependent” subpopulations has been disputed, with some claiming that these MRFs are indeed coexpressed in muscle progenitor cells. This debate is ongoing.

text: Paleoanthropology or paleo-anthropology (from Ancient Greek: παλαιός (palaeos) "old, ancient", ἄνθρωπος (anthrōpos) "man, human" and the suffix λογία (logia) "study of"), the combination and a sub-discipline of paleontology and biological anthropology is the study of the formation and the development of the specific characteristics of humans (hominization) and the reconstruction of evolutionary kinship lines in the family Hominidae, by means of the study of fossils, such as petrified skeletal remains, bone fragments, footprints and associated evidence, stone tools, artifacts, and settlement localities. As technologies and methods advance, genetics plays an ever increasing role in paleoanthropology, in particular examining and comparing DNA structure as a vital tool of research of the evolutionary kinship lines of related species and genera.

text: Paleoanthropology or paleo-anthropology (from

text: Ancient Greek

text: : παλαιός (palaeos) "old, ancient", ἄνθρωπος (anthrōpos) "man, human" and the suffix λογία (logia) "study of"), the combination and a sub-discipline of

text: paleontology

text: and

text: biological anthropology

text: is the study of the formation and the development of the specific characteristics of

text: human

text: s (

text: hominization

text: ) and the reconstruction of evolutionary kinship lines in the family

text: Hominidae

text: , by means of the study of

text: fossil

text: s, such as

text: petrified

text: skeletal remains, bone fragments, footprints and associated evidence, stone tools, artifacts, and settlement localities. As technologies and methods advance,

text: genetics

text: plays an ever increasing role in paleoanthropology, in particular examining and comparing DNA structure as a vital tool of research of the evolutionary kinship lines of related species and genera.

text: Mutations in the SLC26A2 (DTDST) gene, located at human chromosome 5q32-33.1, are the cause of ARMED. It is considered a milder disorder within a spectrum of skeletal disorders caused by mutations in the gene, which encodes a protein that is essential for the normal development of cartilage and its conversion to bone. Mutations in the SLC26A2 gene alter the structure of developing cartilage, preventing bones from forming properly and resulting in associated skeletal maldevelopment.

text: Mutations in the

text: (DTDST) gene, located at human

text: chromosome

text: , are the cause of ARMED. It is considered a milder disorder within a spectrum of

text: skeletal disorder

text: s caused by mutations in the gene, which encodes a protein that is essential for the normal development of cartilage and its conversion to bone. Mutations in the SLC26A2 gene alter the structure of developing cartilage, preventing bones from forming properly and resulting in associated skeletal maldevelopment.

text: The human musculoskeletal system (also known as the locomotor system, and previously the activity system) is an organ system that gives humans the ability to move using their muscular and skeletal systems. The musculoskeletal system provides form, support, stability, and movement to the body.

text: The human musculoskeletal system (also known as the locomotor system, and previously the activity system) is an

text: organ system

text: that gives humans the ability to move using their

text: muscular

text: and

text: skeletal system

text: s. The musculoskeletal system provides form, support, stability, and movement to the body.

text: Skeletal Radiology is a peer-reviewed medical journal published by Springer Science+Business Media, covering disorders of the musculoskeletal system, including the spine. It is the official journal of The International Skeletal Society.

text: Skeletal Radiology is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: medical journal

text: published by

text: Springer Science+Business Media

text: , covering disorders of the

text: musculoskeletal system

text: , including the

text: spine

text: . It is the official journal of

text: The International Skeletal Society

text: It is estimated that 200 million people have osteoporosis. Osteoporosis becomes more common with age. About 15% of White people in their 50s and 70% of those over 80 are affected. It is more common in women than men. In the developed world, depending on the method of diagnosis, 2% to 8% of males and 9% to 38% of females are affected. Rates of disease in the developing world are unclear.

text: It is estimated that 200 million people have osteoporosis. Osteoporosis becomes more common with age. About 15% of

text: White people

text: developed world

text: developing world

text: are unclear.

text: During puberty, bones become harder and more brittle. At the conclusion of puberty, the ends of the long bones close during the process called epiphysis. There can be ethnic differences in these skeletal changes. For example, in the United States of America, bone density increases significantly more among black than white adolescents, which might account for decreased likelihood of black women developing osteoporosis and having fewer bone fractures there.

text: During puberty, bones become harder and more brittle. At the conclusion of puberty, the ends of the long bones close during the process called

text: epiphysis

text: . There can be ethnic differences in these skeletal changes. For example, in the United States of America, bone density increases significantly more among black than white adolescents, which might account for decreased likelihood of black women developing

text: osteoporosis

text: and having fewer bone fractures there.

text: Many other hormones and dietary factors also regulate VLDLR expression. Thyroid hormone positively regulates VLDLR expression in skeletal muscles of rats, but not in adipose or heart tissues. In rabbits, VLDLR expression in heart muscle is up-regulated by estrogen and down-regulated by granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor.  In trophoblast-derived cell lines, up-regulated VLDLR expression occurs when cells are incubated with hypolipidemic agents such as insulin and clofibrate. In contrast, 8-bromoadenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-bromo-cAMP) down-regulates VLDLR expression. Finally, VLDLR is affected by the presence of apoE and LDLR. The presence of apoE is required for VLDLR expression regulation, while the absence of LDLR alters the sterol-regulatory-element-1-like sequences of VLDLR to make them functional in only heart and skeletal muscle.

text: Many other hormones and dietary factors also regulate VLDLR expression.

text: Thyroid hormone

text: positively regulates VLDLR expression in skeletal muscles of rats, but not in adipose or heart tissues. In rabbits, VLDLR expression in heart muscle is up-regulated by estrogen and down-regulated by

entity_name: Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor

text: granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor

text: .  In

text: trophoblast

text: -derived cell lines, up-regulated VLDLR expression occurs when cells are incubated with

text: hypolipidemic agent

text: s such as

text: insulin

text: and

text: clofibrate

text: . In contrast,

text: 8-bromoadenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate

text: (8-bromo-cAMP) down-regulates VLDLR expression. Finally, VLDLR is affected by the presence of

text: apoE

text: and LDLR. The presence of apoE is required for VLDLR expression regulation, while the absence of LDLR alters the

text: sterol

text: -regulatory-element-1-like sequences of VLDLR to make them functional in only heart and skeletal muscle.

text: The Denis classification is a system of categorizing sacral fractures.

text: The Denis classification is a system of categorizing

text: sacral

text: fractures.

text: The musculoskeletal system is particularly well-suited to comparative medicine studies since acute and chronic disorders of bones and joints have the same counterparts in humans and animals. Information gained from one species can be directly translated to another, thereby advancing the diagnosis and treatment of musculoskeletal disorders. Since the early 1930s, comparative orthopaedic research has incorporated the One Health concept. Otto Stader, a small animal veterinarian, used a comparative medicine approach and developed the first form of external skeletal fixation, the Stader splint, as a way to stabilize fractures in dogs.  During World War II, Navy surgeons improved the treatment of fractures in sailors by incorporating Stader's advances. During the 1940s and 50's, Jacques Jenny, a veterinary surgeon, performed one of the first intra-medullary pinning procedures in animals and significantly advanced fracture repair strategies in horses and humans. In 1966, Sten-Erik Olsson and John L. Marshall, both of whom had medical and veterinary medical degrees, founded the first laboratory dedicated to comparative orthopaedic research at the Hospital for Special Surgery in New York. In the 21st century, comparative orthopaedic laboratories are located throughout the world and use both a comparative and translational research approach in an effort to improve diagnostic capabilities, enhance preventive and therapeutic strategies, and advance the understanding of disease mechanisms. Comparative research has led to advances in fracture fixation, total joint replacement, and cartilage repair—both in veterinary and human medicine.

text: The

text: musculoskeletal system

text: The endocannabinoid system has been shown to have a homeostatic role by controlling several metabolic functions, such as energy storage and nutrient transport. It acts on peripheral tissues such as adipocytes, hepatocytes, the gastrointestinal tract, the skeletal muscles and the endocrine pancreas. It has also been implied in modulating insulin sensitivity. Through all of this, the endocannabinoid system may play a role in clinical conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, and atherosclerosis, which may also give it a cardiovascular role.

text: The endocannabinoid system has been shown to have a

text: homeostatic

text: role by controlling several metabolic functions, such as energy storage and nutrient transport. It acts on peripheral tissues such as

text: adipocytes

text: hepatocytes

text: , the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , the

text: skeletal muscles

text: and the endocrine

text: pancreas

text: . It has also been implied in modulating

text: insulin sensitivity

text: . Through all of this, the endocannabinoid system may play a role in clinical conditions, such as

text: obesity

text: diabetes

text: , and

text: atherosclerosis

text: , which may also give it a

text: cardiovascular

text: role.

text: Dogs and other canids also possess a very well-developed set of nasal turbinates, an elaborate set of bones and associated soft-tissue structures (including arteries and veins) in the nasal cavities. These turbinates allow for heat exchange between small arteries and veins on their maxilloturbinate surfaces (the surfaces of turbinates positioned on maxilla bone) in a counter-current heat-exchange system. Dogs are capable of prolonged chases, in contrast to the ambush predation of cats, and these complex turbinates play an important role in enabling this (cats only possess a much smaller and less-developed set of nasal turbinates). This same complex turbinate structure help conserve water in arid environments. The water conservation and thermoregulatory capabilities of these well-developed turbinates in dogs may have been crucial adaptations that allowed dogs (including both domestic dogs and their wild prehistoric ancestors) to survive in the harsh Arctic environment and other cold areas of northern Eurasia and North America, which are both very dry and very cold.

text: Dogs and other

text: canid

text: s also possess a very well-developed set of

text: nasal turbinate

text: s, an elaborate set of bones and associated soft-tissue structures (including arteries and veins) in the

text: nasal cavities

text: . These turbinates allow for heat exchange between small arteries and veins on their

text: maxilloturbinate

text: surfaces (the surfaces of turbinates positioned on

text: maxilla

text: bone) in a counter-current heat-exchange system. Dogs are capable of prolonged chases, in contrast to the ambush predation of cats, and these complex turbinates play an important role in enabling this (cats only possess a much smaller and less-developed set of nasal turbinates). This same complex turbinate structure help conserve water in arid environments. The water conservation and thermoregulatory capabilities of these well-developed turbinates in dogs may have been crucial adaptations that allowed dogs (including both domestic dogs and their wild prehistoric ancestors) to survive in the harsh

text: Arctic

text: environment and other cold areas of northern Eurasia and North America, which are both very dry and very cold.

text: Hydraulic fracturing uses between  of water per well, with large projects using up to . Additional water is used when wells are refractured.  An average well requires  of water over its lifetime.  According to the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, greater volumes of fracturing fluids are required in Europe, where the shale depths average 1.5 times greater than in the U.S.  Surface water may be contaminated through spillage and improperly built and maintained waste pits, and ground water can be contaminated if the fluid is able to escape the formation being fractured (through, for example, abandoned wells) or by produced water (the returning fluids, which also contain dissolved constituents such as minerals and brine waters). Produced water is managed by underground injection, municipal and commercial wastewater treatment and discharge, self‐contained systems at well sites or fields, and recycling to fracture future wells. Typically less than half of the produced water used to fracture the formation is recovered.

text: Hydraulic fracturing uses between  of water per well, with large projects using up to . Additional water is used when wells are refractured.  An average well requires  of water over its lifetime.  According to the

text: Oxford Institute for Energy Studies

text: , greater volumes of fracturing fluids are required in Europe, where the shale depths average 1.5 times greater than in the U.S.

text: Surface water

text: may be contaminated through spillage and improperly built and maintained waste pits, and

text: ground water

text: can be contaminated if the fluid is able to escape the formation being fractured (through, for example, abandoned wells) or by

text: produced water

text: (the returning fluids, which also contain dissolved constituents such as minerals and

text: brine water

text: s). Produced water is managed by

text: underground injection

text: municipal

text: and

text: commercial

text: wastewater treatment

text: and discharge, self‐contained systems at well sites or fields, and recycling to fracture future wells. Typically less than half of the produced water used to fracture the formation is recovered.

text: In August, Wieber attended the Visa Championships but sprained her ankle on the balance beam and withdrew from competition.

text: In August, Wieber attended the

text: Visa Championships

text: but sprained her ankle on the balance beam and withdrew from competition.

text: These joints are used at the inboard end of car driveshafts. The joints were developed by Michel Orain, of Glaenzer Spicer of Poissy, France. This joint has a three-pointed yoke attached to the shaft, which has barrel-shaped roller bearings on the ends. These fit into a cup with three matching grooves, attached to the differential. Since there is only significant movement in one axis, this simple arrangement works well. These also allow an axial 'plunge' movement of the shaft, so that engine rocking and other effects do not preload the bearings. A typical Tripod joint has up to 50 mm of plunge travel, and 26 degrees of angular articulation. The tripod joint does not have as much angular range as many of the other joint types, but tends to be lower in cost and more efficient. Due to this it is typically used in rear wheel drive vehicle configurations or on the inboard side of front wheel drive vehicles where the required range of motion is lower.

text: These joints are used at the inboard end of car driveshafts. The joints were developed by Michel Orain, of Glaenzer Spicer of

text: Poissy

text: France

text: . This joint has a three-pointed yoke attached to the shaft, which has barrel-shaped roller bearings on the ends. These fit into a cup with three matching grooves, attached to the

text: differential

text: . Since there is only significant movement in one axis, this simple arrangement works well. These also allow an axial 'plunge' movement of the shaft, so that engine rocking and other effects do not preload the bearings. A typical Tripod joint has up to 50 mm of plunge travel, and 26 degrees of angular articulation. The tripod joint does not have as much angular range as many of the other joint types, but tends to be lower in cost and more efficient. Due to this it is typically used in rear wheel drive vehicle configurations or on the inboard side of front wheel drive vehicles where the required range of motion is lower.

text: Dart published numerous journal articles on the subject of the ODK hypothesis, which received considerable backlash from his contemporaries. In 1957, he released a comprehensive volume entitled, The Osteodontokeratic Culture of Australopithecus prometheus which outlined his arguments for the validity of the "predatory transition from Ape to Man" (see Dart 1953). To justify his arguments, Dart relied on critical lines of evidence that substantiated the validity of ODK culture, although his critics would eventually turn his evidence against him to refute the hypothesis altogether (see below). Dart suggested that the breakage patterns of the so-called bone implements from the Member 3 Grey breccia layers from Makapansgat displayed evidence of being purposefully broken by the early Australopiths, through cracking and twisting, while fresh. Dart's opinion was that this damage was in no way characteristic of predatory or scavenging animals (e.g. hyenas), and so must have been the result of early hominin dietary activities, mostly likely to access marrow.  Furthermore, after the analysis of over 7,000 faunal remains from the Member 3 Grey breccia material, Dart found a statistical over-representation of certain skeletal elements, such as distal humeri, metapodial bones and mandibles. He concluded that such skewed representational patterns could have only resulted from the selection and transportation of fleshy carcass parts of animals into the Makapansgat cave system by Australopiths. Lastly, Dart assigned specific tool uses to different bones elements, e.g. a 'mace' for antelope humeri, etc., similar to the manner in which Mary Leakey created tool types to account for various core morphologies in the Oldowan assemblages at Olduvai Gorge.

text: Dart published numerous journal articles on the subject of the ODK hypothesis, which received considerable backlash from his contemporaries. In 1957, he released a comprehensive volume entitled, The Osteodontokeratic Culture of Australopithecus prometheus which outlined his arguments for the validity of the "predatory transition from Ape to Man" (see Dart 1953). To justify his arguments, Dart relied on critical lines of evidence that substantiated the validity of ODK culture, although his critics would eventually turn his evidence against him to refute the hypothesis altogether (see below). Dart suggested that the breakage patterns of the so-called bone implements from the Member 3 Grey

text: breccia

text: layers from

text: Makapansgat

text: displayed evidence of being purposefully broken by the early Australopiths, through cracking and twisting, while fresh. Dart's opinion was that this damage was in no way characteristic of predatory or scavenging animals (e.g. hyenas), and so must have been the result of early hominin dietary activities, mostly likely to access marrow.  Furthermore, after the analysis of over 7,000 faunal remains from the Member 3 Grey breccia material, Dart found a statistical over-representation of certain skeletal elements, such as distal humeri, metapodial bones and mandibles. He concluded that such skewed representational patterns could have only resulted from the selection and transportation of fleshy carcass parts of animals into the

text: Makapansgat

text: cave system by Australopiths. Lastly, Dart assigned specific tool uses to different bones elements, e.g. a 'mace' for antelope humeri, etc., similar to the manner in which

text: Mary Leakey

text: created tool types to account for various core morphologies in the

text: Oldowan

text: assemblages at

text: Olduvai Gorge

text: Distinct skeletal muscles are controlled by groups of individual motor units. Such motor units are made up of a single motor neuron and the muscle fibers that it innervates. Motor neurons are located in the ventral horn of the spinal cord and the brainstem. These neurons innervate skeletal muscle fibers through the propagation of action potentials down their axons (through ventral roots and cranial nerves), and they stimulate skeletal muscle fibers at neuromuscular junctions where they synapse with the motor end plates of muscle fibers. In humans, these axons can be as long as one meter. Motor neurons themselves fall into three main classes: alpha-motor neurons control extrafusal muscle fibers, meaning that they innervate skeletal muscles leading to movement; gamma-motor neurons innervate intrafusal muscle fibers, controlling the sensitivity of muscle spindles to stretch; beta-motor neurons are capable of synapsing on either type of muscle fiber. Alpha-motor neurons can further be divided into three separate subclasses, distinguished according to the contractile properties of the motor units that they form: fast-twitch fatigable (FF), fast-twitch fatigue-resistant (FR), and slow-twitch fatigue-resistant (S). The composition of a motor pool may consist of multiple classes and subclasses of motor neurons.

text: Distinct

text: skeletal muscles

text: are controlled by groups of individual

text: motor units

text: . Such motor units are made up of a single

text: motor neuron

text: and the muscle fibers that it innervates. Motor neurons are located in the

text: ventral horn

text: of the

text: spinal cord

text: and the

text: brainstem

text: . These neurons innervate skeletal muscle fibers through the propagation of

text: action potentials

text: down their

text: axons

text: (through

text: ventral roots

text: and

text: cranial nerves

text: ), and they stimulate skeletal muscle fibers at

text: neuromuscular junctions

text: where they

text: synapse

text: with the

text: motor end plate

text: s of muscle fibers. In humans, these axons can be as long as one meter. Motor neurons themselves fall into three main classes:

text: alpha-motor neurons

text: control

text: extrafusal muscle fibers

text: , meaning that they innervate skeletal muscles leading to movement;

text: gamma-motor neurons

text: innervate

text: intrafusal muscle fibers

text: , controlling the sensitivity of

text: muscle spindles

text: to stretch;

text: beta-motor neurons

text: are capable of synapsing on either type of muscle fiber. Alpha-motor neurons can further be divided into three separate subclasses, distinguished according to the contractile properties of the motor units that they form: fast-twitch fatigable (FF), fast-twitch fatigue-resistant (FR), and slow-twitch fatigue-resistant (S). The composition of a motor pool may consist of multiple classes and subclasses of motor neurons.

text: β-tropomyosin is roughly 32 kDa in molecular weight (284 amino acids), but multiple splice variants exist. Tropomysin is a flexible protein homodimer or heterodimer composed of two alpha-helical chains, which adopt a bent coiled coil conformation to wrap around the seven actin molecules in a functional unit of muscle. It is polymerized end to end along the two grooves of actin filaments and provides stability to the filaments. Tropomyosin dimers are composed of varying combinations of tropomyosin isoforms; human striated muscles express protein from the TPM1 (α-tropoomyosin), TPM2 (β-tropomyosin) and TPM3 (γ-tropomyosin) genes, with α-tropomyosin being the predominant isoform in striated muscle. Fast skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle contain more αα-homodimers, and slow skeletal muscle contains more ββ-homodimers. In human cardiac muscle the ratio of α-tropomyosin to β-tropomyosin is roughly 5:1. It has been shown that different combinations of tropomyosin isoforms bind troponin T with differing affinities, demonstrating that isoform combinations are used to impart a specific functional impact.

text: β-tropomyosin is roughly 32 kDa in molecular weight (284 amino acids), but multiple splice variants exist. Tropomysin is a flexible protein homodimer or heterodimer composed of two

text: alpha-helical

text: chains, which adopt a bent

text: coiled coil

text: conformation to wrap around the seven

text: actin

text: molecules in a functional unit of muscle. It is polymerized end to end along the two grooves of

text: actin

text: filaments and provides stability to the filaments. Tropomyosin dimers are composed of varying combinations of tropomyosin isoforms; human

text: striated muscle

text: s express protein from the TPM1 (α-tropoomyosin), TPM2 (β-tropomyosin) and TPM3 (γ-tropomyosin) genes, with

text: α-tropomyosin

text: being the predominant isoform in striated muscle. Fast

text: skeletal muscle

text: and

text: cardiac muscle

text: contain more αα-homodimers, and slow

text: skeletal muscle

text: contains more ββ-homodimers. In human

text: cardiac muscle

text: the ratio of

text: α-tropomyosin

text: to β-tropomyosin is roughly 5:1. It has been shown that different combinations of tropomyosin isoforms bind

text: troponin T

text: with differing affinities, demonstrating that isoform combinations are used to impart a specific functional impact.

text: The modulated radiation from the IRCM generates a false tracking command in the seeker tracking logic. The effectiveness of the IRCM is determined by the ratio of jamming intensity to the target (or signal) intensity. This ratio is usually called the J/S ratio. Another important factor is the modulation frequencies which should be close to the actual missile frequencies. For spin scan missiles the required J/S is quite low but for newer missiles the required J/S is quite high requiring a directional source of radiation (DIRCM).

text: The modulated radiation from the IRCM generates a false tracking command in the seeker tracking logic. The effectiveness of the IRCM is determined by the ratio of jamming intensity to the target (or signal) intensity. This ratio is usually called the J/S ratio. Another important factor is the modulation frequencies which should be close to the actual missile frequencies. For spin scan missiles the required J/S is quite low but for newer missiles the required J/S is quite high requiring a directional source of radiation (

text: DIRCM

text: Tomlinson started her career in public relations, including a period as the receptionist for Max Clifford & Associates. In the early 1990s, Tomlinson worked at the Football Association as a media officer. Later in the decade, she was appointed as the head of the communications department at Arsenal Football Club, where she helped the then new manager Arsène Wenger deal with the media.

text: Tomlinson started her career in

text: public relations

text: , including a period as the

text: receptionist

text: for

text: Max Clifford & Associates

text: . In the early 1990s, Tomlinson worked at the

text: Football Association

text: as a media officer. Later in the decade, she was appointed as the head of the communications department at

text: Arsenal Football Club

text: , where she helped the then new manager

text: Arsène Wenger

text: deal with the media.

text: Governor of County Londonderry from 1823, Londonderry was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Durham in 1842 and the following year became Colonel of the 2nd Regiment of Life Guards. He was finally made a Knight of the Garter in 1853, and died a year later at Londonderry House. Scrabo Tower in Newtownards, County Down was erected in his memory.

text: Governor

text: of

text: County Londonderry

text: from 1823, Londonderry was appointed

text: Lord Lieutenant of Durham

text: in 1842 and the following year became Colonel of the

text: 2nd Regiment of Life Guards

text: . He was finally made a

text: Knight of the Garter

text: in 1853, and died a year later at Londonderry House.

text: Scrabo Tower

text: in

text: Newtownards

text: County Down

text: was erected in his memory.

text: There were 185 households out of which 29.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.8% were married couples living together, 7.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.1% were non-families. 31.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 3.11.

text: There were 185 households out of which 29.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.8% were

text: married couples

text: living together, 7.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.1% were non-families. 31.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 3.11.

text: Haglund's deformity- Hajdu–Cheney syndrome- Hallux rigidus- Hallux valgus- Hallux varus- Hammer toe- Hand deformity- Hand fracture- Hand of benediction- Hand surgery- Hangman's fracture- Haruguchi classification- Hardinge lateral approach to the hip- Harrington rod- Harris Hip Score- Harris lines- Harrison's groove- Haversian canal- Hawkin's classification- Hawkins-Kennedy test- Heberden's node- Hemarthrosis- Hematoma- Hemimelia- Herbert classification- Herbert screw- Herscovici classification- High ankle sprain- High tibial osteotomy- Hilgenreiner's line- Hill–Sachs lesion- Hip dysplasia (human)- Hip examination- Hip fracture- Hip replacement- Hip resurfacing- Hip spica cast- Hoffa fracture- Holdsworth fracture- Holstein–Lewis fracture- Hubscher's maneuver- Hueter-Volkmann law- Human musculoskeletal system- Hume fracture- Hume fracture- Humerus fracture- Humphrey's ligament- Hyaline cartilage- Hydroxylapatite- Hyperostosis- Hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy

text: Haglund's deformity

text: Hajdu–Cheney syndrome

text: Hallux rigidus

text: Hallux valgus

text: Hallux varus

text: Hammer toe

text: Hand deformity

text: Hand fracture

text: Hand of benediction

text: Hand surgery

text: Hangman's fracture

text: Haruguchi classification

text: Hardinge lateral approach to the hip

text: Harrington rod

text: Harris Hip Score

text: Harris lines

text: Harrison's groove

text: Haversian canal

text: Hawkin's classification

text: Hawkins-Kennedy test

text: Heberden's node

text: Hemarthrosis

text: Hematoma

text: Hemimelia

text: Herbert classification

text: Herbert screw

text: Herscovici classification

text: High ankle sprain

text: High tibial osteotomy

text: Hilgenreiner's line

text: Hill–Sachs lesion

text: Hip dysplasia (human)

text: Hip examination

text: Hip fracture

text: Hip replacement

text: Hip resurfacing

text: Hip spica cast

text: Hoffa fracture

text: Holdsworth fracture

text: Holstein–Lewis fracture

text: Hubscher's maneuver

text: Hueter-Volkmann law

text: Human musculoskeletal system

text: Hume fracture

text: Hume fracture

text: Humerus fracture

text: Humphrey's ligament

text: Hyaline cartilage

text: Hydroxylapatite

text: Hyperostosis

text: Hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy

text: In the majority of countries, a substantial part of sovereign bonds is likely to be held by financial institutions in the sovereign's own country (like banks, insurance companies and pension funds). Restructuring those instruments will therefore undermine the health of the domestic financial system. Even if countries are able to reduce significantly their costs of debt service, the same amount might need to be spent in bank recapitalizations.

text: In the majority of countries, a substantial part of

text: sovereign bonds

text: is likely to be held by

text: financial institution

text: s in the sovereign's own country (like banks, insurance companies and pension funds). Restructuring those instruments will therefore undermine the health of the domestic financial system. Even if countries are able to reduce significantly their costs of debt service, the same amount might need to be spent in bank recapitalizations.

text: Dinesh Sudarshan Soi

text: Dinesh Sudarshan Soi

text: A.G. Dillard Motorsports was a NASCAR Winston Cup series team owned by Virginian Alan G. Dillard. This team is most notable for giving future Daytona 500 and Southern 500 champion Ward Burton his start in Winston Cup.

text: A.G. Dillard Motorsports was a

text: NASCAR

text: Winston Cup

text: series team owned by Virginian Alan G. Dillard. This team is most notable for giving future

text: Daytona 500

text: and

text: Southern 500

text: champion

text: Ward Burton

text: his start in Winston Cup.

text: An audit of the environmental impact of the industrial area was commenced in September 2002. Bushcare volunteers help preserve remnant pockets of native forestation. A very small number of fresh water watercourses exist in the suburb, mostly draining into Salt Pan Creek. A portion of the Peakhurst tree population was included in the 1990 National Trust Lugarno Tree Study.

text: There are, however, diseases and disorders that may adversely affect the function and overall effectiveness of the system. These diseases can be difficult to diagnose due to the close relation of the musculoskeletal system to other internal systems. The musculoskeletal system refers to the system having its muscles attached to an internal skeletal system and is necessary for humans to move to a more favorable position. Complex issues and injuries involving the musculoskeletal system are usually handled by a physiatrist (specialist in physical medicine and rehabilitation) or an orthopaedic surgeon.

text: There are, however, diseases and disorders that may adversely affect the function and overall effectiveness of the system. These diseases can be difficult to

text: diagnose

text: due to the close relation of the musculoskeletal system to other internal systems. The musculoskeletal system refers to the system having its muscles attached to an internal

text: skeletal system

text: and is necessary for

text: humans

text: to move to a more favorable position. Complex issues and injuries involving the musculoskeletal system are usually handled by a

text: physiatrist

text: (specialist in

text: physical medicine and rehabilitation

text: ) or an

text: orthopaedic surgeon

text: A related concept in descriptive ethics is psychological egoism, the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. Rational egoism is the view that rationality consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations).

text: A related concept in

text: descriptive ethics

text: is

text: psychological egoism

text: , the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible.

text: Rational egoism

text: is the view that

text: rationality

text: consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations).

text: Two months after her death, on April 21, 2016, Matthews' ex-partner and music mentor Prince died in his Paisley Park residence, also aged 57.

text: Two months after her death, on April 21, 2016, Matthews' ex-partner and music mentor

text: Prince

text: died in his

text: Paisley Park

text: residence, also aged 57.

text: Titanium has the inherent ability to osseointegrate, enabling use in dental implants that can last for over 30 years. This property is also useful for orthopedic implant applications. These benefit from titanium's lower modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) to more closely match that of the bone that such devices are intended to repair. As a result, skeletal loads are more evenly shared between bone and implant, leading to a lower incidence of bone degradation due to stress shielding and periprosthetic bone fractures, which occur at the boundaries of orthopedic implants. However, titanium alloys' stiffness is still more than twice that of bone, so adjacent bone bears a greatly reduced load and may deteriorate.

text: Titanium has the inherent ability to

text: osseointegrate

text: , enabling use in

text: dental implants

text: that can last for over 30 years. This property is also useful for

text: orthopedic implant

text: applications. These benefit from titanium's lower modulus of elasticity (

text: Young's modulus

text: ) to more closely match that of the bone that such devices are intended to repair. As a result, skeletal loads are more evenly shared between bone and implant, leading to a lower incidence of bone degradation due to stress shielding and

text: periprosthetic

text: bone fractures, which occur at the boundaries of orthopedic implants. However, titanium alloys' stiffness is still more than twice that of bone, so adjacent bone bears a greatly reduced load and may deteriorate.

text: In the quarter-finals, Široki got as opponent a team from the second league tier, Krajišnik. The first match played before full stadium in Velika Kladuša ended without a winner. Krajišnik got in lead in 38 minute over Šaban Pehilj, Željezničars footballer on loan, but Hrvoje Mišić scored the equalizer for Široki Brijeg in 86 minute of the game for the final 1–1. The rematch played three weeks later on Pecara stadium ended in a goalless tie and Široki Brijeg advanced further because of the away goal.

text: In the quarter-finals, Široki got as opponent a team from the

entity_name: First League of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina

text: second league tier

text: Krajišnik

text: . The first match played before full stadium in

text: Velika Kladuša

text: ended without a winner. Krajišnik got in lead in 38 minute over

text: Šaban Pehilj

text: , Željezničars footballer on loan, but Hrvoje Mišić scored the equalizer for Široki Brijeg in 86 minute of the game for the final 1–1. The rematch played three weeks later on Pecara stadium ended in a goalless tie and Široki Brijeg advanced further because of the

text: away goal

text: After the war he became involved in politics, becoming the president of the Ashton Conservative Association. At the 1929 general election, he was the party's candidate in Ashton-under-Lyne, but lost by a margin of over 3,000 votes to the sitting Labour MP, Albert Bellamy.

text: After the war he became involved in politics, becoming the president of the Ashton Conservative Association. At the

text: 1929 general election

text: , he was the party's candidate in

entity_name: Ashton-under-Lyne (UK Parliament constituency)

text: Ashton-under-Lyne

text: , but lost by a margin of over 3,000 votes to the sitting

text: Labour

text: MP,

text: Albert Bellamy

text: Bleak House Books was an imprint of Big Earth Publishing. Before being acquired by Big Earth in 2005, Bleak House began as an independent publisher, releasing its first book in 2001. Bleak House was a publisher of hardboiled/noir books with real type protagonists, focusing more upon the people in the novels and the way they live in the world.

text: Bleak House Books was an imprint of

text: Big Earth Publishing

text: . Before being acquired by Big Earth in 2005, Bleak House began as an independent publisher, releasing its first book in 2001. Bleak House was a publisher of

text: hardboiled

text: /noir books with real type protagonists, focusing more upon the people in the novels and the way they live in the world.

text: Many film critics have dubbed the film the "worst movie ever made".

text: Many film critics have dubbed the film the "

text: worst movie ever made

text: Seattle player Johnny O'Brien was the nation's leading scorer at that time. O'Brien would become the first player in the history of college basketball to score 1000 points in a single season. He would finish the season with 1,051 points. Against the Globetrotters, O'Brien poured in 43 points. Johnny's brother Eddie  played point guard for Chieftains and his half court shot lifted the club to a 10-point lead.

text: Seattle player Johnny O'Brien was the nation's leading scorer at that time. O'Brien would become the first player in the history of college basketball to score 1000 points in a single season. He would finish the season with 1,051 points. Against the Globetrotters, O'Brien poured in 43 points. Johnny's brother

text: Eddie

text: played point guard for Chieftains and his half court shot lifted the club to a 10-point lead.

text: Early video games used manually created animations for characters' death sequences. This had the advantage of low CPU utilization, as the data needed to animate a "dying" character was chosen from a set number of pre-drawn frames. As computers increased in power, it became possible to do limited real-time physical simulations. A ragdoll is therefore a collection of multiple rigid bodies (each of which is ordinarily tied to a bone in the graphics engine's skeletal animation system) tied together by a system of constraints that restrict how the bones may move relative to each other. When the character dies, their body begins to collapse to the ground, honouring these restrictions on each of the joints' motion, which often looks more realistic.

text: Early

text: video game

text: s used manually created animations for characters' death sequences. This had the advantage of low

text: CPU

text: utilization, as the data needed to animate a "dying" character was chosen from a set number of pre-drawn frames. As computers increased in power, it became possible to do limited real-time

text: physical simulation

text: s. A ragdoll is therefore a collection of multiple

text: rigid bodies

text: (each of which is ordinarily tied to a

text: bone

text: in the graphics engine's

text: skeletal animation

text: system) tied together by a system of constraints that restrict how the bones may move relative to each other. When the character dies, their body begins to collapse to the ground, honouring these restrictions on each of the joints' motion, which often looks more realistic.

text: Gillman and Gillman related skeletal tissue and pellagra in their research in South African Blacks. They provide some of the best evidence for skeletal manifestations of pellagra and the reaction of bone in malnutrition. They claimed radiological studies of adult pellagrins demonstrated marked osteoporosis. A negative mineral balance in pellagrins was noted, which indicated active mobilization and excretion of endogenous mineral substances, and undoubtedly impacted the turnover of bone. Extensive dental caries were present in over half of pellagra patients. In most cases, caries were associated with "severe gingival retraction, sepsis, exposure of cementum, and loosening of teeth".

text: Gillman and Gillman related skeletal tissue and pellagra in their research in South African Blacks. They provide some of the best evidence for skeletal manifestations of pellagra and the reaction of bone in malnutrition. They claimed radiological studies of adult pellagrins demonstrated marked

text: osteoporosis

text: . A negative mineral balance in pellagrins was noted, which indicated active mobilization and excretion of endogenous mineral substances, and undoubtedly impacted the turnover of bone. Extensive dental caries were present in over half of pellagra patients. In most cases,

text: caries

text: were associated with "severe gingival retraction,

text: sepsis

text: , exposure of

text: cementum

text: , and loosening of teeth".

text: More recently, as part of a general effort to extend the Buenos Aires Underground, it was decided to extend Line E from Bolívar to Retiro railway station (with intermediate stations at Catalinas and Correo Central) where it would re-connect with Line C and the Mitre Line, and eventually Line H when its extension is complete. As of 2014, all major structural works have been completed on the three new stations and are only missing their tracks and signalling systems.

text: More recently, as part of a general effort to extend the Buenos Aires Underground, it was decided to extend Line E from Bolívar to

text: Retiro railway station

text: (with intermediate stations at

text: Catalinas

text: and

entity_name: Correo Central (Buenos Aires Underground)

text: Correo Central

text: ) where it would re-connect with

text: Line C

text: and the

text: Mitre Line

text: , and eventually

text: Line H

text: when its extension is complete. As of 2014, all major structural works have been completed on the three new stations and are only missing their tracks and signalling systems.

text: Systems approach is a method used to study myogenesis, which manipulates a number of different techniques like high-throughput screening technologies, genome wide cell-based assays, and bioinformatics, to identify different factors of a system. This has been specifically used in the investigation of skeletal muscle development and the identification of its regulatory network.

text: Systems approach is a method used to study myogenesis, which manipulates a number of different techniques like

text: high-throughput screening

text: technologies, genome wide cell-based

text: assays

text: , and

text: bioinformatics

text: , to identify different factors of a system. This has been specifically used in the investigation of skeletal muscle development and the identification of its regulatory network.

text: Somatic motor neurons, which originate in the central nervous system, project their axons to skeletal muscles  (such as the muscles of the limbs, abdominal, and intercostal muscles), which are involved in locomotion .

text: Somatic motor neurons, which originate in the

text: central nervous system

text: , project their

text: axons

text: to

text: skeletal muscles

text: (such as the muscles of the limbs, abdominal, and

text: intercostal muscles

text: ), which are involved in

text: locomotion

text: The balance system works with the visual and skeletal systems (the muscles and joints and their sensors) to maintain orientation or balance. For example, visual signals are sent to the brain about the body's position in relation to its surroundings. These signals are processed by the brain, and compared to information from the vestibular, visual and the skeletal systems.

text: Corsochelys is a basal dermochelyid. As with other basal chelonioids (such as Santanachelys and Toxochelys), Corsochelys possesses a large foramen interorbitale with a narrow processus inferior parietalis, which indicates that the genus possessed developed, salt-excreting lachrymal glands. In addition to its similarly to these genera, Corsochelys retains a carapace with minimally reduced coastal plates. Like the larger Archelon, Corsochelys had channels penetrating the subphyseal plate from bone into the cartilage above, much like the living leatherback turtle. This means that Corsochelys would have reached their large size quickly through fast skeletal growth, as with the leatherback.

text: Corsochelys is a

text: basal

text: dermochelyid

text: . As with other basal chelonioids (such as

text: Santanachelys

text: and

text: Toxochelys

text: ), Corsochelys possesses a large foramen interorbitale with a narrow processus inferior parietalis, which indicates that the genus possessed developed, salt-excreting

text: lachrymal glands

text: . In addition to its similarly to these genera, Corsochelys retains a

text: carapace

text: with minimally reduced coastal plates. Like the larger

text: Archelon

text: , Corsochelys had channels penetrating the subphyseal plate from bone into the cartilage above, much like the

text: living

text: leatherback turtle

text: . This means that Corsochelys would have reached their large size quickly through fast skeletal growth, as with the leatherback.

text: The Tactical Support Group is a specialist group of officers within the AWE Division. MDP TSG is tasked with, and equipped to provide, an advanced firearms response capability at short notice to the Atomic Weapons Establishment. The TSG specialises in dynamic entry and dynamic intervention inside Nuclear Weapons facilities; including, if necessary, the recapture of Nuclear Weapons and special nuclear material.